Chapter-I

Introduction

The development of power in any country depends upon the available

resources in that country. The hydel power totally depends upon natural sites available and
hydrological cycle in that country.New sites cannot be humanly created for hydel power
plants. The development of nuclear power in a country requires advanced technological
developments and fuel resources. This source of power generation is not much desirable for
developing countries as it is independent on high technology and they are highly capital
based systems.
Many times, hydel power suffers if draught comes even once in a decade and the
complete progress of the nation stops. The calamity of rain draught on power industry has
been experienced by many states in this country.
To overcome above difficulty, it is absolutely necessary to develop thermal plants in
the country which are very much suitable for base load plants. Hydel power plants are much
better for peak load requirements, therefore, the development of the thermal plants becomes a
necessity for economic generation of the power.
The development of all three thermal, hydel & nuclear sources should be made
simultaneously of possible to assume sound supply of power in the country. The mix of three
depends upon the availability in that particular area but it is always in economical and
desirable to develop all sources of power for steady and sure progress of the country. Out of
total power generated in india about 60% is thermal. The thermal power stations are operated
at a pressure of 10kg/cm.cm and temperature may be from 250degrees to 650degrees
centigrade
1.1Working principle of thermal power plant
Water is used as the working fluid in the thermal power plant. We can see coal based
and nuclear power plants in this category. From the working of the power plant energy, later
from the fuel gets transferred into the form of electricity. With the help of high pressure and

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high steams a steam turbine in a thermal power plant is rotates, the rotation must be transfer
to the generator to produce power.

When turbine blades are rotated with the high pressure and high temperature at
that case the steam loses its energy. So it results in the low pressure and low temperature at
the outlet of the turbine. Steam must be expanded up to the point where it reaches the
saturation point. So from the steam, there is no heat addition or removal that takes place.
Entropy of the steam remains same. So we can notice the change in the pressure and volume
and temperature along with the entropy diagrams

BUS BAR
BOILER STEAM GENERATOR

TURBINE

Fig 1.1 - Block Diagram of Thermal Power Plant

If the condition comes to the low pressure and low temperature steam back to the
original state, from that we can produce continuous electricity. To compress the gaseous state
liquids at that case large amount of energy is required. So before the compression we need to
convert the fluids into liquid state. For this purpose condenser is required and heat is rejected
to the surroundings and converts the steam Into liquid state. During this process the
temperature and volume of the fluid changes take place hardly, so it turns into liquid state.
And the fluid turns to the original state. To bring the fluid to the original state external heat is
added. To the heat exchanger heat is added which is called as boiler. Then the pressure of the
fluid must remain same. In heat exchanger tubes it expands freely. Due to increase in
temperature the liquid state is transformed into the vapour state and the temperature remains
same. So know we complete the thermodynamic cycle in the thermal power plant. It is known
as Rankine cycle.

By repeating the cycle we can produce the power continuously. With the help of
boiler furnace heat is added to the boiler. Then the fuel must reacts with the air and produces
heat. The fuel must be either nuclear or coal. In this process if we use coal as a fuel we can
observe lot of pollutants before ejects in to the air clean or removed the particles and send
into surroundings. The process is done in various steps. By using the electro static

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precipitator the ash particles are removed. So with the help of the stack clean exhaust must be
send outside

In these plants heat of combustion of fossil fuel coal, oil .etc., utilized by the boiler to
raise the steam at high pressure and temperature. The steam drives the turbine and coupled to
the generator and produces electrical energy.

1.2 Line Diagram

Fig 1.3 Line diagram

.1 cooling tower 10. Steam Control valve 19. Superheater

11. High pressure steam 20. Forced draught

2. Cooling water pump
turbine (draft) fan

3. Transmission line (3-phase) 12. Deaerator 21. Reheater

4. Step-up transformer (3-phase) 13. Feedwater heater 22. Combustionair intake

5. Electrical generator (3-phase) 14. Coal conveyor 23. Economiser

6. Low pressure steam turbine 15. Coal hopper 24. Air preheater

7. Condensate pump 16. Coal pulverizer 25. Precipitator

26. Induced draught

8. Surface condenser 17. Boiler steam drum
(draft) fan

9. Intermediate pressure steam 18. Bottom ash hopper 27. Flue-gas stack

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turbine

CHAPTER-2
VARIOUS COMPONENTS PRESENT IN POWER PLANT
Evaporative cooling towers are classified according to the means employed for
producing air circulation through them atmospheric, natural draft, and mechanical draft. The

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other transfers the heat from warmer water to cooler air by a sensible heat-transfer process
and is known as the non evaporative or dry cooling tower. Non evaporative cooling towers
are classified as air-cooled condensers and as air-cooled heat exchangers, and are further
classified by the means used for producing air circulation through them. These two basic
types are sometimes combined, with the two cooling processes generally used in parallel or
separately, and are then known as wet-dry cooling towers.
Evaluation of cooling tower performance is based on cooling of a specified quantity
of water through a given range and to a specified temperature approach to the wet-bulb or
dry-bulb temperature for which the tower is designed. Because exact design conditions are
rarely experienced in operation, estimated performance curves are frequently prepared for a
specific installation, and provide a means for comparing the measured performance with
design conditions.
Economiser: Flue gases coming out of the boiler carry lot of heat.Function of
economiser is to recover some of the heat from the heat carried away in the flue gases up the
chimney and utilize for heating the feed water to the boiler.It is placed in the passage of flue
gases in between the exit from the boiler and the entry to the chimney.
The use of economiser results in saving in coal consumption , increase in steaming
rate and high boiler efficiency but needs extra investment and increase in maintenance costs
and floor area required for the plant.This is used in all modern plants.In this a large number
of small diameter thin walled tubes are placed between two headers.Feed water enters the
tube through one header and leaves through the other.The flue gases flow out side the tubes
usually in counter flow.
Air preheater: The remaining heat of flue gases is utilised by air preheater.It is a device
used in steam boilers to transfer heat from the flue gases to the combustion air before the air
enters the furnace. Also known as air heater: air-heating system. It is not shown in the lay
out.But it is kept at a place near by where the air enters in to the boiler. The purpose of the air
preheater is to recover the heat from the flue gas from the boiler to improve boiler efficiency
by burning warm air which increases combustion efficiency, and reducing useful heat lost
from the flue. As a consequence, the gases are also sent to the chimney or stack at a lower
temperature, allowing simplified design of the ducting and stack. It also allows control over
the temperature of gases leaving the stack (to meet emissions regulations, for example).After
extracting heat flue gases are passed to electrostatic precipitator.

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Electrostatic precipitator: It is a device which removes dust or other finely divided
particles from flue gases by charging the particles inductively with an electric field, then
attracting them to highly charged collector plates. Also known as precipitator. The process
depends on two steps. In the first step the suspension passes through an electric discharge
(corona discharge) area where ionization of the gas occurs. The ions produced collide with
the suspended particles and confer on them an electric charge. The charged particles drift
toward an electrode of opposite sign and are deposited on the electrode where their electric
charge is neutralized. The phenomenon would be more correctly designated electro
deposition from the gas phase. The use of electrostatic precipitators has become common in
numerous industrial applications. Among the advantages of the electrostatic precipitator are
its ability to handle large volumes of gas, at elevated temperatures if necessary, with a
reasonably small pressure drop, and the removal of particles in the micrometer range. Some
of the usual applications are
(1) Removal of dirt from flue gases in steam plants:
(2) Cleaning of air to remove fungi and bacteria in establishments producing antibiotics
and other drugs, and in operating rooms
(3) Cleaning of air in ventilation and air conditioning systems:
(4) Removal of oil mists in machine shops and acid mists in chemical process plants:
(5) Cleaning of blast furnace gases:
(6) Recovery of valuable materials such as oxides of copper, lead, and tin: and
(7) Separation of rutile from zirconium sand.
Smoke stack: A chimney is a system for venting hot flue gasesor smoke from a boiler,
stove, furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere. They are typically almost vertical to
ensure that the hot gases flow smoothly, drawing air into the combustion through the chimney
effect (also known as the stack effect). The space inside a chimney is called a flue. Chimneys
may be found in buildings, steam locomotives and ships. In the US, the\ term smokestack
(colloquially, stack) is also used when referring to locomotive chimneys. The term funnel is
generally used for ship chimneys and sometimes used to refer to locomotive chimneys.
Chimneys are tall to increase their draw of air for combustion and to disperse pollutants in the
flue gases over a greater area so as to reduce the pollutant concentrations in compliance with
regulatory or other limits.
Generator: An alternator is an electromechanical device that converts mechanical energy
to alternating current electrical energy. Most alternators use a rotating magnetic field.

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Different geometries - such as a linear alternator for use with stirling engines - are also
occasionally used. In principle, any AC generator can be called an alternator, but usually the
word refers to small rotating machines driven by automotive and other internal combustion
engines.
Transformers: It is a device that transfers electric energy from one alternating-current
circuit to one or more other circuits, either increasing (stepping up) or reducing (stepping
down) the voltage. Uses for transformers include reducing the line voltage to operate low-
voltage devices (doorbells or toy electric trains) and raising the voltage from electric
generators so that electric power can be transmitted over long distances. Transformers act
through electromagnetic induction: current in the primary coil induces current in the
secondary coil. The secondary voltage is calculated by multiplying the primary voltage by the
ratio of the number of turns in the secondary coil to that in the primary.
1. COAL FLOW
In coal fired plants, raw material are air & water in PTPS, coal is transported through
Railway wagons from M/s Coal India & is kept reserved on a buffer stock. The brought out to
the station is unloaded with the help of wagon tippler. After unloading, the coal is sent to
crusher house with the help of conveyor belts.
The coal which is now reduced to very small pieces is sent to the coal bunkers with
the help of conveyor belt. The raw coal is fed to coal mills through raw coal feeders raw coal
feeders basically regulate raw coal to pulverized coal pipes. A position of the primary air is
heated utilizing the heat of the fuel gases & then mixed with the cold air as per requirement
by the pulverized coal. Normally the temperature is maintained at 60 to 70 degrees.
2. STEAM FLOW
The super heated steam is sent to the turbine through pipelines there are three turbines in the
units, using this steam at different temperature & pressures. After passing through high
pressure turbine the steam is send to the reheated for rising the temperature of the steam.
After reheating the steam is sent to the intermediate pressure turbine through reheated line.
Here it losses most of its temperature & pressure & finally sent to low pressure turbine.
The uses of three different turbines help in increasing the efficiency of the plant. The turbine
in turn connecting with a generator produces electricity. Then this electricity is stepped upto
220 KV with the help of step up transformer & supplied to various sub-stations grids.
Meanwhile, the steam through low pressure (L.P.) Turbine is condensed and the condensed
water is stored in hot well.

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3. WATER FLOW
The condensed water is extracted from the hot well through condensate extraction pumps &
sent to the boiler drum with the help of BOILER FEED PUMP (B.F.P.) before passing
through low pressure heater and dearater. While loss in water is make up from C.S. Tank,
which have D.M. Moor in it. The C.S. Tank is directly connected to hot well. The water used
in condenser is sent to cooling tower for cooling. After cooling this water is again sent to
condenser with the help of circulating water pump. The loss is making from raw water pump
house through clarifier pump house.
COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION:
1. WAGON TIPPLER: It is the machine which is used to tip the coal from the wagon.
The coal tipped is directly feed to conveyor belt. Its capacity is 12 wagon per hour.
2. CRUSHER: It crushes the coal into small pieces.
3. COAL MILLS: In it small pieces of coal are converted into pulverized from. They are
6 in number.
4. FURNACE: It is the chamber in which fuel burns & fire blows.
5. BOILER DRUM: It contains water for boiling.
6. ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR:In this we have electrodes which attract
fly ash and extract it from flue gases so that it cannot enter atmosphere.
7. CHIMNEY:It is used to release flue gases into the atmosphere.
8. TURBINE:Turbine is the part which revolves due to steam pressure. It is of three types.
a) High pressure turbine.
b) Intermediate pressure turbine.
c) Low pressure turbine.
9. TURBO GENERATOR:It is the main machine which produces 250 MW
electricity .It is (H2O) water and H2 (Hydrogen) gas cooled, therefore it is contained in
cylindrical chamber.
10. CONDENSER: It condenses steam coming from low pressure turbine (L.P.T.) to hot
water. By removing air and other noncondensable gases from steam while passing through
them.
11. COOLING WATER (C.W.) PUMP This pump send water from cooling tower to
condenser.

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12. COOLING TOWER:It is used to coal the water its height is near about 143.5 mtrs.
The hot water is led to the tower top and falls down through the tower and is broken into
small particles while passing over the baffing devices. Air enters thetower from the bottom
and flow upwards. The air vaporizes a small percentage of water, thereby cooling waterfalls
down into tank below the tower from where it is pumped to the condenser and cycle is
repeated.
13. RAW WATER PUMP HOUSE:It supplies raw water to the boiler.
14. CLARIFIER PUMP HOUSE:The water from raw is clear at clarifier by putting
alum in it & filtering it & then supplied to the condenser.
15. CONDENSATE EXTRACTION PUMP:C.E.P. pump is used to extract the
condense water from the hot well and supply to the deaerator after passing through L.P.
heater & Economizer, so that high pressure steam in the cylinder can be created.
16. LOW PRESSURE HEATER:It is used to increase the temperature of water, in
this way efficiency of system increases.
17. DEAREATER:It is used to remove air from water which is entrapped in the water
molecules. It is very important part because the entrapped air effect air drum badly.
18. BOILER FEED PUM (B.F.P.):It is the heaviest drive in the plant & supply water
to boiler drum from dearator.
19. HIGH PRESSURE HEATER (H.P.):In this temperature of water increases. Thus
efficiency further increases.
20. ECONOMISER: In this flue gases exchange heat to the water to increase system
efficiency, causes saving in fuel consumption (5 to 10%). Economizer tubes are made up of
steel either smooth or covered with fins to increase the heat transfer surface area.

2.1 Coal handling plant :

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In a coal based thermal power plant, the initial process in the power generation is Coal
Handling. So in this article i will discuss the overall processes carried out at a Coal Handling
plant in a coal based thermal power generating station The huge amount of coal is usually
supplied through railways. A railway siding line is taken into the power station and the coal is
delivered in the storage yard. The coal is unloaded from the point of delivery by means of
wagon tippler. It is rack and pinion type. The coal is taken from the unloading site to dead
storage by belt conveyors. The belt deliver the coal to 0m level to the pent house and further
moves to transfer point 8.The transfer points are used to transfer coal to the next belt. The belt
elevates the coal to breaker house. It of a rotary machine, which rotates the coal and separates
the light dust from it through the action of gravity and transfer this dust to reject bin house
through belt The belt further elevates the coal to the transfer point 7 and it reaches the
crusher through belt. In the crusher a high-speed 3-phase induction motor is used to crush the
coal to a size of 50mm so as to be suitable for milling system. Coal rises from crusher house
and reaches the dead storage by passing through transfer point 8.
Stages in coal handling power plant:
Equipment used in a coal handling plant
1. Pull chord switch: A series of such switches are arranged in series at a 1m distance on
the side of conveyor belt. The power supply to rotor of the conveyor belt is established only if
all switches in series are connected.
2. Vibrating feeder: The coal stored in a huge hub is collected on the belt through
vibrations created by the vibrating feeder.
3. Flap gates: These are used to channelize the route of coal through another belt in case
the former is broken or unhealthy. The flap gates open let the coal pass and if closed stop its
movement.

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4. Magnetic separator: These are used to separate the ferrous impurities from the coal.
5. Metal detector : These are detect the presence of any ferrous and non-ferrous metal in
the coal and send a signal to a relay which closes to seize the movement of belt until the
metal is removed. It basically consists of a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter consists
of a high frequency oscillator, which produces a oscillations of 1500 Hz at 15V. The receiver
receives this frequency signal. If there is any presence of metal in the coal. Then this
frequency is disturbed and a tripping signal is send to relay to stop the conveyor belt.
6. Belt weightier: It is used to keep an account of the tension on the belt carrying coal and
is moves accordingly to release tension on the belt.
7. Reclaim hopper: Reclaimation is a process of taking coal from the dead storage for
preparation or further feeding to reclaim hoppers. This is accomplished by belt conveyors

2.2 Coal preparation plant

A coal preparation plant (CPP; also known as a coal handling and preparation
plant (CHPP), coal handling plant, prep plant, tipple or wash plant) is a facility that
washes coal of soil and rock, crushes it into graded sized chunks (sorting), stockpiles grades
preparing it for transport to market, and more often than not, also loads coal into rail cars,
barges, or ships. The more of this waste material that can be removed from coal, the lower its
total ash content, the greater its market value and the lower its transportation costs.

Rom-Of- Mine coal

The coal delivered from the mine that reports to the coal preparation plant is called run-of-
mine, or ROM, coal. This is the raw material for the CPP, and consists of coal, rocks,
middlings, minerals and contamination. Contamination is usually introduced by the mining
process and may include machine parts, used consumables and parts of ground engaging
tools. ROM coal can have a large variability of moisture and maximum particle size.

Handling:

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Coal needs to be stored at various stages of the preparation process, and conveyed around the
CPP facilities. Coal handling is part of the larger field of bulk material handling, and is a
complex and vital part of the CPP.

Stockpiles provide surge capacity to various parts of the CPP. ROM coal is delivered with
large variations in production rate of tonnes per hour (tph). A ROM stockpile is used to allow
the wash plant to be fed coal at lower, constant rate. A simple stockpile is formed by
machinery dumping coal into a pile, either from dump trucks, pushed into heaps
with bulldozers or from conveyor booms. More controlled stockpiles are formed
using stackers to form piles along the length of a conveyor, and reclaimers to retrieve the coal
when required for product loading, etc. Taller and wider stockpiles reduce the land area
required to store a set tonnage of coal. Larger coal stockpiles have a reduced rate of heat loss,
leading to a higher risk of spontaneous combustion. Travelling, luffing boom stackers that
straddle a feed conveyor are commonly used to create coal stockpiles.

Tunnel conveyors can be fed by a continuous slot hopper or bunker beneath the stockpile to
reclaim material. Front-end loaders and bulldozers can be used to push the coal into feeders.
Sometimes front-end loaders are the only means of reclaiming coal from the stockpile. This
has a low up-front capital cost, but much higher operating costs, measured in dollars per

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tonne handled. High-capacity stockpiles are commonly reclaimed using bucket-
wheel reclaimers. These can achieve very high rates

Sampling:

Sampling of coal is an important part of the process control in the CPP. A grab sample is a
one-off sample of the coal at a point in the process stream, and tends not to be very
representative. A routine sample is taken at a set frequency, either over a period of time or per
shipment. Coal sampling consists of several types of sampling devices. A "cross cut" sampler
mimics the "stop belt" sampling method specified by a standard originally published by the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). A cross cut sampler mounts directly on
top of the conveyor belt, the falling stream sampler is placed at the head section of the belt.
There are several points in the wash plant that many coal operations choose to sample. The
raw coal, before it enters the plant.

The refuse, to see what the plant missed. Then the clean coal, to see exactly what is
being shipped. The sampler is set according to Tons per hour, Feet per minute and top size of
the product on the actual belt. A sample is taken then crushed, then sub sampled and returned
to the main belt. The sample is sent to an Independent lab for testing where the results will be
shared with the buyer as well as the supplier. The buyer in many cases will also sample the
coal again once it is received to "double check" the results. Continuous measurement of ash,
moisture, kCal (BTU), sulphur Fe, Ca, Na, and other element constituents of the coal are
reported by cross belt elemental analysers. This information can be calibrated periodically to
the lab data per ASTM methods.

Washability:

The washability characteristics of a coal reserve are provided by obtaining liberation

data on the raw coal sample. Liberation refers to the amount of physical breakage required to
separate material of different material densities. Low density material is clean coal whereas
high density material is reject (rock). The intermediate density material is called middlings.

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 Liberation data is commonly obtained by float and sink analysis. The procedures for this
analysis are detailed in Australian Standard AS 4156.1 1994 "Coal preparation Higher
rank coal Float and sink testing".

Crushing :

Crushing reduces the overall top size of the ROM coal so that it can be more easily handled
and processed within the CPP. Crushing requirements are an important part of CPP design
and there are a number of different types.

Screening :

Screens in screening plant are used to group process particles into ranges by size. These size
ranges are also called grades. Dewatering screens are used to remove water from the product.
Screens can be static, or mechanically vibrated. Screen decks can be made from different
materials such as high tensile steel, stainless steel, or polyethylene.

Gravity Separation:

Gravity separation methods make use of the different relative densities of different grades of
coal, and the reject material.

Jigs:

Jigs are a gravity separation method for coarse coal. Different types of jig include:

Baum Jig
Under-air jig

2.3 STEAM GENERATING PLANT

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 A steam-electric power station is a power station in which the electric generator
is steam driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives
an electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a
condenser. The greatest variation in the design of steam-electric power plants is due to the
different fuel sources.

Almost all coal, nuclear, geothermal, solar thermal electric power plants, waste
incineration plants as well as many natural gas power plants are steam-electric. Natural gas is
frequently combusted in gas turbines as well as boilers. The waste heat from a gas turbine can
be used to raise steam, in a combined cycle plant that improves overall efficiency.

Worldwide, most electric power is produced by steam-electric power plants, which

produce about 86% of all electric generation. The only other types of plants that currently
have a significant contribution are hydroelectric and gas turbine plants, which can burn
natural gas or diesel. Photovoltaic panels, wind turbines and binary cycle geothermal plants
are also non-steam electric, but currently do not produce much electricity.

HISTORY:

Reciprocating steam engines have been used for mechanical power sources since the
18th Century, with notable improvements being made by James Watt. The very first
commercial central electrical generating stations in New York and London, in 1882, also used
reciprocating steam engines. As generator sizes increased, eventually turbines took over due
to higher efficiency and lower cost of construction. By the 1920s any central station larger
than a few thousand kilowatts would use a turbine prime mover.

EFFICIENCY:

The electric efficiency of a conventional steam-electric power plant, considered as

saleable energy produced at the plant busbars compared with the heating value of the fuel
consumed, is typically 33 to 48% efficient, limited as all heat engines are by the laws
of thermodynamics (See: Carnot cycle). The rest of the energy must leave the plant in the
form of heat. This waste heat can be disposed of with cooling water or in cooling towers. If
the waste heat is instead utilized for e.g. district heating, it is called cogeneration. An
important class of steam power plants are associated with desalination facilities; these are

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typically found in desert countries with large supplies of natural gas and in these plants,
freshwater production and electricity are equally important co-products.

Since the efficiency of the plant is fundamentally limited by the ratio of the absolute
temperatures of the steam at turbine input and output, efficiency improvements require use of
higher temperature, and therefore higher pressure, steam. Historically, other working fluids
such as mercury have been experimentally used in a mercury vapour turbine power plant,
since these can attain higher temperatures than water at lower working pressures. However,
the obvious hazards of toxicity, and poor heat transfer properties, have ruled out mercury as a
working fluid.

Boiler: Boiler used in the power plant is suspended type. This prevents it from getting
deformed, when a subjected to very high temperatures. The boiler is divided into two
cylindrical parts namely the Primary and the Secondary boiler. Water from the boiler feed
pump passes through economizer and reaches the boiler drum

. Water from the drum passes through down comers and goes to bottom ring header.
Water from the ring header is to all the four side of furnace Due to heat and density difference
the water rises up in the water wall tubes. Water is partly converted to steam as it rises up in
the furnace. This steam and water mixture is again taken to the boiler drum where the steam
is sent to super heaters for superheating.

2.4 STEAM TURBINE

A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and
uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was
invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884.

Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to

drive an electrical generator about 90% of all electricity generation in the United States
(1996) is by use of steam turbines. The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives
much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency from the use of multiple stages in the
expansion of the steam, which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible expansion
process.

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HISTORY: The first device that may be classified as a reaction steam turbine was little
more than a toy, the classic Aeolipile, described in the 1st century by Greek mathematician
Hero of Alexandria in Roman Egypt. In 1551, Taqi al-Din in Ottoman Egypt described a
steam turbine with the practical application of rotating a spit. Steam turbines were also
described by the Italian Giovanni Branca (1629)[7] and John Wilkins in England (1648).] The
devices described by Taqi al-Din and Wilkins are today known as steam jacks. In 1672 an
impulse steam turbine driven car was designed by Ferdinand Verbiest. A more modern
version of this car was produced some time in the late 18th century by an unknown German
mechanic.

The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Sir Charles Parsons, whose first
model was connected to a dynamo that generated 7.5 kW (10 hp) of electricity. The invention
of Parsons' steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized
marine transport and naval warfare.[ Parsons' design was a reaction type. His patent was
licensed and the turbine scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. The
Parsons turbine also turned out to be easy to scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing
his invention adopted for all major world power stations, and the size of generators had
increased from his first 7.5 kW set up to units of 50,000 kW capacity. Steam turbines are
made in a variety of sizes ranging from small <0.75 kW (<1 hp) units (rare) used as
mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to
1 500 000 kW (1.5 GW: 2 000 000 hp) turbines used to generate electricity. There are several
classifications for modern steam turbines

BLADE DESIGN CHALLENGES

A major challenge facing turbine design is reducing the creep experienced by the
blades. Because of the high temperatures and high stresses of operation, steam turbine
materials become damaged through these mechanisms. As temperatures are increased in an
effort to improve turbine efficiency, creep becomes more significant. To limit creep, thermal
coatings

2.5 FEED WATER SYSTEM

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 The steam/feedwater system is the principal system available for the removal of heat
energy from the steam generator. This removes energy from the heat transport system and so
provides a means to keep fuel cool. The transport of this energy from the steam generator in
the form of saturated steam, and the return of warm feedwater is the subject of these
lessons.The methods available to transport this energy in order of preference is

1. Delivery of steam to the turbine to produce electrical power: about 35% of this energy is
used to produce electrical power, 60% is rejected to the lake via the condenser and about 5%
is returned to the boiler as warm feedwater.

2. Delivery of steam directly to the condenser bypassing the turbine. Up to 86% of the normal
full power steam flow to the turbine can be handled in this way. Most of this energy (98.8%)
is rejected to the lake and the remainder (1.2%) is returned to the boiler as cool feedwater.
This of course is uneconomical, but it provides a means of prevention of reactor poison out. It
also has the advantage of keeping the fluid within the steam/feedwater cycle while
maintaining the reactor in the operating state.

3 .Discharge of steam directly to the atmosphere. This means that 100% rejection to the
atmosphere of the system energy and loss of feedwater from the steam/feedwater cycle. Its
use is limited depending on the availability of an alternate feedwater source. There are two
operating modes.

The first uses the Atmospheric Steam Discharge Valves (ASDVs) to reject up to 10%
of normal steam flow. The main purpose is to control the rate of warm-up and/or cool down
of the Heat Transport System. The second is a safety mode whereby up to 115% of normal
steam flow can be discharged to the atmosphere through 16 Main Steam Safety Valves. This
provides both overpressure protection and auto-depressurization. Auto-depressurization is a
violent action and is only initiated under Emergency Core Cooling (ECC) conditions or on a

18
very low level in two or more steam generators with a coincident .

19
 CHAPTER-3
MAINTENANCE
3.1 AUDITING

An energy audit is a study of a plant or facility to determine how and where energy is
used and to identify methods for energy savings. There is now a universal recognition of the
fact that new technologies and much greater use of some that already exist provide the most
hopeful prospects for the future. The opportunities lie in the use of existing renewable energy
technologies, greater efforts at energy efficiency and the dissemination of these technologies
and options. This energy audit of 2 X 25MW Power Plant was carried out. This report is just
one step, a mere mile marker towards our destination of achieving energy efficiency and I
would like to emphasis that an energy audit is a continuous process. We have compiled a list
of possible actions to conserve and efficiently utilize our scarce resources and identified their
Savings potential. The next step would be to prioritize their implementation. I look forward
with optimism that the institute authorities, staff shall ensure the maximum execution of the
recommendations and the success of this work.

3.2 ENERGY AUDIT METHODOLOGY

Considering the vast potential of energy savings and issue of energy efficiency in
various sectors of industries, the government of India enacted the Energy Conservation Act,
2001. The Act provides for a legal framework, institutional arrangement and a regulatory
mechanism at the central and state level to embark upon energy efficiency drive in country.
Having been declared designated customers under the EC Act, it is obligatory on the part of
power station to get energy audit carried out periodically.

3.2 Necessity of Cooling Towers

A cooling tower is an specialized heat exchanger in which air and water are brought
into direct contact with each other in order to reduce the water's temperature. As this occurs, a

20
small volume of water is evaporated, reducing the temperature of the water being circulated
through the tower. The type of heat rejection in a cooling tower is termed "evaporative" in
that it allows a small portion of the water being cooled to evaporate into a moving air stream
to provide significant cooling to the rest of that water stream.

3.3 Thermal efficiency

The energy efficiency of a conventional thermal power station, considered salable

energy produced as a percent of the heating value of the fuel consumed, is typically 33% to
48%.[citation needed][4] As with all heat engines, their efficiency is limited, and governed by the
laws of thermodynamics. By comparison, most hydropower stations in the United States are
about 90 percent efficient in converting the energy of falling water into electricity.[5]
The energy of a thermal not utilized in power production must leave the plant in the
form of heat to the environment. This waste heat can go through a condenser and be disposed
of with cooling water or in cooling towers. If the waste heat is instead utilized for district
heating, it is called co-generation. An important class of thermal power station are associated
with desalination facilities; these are typically found in desert countries with large supplies
of natural gas and in these plants, freshwater production and electricity are equally important
co-products.
The Carnot efficiency dictates that higher efficiencies can be attained by increasing
the temperature of the steam. Sub-critical fossil fuel power plants can achieve 3640%
efficiency. Super critical designs have efficiencies in the low to mid 40% range, with new
"ultra critical" designs using pressures of 4400 psi (30.3 MPa) and multiple stage reheat
reaching about 48% efficiency. Above the critical point for water of 705 F (374 C) and
3212 psi (22.06 MPa), there is no phase transition from water to steam, but only a gradual
decrease in density.
Currently most of the nuclear power plants must operate below the temperatures and
pressures that coal-fired plants do, in order to provide more conservative safety margins
within the systems that remove heat from the nuclear fuel rods. This, in turn, limits their
thermodynamic efficiency to 3032%. Some advanced reactor designs being studied, such as
the very high temperature reactor, advanced gas-cooled reactor and supercritical water
reactor, would operate at temperatures and pressures similar to current coal plants, producing
comparable thermodynamic efficiency.

21
 CHAPTER-4

POLLUTION IN THERMAL POWER PLANT

4.1 Thermal Pollution: Effects, Causes and Control

An increase in the optimum water temperature by industrial process (steel factories,

electric power houses and atomic power plants) may be called as Thermal Pollution. Many
industries generate their own power and use water to cool their generator.

This hot water is released into the system from where it was drawn, causing a
warming trend of surface water. If the system is poorly flushed, a permanent increase in the
temperature may result. However, if the water is released into the well flushed system,
permanent increase in temperature does not occur.

Effects:

Many organisms are killed instantly by the hot water resulting into a high mortality. It may
bring other disturbance in the ecosystem. The egg of fish may hatch early or fail to hatch at
all. It may change the diurnal and seasonal behaviour and metabolic responses of organisms.
It may lead to unplanned migration of aquatic animals.

4.2 CONTROL OF POLLUTION IN POWER PLANT:

Decisions on the type and degree of treatment and control of wastes, and the disposal and use
of adequately treated wastewater, must be based on a consideration all the technical factors of each
drainage basin, in order to prevent any further contamination or harm to the environment.

Sewage treatment:

Deer Island Wastewater Treatment Plant serving Boston, Massachusetts and vicinity.

In urban areas of developed countries, domestic sewage is typically treated by centralized sewage
treatment plants. Well-designed and operated systems (i.e., secondary treatment or better) can remove
90 percent or more of the pollutant load in sewage. Some plants have additional systems to remove
nutrients and pathogens. Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ

22
one or more engineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including utilizing a
green infrastructure approach to improve storm water management capacity throughout the system,
and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant repair and replacement of leaking and
malfunctioning equipment.

Industrial wastewater treatment

Dissolved air flotation system for treating industrial wastewater. Some industrial facilities generate
ordinary domestic sewage that can be treated by municipal facilities. Industries that generate
wastewater with high concentrations of conventional pollutants (e.g. oil and grease),

toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or other non-conventional pollutants
such as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems. Some of these facilities can install a pre-
treatment system to remove the toxic components, and then send the partially treated wastewater to
the municipal system. Industries generating large volumes of wastewater typically operate their own
complete on-site treatment systems. Some industries have been successful at redesigning their
manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution
prevention.

Agricultural wastewater treatment

Non point source controls Sediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural
pollution in the United States. Farmers may utilize erosion controls to reduce runoff flows and retain
soil on their fields. Common techniques include contour plowing, crop mulching, crop rotation,
planting perennial crops and installing riparian buffers. Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are
typically applied to farmland as commercial fertilizer, animal manure, or spraying of municipal or
industrial wastewater (effluent) or sludge..

To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
techniques (which can include biological pest control) to maintain control over pests, reduce reliance
on chemical pesticides, and protect water quality. Feedlot in the United States Point source
wastewater treatment Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are
called concentrated animal feeding operations or feedlots in the US and are being subject to increasing
government regulation.[33][34] Animal slurries are usually treated by containment in anaerobic
lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland. Constructed wetlands are
sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes.

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 4.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF POWER
PLANT:

ADVANTAGES:

1,Thermal power plant have been the main source of power in the world for centuries. With my
experience in Thermal and Gas power plant as a part of Indias largest power generating companies
the following are the Pros and Cons that come to my mind.

2, Coal/lignite/peat is readily available all over the world. Needs large amount of Coal and
Water so has to be placed a large water sources and coal mine. Else the logistics cost will be
too high. A Power plant of 3000MW typically requires 35,000 to 45,000 tonnes of coal. It is
the prime contributor to CO2 emissions all over the world. With the Climate change a
restriction is now placed on all countries in this regard.

3,The technology for thermal power plant is easily accessible and well established not like
other sources like thermal, Geothermal etc.

4, Requires less land per Megawatt with respect to Hydro, Solar, Wind etc.

5, Easy and simple to maintain and operate.

. 6, Compare to the hydroelectric plant the initial set up cost must be low

7,Near to the load centers the power plants are located, for that the transportation cost is low
and transmission is reduced.

8,In hydroelectric power plant the quality depends upon the nature like rives and rains.

9,We cannot observe the situation in the thermal power plant. Construction must be takes
place in very less period compare to the remaining power plants

. 10, Large amount of power is generated

Disadvantages of Thermal power plant:

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 1, High maintenance and operating costs

2, pollution of atmosphere due to fumes and residues from pulverized fuels

3, requirement of water in huge quantity

4, Handling of coal and ash is difficult

Characteristics of steam power plant

1, It gives high efficiency

2,Cost is low

3,Water requirement is reduced

5. TOP TEN BIGGEST THERMAL PROJECTS:

5.1 Thermal projects in south India:

More than 65% of India's electricity generation capacity comes from thermal
power plants, with about 85% of the country's thermal power generation being coal-
based. The 10 biggest thermal power stations operating in India are all coal-fired,
with seven of them owned and operated by state-run National Thermal Power
Corporation (NTPC). Power-technology.com profiles India's 10 biggest thermal
power plants by installed capacity.

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Vindhyachal thermal power station, Madhya Pradesh

Vindhyachal Thermal Power Station in the Singrauli district of Madhya

Pradesh, with an installed capacity of 4,760MW, is currently the biggest thermal
power plant in India. It is a coal-based power plant owned and operated by
NTPC.

Construction of the plant, which comprised 12 generating units (six 210MW

units and six 500MW units), had begun in 1982. The first unit was
commissioned in 1987, while the sixth 500MW was commissioned in April 2013.
An additional 500MW unit was commissioned in August 2015, increasing the
plant's gross capacity from 4,260MW to 4,760MW.

The plant uses coal from the NCL-operated Nigahi mine and water from the
discharge canal of Singrauli Super Thermal Power Station. The turbine
manufacturers for the Vindhyachal Thermal Power Station include Russian
companies LMZ, Electrosila and the Indian BHEL. The 500MW units were
supplied by BHEL.

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Mundhra Thermal power station,Gujarat

The 4,620MW Mundra Thermal Power Station located in the Kutch district of Gujarat is
currently the second biggest operating thermal power plant in India. It is a coal-fired
power plant owned and operated by Adani Power.The power plant consists of nine
generating units (four 330MW units and five 660MW units). The first 330MW unit was
commissioned in May 2009 and the last 660MW unit of the plant commissioned in
March 2012. The coal used for the power plant is mainly imported from Indonesia. The
plant's water source is the sea water from the Gulf of Kutch. The boilers and generators
for the first four units were supplied by Babcock & Wilcox and Beijing Beizhong
respectively. SEPCO III, China was the EPC contractor for the last five 660MW units,
which feature super critical technology.The boilers were supplied by Harbin Boiler and
the turbine and generators were supplied by Dongfang Machinery.

Mundra ultra mega power plant

The 4,000MW Mundra Ultra Mega Power Plant (UMPP), also located in the Kutch
district of Gujarat, ranks as the third largest thermal power plant in India. It is a coal-
fired power plant owned and operated by Coastal Gujarat Power Limited (CGPL), a
subsidiary of Tata Power. The thermal power plant consists of five generating units,
each of 800MW capacity. Construction of the plant began in March 2009. The first unit
of the Mundra UMPP was commissioned in March 2012 and the last unit was
commissioned in March 2009. The plant uses 12 billion tonnes of imported coal per
annum.The plant features super-critical boiler technology. Doosan Heavy Industries &
Construction was the EPC contractor for this project. The five boilers for the plant were
also supplied by Doosan. Toshiba supplied the steam turbine generators.

Talcher Super thermal power station, Odisha

Talcher Super Thermal Power Station or NTPC Talcher Kaniha, located in the Angul
district of Odisha, is a 3,000MW coal-fired power plant owned and operated by NTPC.
The power station currently ranks as the fourth largest operational thermal power plant
in India. NTPC Talcher Kaniha plant consists of six 500MW units. The first unit of the
plant was commissioned in February 1995 and the last unit began operations in

27
February 2005. Turbine manufacturers for the plant were ABB and BHEL.The coal used
by Talcher Super Thermal Power plant is sourced from the Lingraj Block of Talcher
Coal Field. The plant uses water Samal Barrage Reservoir on Brahmani River in
Odisha.

Sipat Thermal power plant, Chattisgarh:

The 2980MW Sipat Super Thermal Power Plant located at Sipat in the Bilaspur
district of Chhattisgarh, ranks as the fifth largest thermal power station in India. It is a
coal-based power plant owned and operated by NTPC.The power plant built in two
stages is installed with six generating units (three 660MW super-crtical units and three
500MW units). The first unit of the plant commenced commercial operations in August
2008, while the last unit was commissioned in June 2012.The power plant, built with an
estimated cost of more than $2bn, was renamed as Rajiv Gandhi Super Thermal Power
Station in September 2013. Coal for the Sipat plant is sourced from Dipika Mines of
South Eastern Coalfields Limited (SECL). The plant uses water from the Right Bank
Canal (RBC) originating from the Hasdeo Barrage.

NTPC Dadri, Uttar Pradesh.

NTPC Dadri or National Capital Power Station (NCPS) owned and operated by
NTPC is located in the Gautam Budh Nagar district of Uttar Pradesh, about 48km from
the Indian capital New Delhi. The power station, with an installed capacity of 2637MW
(1820MW- coal based and 817MW gas based), ranks as the sixth largest thermal plant
in India.The power station consists of six coal-fired units (four 210MW units and two
490MW units) and six gas-based generating units (four 130.19MW gas turbines and two
154.51MW steam turbines). The first coal-fired unit was commissioned in October 1991
and the last unit was commissioned in July 2010. The gas-based generating units were
commissioned between 1992 and 1997.The coal for NTPC Dadri is sourced from
Piparwar Mines, Jharkhand. The gas is sourced from GAIL Hazira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur
(HBJ) Pipeline. The water source for the thermal power station is the Upper Ganga
Canal

NTPC Ramagundam, Andhra Pradesh:

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 NTPC's Ramagundam thermal power plant in the Karimnagar district of Andhra
Pradesh ranks as the seventh largest thermal power plant in India and the largest in
south India. The coal-fired power plant has an installed capacity of 2600MW.The power
plant built in three phases consists of seven generating units (three 200MW units and
four 500MW units. The first unit of the plant started operations in November 1983 and
the last 500MW unit was commissioned in August 2004. The boilers and turbines of the
plant were supplied by BHEL.The power plant uses coal from South Godavari Coal
Fields of Singareni Collieries and Korba Coal Fields of SECL. The sources of water for
the plant are Sri Ram Sagar Dam on Godavari River and D-83 Canal from Pochampad
Reservoir. The power generated at the plant is uniformly distributed among Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra.

Korba, Super thermal power plant:

Korba Super Thermal Power Plant located in the Korba district of Chhattisgarh,
with 2600MW of installed capacity, also ranks as the seventh largest thermal power
plant in India. It is a coal-fired power plant owned and operated by NTPC.

The power plant built in three phases comprises of seven generating units (three
200MW units and four 500MW units). The first unit of the Korba thermal power plant
was commissioned in March 1983. The last 500MW unit at the plant was commissioned
in December 2010. The power plant uses coal from Kusmundha and Gevra mines in the
Korba Coalfield. The water source of the plant is Hasdeo River, a tributary of Mahanadi
River.

Rihand Thermal power station:

Rihand Thermal Power Station at Rihandnagar in the Sonebhadra district of Uttar

Pradesh ranks as the ninth largest thermal power plant in India. The coal-based power
plant with an installed capacity of 2,500MW is owned and operated by NTPC.Rihand
Thermal Power Plant consists of five generating units of 500MW capacity each. The
first unit was commissioned in March 1988. The fifth unit of the plant was
commissioned in May 2012.Coal for the Rihand Thermal Power Station is sourced from

29
 Amlori, Amloric expansion and the Dudhichua Mines in Madhya Pradesh. The plant
uses water from the Rihand Reservoir built on Son River.

Jharsuguda Thermal power plant:

Jharsuguda Thermal Power Plant, in the Jharsuguda district of Odisha, is currently

the tenth largest thermal power plant operating in India. It is a 2400MW coal-fired
power plant owned and operated by Sterile Energy, a 100% subsidiary of Vedanta
Resources.The power plant is installed with four 600MW units. The first generating unit
was commissioned in August 2010. The fourth unit was commissioned in March 2013.
The coal used by the plant is sourced from the IB Valley coal field in the Jharsuguda
district.The Jharsuguda Thermal Power Plant was built with an estimated investment of
$1.3bn. The SEPCO III Electric Power Construction Company of China was the EPC
contractor for this thermal power project.

5.1 Proper Site Selection for a Thermal Power Plant

You might think that selecting a site for a thermal power plant is based on
requirements of power of the nearby regions but it is not so in actual practise. The engineer
needs to take dozens of factors into account before commencing such a project and here is a
list of the same.

Introduction

Selecting a proper site for a thermal power plant is vital for its long term efficiency
and a lot many factors come into play when deciding where to install the plant. Of course it
may not be possible to get everything which is desirable at a single place but still the location
should contain an optimum mix of the requirements for the settings to be feasible for long
term economic justification of the plant.

The Requirements for the Site

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 As the name implies the power plant is meant for generating power which obviously
means that it will consume huge quantities of fuel. The exact quantity would depend on the
size of the plant and its capacity but it is a general fact that ample quantities of fuel must be
available either in the vicinity or it should be reasonably economical to transport the fuel till
the power plant. Since most thermal power plants use coal (they can use other fuels as well) it
must be ensured that sufficient coal is available round the clock. Just to give you a rough idea
a power plant with 1000 MW capacity approximately would require more than ten thousand
tons of coal per day hence the necessity for continuous supply and storage capability of coal
in the power station.

Ash if the main byproduct of combustion and since the amount of coal used is huge, you can
intuitively imagine the amount of ash generated and it is certainly in the region of thousand
tons per day. Ash is much more difficult to handle as compared to coal since it comes out hot
from the boiler and is very corrosive in nature. Disposing of such huge quantities of ash
requires a large amount of empty space where it can be safely dumped.

5.2 Thermal projects of South India:

Name of TPS Place/District State Rating capacity

TPC Ramagundam Karimnagar Telangana 3200 600+2000=2,600
4500
Simhadri super thermal Visakhapatnam Andhra 4500 2,000
power plant pradesh
Neyveli thermal power plant Cuddalore Tamil nadu 7210 1400+500=1,970
II 2250
D.r Narala tataroa TPS Krishna Andhra 6210 1260+500=1,760
Pradesh 1500
Raichur thermalPower Raichur Karnataka 7210 1470+250=1,720
1250
Kothagudem Thermal power Khammam Telangana 460 240+480+500+500=
station 4120 1,720
Sri Damodaram-Sanjeeviah NTellore Andhra 2800 1,600
thermal power station pradesh
Vallur thermal power station Chennai Tamil nadu 3500 1,500
Pynampuram power station Nellore Andhra 2660 1,320

31
 pradesh
Udipi thermal power station Udipi Karnataka 2600 1,200
Tuticorin thermal power Tuticorin Tamil nadu 5210 1,050
station
Rayalaseema thermal Kadapa Andhra 5210 1,050
pradesh
Neyveli Thermal power Cudalore Tamil nadu 650 300+300+420=1,020
station-I 3100
2210
NTPl thermal power station Tuticorin Tamil nadu 2500 1,000
JSW Vijayanagar power Bellary Karnataka 2130 260+600=800
station 2300
Mettur thermal Power Salem Tamil nadu 4210 840
station
North Chennai thermal Thiruvallore Tamil nadu 3210 630
station
Muthiara Thermal power Tuticorin Tamil nadu 1600 600
station
IL and FS thermal power Cudalore Tamil nadu 1600 600
station
Simhapuri thermal power Nellore Andhra 4150 600
station pradesh
Kakathiya thermal power Warangal Telan gana 1500 500
station
Bellary thermal power Bellary Karnataka 1500 500
station
Ennore thermal power Chennai Tamil nadu 260 120+330+450
station 3100
Tuticorin(Pvt)thermal power Tuticorin Tamil nadu 2150 300
station
Meenakshi thermal power Nellore Andhra 2150 300
station pradesh
Neyveli Zero Lignite power Cuddalore Tamil nadu 1250 250
station
Ramagundam thermal Karimnagar Telangana 162.5 62.5
station

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5.3Condensation

INITIATION: Condensation is initiated by the formation of atomic/molecular clusters of

that species within its gaseous volumelike rain drop or snow flake formation within clouds
or at the contact between such gaseous phase and a liquid or solid surface.

REVERSIBILITY SCENERIOS:

A few distinct reversibility scenarios emerge here with respect to the nature of the
surface.

Absorption into the surface of a liquid (either of the same substance or one of its
solvents)is reversible as evaporation.[1]

33
 Absorption (as dew droplets) onto solid surface at pressures and temperatures higher
than the species' triple pointalso reversible as evaporation.
Absorption onto solid surface (as supplemental layers of solid) at pressures and temperatures
lower than the species' triple pointis reversible as sublimation.

HOW CONDENSATION IS MEASURED:

Psychrometry measures the rates of condensation through evaporation into the air
moisture at various atmospheric pressures and temperatures. Water is the product of its vapor
condensationcondensation is the process of such phase conversion.

APPLICATIONS OF CONDENSATION:

Condensation is a crucial component of distillation, an important laboratory and

industrial chemistry application. Because condensation is a naturally occurring phenomenon,
it can often be used to generate water in large quantities for human use. Many structures are
made solely for the purpose of collecting water from condensation, such as air wells and fog
fences. Such systems can often be used to retain soil moisture in areas where
active desertification is occurringso much so that some organizations educate people living
in affected areas about water condensers to help them deal effectively with the situation. It is
also a crucial process in forming particle tracks in a cloud chamber. In this case, ions
produced by an incident particle act as nucleation centres for the condensation of the vapour
producing the visible "cloud" trails. Furthermore, condensation is a critical step in many
industrial processes, such as power generation, water desalination, thermal management,
refrigeration, and air conditioning.

34