CAPITAL BUDGETING Ultratech Cements 2015

CHAPTER-I
INTRODUCTION
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INTRODUCTION
Meaning:
Capital Budgeting decisions pertaining to fixed /long term assets which by
definition refer to assets which are in operation, and yield a return, over a period of
time, usually exceeding one year. They, therefore involve a series of outlays of cash
resources in return for anticipated flow of future benefits.
Capital budgeting is the process that companies use for decision making on capital
project. The capital project lasts for longer time, usually more than one year. As the
project is usually large and has important impact on the long term success of the
business, it is crucial for the business to make the right decision.
Capital Budgeting Process
The specific capital budgeting procedures that the manager uses depend on the
manger's level in the organization and the complexities of the organization and the
size of the projects. The typical steps in the capital budgeting process are as follows:
Brainstorming. Investment ideas can come from anywhere, from the top or the
bottom of the organization, from any department or functional area, or from
outside the company. Generating good investment ideas to consider is the most
important step in the process .
Project analysis. This step involves gathering the information to forecast cash
flows for each project and then evaluating the project's profitability.
Capital budget planning. The company must organize the profitable proposals
into a coordinated whole that fits within the company's overall strategies, and
it also must consider the projects' timing. Some projects that look good when
considered in isolation may be undesirable strategically. Because of financial
and real resource issues, the scheduling and prioritizing of projects is
important.
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Performance monitoring. In a post-audit, actual results are compared to
planned or predicted results, and any differences must be explained. For
example, how do the revenues, expenses, and cash flows realized from an
investment compare to the predictions? Post-auditing capital projects is
important for several reasons. First, it helps monitor the forecasts and analysis
that underlie the capital budgeting process. Systematic errors, such as overly
optimistic forecasts, become apparent. Second, it helps improve business
operations. If sales or costs are out of line, it will focus attention on bringing
performance closer to expectations if at all possible. Finally, monitoring and
post-auditing recent capital investments will produce concrete ideas for future
investments. Managers can decide to invest more heavily in profitable areas
and scale down or cancel investments in areas that are disappointing.
Complexity Of Capital Budgeting Process
The budgeting process needs the involvement of different departments in the

business. Planning for capital investments can be very complex, often involving
many persons inside and outside of the company. Information about marketing,
science, engineering, regulation, taxation, finance, production, and behavioral issues
must be systematically gathered and evaluated.
The authority to make capital decisions depends on the size and complexity of the
project. Lower-level managers may have discretion to make decisions that involve
less than a given amount of money, or that do not exceed a given capital budget.
Larger and more complex decisions are reserved for top management, and some are
so significant that the company's board of directors ultimately has the decision-
making authority. Like everything else, capital budgeting is a cost-benefit exercise. At
the margin, the benefits from the improved decision making should exceed the costs
of the capital budgeting efforts.
Importance:
Capital budgeting also has a bearing on the competitive position of the
enterprise mainly because of the fact that they relate to fixed asset. The fixed asset
represents a true earning asset of the firm. They enable the firm to generate finished
goods that can be ultimately being sold for profits. The Capital Expenditure decision
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has its effects over a long time span and inevitable affects the companys future cost
structure.
The Capital investment decision once made are not easily reversible without
much financial loss to the firm because their may be no market for second-of hand
plant and equipment and their conversion to other uses may most financially viable.
Capital investment involves cost and the majority of the firms have search
capital resources.
A common problem that corporations face on an annual basis is creating the capital
budget for the next fiscal year. The creation of the capital budget for a company is an
annual rite that often does not receive the scrutiny that it merits. Too often, the task of
evaluating competing budget items comes down to a simple comparison of the IRRs
(internal rates of return) for competing projects and a selection of those projects with
the highest returns.
When companies do not spend as much time trying to quantify projects, the decision
often comes down to strategic decision making on the part of the CEO or executive
team. This strategy is often a gut feel from the executive team.
By institutionalizing a hierarchical decision making process, the company would be
forced to think about what are the priorities of the company and to evaluate each
alternative vis-a-vis all other projects.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY:
The efficient allocation of capital is the most important financial function

in the modern times. It involves decision to commit the firms, since they stand the
long- term assets such decision are of considerable importance to the firm since
they send to determine its value and size by influencing its growth, probability and
growth.
The scope of the study is limited to collecting the financial data of Ultra Tech
Cements Limited for four years and budgeted figures of each year.
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NEED AND IMPORTANCE:
Capital Budgeting means planning for capital assets. Capital Budgeting decisions
are vital to an organization as to include the decision as to:
Whether or not funds should be invested in long term projects such as

settings of an industry, purchase of plant and machinery etc.,
Analyze the proposals for expansion or creating additions capacities.
To decide the replacement of permanent assets such as building and
equipments.
To make financial analysis of various proposals regarding capital
investment so as to choose the best out of many alternative proposals.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:

The study on capital budgeting in Ultra Tech Cements Limited A case
study is based on the following objectives.
1. To evaluate the capital budgeting practices relating to various projects of

Ultra Tech Cements Limited Hyderabad
2. To Asses the long term requirements of funds and plan for application of
internal resources and debt servicing.
3. To Assess the effectiveness of long term investment decisions of Ultra Tech
Cements Limited
4. To offer conclusion derived from the study and give suitable suggestions for
the efficient utilization of capital expenditure decisions.
METHODOLOGY:
At each point of time a business firm has a number of proposals regarding various
projects in which, it can invest funds. But the funds available with the firm are always
limited and are not possible to invest trend in the entire proposal at a time. Hence it is
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very essential to select from amongst the various competing proposals, those that
gives the highest benefits. The crux of capital budgeting is the allocation of available
resources to various proposals. There are many considerations, economic as well as
non-economic, which influence the capital budgeting decision in the profitability of
the prospective investment.
Yet the right involved in the proposals cannot be ignored, profitability and risk are
directly related, i.e. higher profitability the greater the risk and vice versa there are
several methods for evaluating and ranking the capital investment proposals.
.
LIMITAIONS OF THE STUDY:
1. The study is limited to Ultra Tech Cements Limited only.
2. The study is limited to certain projects of Ultra Tech Cements Limited.
3. Period of the study is restricted to five years only.
4. The present study cannot be used for inter firm comparison.
5. Limited span of time is a major limitation for this project.
6. The act and figures of the study is limited to the period of FIVE years i.e.
2011-2015.
7. The data used in reports are taken from the annual reports, published at the
end of the years.
8. The result does not reflect the day-to-day transactions.
9. It is also impossible to the study of day-to-day transactions in cash
management.
10. The analysis of the capital is taken FIVE years.
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CHAPTER-II
INDUSTRY PROFILE
&
COMPANY PROFILE
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Cement industry in India
Introduction
India is the second largest producer of cement in the world. No wonder, India's
cement industry is a vital part of its economy, providing employment to more than a
million people, directly or indirectly. Ever since it was deregulated in 1982, the Indian
cement industry has attracted huge investments, both from Indian as well as foreign
investors.
India has a lot of potential for development in the infrastructure and construction
sector and the cement sector is expected to largely benefit from it. Some of the recent
major government initiatives such as development of 98 smart cities are expected to
provide a major boost to the sector.
Expecting such developments in the country and aided by suitable government
foreign policies, several foreign players such as Lafarge-Holcim, HeidelbergCement,
and Vicat have invested in the country in the recent past. A significant factor which
aids the growth of this sector is the ready availability of the raw materials for making
cement, such as limestone and coal.
Market Size
India's cement demand is expected to reach 550-600 million tonnes per annum
(MTPA) by 2025. The housing sector is the biggest demand driver of cement,
accounting for about 67 per cent of the total consumption in India. The other major
consumers of cement include infrastructure at 13 per cent, commercial construction at
11 per cent and industrial construction at nine per cent.
To meet the rise in demand, cement companies are expected to add 56 million tonnes
(MT) capacity over the next three years. The cement capacity in India may register a
growth of eight per cent by next year end to 395 MT from the current level of 366
MT. It may increase further to 421 MT by the end of 2017. The country's per capita
consumption stands at around 190 kg.
The Indian cement industry is dominated by a few companies. The top 20 cement
companies account for almost 70 per cent of the total cement production of the
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country. A total of 188 large cement plants together account for 97 per cent of the total
installed capacity in the country, with 365 small plants account for the rest. Of these
large cement plants, 77 are located in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Tamil Nadu.
Investments
On the back of growing demand, due to increased construction and infrastructural
activities, the cement sector in India has seen many investments and developments in
recent times.
According to data released by the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion
(DIPP), cement and gypsum products attracted foreign direct investment (FDI) worth
US$ 3,099.80 million between April 2000 and June 2015.
Some of the major investments in Indian cement industry are as follows:
Birla Corporation Ltd, a part of the MP Birla Group, has agreed to acquire two
cement assets of Lafarge India for an enterprise value of Rs 5,000 crore (US$
750.93 million).
Dalmia Cement (Bharat) Ltd has invested around Rs 2,000 crore (US$ 300.4
million) in expanding its business in North East over the past two years. The
company currently has three manufacturing plants in the region one in
Meghalaya and two in Assam.
JSW Group plans to expand its cement production capacity to 30 MTPA from
5 MTPA by setting up grinding units closer to its steel plants.
UltraTech Cement Ltd has charted out its next phase of Greenfield expansion
after a period of aggressive acquisitions over the last two years. UltraTech has
plans to set up two Greenfield grinding units in Bihar and West Bengal.
UltraTech Cement Ltd bought two cement plants and related power assets of
Jaiprakash Associates Ltd in Madhya Pradesh for Rs 5,400 crore (US$ 811.0
million).
JSW Cement Ltd has planned to set up a 3 MTPA clinkerisation plant at

Chittapur in Karnataka at an estimated cost of Rs 2,500 crore (US$ 375.5
million).
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Andhra Cements Ltd has commenced the commercial production in the
company's cement plants Durga Cement Works at Dachepalli, Guntur and
Visakha Cement Works at Visakhapatnam.
Government Initiatives
In the 12th Five Year Plan, the Government of India plans to increase investment in
infrastructure to the tune of US$ 1 trillion and increase the industry's capacity to 150
MT.
The Cement Corporation of India (CCI) was incorporated by the Government of India
in 1965 to achieve self-sufficiency in cement production in the country. Currently,
CCI has 10 units spread over eight states in India.
In order to help the private sector companies thrive in the industry, the government
has been approving their investment schemes. Some such initiatives by the
government in the recent past are as follows:
The Government of Tamil Nadu has launched low priced cement branded
'Amma' Cement. The sale of the cement started in Tiruchi at Rs 190 (US$
2.85) a bag through the Tamil Nadu Civil Supplies Corporation (TNCSC).
Sales commenced in five godowns of the TNCSC and will be rolled out in
stages with the low priced cement available across the state from 470 outlets.
The Government of Kerala has accorded sanction to Malabar Cements Ltd to

set up a bulk cement handling unit at Kochi Port at an investment of Rs 160
crore (US$ 24.0 million).
The Andhra Pradesh State Investment Promotion Board (SIPB) has approved
proposals worth Rs 9,200 crore (US$ 1.38 billion) including three cement
plants and concessions to Hero MotoCorp project. The total capacity of these
three cement plants is likely to be about 12 MTPA and the plants are expected
to generate employment for nearly 4,000 people directly and a few thousands
more indirectly.
India has joined hands with Switzerland to reduce energy consumption and
develop newer methods in the country for more efficient cement production,
which will help India meet its rising demand for cement in the infrastructure
sector.
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The Government of India has decided to adopt cement instead of bitumen for
the construction of all new road projects on the grounds that cement is more
durable and cheaper to maintain than bitumen in the long run.
Road Ahead
The eastern states of India are likely to be the newer and virgin markets for cement
companies and could contribute to their bottom line in future. In the next 10 years,
India could become the main exporter of clinker and gray cement to the Middle East,
Africa, and other developing nations of the world. Cement plants near the ports, for
instance the plants in Gujarat and Visakhapatnam, will have an added advantage for
exports and will logistically be well armed to face stiff competition from cement
plants in the interior of the country.
A large number of foreign players are also expected to enter the cement sector, owing
to the profit margins and steady demand. In future, domestic cement companies could
go for global listings either through the FCCB route or the GDR route.
With help from the government in terms of friendlier laws, lower taxation, and
increased infrastructure spending, the sector will grow and take Indias economy
forward along with it.
Recent trends
The cement sector is hoping for a revival this financial year. After a gap of four years,
the industry is optimistic on demand and capacity utilization increasing.
The first half of FY15 nurtured hopes of better growth but the second half was shot by
a slowdown, especially in the quarter ending in March because of the government
cutting expenditure.
Despite the slowdown, sector insiders and analysts are hopeful of increase in
production by at least seven to 7.5 per cent in the current financial year.
Credit rating firm Icra said all-India cement production increased only 1.8 per cent in
the period between October, 2014 and March, 2015. In the April-September, 2014
period it grew by 9.7 per cent.
The pre-election spending and a delayed monsoon had led to a spurt in growth of
demand for cement in the first half of FY15 but it slowed down after the elections got
over.
In the final quarter of FY15, government spending was cut, demand from the real
estate and construction sectors was mute and income from agriculture decreased
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because kharif production saw a decline in due to poor monsoon. All of this affected
demand for cement. The trend, however, is expected to reverse.
Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy Private Limited said: This trend in cement
demand is likely to reverse during FY16 on account of higher government spending
on infrastructure as announced in the Union Budget. This is likely to boost the
demand for cement from real estate and infrastructure sectors. Therefore, we expect
the growth in cement output to accelerate to nine per cent during the year. A total of
289.4 million tonnes of cement is likely to be manufactured during the year.
In the following year, the output is likely to grow by 8.1 per cent backed by a
sustained healthy growth in demand.
Cement players and a few analysts are, however, sceptical.
The growth of infrastructure is directly related to the GDP (gross domestic product)
growth. The realistic prediction for GDP growth is in the range of six to 6.5 per cent
for the current fiscal. And going by that estimate, cement demand would rise by seven
to 7.5 per cent, or touch eight per cent at the most, said Yashwant Mishra, president
(corporate), Mangalam Cement.
Ravi Sodah, an analyst with Elara Capital, too, feels the same. Around seven per cent
consumption growth is expected this fiscal. The production in FY15 was around 270
million tonnes (mt), he said.
Sodah also said while there is no official data on consumption, it is usually in tandem
with production growth as production is monitored in accordance with demand.
According to Icra, all-India cement production grew by 5.6 per cent in FY15 as
compared to three per cent in FY14.
According to Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) analysis, the real estate
sector alone is likely to see project completions worth Rs 20-lakh crore during 2015-
17. It also expects activity to pick-up in the roads and highways construction space
during the same period. About 8,314 km of roads are expected to be built during
2015-16. In the subsequent year, infrastructure companies are expected to construct
8,624 kms of road. This is much more than 3,400-4,500 km of road network added in
each of the preceding five years, it stated.
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While the above factors are likely to boost cement consumption, Icra highlights the
industry has seen a slowdown in addition of new capacities due to supply glut faced in
recent times.
For instance, between FY11-FY15, the industry added 92 mt per annum (mtpa)
cement capacities as against 122 mtpa in the preceding four-year period FY07-FY11.
However, slowdown in demand (cement production grew six per cent during FY11-
FY15 as against 7.6 per cent during FY07-FY11) resulted in decline in capacity
utilisation from 77 per cent in FY12 to 72 per cent in FY14 despite slowdown in fresh
capacity addition.
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In the most general sense of the word, a cement is a binder, a substance which sets
and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. The word "cement"
traces to the Romans, who used the term "opus caementicium" to describe masonry
which resembled concrete and was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder.
The volcanic ash and pulverized brick additives which were added to the burnt lime to
obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cment and
cement. Cements used in construction are characterized as hydraulic or non-
hydraulic.
The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and concretethe
bonding of natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong building material which is
durable in the face of normal environmental effects.
Concrete should not be confused with cement because the term cement refers only to
the dry powder substance used to bind the aggregate materials of concrete. Upon the
addition of water and/or additives the cement mixture is referred to as concrete,
especially if aggregates have been added.
It is uncertain where it was first discovered that a combination of hydrated non-
hydraulic lime and a pozzolan produces a hydraulic mixture (see also: Pozzolanic
reaction), but concrete made from such mixtures was first used on a large scale by
Roman engineers.They used both natural pozzolans (trass or pumice) and artificial
pozzolans (ground brick or pottery) in these concretes. Many excellent examples of
structures made from these concretes are still standing, notably the huge monolithic
dome of the Pantheon in Rome and the massive Baths of Caracalla. The vast system
of Roman aqueducts also made extensive use of hydraulic cement. The use of
structural concrete disappeared in medieval Europe, although weak pozzolanic
concretes continued to be used as a core fill in stone walls and columns.
Modern cement
Modern hydraulic cements began to be developed from the start of the Industrial
Revolution (around 1800), driven by three main needs:
Hydraulic renders for finishing brick buildings in wet climates
Hydraulic mortars for masonry construction of harbor works etc, in contact with sea
water.
Development of strong concretes.
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In Britain particularly, good quality building stone became ever more expensive
during a period of rapid growth, and it became a common practice to construct
prestige buildings from the new industrial bricks, and to finish them with a stucco to
imitate stone. Hydraulic limes were favored for this, but the need for a fast set time
encouraged the development of new cements. Most famous was Parker's "Roman
cement." This was developed by James Parker in the 1780s, and finally patented in
1796. It was, in fact, nothing like any material used by the Romans, but was a
"Natural cement" made by burning septaria - nodules that are found in certain clay
deposits, and that contain both clay minerals and calcium carbonate. The burnt
nodules were ground to a fine powder. This product, made into a mortar with sand, set
in 515 minutes. The success of "Roman Cement" led other manufacturers to develop
rival products by burning artificial mixtures of clay and chalk.
John Smeaton made an important contribution to the development of cements when
he was planning the construction of the third Eddystone Lighthouse (1755-9) in the
English Channel. He needed a hydraulic mortar that would set and develop some
strength in the twelve hour period between successive high tides. He performed an
exhaustive market research on the available hydraulic limes, visiting their production
sites, and noted that the "hydraulicity" of the lime was directly related to the clay
content of the limestone from which it was made. Smeaton was a civil engineer by
profession, and took the idea no further. Apparently unaware of Smeaton's work, the
same principle was identified by Louis Vicat in the first decade of the nineteenth
century. Vicat went on to devise a method of combining chalk and clay into an
intimate mixture, and, burning this, produced an "artificial cement" in 1817. James
Frost,orking in Britain, produced what he called "British cement" in a similar manner
around the same time, but did not obtain a patent until 1822. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin
patented a similar material, which he called Portland cement, because the render made
from it was in color similar to the prestigious Portland stone.
All the above products could not compete with lime/pozzolan concretes because of
fast-setting (giving insufficient time for placement) and low early strengths (requiring
a delay of many weeks before formwork could be removed). Hydraulic limes,
"natural" cements and "artificial" cements all rely upon their belite content for
strength development. Belite develops strength slowly. Because they were burned at
temperatures below 1250 C, they contained no alite, which is responsible for early
strength in modern cements. The first cement to consistently contain alite was made
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by Joseph Aspdin's son William in the early 1840s. This was what we call today
"modern" Portland cement. Because of the air of mystery with which William Aspdin
surrounded his product, others (e.g. Vicat and I C Johnson) have claimed precedence
in this invention, but recent analysis of both his concrete and raw cement have shown
that William Aspdin's product made at Northfleet, Kent was a true alite-based cement.
However, Aspdin's methods were "rule-of-thumb": Vicat is responsible for
establishing the chemical basis of these cements, and Johnson established the
importance of sintering the mix in the kiln.
William Aspdin's innovation was counter-intuitive for manufacturers of "artificial
cements", because they required more lime in the mix (a problem for his father),
because they required a much higher kiln temperature (and therefore more fuel) and
because the resulting clinker was very hard and rapidly wore down the millstones
which were the only available grinding technology of the time. Manufacturing costs
were therefore considerably higher, but the product set reasonably slowly and
developed strength quickly, thus opening up a market for use in concrete. The use of
concrete in construction grew rapidly from 1850 onwards, and was soon the dominant
use for cements. Thus Portland cement began its predominant role. it is made from
water and sand
Types of modern cement

Portland cement
Cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate), with small quantities of
other materials (such as clay) to 1450C in a kiln, in a process known as calcination,
whereby a molecule of carbon dioxide is liberated from the calcium carbonate to form
calcium oxide, or lime, which is then blended with the other materials that have been
included in the mix . The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with
a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland Cement', the
most commonly used type of cement (often referred to as OPC).
Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-speciality
grout. The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete.
Concrete is a composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement,
and water. As a construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape
desired, and once hardened, can become a structural (load bearing) element. Portland
cement may be gray or white.
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Portland cement blends
These are often available as inter-ground mixtures from cement manufacturers, but
similar formulations are often also mixed from the ground components at the concrete
mixing plant.
Portland blastfurnace cement contains up to 70% ground granulated blast furnace
slag, with the rest Portland clinker and a little gypsum. All compositions produce high
ultimate strength, but as slag content is increased, early strength is reduced, while
sulfate resistance increases and heat evolution diminishes. Used as an economic
alternative to Portland sulfate-resisting and low-heat cements.
Portland flyash cement contains up to 30% fly ash. The fly ash is pozzolanic, so that
ultimate strength is maintained. Because fly ash addition allows a lower concrete
water content, early strength can also be maintained. Where good quality cheap fly
ash is available, this can be an economic alternative to ordinary Portland cement.
Portland pozzolan cement includes fly ash cement, since fly ash is a pozzolan, but
also includes cements made from other natural or artificial pozzolans. In countries
where volcanic ashes are available (e.g. Italy, Chile, Mexico, the Philippines) these
cements are often the most common form in use.
Portland silica fume cement. Addition of silica fume can yield exceptionally high
strengths, and cements containing 5-20% silica fume are occasionally produced.
However, silica fume is more usually added to Portland cement at the concrete mixer.
Masonry cements are used for preparing bricklaying mortars and stuccos, and must
not be used in concrete. They are usually complex proprietary formulations containing
Portland clinker and a number of other ingredients that may include limestone,
hydrated lime, air entrainers, retarders, waterproofers and coloring agents. They are
formulated to yield workable mortars that allow rapid and consistent masonry work.
Subtle variations of Masonry cement in the US are Plastic Cements and Stucco
Cements. These are designed to produce controlled bond with masonry blocks.
Expansive cements contain, in addition to Portland clinker, expansive clinkers
(usually sulfoaluminate clinkers), and are designed to offset the effects of drying
shrinkage that is normally encountered with hydraulic cements. This allows large
floor slabs (up to 60 m square) to be prepared without contraction joints.
White blended cements may be made using white clinker and white supplementary
materials such as high-purity metakaolin.
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Colored cements are used for decorative purposes. In some standards, the addition of
pigments to produce "colored Portland cement" is allowed. In other standards (e.g.
ASTM), pigments are not allowed constituents of Portland cement, and colored
cements are sold as "blended hydraulic cements".
Very finely ground cements are made from mixtures of cement with sand or with
slag or other pozzolan type minerals which are extremely finely ground together. Such
cements can have the same physical characteristics as normal cement but with 50%
less cement particularly due to their increased surface area for the chemical reaction.
Even with intensive grinding they can use up to 50% less energy to fabricate than
ordinary Portland cements.
Non-Portland hydraulic cements
Pozzolan-lime cements. Mixtures of ground pozzolan and lime are the cements used
by the Romans, and are to be found in Roman structures still standing (e.g. the
Pantheon in Rome). They develop strength slowly, but their ultimate strength can be
very high. The hydration products that produce strength are essentially the same as
those produced by Portland cement.
Slag-lime cements. Ground granulated blast furnace slag is not hydraulic on its own,
but is "activated" by addition of alkalis, most economically using lime. They are
similar to pozzolan lime cements in their properties. Only granulated slag (i.e. water-
quenched, glassy slag) is effective as a cement component.
Supersulfated cements. These contain about 80% ground granulated blast furnace
slag, 15% gypsum or anhydrite and a little Portland clinker or lime as an activator.
They produce strength by formation of ettringite, with strength growth similar to a
slow Portland cement. They exhibit good resistance to aggressive agents, including
sulfate.
Calcium aluminate cements are hydraulic cements made primarily from limestone
and bauxite. The active ingredients are monocalcium aluminate CaAl2O4 (CaO Al2O3
or CA in Cement chemist notation, CCN) and mayenite Ca12Al14O33 (12 CaO 7 Al2O3
, or C12A7 in CCN). Strength forms by hydration to calcium aluminate hydrates. They
are well-adapted for use in refractory (high-temperature resistant) concretes, e.g. for
furnace linings.
Calcium sulfoaluminate cements are made from clinkers that include ye'elimite
(Ca4(AlO2)6SO4 or C4A3 in Cement chemist's notation) as a primary phase. They are
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used in expansive cements, in ultra-high early strength cements, and in "low-energy"
cements. Hydration produces ettringite, and specialized physical properties (such as
expansion or rapid reaction) are obtained by adjustment of the availability of calcium
and sulfate ions. Their use as a low-energy alternative to Portland cement has been
pioneered in China, where several million tonnes per year are produced. Energy
requirements are lower because of the lower kiln temperatures required for reaction,
and the lower amount of limestone (which must be endothermically decarbonated) in
the mix. In addition, the lower limestone content and lower fuel consumption leads to
a CO2 emission around half that associated with Portland clinker. However, SO2
emissions are usually significantly higher.
"Natural" Cements correspond to certain cements of the pre-Portland era, produced
by burning argillaceous limestones at moderate temperatures. The level of clay
components in the limestone (around 30-35%) is such that large amounts of belite (the
low-early strength, high-late strength mineral in Portland cement) are formed without
the formation of excessive amounts of free lime. As with any natural material, such
cements have highly variable properties.
Geopolymer cements are made from mixtures of water-soluble alkali metal silicates
and aluminosilicate mineral powders such as fly ash and metakaolin.
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COMPANY PROFILE
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OVERVIEW
UltraTech Cement Ltd. is the largest manufacturer of grey cement, Ready Mix
Concrete (RMC) and white cement in India. It is also one of the leading cement
producers globally. UltraTech as a brand embodies 'strength', 'reliability' and
'innovation'. Together, these attributes inspire engineers to stretch the limits of their
imagination to create homes, buildings and structures that define the new India.
The company has an installed capacity of 66 Million Tonnes Per Annum (MTPA) of
grey cement. UltraTech Cement has 12 integrated plants, 1 clinkerisation plant, 17
grinding units and 7 bulk terminals. Its operations span across India, UAE, Bahrain,
Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. UltraTech Cement is also India's largest exporter of
cement reaching out to meet the demand in countries around the Indian Ocean and the
Middle East.
In the white cement segment, UltraTech goes to market under the brand name of Birla
White. It has a white cement plant with a capacity of 0.56 MTPA and 2 WallCare
putty plants with a combined capacity of 0.8 MTPA.
With 101 Ready Mix Concrete (RMC) plants in 35 cities, UltraTech is the largest
manufacturer of concrete in India. It also has a slew of speciality concretes that meet
specific needs of discerning customers.
Our Building Products business is an innovation hub that offers an array of
scientifically engineered products to cater to new-age constructions. Aerated
Autoclaved Concrete (AAC) blocks are economical, light-weight blocks ideal for
high-rise buildings, while Dry Mix Products include waterproofing, grouting and
plastering solutions designed for faster completion of projects. The retail format of
UltraTech Building Solutions offers a wide range of construction products to the end
customers under one roof.
With a significant presence in the grey and white cement, concrete and building
products segments as well as providing 360 degree building solutions, UltraTech is
the one-stop shop for every primary construction need. Its meteoric rise as Indias
21
largest cement brand reflects on the organisation's focus on cutting edge technology,
research and technical services.
UltraTech Cement provides a range of products that cater to the various aspects of
construction, from foundation to finish. These include:
Ordinary Portland Cement, Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement and Portland
Pozzalana Cement under grey cement
White cement, WallCare putty and white cement based products under Birla
White
Ready Mix Concrete and a range of specialty concretes with specific

functional properties under UltraTech Concrete
AAC blocks, waterproofing solutions, grouting solutions and plastering

solutions under UltraTech Building Products
UltraTechs subsidiaries are Dakshin Cements Limited, Harish Cement Limited,

Gotan Limestone Khauj Udyog Private Limited, Bhagwati Limestone Company
Private Limited, UltraTech Cement Lanka (Pvt.) (Ltd.), UltraTech Cement Middle
East Investments Limited, PT UltraTech Mining Indonesia and PT UltraTech
Investments Indonesia.
UltraTechs parent company, the Aditya Birla Group, is in the league of Fortune 500
companies. It employs a diverse workforce comprising of 120,000 employees,
belonging to 42 different nationalities across 36 countries. The Group has been ranked
number 4 in the global 'Top Companies for Leaders' survey and ranked number 1 in
Asia Pacific for 2011. 'Top Companies for Leaders' is the most comprehensive study
of organisational leadership in the world conducted by Aon Hewitt, Fortune Magazine
and RBL (a strategic HR and Leadership Advisory firm). The Group has topped the
Nielsen's Corporate Image Monitor three years in a row -- 2012-13, 2013-14 and
2014-15 as the number 1 corporate, the 'Best in Class'.
BUSINESSES
22
UltraTech Cement Limited is the largest cement company in India and among the
leading producers of cement globally. It is also the countrys largest manufacturer of
white cement and Ready Mix Concrete.
UltraTech provides a range of products that cater to the various aspects of
construction, from foundation to finish. This includes Ordinary Portland Cement,
Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement, Portland Pozzalana Cement, White Cement,
Ready Mix Concrete, building products and a host of other building solutions. Cement
is sold under the brands UltraTech, UltraTech Premium and Birla Super. White
cement is manufactured under the brand name of Birla White, ready mix concretes
under the name of UltraTech Concrete and new age building products under the
names of Xtralite, Fixoblock, Seal & Dry and Readiplast. UltraTech Building
Solutions is a retail format that caters to the end consumer providing a variety of
primary construction materials under one roof.
UltraTech Cement has 12 integrated plants, 1 clinkerisation unit, 17 grinding units, 7
bulk terminals, 1 white cement plant, 2 WallCare putty plants and 101 RMC plants
spanning India, UAE, Bahrain, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. UltraTech Cement is also
India's largest exporter of cement and clinker reaching out to meet demand in
countries around the Indian Ocean, Africa, Europe and the Middle East.
The company's subsidiaries are Dakshin Cements Limited, Harish Cements Limited,
UltraTech Cement Lanka (Pvt.) Ltd and UltraTech Cement Middle East Investments
Limited.
BRAND ULTRATECH
UltraTechs modern-day journey began when the Aditya Birla group acquired a
sizeable cement business from L&T, with a large pan-India presence, back in 2004.
Today, it is a clear industry leader in its segment, offering expert services and
solutions for all kinds of construction needs. The ubiquitous Yellow Helmet has
become synonymous with the brand and its expert status.
Durability has always been the brands core promise. Through its current
communication, UltraTech also exhorts the nations engineers and architects to Build
Beautiful. Based on the belief that every structure needs to be as aesthetic as it is
long-lasting, the Build Beautiful campaign urges its audience to create structures that
go beyond being just strong and durable.
23
ltraTech Cement is led by a dynamic team of individuals who have played a defining
role in the growth of the organization over the years. Their vast experience has given
them unique insights into the needs of our various stakeholders. These insights fuel
our strategic directions and have enabled UltraTech Cement to become the leading
manufacturer of cement in India and one of the leading cement producers globally.
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Mr. Kumar Mangalam Birla

Chairman, UltraTech Cement Limited.
Mr. Kumar Mangalam Birla is the Chairman of UltraTech Cement. He is at the helm
of the US$40 billion multinational Aditya Birla Group, which operates in 36 countries
across six continents. Over 53 per cent of its revenues flow from its operations outside
India.
Mrs. Rajashree Birla
- Non-Executive Director
Mr. Arun Adhikari
- Independent Director
Mr. R. C. Bhargava
Mr. G. M. Dave
Mr. Rajiv Dube
Mrs. Sukanya Kripalu
Mr. S.B. Mathur
Mrs. Renuka Ramnath
Mr. D. D. Rathi
24
Mr. O. P. Puranmalka
- Managing Director
Mr. Dilip Gaur
- Deputy Managing Director
LOGISTICS
Over the years, UltraTech has achieved market leadership by providing benchmark
services to customers by adopting customer oriented processes at every stage, right
from planning to delivery.
Through a robust logistics network of 30 plants, 500 plus warehouses and 150 plus
railheads, UltraTech serves 14000 orders per day by using a mix of various logistics
modes including rail, road and sea. These orders originate from 50000 plus dealers,
retailers and institutional customers with lot size varying from of 1 MT to 40 MT. The
key to managing such scale and complexity is the use of robust processes for
planning, distribution, network design, order execution, visibility and optimal
resource utilization.
UltraTech has been one of the leaders in the Indian Cement Industry in using
technology to provide real time visibility across all stake holders. From our channel
partners (dealers, institutional customers), service partners (handling and transporting
agents, railways) and even internal functional teams, this visibility enables optimal
business decisions on a daily basis.
With an eye on the future, UltraTech has implemented an RFID based Vehicle
Movement System at one of its plants to monitor real-time, in-plant movement of
vehicles, improve overall safety inside the plant and reduce the overall time taken
within the plant for road loading.
UltraTech is India's largest exporter of cement spanning export markets in countries

across the Indian Ocean and the Middle East. UltraTech and its subsidiaries have a
25
presence in 5 countries through 12 composite plants, 1 white cement plant, 1
WallCare putty plant, 1 clinkerisation plant in the UAE, 17 grinding units (13 in India,
2 in UAE and 1 each in Bahrain and Bangladesh) and 6 bulk terminals (5 in India and
1 in Sri Lanka) and 101 RMC plants. Most of the plants have ISO 9001, ISO 14001
and OHSAS 18001 certification. In addition, two plants have received ISO 27001
certification and four have received SA 8000 certification.
UltraTech's products include Ordinary Portland cement, Portland Pozzolana cement
and Portland blast-furnace slag cement.
UltraTech cement is the ultimate 360 building materials destination, providing an
array of products ranging from grey cement to white cement, from building products
to building solutions and an assortment of ready mix concretes catering to the varied
needs and applications.
Plants
UltraTechs presence along with its subsidiaries is recorded at 12 composite plants,

one white cement plant, two wall care putty plants, one clinkerisation plant in UAE,
16 grinding units; 12 in India, 2 in UAE, 1 in Bahrain and Bangladesh each, 6 bulk
terminals; 5 in India and 1 in Sri Lanka and 101 concrete plants as per the company
website. These facilities gradually came up over the years, as indicated below:
2011 :: UltraTech Cement Middle East Investments Limited, a wholly owned

subsidiary of the Company has acquired management control of ETA Star Cement
together with its operations in the UAE, Bahrain and Bangladesh
The cement business of Grasim demerged and vested in Samruddhi Cement

Limited in May, 2010. Subsequently, Samruddhi Cement Limited
amalgamated with UltraTech Cement Limited in July 2010.
2006 :: Narmada Cement Company Limited amalgamated with UltraTech

pursuant to a Scheme of Amalgamation being approved by the Board for
Industrial & Financial Reconstruction (BIFR) in terms of the provision of Sick
Industrial Companies Act (Special Provisions)
26
2004 :: Completion of the implementation process to demerge the cement
business of L&T and completion of open offer by Grasim, with the latter
acquiring controlling stake in the newly formed company UltraTech
2003 :: The board of Larsen & Toubro Ltd (L&T) decides to demerge its cement
business into a separate cement company (CemCo). Grasim decides to acquire an
8.5 per cent equity stake from L&T and then make an open offer for 30 per cent of
the equity of CemCo, to acquire management control of the company.
2002 :: The Grasim Board approves an open offer for purchase of up to 20 per
cent of the equity shares of Larsen & Toubro Ltd (L&T), in accordance with the
provisions and guidelines issued as per Securities & Exchange Board of
India (SEBI) Regulations, 1997.
Grasim increases its stake in L&T to 14.15 per cent

Arakkonam grinding unit
2001 :: Grasim acquires 10 per cent stake in L&T. Subsequently increases

stake to 15.3 per cent by October 2002
Durgapur grinding unit
1998-2000 :: Bulk cement terminals at Mangalore, Navi Mumbai and

Colombo
1999 :: Narmada Cement Company Limited acquired
Ratnagiri Cement Works
1998 :: Gujarat Cement Works Plant II
Andhra Pradesh Cement Works
1996 :: Gujarat Cement Works Plant I
1994 :: Hirmi Cement Works
1993 :: Jharsuguda grinding unit
1987 :: Awarpur Cement Works Plant II
1983 :: Awarpur Cement Works Plant I
27
CHAPTER-III
LITERATURE REVIEW
28
Capital budgeting is the process of determining whether a big expenditure is in a
company's best interest. Here are the basics of capital budgeting and how it works.
Capital Budgeting Basics
A company undertakes capital budgeting in order to make the best decisions about
utilizing its limited capital. For example, if you are considering opening a distribution
center or investing in the development of a new product, capital budgeting will be
essential. It will help you decide if the proposed project or investment is actually
worth it in the long run.
Identify Potential Opportunities
The first step in the capital budgeting process is to identify the opportunities that you
have. Many times, there is more than one available path that your company could
take. You have to identify which projects you want to investigate further and which
ones do not make any sense for your company. If you overlook a viable option, it
could end up costing you quite a bit of money in the long term.
Evaluate Opportunities
Once you have identified the reasonable opportunities, you need to determine which
ones are the best. Look at them in relation to your overall business strategy and
29
mission. See which opportunities are actually realistic at the present time and which
ones should be put off for later.
Cash Flow
Next, you need to determine how much cash flow it would take to implement a given
project. You also need to estimate how much cash would be brought in by such a
project. This process is truly one of estimating--it takes a bit of guesswork. You need
to try to be as realistic as you can in this process. Do not use the best-case scenario for
your numbers. Most of the time, you need to use a fraction of that number to be
realistic. If the project takes off and the best-case scenario is reached, that is great.
However, the odds of that happening are not the best on new projects.
Factors Affecting Capital Budgeting:

While making capital budgeting investment decision the following factors or
aspects should be considered.
The amount of investment

Minimum rate of return on investment (k)
Return expected from the investments. (R)
Ranking of the investment proposals and
Based on profitability the raking is evaluated I.e., expected rate of return on
investment.
Factors Influencing Capital Budgeting Decisions:

There are many factors, financial as well as non-financial, which influence
that Budget decisions. The crucial factor that influences the capital expenditure
decisions is the profitability of the proposal. There are other factors, which have to be
in considerations such as.
1. Urgency:
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Sometimes an investment is to be made due to urgency for the survival of the
firm or to avoid heavy losses. In such circumstances, the proper evaluation of the
proposal cannot be made through profitability tests. The examples of such urgency are
breakdown of some plant and machinery, fire accident etc.
2. Degree of Certainty:
Profitability directly related to risk, higher the profits, Greater is the risk or
uncertainty. Sometimes, a project with some lower profitability may be selected due
to constant flow of income.
3. Intangible Factors:
some times a capital expenditure has to be made due to certain emotional and
intangible factors such as safety and welfare of workers, prestigious project, social
welfare, goodwill of the firm, etc.,
4. Legal Factors.
Any investment, which is required by the provisions of the law, is solely
influenced by this factor and although the project may not be profitable yet the
investment has to be made.
5. Availability of Funds.
As the capital expenditure generally requires large funds, the availability of
funds is an important factor that influences the capital budgeting decisions. A project,
how so ever profitable, may not be taken for want of funds and a project with a lesser
profitability may be some times preferred due to lesser pay-back period for want of
liquidity.
6. Future Earnings
A project may not be profitable as compared to another today but it may
promise better future earnings. In such cases it may be preferred to increase earnings.
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7. Obsolescence.
There are certain projects, which have greater risk of obsolescence than others.
In case of projects with high rate of obsolescence, the project with a lesser payback
period may be preferred other than one this may have higher profitability but still
longer pay-back period.
8. Research and Development Projects.

It is necessary for the long-term survival of the business to invest in research
and development project though it may not look to be profitable investment.
9. Cost Consideration.
Cost of the capital project, cost of production, opportunity cost of capital, etc.
Are other considerations involved in the capital budgeting decisions?
RISK AND UNCERTANITY IN CAPITAL BUDGETING

All the techniques of capital budgeting require the estimation of future cash
inflows and cash outflows. The future cash inflows are estimated based on the
following factors.
1. Expected economic life of the project.

2. Salvage value of the assets at the end of economic life.
3. Capacity of the project.
4. Selling price of the product.
5. Production cost.
6. Depreciation rate.
7. Rate of Taxation
8. Future demand of product, etc.
But due to the uncertainties about the future, the estimates of demand,
production, sales, selling prices, etc. cannot be exact. For example, a product may
become obsolete much earlier than anticipated due to unexpected technological
developments. All these elements of uncertainty have to be take in to account in
32
the form of forcible risk while taking on investment decision. But some
allowances for the elements of the risk have to provide.
The following methods are suggested for accounting for risk in capital
Budgeting.
1. Risk-Adjusted cut off rate or method of varying discount rate:

The simple method of accounting for risk in capital Budgeting is to increase
the cut-off rate or the discount factor by certain percentage on account of risk.
The projects which are more risky and which have greater variability in
expected returns should be discounted at a higher rate as compared to the
projects which are less risky and are expected to have lesser variability in
returns.
The greatest drawback of this method is that it is not possible to

determine the premium rate appropriately and more over it is the future cash
flow, which is
uncertain and requires adjustment and not the discount rate.
Risk Adjusted Cut off Rate Decision Tree

Analysis
Certainty Equivalent Suggestions Co-Efficient of

Method Accounting risk Variation Method
In Capital Budgeting
Sensitivity Technique Standard Deviation

Method
Profitability Technique
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2. Certainty Equivalent Method:
Another simple method of accounting for risk in capital budgeting is to reduce
expected cash flows by certain amounts. It can be employed by multiplying the
expected cash in flows certain cash outflows.
3. Sensitivity Technique:
Where cash inflows are very sensitive under different circumstances, more
than one forecast of the future cash inflows may be made. These inflows may be
regards as Optimistic, Most Likely, and Pessimistic. Further cash inflows may
be discounted to find out the Net present values under these three different situations.
If the net present values under the three situations differ widely it implies that there is
a great risk in the project and the investors decision to accept or reject a project will
depend upon his risk bearing abilities.
4. Probability Technique:
A probability is the relative frequency with which an event may occur in the
future. When future estimates of cash inflows have different probabilities the expected
monetary values may be computed by multiplying cash inflow with the probability
assigned. The monetary values of the inflows may further be discounted to find out
the present vales. The project that gives higher net present vale may be accepted.
5. Standard Deviation Method:

If two projects have same cost and there net present values are also the same,
standard deviations of the expected cash inflows of the two projects may be calculated
to judge the comparative risk of the projects. The project having a higher standard
deviation is set to be more risky has compared to the other.
6. Coefficient of variation Method:

Coefficient of variation is a relative measure of dispersion. If the projects have
the same cost but different net present values, relative measure, I,e. coefficient of
variation should be computed to judge the relative position of risk involved. It can be
calculated as follows.
34
Coefficient of Variation = Standard Deviation X100
Mean
7. Decision Tree Analysis:

In modern business there are complex investment decisions which involve a
sequence of decisions over time. Such sequential decisions can be handled by plotting
decisions trees. A decision tree is a graphic representation of the relationship between
a present decision and future events, future decisions and their consequences. The
sequences of event are mapped out over time in a format resembling branches of a
tree and hence the analysis is known as decision tree analysis. The various steps
involved in a decision tree analysis are
1 Identification of the problem

2 Finding out the alternatives;
3 Exhibiting the decision tree indicating the decision points, chance events, and
other relevant date;
4 Specification of probabilities and monetary values for cash inflows;
5 Analysis of the alternatives.
Limitations of Capital Budgeting

Capital Budgeting Techniques Suffer From the Following
Limitations.
1 All the techniques of capital budgeting presume the various investment
proposals under consideration are mutually exclusive which may not
practically be true in some particular circumstances.
2. The techniques of capital budgeting require estimation of future cash inflows

and outflows. The future is always uncertain and the data collected for future
may not be exact. Obviously the results based upon wrong data may not be
good.
35
3. There are certain factors like morale of the employees, goodwill of the firm,
etc., which cannot be correctly quantified but which otherwise substantially
influence the capital decision.
4. Urgency is another limitation in the evaluation of capital investment decisions.
5. Uncertainty and risk pose the biggest limitation to the techniques of capital
budgeting.
STEPS INVOLVED IN THE CAPITAL EXPENDITURE

The various steps involved in the control of capital expenditure.
1. Preparation of capital expenditure.
2. Proper authorization of capital expenditure.
3. Recording and control of expenditure.
4. Evaluation of performance of the project.
OBJECTIVES OF CONTROL OF CAPITAL EXPENDITURE

In the following all the main objectives are on control of capital expenditure:
To make an estimate of capital expenditure and to see that the total cash outlay is with
in the financial resources of the enterprise.
1. To ensure timely cash inflows for the projects so that non-availability of cash
may not be a problem in the implementation of the project.
2. To ensure all the capital expenditure is properly sanctioned.
3. To properly co-ordinate the projects of various departments.
4. To fix priorities among various projects and ensure their follow up.
5. To compare periodically actual expenditure with the budgeted ones so as to
avoid any excess expenditure.
6. To measure the performance of the project.
7. To ensure that sufficient amount of capital expenditure is incurred to keep
pace with the rapid technological developments.
36
8. To prevent over expansion.
CAPITAL BUDGETING PROCESS

Capital Budgeting is a complex process as it involves decisions relating to the
investment of the current funds for the benefit to the achieved in future and the future
always uncertain. However, the following procedure may be adopted in the process of
capital budgeting.
Capital Budgeting Steps:
37
1. Identification of Investment Proposals:
The capital budgeting process begins with the identification of investment

proposals. The proposal or idea about potential investment opportunities may
originate from the top management or may come from the rank and file worker of
any department are from any officer of the organization. The departmental head
analyses the various proposals in the light of the corporate strategies and submits
the suitable proposals to the Capital Expenditure Planning Committee in case of
large organizations or to the officers concerned with the process of long-term
investment decisions.
2. Screening the Proposals:

The expenditure Planning Committee Screens the various proposals received
from different departments. The committee views these proposals from various
angles to ensure that these are accordance with the corporate strategies or
selection criterion of the firm and also do not lead to departmental imbalances.
3. Evaluation of Various Proposals:

The next step in the capital budgeting process is to evaluate the profitability of
proposals. There are many methods that may be used for this purpose such as Pay
Back Period methods, Rate of Return method, Net Present Value method, Internal
Rate of Return method etc. All these methods of evaluating profitability of capital
investment proposals have been discussed.
4. Fixing Priorities:
After evaluating various proposals, the unprofitable or uneconomic proposals
may be rejected straight away. But it may not be possible for the firm to invest
immediately in all the acceptable proposals due to limitation of funds. Hence it is very
essential to rank the various proposals and to establish priorities after considering
urgency, risk and profitability involved therein.
38
5. Final Approval and Preparation of Capital Expenditure Budget:
Proposals meeting the evaluation and other criteria are finally approved to be
included in the capital expenditure budget. However, proposals involving smaller
investment may be decided at the lower levels for expeditious action. The capital
expenditure budget lays down the amount of estimated expenditure to be incurred on
fixed assets during the budget period.
6. Implementing Proposal:
Preparation of capital budgeting expenditure budgeting and incorporation of a
particular proposal in the budget does not itself authorized to go ahead with the
implementation of the project. A request for the authority to spend the amount should
further to be made to the capital expenditure committee, which may like to revive the
profitability of the project in the changed circumstances.
Further, while implementing the project, it is better to assign the responsibility

for completing the project within given time frame and cost limit so as to avoid
unnecessary delays and cost over runs. Network techniques used in the project
management such as Pert and CPM can also be applied to control and monitor the
implementation of the project.
7. Performance Review.
The last stage in the process of capital budgeting is the evaluation of the
performance of the project. The evaluation is made through post completion
audit by way of comparison of actual expenditure on the project with the
budgeted one, and also by comparing the actual return from the investment
with the anticipated return. The unfavorable variances, if any should be looked
into and the causes of the same be identified so that corrective action may be
taken in future.
KINDS OF CAPITAL BUDGETING DECISIONS

The overall objectives of capital budgeting are to maximize the profitability of
a firm or the return on investment. These objectives can be achieved either by
39
increasing revenues or by reducing costs. This, capital budgeting decisions can be
broadly classified into two categories.
1. Increase revenue.
2. Reduce costs.
The first category of capital budgeting decisions is expected to increase revenue of

the firm through expansion of the production capacity or size of the firm by reducing
a new product line. The second category increases the earning of the firm by
reducing costs and includes decisions relating to replacement of obsolete, outmoded
or worn out assets. In such cases, a firm has to decide whether to continue the same
asset or replace it. The firm takes such a decision by evaluating the benefit from
replacement of the asset in the form or reduction in operating costs and the cost\ cash
needed for replacement of the asset. Both categories of above decision involve
investments in fixed assets but the basic difference between the two decisions are in
the fact that increasing revenue investment decisions are subject to more uncertainty
as compared to cost reducing investments decisions.
Further, in view of the investment proposal under consideration, capital

budgeting decisions may be classified as:
1. Accept Reject Decision:

Accept reject decisions relate independent projects do not compute with one
another. Such decisions are generally taken on the basis of minimum return on
investment. All those proposals which yields a rate of return higher than the minimum
required rate of return of capital are accepted and the rest rejected. If the proposal is
accepted the firm makes investment in it, and the rest are rejected. If the proposal is
accepted the firm makes investment in it, and if it is rejected the firm does not invest
in the same.
2. Mutually Exclusive Project Decision:

Such decisions relate to proposals which compete with one another in such
away that acceptance of one automatically excludes the acceptance of the other. Thus
40
one of the proposals is selected at the cost of the other. For ex: A company has the
option of buying a machine. Or a second hand machine, or taking on old machine hire
or selecting a machine out of more than one brand available in the market. In such a
cases the company can select one best alternative out of the various options by
adopting some suitable technique or method of capital budgeting. Once the alternative
is selected the others. are automatically rejected.
3. Capital Rationing Decision:

A firm may have several profitable investment proposals but only limited
funds and, thus, the firm has to rate them. The firm selects the combination of
proposals that will yield the greatest profitability by ranking them in descending
order of there profitability.
METHODS OF CAPITAL BUDGETING AND EVALUATION
TECHNIQUES
Traditional Methods:
i) Average Rate of Return.
ii) Pay-Back Period Method
Time Adjusted Method or Discounted Method:

i) Net Present Value Method
ii) Internal Rate of Return
iii) Net Terminal Value Method
iv) Profitability Index.
CAPITAL BUDGETING METHODS
TRADITIONAL DISCOUNTED CAHS FLOW

METHOD METHOD
41
PLAY BACK ACCOUNTING RATE
PERIOD OF RETURN
INTERNAL
RATE
OF RETURN
NET PRESENT VALUE
PROFITABILITY
INDEX
TRADITIONAL METHODS
1. Average Rate of Return:

The average rate of return (ARR) method of evaluating proposed capital
expenditure is also know as the accounting rate of return method. It is based upon
accounting information rather than cash flows. There is no unanimity recording the
definition of the rate of return.
ARR = Average annual profits after taxes ____ X 100

Average investment over the life of the project
The average profits after taxes are determined by adding up the after-tax
profits expected for each year of the projects life and dividing by the number of the
years. In the case of annuity, the average after tax profits is equal to any years profit.
The average investment is determined by dividing the net investment by two.

This averaging process assumes that the firm is suing straight line depreciation, in
42
which case the book value of the asset declines at a constant rate from its purchase
price to zero at the end of its depreciable life. This means that, on the average firms
will have one-half of their initial purchase prices in the books. Consequently if the
machine has salvage value, then only the depreciable cost (cost salvage value) of the
machine should be divide by two in ordered to ascertain the average net investment,
as the salvage money will be recovered only at the end of the life of the project.
Therefore an amount equivalent to the salvage value remains tied up in the

project though out its lifetime. Hence no adjustment is required to sum of salvage
value to determine the average investment. Like wise if any additional net working
capital is required in the initial year, which is likely to be released only at the end of
the projects life. The full amount of working capital should be taking determining
relevant investment for the purpose of calculating ARR. Thus,
Average investment = Net Working Capital + Salvage Value + (initial cost of
machine value)
Accept Reject Value:

With the help of ARR, the financial maker can decide whether to
accept or reject the investment proposal. As an accept reject criterion, the actual
ARR would be compared with a predetermined or a minimum required rate of return
or cut off rate. A project would qualify to be accepted if the actual ARR is higher
than the minimum desired ARR. Other wise, it is liable to be rejected. Alternatively
the ranking method can be used to select or reject proposals under consideration may
be arranged in the descending order of magnitude, starting with the proposals with the
highest ARR and ending with the proposal with the lowest ARR. Obviously projects
having higher ARR would be preferred with projects with lower ARR.
2. Pay Back Period:
The Pay Back method is the second traditional method of capital budgeting. It
is the simplest and, the most widely employed quantitative method for apprising
capital expenditure decisions. This method answers the question. How many years
will it for the cash benefits to pay the original cost of an investment, normally
disregarding salvage value? Cash benefits represent CFAT ignoring interest payment.
43
Thus the pay back method measures the number of years required for the CFAT to
pay back the original out lay required in an investment proposal.
There are two ways of calculating the pay back period. The first method can
be applied when the cash flow stream is in the nature if annuity for each year of the
projects life that is CFAT is uniform. In such a situation the initial cost of the
investment is divided by the constant annual cash flow;
Investment
Constant Annual Cash Flow
For example, an investment of Rs. 40,000 in a machine is expected to produce

CFAT of Rs 8,000 for 10 years.
Rs. 40,000
Rs. 8,000 PB = ---------------- 5 years.
The second method is used when project cash flows are not uniform (mixed
stream) but vary form year to year. In such a situation, PB is calculated by the process
of cumulating cash flows till the time when cumulative cash flow become equal to the
original investment outlay.
Accept Reject Criteria:

The pay back period can be use as a decision criterion to accept or reject
investment proposals. One application of this technique is to compare the actual pay
back with a predetermined pay back that is the pay back set up by the management in
terms of the maximum period during which the initial investment will be recovered. If
the actual pay back period less than the predetermined pay back, the project would be
accepted. If not, it would be rejected. Alternatively, the pay back can be used as a
ranking method.
When mutually exclusive projects are under consideration, then may be ranked
according length of pay back period. Thus, the project has having the shortest pay
back may be assigned rank one followed in that order so that the project with the
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longest pay back would be ranked last. Obviously, projects with shorter payback
period will be selected.
DISCOUNTED CASH FLOW/ TIME ADJESTED TECHNIQUES:

1. Net Present Value Method:
The net present value is a modern method of evaluating investment proposals.
This method takes into consideration the time value of money and attempts to
calculate the return on investments by introducing the factor of time element. It
recognizes the fact that rupee earned today is worth more than the same rupee earned
tomorrow. Net present values of all inflows and outflows of cash occurring during the
life of the project is determined separately for each year by discounting these flows by
the firms cost of capital or a pre determined rate. The following are the Net Present
value method of evaluating investment proposals:
1) First of all determined an appropriate rate of interest that should be selected as

minimum required rate of return called cut off rate of interest in the market and
the market- on long term loans or it should reflect the opportunity cost of capital of
the investor.
2) Compute the present value of total investment outlay, I,e., cash outflows at the
determined discount rate. If the total investment is to be made in the initial year, the
present value shall be as the cost of investment.
3) Compute the present value of total investment proceeds I,e., inflows (profit before
depreciation and after tax) at the above determined discount rate.
4) Calculate the Net present value of each project by subtracting the present value of
cash inflows from the value of cash outflows for each project.
5)If the Net present value is positive or zero, I.e., when present value of cash inflows
either exceeds or is equal to the present values of cash outflows, the proposal may be
accepted. But in case the present value of inflows is less than the present value of cash
outflows, the proposal should be rejected.
6) To select between mutually exclusive projects, projects should be ranked in order
of net present values, i.e., the first preferences to be given to the project having the
maximum net present value.
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The present value of re.1 due in any number of years may be found with the
use of the following the mathematical formula:
PV= 1/(1+r) n
Where,
PV = present value
R = rate of interest/ Discount rate
N = number of years
2. Internal Rate of Return:

The second discounted cash flow or time-adjusted method of appraising
capital investment decisions is the internal rate of return method. This technique is
also known as yield on investment, marginal efficiency of capital, marginal
productivity of capital, rate of return method. This technique is also known a yield on
investment, marginal efficiency of capital, and marginal productivity of capital, rate
of return, time-adjusted rate of return and so an.
Like the present value method the IRR method also considers the time value
of money by case of the net present value method, the discount rate is the required
rate of return and being a predetermined rate, usually the cost of capital, its
determinants are external to the proposal under consideration. The IRR, on the other
hand it is based on facts, which are internal to the proposals. In other words while
arriving at the required rate of return for finding out present values the cash inflows
as well as outflows are not considered. But the IRR depends entirely on the initial
outlay and the cash proceeds of the projects, which is been evaluated of acceptance
or rejection. It is therefore appropriately referred to as internal rate of return.
The internal rate of return is usually the rate of return that a project
earns. It is defined as the discount rate ( r ) which equates the aggregate present
value of the Net cash inflows ( CFAT ) with the aggregate present value of cash
outflows of a project. In other words it is that rate which gives the project of Net
present value is zero.
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The use of the IRR, as a criterion to accept capital investment
decisions, involves a comparison of the actual IRR with the required rate of return
also then the cut off rate or hurdle rate. The project would quality to be accepted if
the IRR
(r) Exceeds the cut off rate.
(k). If the IRR and the required rate of return are equal the firm is different as to
whether to accept or reject the project.
3. Net Terminal Method:

The terminal value approach (TV) even mere distinctly separates the timing
of the cash inflows and outflows. The assumption behind the TV approach is that
each cash inflow is reinvested in other asset at a certain rate of return from the
moment it is received until the termination of the project.

The decision rule is that if the present value of the sum total of the
compounded reinvested cash inflows (PVTS) is greater than the present value of the
outflows (PVO), the proposed project is accepted otherwise not.
PVTS>PVO accept
PVTS<PVO reject.
The firm would be indifferent if both the values are equal. A variation of the
terminal value method (TV) is the net terminal value (NTV). Symbolically it can be
represented as NTV = (PVTS PVO). If the NTV is the positive accept the project, if
the negative reject the project.
4. Profitability Index:
The time adjusted capital budgeting is Profitability Index (P1) or Benefit Cost
Ratio (B / C). It is similar to the approach of NPV. The profitability index approach
measures the present value of returns per rupee invested, while the NPV is based on
the differences between the present value of future cash inflows and the present value
of cash outflows. A major shortcoming of the NPV method is that, being an absolute
measure; it is not reliable method to evaluate project inquiring different initial
investments. The PI method proves a solution to this kind of problem. It is, in other
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words, a relative measure. It may be defined as the ratio, which is obtained by
dividing the present value of future cash inflows by the present value of cash inflows.
PI = Present value of cash inflows

Present value of cash outflows
This method is also known as B / C ratio because the numerator measures

benefits and the denominator costs.

Using the B / C ratio or the PI, a project will quality for acceptance if its PI
exceeds one. When PI equals 1 (one), the firm is indifferently to the project.
When PI is greater than, equal to or less than 1 (one), the Net present value is
greater than, equal to or less than zero respectively. In other words, the NPV will be
positive when the PI is greater than 1 (one); will be negative when the PI is less than
1. Thus, the NPV and PI approach give the same results regarding the investments
proposals.
Methods of Capital Budgeting
(1) Traditional methods:

Pay back period
Average rate return method
(2) Discount cash flow method

Net present value method
Initial rate return method
Profitability index method
Data collection:
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Primary data: - The primary data is the data which is collected, by interviewing
directly with the organizations concerned executives. This is the direct information
gathered from the organization.
\
Secondary data: - The secondary data is the data which is gathered
from publications and websites.
CAPITAL BUDGETING:
A capital expenditure is an outlay of cash for a project that is

expected to produce a cash inflow over a period of time exceeding one year.
Examples of projects include investments in property, plant, and equipment, research
and development projects, large advertising campaigns, or any other project that
requires a capital expenditure and generates a future cash flow.
Because capital expenditures can be very large and have a significant impact on the
financial performance of the firm, great importance is placed on project selection.
This process is called capital budgeting.
KINDS OF CB DECISIONS:
Capital Budgeting refers to the total process of generating, evaluating, selecting and
following up on capital expenditure alternatives basically; the firm may be confronted
with three types of capital budgeting decisions
Accept reject decisions
This is a fundamental decision in capital budgeting. If the project is accepted,

the firm invests in it; if the proposal is rejected, the firm does not invest in it. In
general, all those proposals, which yield rate of return greater than a certain
required rate of return or cost of capital, are accreted and rest are rejected. By
applying this criterion, all independent projects all accepted. Independent projects
are the projects which do not compete with one another in such a way that the
acceptance of one project under the possibility of acceptance of another. Under the
accept-reject decision, the entire independent project that satisfies the minimum
investment criterion should be implemented.
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(i) Mutually exclusive project decision
Mutually exclusive projects are projects which compete with other

projects in such a way that the acceptance of one which exclude the
acceptance of other projects. The alternatives are mutually exclusive
and only one may be chosen.
(ii) Capital Rationing Decision
Capital rationing is a situation where a firm has more investment

proposals than it can finance. It may be defined as a situation where a
constraint in placed on the total size of capital investment during a
particular period. In such a event the firm has to select combination of
investment proposals which provides the highest net present value
subject to the budget constraint for the period. Selecting or rejecting the
projects for this purpose will require the taking of the following steps:
1) Ranking of projects according to profitability index (PI) or Initial
rate of return (IRR).
2) Selecting of rejects depends upon the profitability subject to the
budget limitations keeping in view the objectives of maximizing the
value of firms.
NATURE OF INVESTMENT DECISSIONS
The investment decisions of a firm are generally known as the

capital budgeting, or capital expenditure decisions. A capital budgeting decision may
be defined as the firms decision to invest its current funds most efficiently in the long
term assets in anticipation of an expected flow of benefits over a series of years. The
long term assets are those that affect the firms operations beyond the one year period.
The firms investment decisions would generally include expansion, acquisition,
modernization and replacement of the long-term assets.
Sale of a division or business (divestment) is also as an investment
decision. Decisions like the change in the methods of sales distribution, or an
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advertisement campaign or a research and development programme have long-term
implications for the firms expenditures and benefits, and therefore, they should also
be evaluated as investment decisions. It is important to note that investment in the
long-term assets invariably requires large funds to be tied up in the current assets such
as inventories and receivables. As such, investment in the fixed and current assets is
one single activity.
Features of Investment Decisions:-
The following are the features of investment decisions:
The exchange of current funds for future benefits.

The funds are invested in long-term assets.
The future benefits will occur to the firm over a series of year.
Importance of Investment Decisions:-
Investment decisions require special attention because of the following reasons.
They influence the firms growth in the long run

They affect the risk of the firm
They involve commitment of large amount of funds
They are irreversible, or reversible at substantial loss
They are among the most difficult decisions to make.
Growth
The effects of investment decisions extend in to the future and have to be
endured for a long period than the consequences of the current operating expenditure.
A firms decision to invest in long-term assets has a decisive influence on the rate and
direction of its growth. A wrong decision can prove disastrous for the continued
survival of the firm; unwanted or unprofitable expansion of assets will result in heavy
operating costs of the firm. On the other hand, inadequate investment in assets would
make it difficult for the firm to complete successfully and maintain its market share.
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Risk
A long-term commitment of funds may also change the risk complexity of
the firm. If the adoption of an investment increases average gain but causes frequent
fluctuations in its earnings, the firm will become more risky. Thus, investment
decisions shape the basic character of a firm.
Funding
Investment decisions generally involve large amount of funds, which make
it imperative for the firm to plan its investment programmers very carefully and make
an advance arrangements for procuring finances internally or externally.
Irreversibility
Most investment decisions are irreversible. It is difficult to find a market
for such capital items once they have been acquired. The firm will incur heavy losses
if such assets are scrapped.
Complexity
Investment decisions are among the firms most difficult decisions.
They are an assessment of future events, which are difficult to predict. It is really a
complex problem to Economic, political, social and technological forces cause the
uncertainty in cash flow estimation.
TYPES OF INVESTEMENT DECISIONS
There are many ways to classify investments. One classification is as follows:
Expansion of existing business

Expansion of new business
Replacement and modernization.
Expansion and Diversification

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A company may add capacity to its existing product lines to expand existing
operations. For example, the Gujarat State Fertilizer Company (GSFC) may increase
its plant capacity to manufacture more urea. It is an example of related diversification.
A firm may expand its activities in a new business. Expansions of a new business
require investment in new products and a new kind of production activity with in the
firm. If a packaging manufacturing company invests in a new plant and machinery to
produce ball bearings, which the firm business or unrelated diversification.
Sometimes a company acquires existing firms to expand its business. In either case,
the firm makes investment in the expectation of additional revenue. Investments in
existing or new products may also be called as revenue-expansion investments.
Replacement and Modernization;
The main objective of modernization and replacement is to improve operating

efficiency and reduces costs. Cost savings will reflect in the increased profits, but the
firms revenue may remain unchanged. Assets become outdated and obsolete with
technological changes. The firm must decide to replace those assets with new assets
that operate more economically.
If a cement company changes from semi-automatic drying
equipment to finally automatic drying equipment, it is an example of modernization
and replacement.
Replacement decisions help to introduce more efficient and economical

assets and therefore, are also called as cost reduction investments. However,
replacement decisions that involve substantial modernization and technological
improvements expand revenues as well as reduce costs.
Yet another useful way to classify investments is as follows:
Mutually exclusive investments

Independent investments
Contingent investments
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Mutually Exclusive Investments
Mutually exclusive investments serve the same purpose and
compete with each other. If one investment is undertaken, others will have to be
excluded. A company may, for example, either use a more labour-intensive, semi-
automatic machine, or employ a more capital-intensive, highly automatic
machine for production. Choosing the semi-automatic machine precludes the
acceptance of the highly automatic machine.
Independent Investments
Independent investments serve different purposes and do not
compete with each other. For example, a heavy engineering company may be
considering expansion of its plant capacity to manufacture additional excavators
and addition of new production facilities to manufacture a new product - light
commercial vehicles. Depending on their profitability and availability of funds,
the company can undertake both investments.
Contingent Investments
Contingent investments are dependent projects; the choice of

one investment necessitates undertaking one or more other investments. For
example, if a company decides to build a factory in a remote, backward area, if
may have to invest in houses, roads, hospitals, schools etc. for employees to
attract the work force. Thus, building of factory also requires investments in
facilities for employees. The total expenditure will be treated as one single
investment.
Investment Evolution Criteria:
Three steps are involved in the evaluation of an investment:

Estimation of cash flows.
Estimation of the required rate of return (the opportunity cost of capital)
Application of a decision rule of making the choice.
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The first two steps, discussed in the subsequent chapters, are assumed as
given. Thus, our discussion in this chapter is confined to the third step.
Specifically, we focus on the merits and demerits of various decision rules.
Investment decision rule
The investment decision rules may be referred to as capital
budgeting techniques, or investment criteria. A sound appraisal technique
should be used to measure the economic worth of an investment project. The
essential property of a sound technique is that it should maximize the share
holders wealth. The following other characteristics should also be possessed
by a sound investment evaluation criterion.
It should consider all cash flows to determine the true profitability of
the project.
It should provide for an objective and unambiguous way of separating
good projects from bad projects.
It should help ranking of projects according to their true profitability.
It should recognize the fact that bigger cash flows are preferable to
smaller ones and early cash flows are preferable to later ones.
it should be a criterion which is applicable to any conceivable
investment project independent of others.
Evaluation criteria
A number of investment criteria (or capital budgeting techniques) are in

use in practice. They may be grouped in the following two categories.
1. Discounted cash flow criteria

Net present value(NPV)
Internal rate return(IRR)
Profitability index(PI)
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2. Non discounted cash flow criteria
Payback period(PB)
Discounted payback period
Accounting rate of return(ARR)
Net Present Value
The Net Present Value technique involves discounting net cash flows
for a project, then subtracting net investment from the discounted net cash flows. The
result is called the Net Present Value (NPV). If the net present value is positive,
adopting the project would add to the value of the company. Whether the company
chooses to do that will depend on their selection strategies. If they pick all projects
that add to the value of the company they would choose all projects with positive net
present values, even if that value is just $1. On the other hand, if they have limited
resources, they will rank the projects and pick those with the highest NPV's.
The discount rate used most frequently is the company's cost of capital.
Net present value (NPV) or net present worth (NPW)[ is defined as the total present
value (PV) of a time series of cash flows. It is a standard method for using the time
value of money to appraise long-term projects. Used for capital budgeting, and widely
throughout economics, it measures the excess or shortfall of cash flows, in present
value terms, once financing charges are met.
The rate used to discount future cash flows to their present values is a key
variable of this process. A firm's weighted average cost of capital (after tax) is often
used, but many people believe that it is appropriate to use higher discount rates to
adjust for risk for riskier projects or other factors. A variable discount rate with higher
rates applied to cash flows occurring further along the time span might be used to
reflect the yield curve premium for long-term debt.
Internal Rate of Return
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The internal rate of return (IRR) is a Capital budgeting metric used by firms
to decide whether they should make Investments. It is also called discounted cash
flow rate of return (DCFROR) or rate of return (ROR).
It is an indicator of the efficiency or quality of an investment, as opposed to Net

present value (NPV), which indicates value or magnitude.
The IRR is the annualized effective compounded return rate which can be earned on
the invested capital, i.e., the yield on the investment. Put another way, the internal rate
of return for an investment is the discount rate that makes the net present value of the
investment's income stream total to zero.
Another definition of IRR is the interest rate received for an investment consisting of
payments and income that occur at regular periods.
A project is a good investment proposition if its IRR is greater than the rate of return
that could be earned by alternate investments of equal risk (investing in other projects,
buying bonds, even putting the money in a bank account). Thus, the IRR should be
compared to any alternate costs of capital including an appropriate risk premium.
In general, if the IRR is greater than the project's cost of capital, or hurdle rate, the
project will add value for the company.
In the context of savings and loans the IRR is also called effective interest rate.
In cases where one project has a higher initial investment than a second mutually
exclusive project, the first project may have a lower IRR (expected return), but a
higher NPV (increase in shareholders' wealth) and should thus be accepted over the
second project (assuming no capital constraints).
IRR assumes reinvestment of positive cash flows during the project at the same
calculated IRR. When positive cash flows cannot be reinvested back into the project,
IRR overstates returns. IRR is best used for projects with singular positive cash flows
at the end of the project period.
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Profitability index
Yet another time adjusted method of evaluating the investment proposals is

the benefit-cost (B/C) ratio or profitability index. Profitability index is the ratio of the
present value of cash inflows at the required rate of return, to the initial cash out flow
of the investment.
Evaluation of PI method
Like the NPV and IRR rules, PI is a conceptually sound method of arising
investment projects. It is a variation of the NPV method and requires the same
computations as the NPV method.
Time value it recognizes the time value of money.
Value maximization it is consistent with the share holder value

maximization principle. A project with PI greater than one will have
positive NPV and if accepted it will increase share holders wealth.
Relative profitability in the PI method since the present value of cash

in flows is divided by the initial cash out flow , it is a relative measure
of projects profitability.
Like NPV method PI criterion also requires calculation of cash flows and
estimate of the discount rate.
Payback period
The payback period is one of the most popular and widely

recognized traditional methods of evaluating investment proposals. Payback is
the number of years required to cover the original cash outlay invested in a
project. If the project generates constant annual cash inflows, the payback
period can be computed by dividing cash outlay by the annual cash inflow.
Evolution of payback:
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Many firms use the payback period as an investment evaluation
criterion and a method of ranking projects. They compare the projects
payback with pre-determined standard pay back. The would be accepted if
its payback period is less than the maximum or standard pay back period set
by management as a ranking method. It gives highest ranking to the project,
which has the shortest payback period and lowest ranking to the project with
highest payback period. Thus if the firm has to choose between two
mutually exclusive projects, the project with shorter pay back period will be
selected.
Evolution of payback period;.
Pay back is a popular investment criterion in practice. It is considered to

have certain virtues.
Simplicity
The significant merit of payback is that it is simple to

understand and easy to calculate. The business executives consider the
simplicity of method as a virtue. This is evident from their heavy
reliance on it for appraising investment proposals in practice.
Cost effective
Payback method costs less than most of the sophisticated

techniques that require a lot of the analysts time and the use of
computers.
Short-term
Effects a company can have more favorable short-run effects

on earnings per share by setting up a shorter standard payback period. It
should, however, be remembered that this may not be a wise long-term
policy as the company may have to sacrifice its future growth for
current earnings.
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Liquidity
The emphasis in payback is on the early recovery of the

investment. Thus, it gives an insight into the liquidity of the project.
The funds so released can be put to other uses.
In spite of its simplicity and the so, called

virtues, the payback may not be a desirable investment criterion since it
suffers from a number of serious limitations.
. Risk shield
The risk of the project can be tackled by having a shorter
standard payback period. As it may be in a ensured guaranty against its
loss. A company has to invest in many projects where the cash inflows
and life expectancies are highly uncertain. Under such circumstances,
pay back may become important, not so much as a measure of
profitability but, as a means of establishing an upper bound on the
acceptable degree of risk.
Discounted payback period
One of the serious objections to the payback method is that it does not discount
the cash flows for calculating the payback period. We can discount cash flows and
then calculate the payback.
The discounted pay back period is the no. of. Periods taken in recovering the
investment outlay on the present value basis. The discounted payback period still fails
to consider the cash flows occurring after the payback period.
Accounting rate of return
The accounting rate of return (ARR) also known as the return on

investment (ROI) uses accounting information as revealed by financial statements, to
measure the profitability of an investment. The accounting rate of return is the ratio of
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the average after tax profit divided by the average investment. The average investment
would be equal to half of the original investment if it were depreciated constantly.
Alternatively, it can be found out by dividing the total if the investments book values
after depreciation be the life of the project.
EVALUATION OF ARR METHOD
The ARR method may claim some merits:
Simplicity the ARR method is simple to understand and use. It does not
involve complicated computations.
ACCOUNTING DATA
The ARR can be readily calculated from the

accounting data, unlike in the NPV and IRR methods, no adjustments are
required to arrive at cash flows of the project.
ACCOUNTING PROFITABILITY
The ARR rule incorporates the entire stream of income in

calculating the projects profitability.
The ARR is a method commonly understood by accountants and

frequently used as a performance measure. As decision criterion, how ever it
has serious short comings.
CASH FLOWS IGNORED
The ARR method uses accounting profits, not cash flows, in

appraising the projects. Accounting profits are based on arbitrary assumptions
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and choices and also include non-cash items. It is, there fore in appropriate to
relay on them for measuring the acceptability of the investment projects.
TIME VALUE IGNORED
The averaging income ignores the time value of money. In fact, this
procedure gives more weight age to the distant receipts.
ARBITRARY CUT-OFF
The firm employing the ARR rule uses an arbitrary cut-off yardstick.
Generally, the yardstick is the firms current return on its assets (book -value).
Because of this, the growth companies earning very high rates on their
existing assets may project profitable projects and the less profitable
companies may accepts bad projects.
PROJECT CLASSIFICATION
Project classification entails time and effort the costs incurred in this exercise
must be justified by the benefits from it. Certain projects, given their complexity and
magnitude, may warrant a detailed analysis; others may call for a relatively simple
analysis. Hence firms normally classify projects into different categories. Each
category is then analyzed somewhat differently.
While the system of classification may vary from one firm to another, the
following categories are found in cost classification.
Mandatory investments
These are expenditures required to comply with statutory requirements.
Examples of such investments are pollution control equipment, medical dispensary,
fire fitting equipment, crche in factory premises and so on. These are often non-
revenue producing investments. In analyzing such investments the focus is mainly on
finding the most cost-effective way of fulfilling a given statutory need.
Replacement projects
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Firms routinely invest in equipments means meant to obsolete and inefficient
equipment, even though they may be a serviceable condition. The objective of such
investments is to reduce costs (of labor, raw material and power), increase yield and
improve quality. Replacement projects can be evaluated in a fairly straightforward
manner, through at times the analysis may be quite detailed.
Expansion projects
These investments are meant to increase capacity and/or widen the
distribution network. Such investments call for an expansion projects normally
warrant more careful analysis than replacement projects. Decisions relating to such
projects are taken by the top management.
Diversification projects
These investments are aimed at producing new products or services or
entering into entirely new geographical areas. Often diversification projects entail
substantial risks, involve large outlays, and require considerable managerial effort and
attention. Given their strategic importance, such projects call for a very through
evaluation, both quantitative and qualitative. Further they require a significant
involvement of the board of directors.
Research and development projects
Traditionally, R&D projects observed a very small proportion of capital budget

in most Indian companies. Things, however, are changing. Companies are now
allocating more funds to R&D projects, more so in knowledge-intensive industries.
R&D projects are characterized by numerous uncertainties and typically involve
sequential decision making.
Hence the standard DCF analysis is not applicable to them. Such projects are
decided on the basis of managerial judgment. Firms which rely more on quantitative
methods use decision tree analysis and option analysis to evaluate R&D projects.
Miscellaneous projects
This is a catch-all category that includes items like interior decoration,
recreational facilities, executive aircrafts, landscaped gardens, and so on. There is no
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standard approach for evaluating these projects and decisions regarding them are
based on personal preferences of top management.
Capital Budgeting: eight steps
Introduction
Until now, this web site has broken one of the cardinal rules of financial management.
This page corrects for that problem and presents now, the first part of the subject of
Capital Budgeting.
Many books and chapters and web pages purport to discuss capital budgeting when in
reality all they do is discuss CAPITAL INVESTMENT APPRAISAL. There's nothing
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wrong with a discussion of the CIA methods except that authors have a duty to point
out that CIA methods are only one part of a multi stage process: the capital budgeting
process.
A discussion of CIA and nothing else means that capital budgeting decisions are being
discussed out of context. That is, by ignoring the earlier and later parts of capital
budgeting, we are never assess where capital budgeting project come from, how
alternatives are found and evaluated, how we really choose which project to choose
and then we never review the projects and how they have been implemented.
Definition
Capital budgeting relates to the investment in assets or an organization that is

relatively large. That is, a new asset or project will amount in value to a significant
proportion of the total assets of the organization.
The International Federation of Accountants, IFAC, defines capital expenditures as
Investments to acquire fixed or long lived assets from which a stream of benefits is
expected. Such expenditures represent an organization's commitment to produce and
sell future products and engage in other activities. Capital expenditure decisions,
therefore, form a foundation for the future profitability of a company.
Projects don't just fall out of thin air: someone has to have them. The main point here
is that successful, dynamic and growing companies are constantly on the lookout for
new projects to consider. In the largest organizations there are entire departments
looking for alternatives and opportunities.
2 Look for suitable projects
Once someone has had the idea to invest, the next step is to look at suitable projects:
projects that complement current business, projects that are completely different to
current business and so on. Initially, all possibilities will be considered: along the
lines of a brainstorming exercise.
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As time goes by, and as corporate objectives allow, the initial list of potential projects
will be whittled down to a more manageable number.
3 Identify and consider alternatives
Having found a few projects to consider, the organization will investigate any number
of different ways of carrying them out. After all, the first idea probably won't either be
the last or the best. Creativity is the order of the day here, as organizations attempt to
start off on the best footing.
As the diagram suggests, at each of these first three stages, we need to consider
whether what we are proposing fits in with corporate objectives. There is no point in
thinking of a project that conflicts with, say, the growth objective or the profitability
objective or even an environmental objective.
A lot of data will be generated in this stage and this data will be fed into stage four:
Capital Investment Appraisal.
4 Capital Investment Appraisal
This is the number crunching stage in which we use some or all of the following
methods
Payback (PB)
accounting rate of return (ARR)
Net present value (NPV)
Internal rate of return (IRR)
Profitability Index (PI)
There are other techniques of course; but the technique to be used will depend on a
range of things, including the knowledge and sophistication of the management of the
organization, the availability of computers and the size and complexity of the project
under review.
For more information here, go to my page on CIA once you have finished this page.
5 Analysis of feasibility
66
Stage four is the number crunching stage. This stage is where the decision is made as
to which project is to be assessed as acceptable. That is, which project is feasible?
In order to choose the project, management needs some hurdles:
What must the payback be

What rate of ARR is acceptable
What is the NPV cut off
What IRR is the least that we can accept
What PI is the least that we can accept
and so on.
Some projects will be discarded as a result of this stage. For example, if the PB cut off
is, say, 2 years, and a project has a PB of 3 years, it will be rejected. The same is true
of the ARR, NPV, IRR and PI.
Capital rationing might be a problem here, too, if the organization has general cash
flow problems.
Capital Budgeting Policy Manual
Let's pause at this point to make the point that what we have just said about cut off
rates and so on come from formal procedures and documents. One such formal
document is the Capital Budgeting Policy Manual, in which formal procedures and
rules are established to assure that all proposals are reviewed fairly and consistently.
The manual helps to ensure that managers and supervisors who make proposals need
to know what the organization expects the proposals to contain, and on what basis
their proposed projects will be judged.
The managers who have the authority to approve specific projects need to exercise
that responsibility in the context of an overall organizational capital expenditure
policy.
In outline, the policy manual should include specifications for:
1. an annually updated forecast of capital expenditures
67
2. the appropriation steps
3. the appraisal method(s) to be used to evaluate proposals
4. the minimum acceptable rate(s) of return on projects of various risk
5. the limits of authority
6. the control of capital expenditures
7. the procedure to be followed when accepted projects will be subject to an

actual performance review after implementation
(See IFAC document The Capital Expenditure Decision October 1989 for full details
of the manual)
6 Choose the project
Once we have determined the feasible/acceptable projects, we then have to make a

decision of which to accept.
If we have capital rationing problems, we might be restricted to one project only. If

we have no cash problems, we might choose two or more.
Whatever the cash position, we would like to invest in all projects that have a positive
NPV, whose IRR is greater than our cut off rate and so on.
7 Monitor the project
As with any part of the organization, the project must be monitored as it progresses. If
the project can be kept as a separate part of the business, it might be classed as its own
department or division and it might have its own performance reports prepared for it.
If it's to be absorbed within one or more parts of the organization then it could be
difficult to monitor it separately: this is something that management has to decide as
they implement their new projects.
8 Post completion audit
68
The final stage: once the project has been up and running for six months or a year or
so, there must be a post completion audit or a post audit. A post audit looks at the
project from start to finish: stages 1 - 7 and looks at how it was thought of, analyzed,
chosen, implemented, and monitored and so on.
The purpose of the post audit is to test whether capital budgeting procedures have
been fully and fairly applied to the project under review.
Of course, any weaknesses that might be found during the post audit might be specific
to one project or they might relate to capital budgeting systems for the organization as
a whole. In the latter case, the auditor will report back to his superiors and to
management that systems need to be overhauled as a result of what has been found.
CHAPTER-IV
DATA ANALYSES AND INTERPRETATION
69
FINACIAL ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS OF ULTRATECH CEMENTS LIMITED
Capital Long Share

Total Total Fixed Net
Years Employe term holders
sales assets assets Profit
d funds Funds
2011- 13205. 14810. 10890. 1404. 2789.7 274.04
2012 64 64 33 23 6607.67 6
2012- 18270. 16667. 12166. 2446. 2012.0 274.07
2013 69 95 13 19 10392.72 9
2013- 20174. 19697. 14025. 2655. 2147.3 274.18
2014 94 50 19 43 11986.24 4
2014- 20279. 21970. 15521. 2144. 2389.3 274.24
2015 80 29 42 47 14186.57 5
2015- 22936. 25369. 18384. 2014. 2956.5 274.40
2016 17 51 46 73 16827.08 3
TRADITIONAL CAPITAL BUDGETING APPRISAL METHODS
1. PAY BACK PERIOD METHOD:

70
Payback period method is a traditional method of evaluation of
capital budgeting decision. The term payback or pay out or payoff
refers to the period in which the project will generate the necessary
cash and recoup the initial investment or the cash out flows.
To calculate the pay period, the cumulative cash flows will be

calculated and by using interpolation the exact period may be
calculated.
The Ultratech Cements Limited has Rs. 2041.63 crors of initial

investment and the annual cash flows for the years 2015 to 2016. Then
the payback period is calculated as follows:
CALCULATION OF PAY BACK PERIOD OF Ultratech Cements Limited
(Rs. In crorers)
SI .NO YEAR CASH INFLOW CUMULATIVE
CASH FLOWWS
1 2011-2012 2169.96 2169.96

2 2012-2013 3348.75 5518.71
3 2013-2014 3505.51 9024.22
4 2014-2015 2041.63 11065.85
5 2015-2016 2073.69 13139.54
The above table shows that, the initial investment RS.2986.65 Cr lies between
second and third years with Rs. 2169.96 and 5518.71 Cr
Difference in cash flows

PBP = Actual (Base) year + ----------------------------------
Next year cash flows
71
2073.69
PBP = 2 + -------------
13139.54
= 2 + 0.12
= 2.12 year
Payback period (PBP) = 2.12 year.
ACCEPT-REJECT CRITERION:
PBP can be used as a criterion to accept or reject an investment

proposal. A proposal whose actual payback period is more than what is
pre-determined by the management.
PBP thus, is useful for the management to accept the investment decision on the
Ultratech cements limited and also to assist the management to know that the initial
investment is recovered in 2.12 years.
II. ACCOUNTING OR AVERAGE RATE OF RETURN METHOD:
It is another traditional method of capital budgeting evaluation.

According to this method the capital investment proposals are judged on the
basis of their relative profitability. The capital employed and related incomes
are determined according to the commonly accepted accounting principles and
practices over the certain life of project and the average yield is calculated.
Such a rate is called the accounting rate of return or the average return or
ARR.
It may be calculated according to any one of the following methods:
(i) Annual average net earnings

---------------------------------- X 100
Original investment
72
(ii) Annual average net earnings
----------------------------------- X 100
Average investment
(iii)Increase in expected future annual net earnings

----------------------------------------------------------- X 100
Initial increase in required investment
The term average annual net earnings are the average of the earnings after
depreciation and tax. Over the whole of the economic life of the project order and
these giving on ARR above the required rate may be accepted.
The amount of average investment can be calculated according to any

of the following methods:
(a) Original investment

------------------------
2
(b) Original investment +scrap value

------------------------------------------
2
(c) Original investment +scrap value + net additional + scrap value

Working
capital
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
Cash flows of the Ultratech cements Limited are shown in cash flow statement.
ARR is calculated as follows:
Statement showing calculation of ARR

\
(Rs. In Cr.)
YEARS EARNINGS AFTER TAX (EAT)
2011-2012 2169.96
2012-2013 3348.75
2013-2014 3505.51
73
2014-2015 2041.63
2015-2016 2073.69
TOTAL 13139.54
Average annual EATS

ARR = ------------------------------- x 100
Average investment
Total amount
Average Annual EATS = ---------------------
No of years
13139.54
= ------------------ = 2627.90
5
Average investment =5208.75
2627.90
ARR = ---------------- X 100 = 50.45 %
5208.75
Average Rate of Return = 50.45 %
ACCEPT-REJECT critters method allows Ultratech cements Limited to fix a

minimum rate of return. Any project expected to give a return below it will be straight
away rejected. The average rate of return is as good as 50.45 % of ultratech cements
Limited depicts the prospects of management efficiency.
TIME ADJUSTED (OR) DISCOUNTED CASH FLOW METHOD:
The time adjusted or discounted cash flow methods take into accounts the
profitability time value of money. These methods are also called the modern methods
of capital budgeting.
74
1. NET PRESENT VALUE METHOD: (NPV)
Net present value method or NPV is one of the discounted cash flows methods. The
method is considered to be one of the best of evaluating the capital investment
proposals. Under this method cash inflows and outflows associated with each project
are first calculated.
ROLE OF DISCOUNTING FACTOR:
The cash inflows and out flows are converted to the present values using discounting
factor which is the actuary discount factor of Regulated display tool kit project of
Kesoram cements limited is 10%.
The rate of return is considered as cut off rate or required rate or rate generally
determined on the basis of cost of capital to allow for the risk element involved in the
project.
STEPS FOR CALCULATION OF NPV:
1) Calculation of each cash flows after taxes of three years, which is arrived
at by deducting depreciation, interest and tax from earning before tax and
interest (EBIT). This residue is profit after tax to arrive at cash flow after
tax.
2) This cash flow after tax are multiplied with the values obtained from the
Table (the present value annuity table against the 8% actuary discount
Rate i.e. in the case of project.
75
3) NPV is derived by deducting the sum of present values from the initial
Investment.
4) Initial investments are the sum of cash flows of three years shown in
Capital expenditure table
Let us assume the discount rate be 10%:
YEARS CFATS PVIF @ 10% PVS
2169.96 0.909
2011-2012
1972.49
3348.75 0.826
2012-2013
2766.07
3505.51 0.751
2013-2014
2632.64
2041.63 0.683
2014-2015
1394.43
2073.69 0.620
2015-2016
1285.69
TOTAL: 10051.32
LESS: Initial Investment: 5208.75
NPV: 4842.57
The accept -reject decision of NPV is very simple. If the NPV is positive then the
project should be accepted and if NPV is negative then the project should be rejected
i.e .If NPV > 0 (ACCEPT)
76
and NPV < 0 (REJECT)
Hence in the case of Ultratech cements Limited project it is visible that the positive
NPV shows the acceptance and importance of the project.
1. INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN METHOD: (IRR)
The internal rate of return method is also a modern technique of capital budgeting
that takes into account the time value of money. It is also known as TIME
ADGUSTED RATE OF RETURN, DISCOUNTED CASH FLOW,
DISCOUNTED RATE OF RETURN, YIELD METHOD and TRAIL AND
ERROR YIELD METHOD.
IRR is the rate the sum of discounted cash inflows equals the sum of discounted cash
outflows. It equals the present value of cash inflow to present value of cash outflows.
In this method discount rate is not known, but the cash
inflows and cash out flows are known. It is the rate of return, which equates the
present value of cash inflows to out flows or it, is the rate of return, which
renders NPV TO ZERO.
STEPS INVOLVED IN THE CALCULATION OF IRR:
1) Calculation of NPV with given discount rate

2) Calculation of NPV with assumed discount rate
3) Select the higher NPV of both
4) Let R be the higher discount rate
5) Let R1 be the difference of discount rates
6) Calculation of difference of P Vs (Always higher NPV-lower NPV)
Higher NP
IRR= R + ---------------------------- XR1
Difference of P V s.
8) Decision making(Accepting- Rejecting the proposal)
77
FORMULATION OF STEPS:
STATEMENT OF SHOWING CALCULATION NPV @88%,89%,90% UNDER

IRR METHOD
(R s corers)
YEARS Annua Discount Discount Discount

l CFA Rate-88% Rate-89% Rate-90%
PVF PV PVF PV PVF PV
Ts
2011- 2169. 0.531 1152.25 0.529 1147.91 0.529 1147.91
2012 96
2012- 3348. 0.292 978.17 0.279 937.32 0.2799 937.32
2013 75 1 9
2013- 3505. 0.157 553.52 0.148 519.17 0.1481 519.17
2014 51 9 1
2014- 2041. 0.085 175.17 0.078 159.86 0.0783 159.86
2015 63 8 3
2015- 2073. 0.046 95.60 0.041 85.85 0.0414 85.85
2016 69 1 4
2954.71 2850.10 2850.10
From the above calculations the following can be observed.
78
DECISION:
Since the initial investment RS.5208.75 cr is lies more than 95% the company
APTDC can determine the IRR as >95%
Hence IRR=>95%
IRR is the maximum rate of interest, which an organization can afford to pay on
capital, invested in, is accepted if IRR exceeds the cutoff rates and rejected if it is
below the cutoff rate.
The cutoff rate of ultratech Limited is 10%, which is less than the IRR i.e >95%
hence the acceptance of ultratech Limited is quiet a good investment decision taken
by management.
3. PROFITABILITY INDEX: (BCR OR PI)
Profitability index method is also known as time adjusted method of

evaluating the investment proposals. Profitability also called as benefit cost ratio
(B\C) in relationship between present value of cash inflows and the present value of
cash out flows. Thus
Present value of cash inflows
Profitability index = --------------------------------------
Present value of cash outflows.
(OR)

Profitability index = - ----------------------------------------
Initial cash outlay
CALCULATIONS OF BCR:
STEP1: Calculations of cash flows after taxes

STEP2: Calculations of Present values of cash inflows @10%.
STEP3: Application of the formula.
Statement for calculating of benefit cost ratio
79
YEARS CFATS PVIF @ PVS
10%
2011-2012 2169.96 0.909
1972.49
2012-2013 3348.75 0.826
2766.07
2013-2014 3505.51 0.751
2632.64
2014-2015 2041.63 0.683
1394.43
2015-2016 2073.69 0.620
1285.69
TOTAL:
10051.32

Profitability index = --------------------------------------
Initial Investment
10051.32
= ------------------ = 1.92
5208.75
Hence PI = 1.92 years.
There is a slight difference between present value index method and

profitability index method. Under profitability index method the present value of cash
inflows and cash outflows are taken as accept-reject decision.
I.e. the accept reject criterion is:
If Profitability Index > 1 (ACCEPT).
80
Profitability Index < 1 (REJECT).
The acceptance of by the management is evaluated through Profitability

Index method of as the PI > 1 (i.e.1.92 years)
CHAPTER-V
FINDINGS
SUGGESSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
81
FINDINGS
The amount of total investment in assets as decreased significantly from Rs.

5208.75 cr.
The amount of sales has increased from 21258.68 Cr to 22936.17Cr (2014-
2015) this increased sales helped the organization to improve its business turn
over in different sectors
Payback period for the project will be 2.12 years it indicates the project earns
good yield in future also.
Average rate of return for the Ultratech cements limited is 50.45 %.
NPV and IRR show a good path for the organization to develop In future
markets and also the investments for the investors.
The capital budgeting decision for Ultratech cements limited is governed by
a manual issued by the planning Commission. It contains the following
important provisions in the regard: (1) It suggest the use of various project
evaluation techniques, such as return on investment (ROD, payback period,
discounted cash flow (DCF) Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT),
Critical path method (CPM), and strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
Threats (SWOT) Analysis.
82
The total assets of Ultratech cements limited recorded consistent fluctuations
from 2.85 (2015-2016), 2.14 (2014-2015). This decline is an account of lower
growth rates sales in those years.
The fixed assets of Ultratech cements limited showing a fluctuating trend
and increased These fluctuations any be due to fixed assets investment.
CONCLUSIONS
The budgeting exercise in Ultratech also covers the long term capital budgets,
including annual planning and provides long term plan for application of
internal resources and debt servicing translated in to the corporate plan.
The scope of capital budgeting also includes expenditure on plant betterment,
and renovation, balancing equipment, capital additions and commissioning
expenses on trial runs generating units.
To establish a close link between physical progress and monitory outlay and to
provide the basis for plan allocation and budgetary support by the government.
The manual recommends the computation of NPV at a cost of capital /
discount rate specified from time to time.
A single discount rate should not be used for all the capacity budgeting
projects.
The analysis of relevant facts and quantifications of anticipated results and
benefits, risk factors if any, must be clearly brought out.
Inducting at least three non -official directors the mechanism of the Search
Committee should restructure the Boards of these PSUs.
83
Feasibility report of the project is prepared on the cost estimates and the cost
of generation.
Scope of capital budgeting in Ultratech cements limited are
* Approved and ongoing schemes
New approved schemes
Unapproved schemes
Capital budgets for plant betterments
Survey and investigation
Research and development budget.
SUGGESTIONS
As large sum of money is involved which influences the profitability of the firm
making capital budgeting an important task.
Long term investment once made cannot be reversed without significance loss of
invested capital. The investment becomes sunk and mistakes, rather than being readily
rectified, must often be born until the firm can be withdrawn through depreciation
charges or liquidation. It influences the whole conduct of the business for the years to
come.
Investment decision are the base on which the profit will be earned and probably
measured through the return on the capital. A proper mix of capital investment is quite
important to ensure adequate rate of return on investment, calling for the need of
capital budgeting.
84
The implication of long term investment decisions are more extensive than those
of short run decisions because of time factor involved, capital budgeting decisions are
subject to the higher degree of risk and uncertainty than short run decision.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books:
-Financial Management - Prasanna Chandra
-Management Accounting - R.K.Sharma & Shashi K.Gupta
-Management Accounting -S.N.Maheshwary
-Financial Management -Khan and Jain
-Research Methodology -K.R.Kothari
Internet Sites:
http\\:www.google.com
http\\:www.ultratech.co.in
http\\:www.googlefinance.com
85
ABBREVIATIONS
PI Profitability index.
CB Capital budgeting
CFS Cash flows.
CCFS Cumulative cash flows.
EAT Earnings after tax.
EBIT Earnings before investment and tax.
CFAT Cash flows after tax.
PVS Present value of cash flows.
PVIF Present value of inflows.
86
PBP Payback period.
ARR Average rate return.
NPV Net present value.
IRR Internal rate return.
B/C Benefit cost ratio.
87

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CHAPTER-I

business, it is crucial for the business to make the right decision.

Capital Budgeting Process

Complexity Of Capital Budgeting Process

The budgeting process needs the involvement of different departments in the

SCOPE OF THE STUDY:

The efficient allocation of capital is the most important financial function

Whether or not funds should be invested in long term projects such as

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:

1. To evaluate the capital budgeting practices relating to various projects of

JSW Cement Ltd has planned to set up a 3 MTPA clinkerisation plant at

The Government of Kerala has accorded sanction to Malabar Cements Ltd to

Types of modern cement

(Ca4(AlO2)6SO4 or C4A3 in Cement chemist's notation) as a primary phase. They are

Ready Mix Concrete and a range of specialty concretes with specific

AAC blocks, waterproofing solutions, grouting solutions and plastering

UltraTechs subsidiaries are Dakshin Cements Limited, Harish Cement Limited,

Mr. Kumar Mangalam Birla

UltraTech is India's largest exporter of cement spanning export markets in countries

UltraTechs presence along with its subsidiaries is recorded at 12 composite plants,

2011 :: UltraTech Cement Middle East Investments Limited, a wholly owned

The cement business of Grasim demerged and vested in Samruddhi Cement

2006 :: Narmada Cement Company Limited amalgamated with UltraTech

Grasim increases its stake in L&T to 14.15 per cent

2001 :: Grasim acquires 10 per cent stake in L&T. Subsequently increases

Durgapur grinding unit

1998-2000 :: Bulk cement terminals at Mangalore, Navi Mumbai and

1999 :: Narmada Cement Company Limited acquired

Ratnagiri Cement Works

1998 :: Gujarat Cement Works Plant II

Andhra Pradesh Cement Works

1996 :: Gujarat Cement Works Plant I

1994 :: Hirmi Cement Works

1993 :: Jharsuguda grinding unit

1987 :: Awarpur Cement Works Plant II

1983 :: Awarpur Cement Works Plant I

Capital Budgeting Basics

Identify Potential Opportunities

Factors Affecting Capital Budgeting:

The amount of investment

Factors Influencing Capital Budgeting Decisions:

8. Research and Development Projects.

RISK AND UNCERTANITY IN CAPITAL BUDGETING

1. Expected economic life of the project.

1. Risk-Adjusted cut off rate or method of varying discount rate:

The greatest drawback of this method is that it is not possible to

Risk Adjusted Cut off Rate Decision Tree

Certainty Equivalent Suggestions Co-Efficient of

Sensitivity Technique Standard Deviation

5. Standard Deviation Method:

6. Coefficient of variation Method:

7. Decision Tree Analysis:

1 Identification of the problem

Limitations of Capital Budgeting

2. The techniques of capital budgeting require estimation of future cash inflows

4. Urgency is another limitation in the evaluation of capital investment decisions.

STEPS INVOLVED IN THE CAPITAL EXPENDITURE

OBJECTIVES OF CONTROL OF CAPITAL EXPENDITURE

CAPITAL BUDGETING PROCESS

Capital Budgeting Steps:

The capital budgeting process begins with the identification of investment

2. Screening the Proposals:

3. Evaluation of Various Proposals: