LIMITS

Introduction

This chapter is an introduction to Calculus. Calculus is that branch of

mathematics which mainly deals with the study of change in the value of a
function as the points in the domain change.

Limits

We write

lim f(x) = L or
f(x) L as x a
xa

to mean that f(x) approaches the number L as x approaches (but is not equal
to) a from both sides.

A more precise definition is that we can make f(x) be as close to L as we like

by making x be sufficiently close to a.

We write

lim f(x) = L or
f(x) L as x a+
xa+

and

lim f(x) = L or
f(x) L as x a-
xa-

to mean that f(x) L as x approaches a from the right or left, respectively. For
lim(xa )f(x) to exist, the left and right limits must both exist and must be
equal.

We write

lim f(x) = L
x+

And
 lim f(x) =L
x-

to mean that f(x) L as x gets arbitrarily large or becomes a negative number

with arbitrarily large magnitude, respectively.

Examples:

1. As x 3, the quantity 3x2-4x+2 goes to 17. Therefore,

lim
(3x2-4x+2) = 17
x3
This is just the value of the function at x = 3.

2. Notice that the function

x2 - 9
x-3

is not defined at x = 3. However, for other values of x, it simplifies to

x2 - 9 (x - 3)(x + 3)
= = x + 3,
x-3 x-3
and, as x 3, this quantity approaches 6. Therefore

x2 - 9
6 as x 3,
x-3

or

x2 - 9
lim = 6
x-3
x3
Estimating Limits Numerically

To analyse limits of the form

lim or lim
f(x) f(x) numerically:
xa x

Make a table of values for f(x) using values of x that approach a closely
from either side.
If the limit exists, then the values of f(x) will approach the limit
as x approaches a from both sides.
The more accurately you wish to evaluate this limit, the closer to a you
will need to choose the values of x.
For a limit as x +, use positive values of x getting larger and
larger.
For a limit as x -, use negative values of x getting larger and larger
in magnitude.

Examples

1. To estimate
lim x2 - 9
x 3 x-3
construct a table with values of x close to 3 on either side:

Since the values of f(x) appear to be approaching 6 as x approaches 3 from

either side, we estimate that the limit is 6.

2. To estimate

lim x2 - x + 1
x + 2x2 - 3

construct a table with values of x approaching +:

Since the values of f(x) appear to be approaching 0.5 as x approaches 3 from
either side, we estimate that the limit is 0.5.

Estimating Limits Geometrically

To analyze a limit of the form

lim f(x) or lim f(x) geometrically:

xa x

Draw the graph of f(x)

If you want to calculate a limit as x a for a real number a, position a
pencil point on a point of the graph to the left of x = a.
Move the point along the graph toward x = a from the left and read
the y-coordinate as you go. The value the y-coordinate approaches (if
any) is then the limit
lim
f(x)
xa-
Repeat the above two steps, but this time starting from a point on the
graph to the right of x = a, and approach x = a along the graph from the
right. The value the y-coordinate approaches (if any) is then
lim
f(x)
xa+
If the left and right limits both exist and have the same value L, then
lim
f(x) exists and equals L.
xa+
If you want to calculate a limit as x +, position your
pencil point on a point near the right edge of the graph, and move the
pencil along the graph to the right, estimating the y-coordinate as you
go. The value the y-coordinate approaches (if any) is then the limit
lim
f(x)
x++
For x -, start toward the left edge, and move your pencil toward the
left.
Computing Limits Algebraically:

Limits as x a
lim
To compute a limit of the form f(x) algebraically:
xa
1. Check to see whether f is a closed form function. These are
functions specified by a single formula involving constants, powers of x,
radicals, exponentials and logarithms, combined using arithmetic
operations and composition of functions.
If a is in the domain of f, then lim(x a )f(x) = f(a).
If a is not in the domain of f, but f(x) can be reduced by
simplification to a function with a in its domain, then (a) applies to
the reduced form of the function.
If a is not in the domain of f, and the function cannot be simplified
as in (b), then simplify as much as possible, and evaluate the limit
by the numerical approach, or, if you know its graph, by the
graphical approach.

2. If f is not closed-form, and a is a point at which the definition

of f changes, compute the left limit and right limit separately, and check
whether they are the same.

Limits as x

lim
To compute a limit of the form f(x) algebraically:
x
If x is approaching , then check to see whether f(x) is a ratio of
polynomials. If it is, then you can ignore all but the highest powers of x in the
numerator and denominator. This simpler function will have the same limit as f.

Examples

1. Consider the limit

lim x2 - 9
.
x1 x-3

Notice that the function

x2 - 9
f(x) =
x-3
is closed form, and a = 1 is in its domain. Therefore, the limit is obained by
substituting x = 1:

x2 - 9 1-9
lim = =4
x-3 1-3
x 1

2. Now consider

x3 - 9
lim x-3
x3

This time, a = 3, which is not in the domain of f, and so we need to first

simplify f(x) to reduce it to a function that does have 3 in its domain:

x2 - 9 (x - 3)(x + 3)
lim = lim = lim x + 3.
x-3 x-3
x 3 x3 x 3

Now, x = 3 is in the domain of f, and so we find the limit by putting x = 3:

x2 - 9
lim = lim x + 3 = 3 + 3 = 6.
x-3
x 3 x3

3. Consider
lim x3 + x2 - 9
x+ 2x3-x-3

Here f(x) is a ratio of polynomials, so we ignore everything except the highest

power of x in the numerator and denominator:

lim x3 + x2 - 9
x+ 2x3 - x - 3 = lim x3 + x2 - 9
x+ 2x3 - x - 3
 x3
= lim
2x3
x+

=1/2