ME Auto.

State space
approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Modelling, analysis and control of linear systems using Nonlinear models

Linear models
state space representations Linearisation

To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
Olivier Sename State feedback

control
Problem formulation
Grenoble INP / GIPSA-lab Controllability
Definition
Pole placement control
February 2017 Specifications

Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Observer-based control
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Outline approach
Introduction Olivier Sename
Modelling of dynamical systems as state space representations
Nonlinear models Introduction
Linear models Modelling

Nonlinear models
Linearisation Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer functions To/from transfer
Properties functions
Properties
Stability Stability
State feedback control State feedback
Problem formulation control
Problem formulation
Controllability Controllability
Definition of the state feedback control Definition

Synthesis of the state feedback control: the pole placement control Specifications
Integral Control
Specifications
Observer
Integral Control or how to ensure disturbance attenuation with a Observation
state feedback control? Observability

Observer design
Observer and output feedback control Observer-based control
Observation Introduction to
optimal control
A preliminary property: Observability
Introduction to
Observer design digital control
Observer-based control Conclusion
Introduction to optimal control
Introduction to digital control
State space
approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
Introduction State feedback

control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
References approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
Some interesting books: To/from transfer
functions
I K.J. Astrom and B. Wittenmark, Computer-Controlled Systems,
Properties
Information and systems sciences series. Prentice Hall, New Stability
Jersey, 3rd edition, 1997. State feedback

control
I R.C. Dorf and R.H. Bishop, Modern Control Systems, Prentice Problem formulation
Controllability
Hall, USA, 2005. Definition
I G.C. Goodwin, S.F. Graebe, and M.E. Salgado, Control System Specifications
Design, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2001. Integral Control
Observer
I G. Franklin, J. Powell, A. Emami-Naeini, Feedback Control of Observation
Dynamic Systems, Prentice Hall, 2005 Observability

Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
The "control design" process approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
I Plant study and modelling Properties
I Determination of sensors and actuators (measured and controlled Stability
State feedback
outputs, control inputs) control
Problem formulation
I Performance specifications Controllability
Definition
I Control design (many methods) Pole placement control
Specifications
I Simulation tests Integral Control
I Implementation, tests and validation Observer

Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
About modelling... approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Identification based method Modelling
Nonlinear models
I System excitations using PRBS (Pseudo Random Binary Signal) Linear models
or sinusodal signals Linearisation

To/from transfer
functions
I Determination of a transfer function reproducing the input/ouput
Properties
system behavior Stability
Knowledge-based method: State feedback

control
I Represent the system behavior using differential and/or algebraic Problem formulation
Controllability
equations, based on physical knowledge. Definition
I Formulate a nonlinear state-space model, i.e. a matrix differential Specifications
Integral Control
equation of order 1.
Observer
I Determine the steady-state operating point about which to Observation
Observability
linearize. Observer design
I Introduce deviation variables and linearize the model.
Introduction to
Tools: Matlab/Simulink, LMS Imagine.Lab Amesim, Catia-Dymola, optimal control
Introduction to
ADAMS, MapleSim ..... digital control
Conclusion
State space
Why state space equations ? approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
I dynamical systems where physical equations can be derived : Linear models

Linearisation
electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, aerospace To/from transfer
functions
engineering, microsystems, process plants .... Properties
I include physical parameters: easy to use when parameters are Stability
State feedback
changed for design. Need only for parameter identification or control
knowledge. Problem formulation
Controllability
I State variables have physical meaning. Definition
I Allow for including non linearities (state constraints, input Specifications
Integral Control
saturation)
Observer
I Easy to extend to Multi-Input Multi-Output (MIMO) systems Observation
Observability
I Advanced control design methods are based on state space Observer design
equations (reliable numerical optimisation tools) Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Modelling of dynamical systems Stability
State feedback
control
as state space representations Problem formulation

Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Towards state space representation approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
What is a state space system ? Linearisation
To/from transfer
A "matrix-form" representation of the dynamics of an N- order functions
differential equation system into a FIRST order differential equation in a Properties

Stability
vector form of size N, which is called the state.
State feedback
control
Definition of a system state Problem formulation
Controllability
The state of a dynamical system is the set of variables, known as state Definition
variables, that fully describe the system and its response to any given Pole placement control
Specifications
set of inputs. Integral Control
Mathematically, the knowledge of the initial values of the state variables Observer
Observation
at t0 (namely xi (t0 ), i = 1, ..., n), together with the knowledge of the Observability
system inputs for time t t0 , are sufficient to predict the behavior of the Observer design
future system state and output variables (for t t0 ). Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Example of a one-tank model approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Usually the hydraulic equation is non linear and of the form Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
dH To/from transfer
S = Qe Qs functions
dt
Properties
Stability
where H is the tank height, S the tank
surface, Qe the input flow, and State feedback
Qs the output flow defined by Qs = a H. control
Problem formulation
Definition the state space model Controllability

Definition
The system is represented by an Ordinary Differential Equation whose Pole placement control
Specifications
solution depends on H(t0 ) and Qe . Clearly H is the system state, Qe is Integral Control
the input, and the system can be represented as: Observer

Observation

x(t) = f (x(t), u(t)), x(0) = x0 (1) Observability
Observer design
with x = H, f = Sa x + 1
Su
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Example of a pendulum approach
Olivier Sename
Let consider the following pendulum
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
T
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
l Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
M Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
where is the angle, T the controlled torque, l the pendulum length, M digital control
its mass. Give the dynamical equations of motion for the pendulum Conclusion
angle (neglecting friction) and propose a state space model.

Example: Underwater Autonomous Vehicle UAV Aster x
State space
approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Actions: axial propeller to control the velocity in Ox direction and 5 Observability
independent mobile fins : Observer design
I 2 horizontals fins in the front part of the vehicle (1 , 10 ).
Introduction to
optimal control
I 1 vertical fin at the tail of the vehicle ( ).
Introduction to
I 2 fins at the tail of the vehicle (2 , 20 ). digital control
Conclusion
State space
UAV modelling approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Physical model: Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
M = G() + D() + g + u (2) To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
= Jc (2 ) (3) control
Problem formulation
Controllability
where: Definition
- M: mass matrix: real mass of the vehicle augmented by the Pole placement control
Specifications
"water-added-mass" part, Integral Control
- G() : action of Coriolis and centrifugal forces, Observer
- D(): matrix of hydrodynamics damping coefficients, Observation

Observability
- g : gravity effort and hydrostatic forces, Observer design
- Jc (2 ): referential transform matrix,
Introduction to
- u : forces and moments due to the vehicles actuators. optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
UAV state definition approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
T Linearisation
A 12 dimensional state vector : X = (6) (6) . To/from transfer
functions
T
I (6): position in the inertial referential: = 1 2 with Properties
T T Stability
1 = x y z and 2 = . x, y and z are the State feedback
positions of the vehicle , and , and are respectively the roll, control
Problem formulation
pitch and yaw angles. Controllability
Definition
I (6): velocity vector, in the local referential (linked to the vehicle) Pole placement control
describing the linear and angular velocities (first derivative of the Specifications
Integral Control
T
position, considering the referential transform: = 1 2 with Observer
T T Observation
1 = u v w and 2 = p q r Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Example: Inverted pendulum approach
Olivier Sename
It is described by:
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Parameters: Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Example: Inverted pendulum approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
The dynamical equations are as follows: Linearisation

To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
to be put in form (4). Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Deinition of a NonLinear dynamical system approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Many dynamical systems can be represented by Ordinary Differential Linear models

Linearisation
Equations (ODE) as To/from transfer
functions
(

x(t) = f ((x(t), u(t), t), x(0) = x0 Properties
Stability
(4)
y (t) = g((x(t), u(t), t) State feedback
control
Problem formulation
where f and g are non linear functions and Controllability
Definition
I x(t) Rn is referred to as the system state (vector of state Pole placement control
Specifications
variables), Integral Control
I u(t) Rm the control input Observer

Observation
I y (t) Rp the measured output Observability
Observer design
I x0 is the initial condition. Observer-based control
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Definition of linear state space representations approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
A continuous-time LINEAR state space system is given as : Nonlinear models
Linear models
( Linearisation

x(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t), x(0) = x0 To/from transfer
(5) functions
y (t) = Cx(t) + Du(t) Properties

Stability
State feedback
I x(t) Rn is the system state (vector of state variables), control
Problem formulation
I u(t) Rm the control input Controllability
Definition
I y (t) Rp the measured output Pole placement control
Specifications
I A, B, C and D are real matrices of appropriate dimensions Integral Control
Observer
I x0 is the initial condition. Observation
Observability
n is the order of the state space representation. Observer design
Matlab : ss(A,B,C,D) creates a SS object SYS
Introduction to
representing a continuous-time state-space model optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
A state space representation of a DC Motor approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
The dynamical equations are : Linearisation
To/from transfer
di functions
Ri + L +e = u e = Ke Properties
dt Stability
d State feedback
J = f + m m = K c i control
dt Problem formulation
Controllability
System of 2 equationsof order
1 = 2 state variables. Definition

A possible choice x = It gives: Specifications
i Integral Control

f /J Kc /J 0 Observer
A= B= C= 0 1 Observation
Ke /L R/L 1/L Observability
Observer design
Extension: measurement= motor angular position Observer-based control
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Example : Wind turbine approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Some important issues approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
I A complete ADAMS model includes 193 DOFs to represent fully
Modelling
flexible tower, drive-train, and blade components simulation Nonlinear models
model Linear models

Linearisation
I Different operating conditions according to the wind speed To/from transfer

functions
I Control objectives: maximize power , enhance damping in the first Properties

Stability
drive train torsion mode, design a smooth transition different
State feedback
modes control
Problem formulation
I A Generator torque controller to enhance drive train torsion Controllability
Definition
damping in Regions 2 and 3 Pole placement control
Specifications
I The control model is obtained by linearisation of a non linear Integral Control
electro-mechanical model: Observer

Observation

x(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t) + Ed(t) Observability
Observer design
y (t) = Cx(t) Observer-based control
Introduction to
where x1 = rotor-speed x2 = drive-train torsion spring force, x3 = optimal control
rotational generator speed Introduction to

digital control
u = generator torque, d : wind speed
Conclusion
State space
Examples: Suspension approach
Olivier Sename
Let the following mass-spring-damper system. Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
where x1 is the relative position, M1 the system mass, k1 the spring Observer-based control
coefficient, u the force generated by the active damper, and F1 is an Introduction to

optimal control
external disturbance. Applying the mechanical equations it leads:
Introduction to
digital control
M1 x1 = k1 x1 + u + F1 (6)
Conclusion
State space
Examples: Suspension cont. approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
x1 To/from transfer
The choice x = gives functions
x 1 Properties
Stability

x(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t) + Ed(t) State feedback
control
y (t) = Cx(t) Problem formulation
Controllability
where d = F1 , y = x1 with Definition

Specifications
0 1 0 Integral Control
A= , B=E = , and C = 0 1
k1 /M1 0 1/M1 Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Exercise approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Let the following quarter car model with active suspension. Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
zs and zus ) are the relative position of the Properties

chassis and of the wheel, Stability
ms (resp. mus ) the mass of the chassis State feedback

control
(resp. of the wheel), Problem formulation
Controllability
ks (resp. kt ) the spring coefficient of the Definition
suspension (of the tire), Pole placement control

Specifications
u the active damper force, Integral Control
zr is the road profile. Observer

Observation
Observability
Observer design
Choose some state variables and give a state space representation of Observer-based control
Introduction to
this system optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
More generally approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
A Nth-order differential equation
Modelling
Nonlinear models
d ny d n1 y Linear models
+ an1 n1 + . . . + a1 y + a0 y = u Linearisation
dt n dt To/from transfer
functions
can be reformulated into N simultaneous first-order differential Properties
equations defining the state variables : Stability
State feedback
control
d n1 y Problem formulation
x1 = y , , x2 = y , , . . . xn = ,
dt n1 Controllability
Definition
which gives the according state space representation. Specifications
0 1 0 ... 0 0 Integral Control

Observer
0 0 1 0 ... .. Observation
.
.. .. .. .. ..

Observability
A= . . . . . , B = . and
.. Observer design

0 ..
. 0 1 0 Introduction to
optimal control
a0 a1 . . . . . . an1 1 Introduction to

C= 1 0 ... ... 0 . digital control
Conclusion
State space
Linearisation approach
The linearisation can be done around an equilibrium point or around a Olivier Sename
particular point defined by: Introduction

(
x eq (t) = f ((xeq (t), ueq (t), t), givenxeq (0) Modelling
Nonlinear models
(7) Linear models
yeq (t) = g((xeq (t), ueq (t), t) Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Defining
Properties
x = x xeq , u
= u ueq , y = y yeq Stability
State feedback
this leads to a linear state space representation of the system, around control
the equilibrium point: Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
x (t) = Ax (t) + B u
(
(t), Pole placement control
(8) Specifications
y (t) = C x (t) + D u
(t) Integral Control
Observer
f f Observation
with A = |
x x=xeq ,u=ueq
, B= |
u x=xeq ,u=ueq
, Observability
g g Observer design
C= |
x x=xeq ,u=ueq
and D = u
|x=x eq ,u=ueq Observer-based control
Introduction to
Usual case optimal control
Usually an equilibrium point satisfies: Introduction to

digital control
0 = f ((xeq (t), ueq (t), t) (9) Conclusion
For the pendulum, we can choose y = = f = 0.

Underwater Autonomous Vehicle UAV Aster x
State space
approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear model: 12 state variables; 6 control inputs. Nonlinear models
Equilibrium point chosen as [u v w p q r ] = [1 0 0 0 0 0] : all velocities are taken Linear models
equal to 0, except the longitudinal velocity taken equal to 1m/s (cruising speed). Linearisation
To/from transfer
Tangential linearization around the chosen equilibrium point: functions
Properties
x = Ax (t) + B u
Stability

(t)
State feedback
y = C x (t) + Du(t) control
Problem formulation
where Controllability
= [x u y v z w p q r ]T
I x Definition
I
u = [1 10 2 20 1 Qc ]T Specifications
Integral Control
I y measured output (here only the altitude z is measured) Observer

Observation
Matrices A, B, C and D depend on the model parameters : hydrodynamical Observability
Observer design
parameters, mass of the vehicle, dimension of fins . . . Note that most of these Observer-based control
parameters are uncertain, and that here the control design is proposed for the Introduction to
nominal plant case only. optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Exercise: Inverted pendulum (2) approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
Applying the linearisation method leads to : To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Are state space representations equivalent to transfer approach
functions ? Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Equivalence transfer function - state space representation Nonlinear models

Linear models
Consider a linear system given by: Linearisation

To/from transfer
functions

x(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t), x(0) = x0 Properties
(10)
y (t) = Cx(t) + Du(t) Stability
State feedback
control
Using the Laplace transform (and assuming zero initial condition Problem formulation
x0 = 0), (10) becomes: Controllability

Definition
s.x(s) = Ax(s) + Bu(s) (s.In A)x(s) = Bu(s) Specifications

Integral Control
Observer
Then the transfer function matrix of system (10) is given by Observation
Observability
N(s)
G(s) = C(sIn A)1 B + D =
Observer design
(11) Observer-based control
D(s)
Introduction to
optimal control
Matlab: if SYS is an SS object, then tf(SYS) gives the associated Introduction to

digital control
transfer matrix. Equivalent to tf(N,D) Conclusion
State space
Conversion TF to SS approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
There mainly three cases to be considered Linear models
Linearisation
Simple numerator To/from transfer
functions
y 1
= G(s) = 3 2
Properties
u s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 Stability
State feedback
Numerator order less than denominator order control
Problem formulation
y b s2 + b2 s + b3 N(s) Controllability
= G(s) = 3 1 2
= Definition
u s + a1 s + a2 s + a3 D(s) Pole placement control
Specifications
Integral Control
Numerator equal to denominator order
Observer
Observation
y b s3 + b1 s2 + b2 s + b3 N(s)
= G(s) = 0 3
Observability
= Observer design
u s + a1 s2 + a2 s + a3 D(s) Observer-based control
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Canonical forms approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Some specific state space representations are well-known and often Nonlinear models
Linear models
usedas the so-called controllable canonical form Linearisation
0 1 0 ... 0 0
To/from transfer
functions
0 0 1 0 ... .. Properties
.
.. .. .. .. ..
Stability

A= . . . . . , B = ... and
State feedback

0 .
..
control
0 1 0 Problem formulation
Controllability
a0 a1 . . . . . . an1 1 Definition
C= c0 c1 ... cn1 . Specifications
It corresponds to the transfer function: Integral Control
Observer
c0 + c1 s + . . . + cn1 sn1 Observation

Observability
G(s) =
a0 + a1 s + . . . + an1 sn1 + sn Observer design
Introduction to
In Matlab, use canon optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
How to compute the solution x(t) of a linear system? approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models

Case of the autonomous equation x(t) = Ax(t) Linear models
Linearisation
It is the generalization of the scalar case: if y = y then To/from transfer
functions
y (t) = exp(t)y0 . Properties
The state x(t) with initial condition x(0) = x0 is then given by Stability
State feedback
x(t) = eAt x(0) (12) control
Problem formulation
Controllability
To get an explicit analytical form, this requires to compute eAt , which Definition
can be done following one of the 3 methods to compute eAt : Specifications
Integral Control
1. Inverse Laplace transform of (sIn A)1 Observer
Observation
2. Diagonalisation of A Observability
Observer design
3. Cayley-Hamilton method Observer-based control
In Matlab : use expm(A*t) and not exp (if t is given). Introduction to

optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
How to compute the solution x(t) of a linear system ? approach
(cont..) Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
General case of system (10) To/from transfer

functions
The state x(t), solution of system (10), is given by Properties

Stability
Z t
State feedback
x(t) = eAt x(0) + eA(t) Bu()d (13) control
|0
| {z } Problem formulation
{z } Controllability
free response
forced response Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Simulation of state space systems Observer

Observation
Use lsim. Observability

Observer design
Example: Observer-based control
t = 0:0.01:5; u = sin(t); lsim(sys,u,t) Introduction to

optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
Properties State feedback

control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Non unicity approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Given a transfer function, there exists an infinity of state space Modelling
representations (equivalent in terms of input-output behavior). Let Nonlinear models

Linear models
Linearisation

x(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t), To/from transfer
(14) functions
y (t) = Cx(t) + Du(t) Properties
Stability
the transfer matrix being G(s) = C(sIn A)1 B + D,

and consider the State feedback
control
change of variables x = Tz (T being an invertible matrix). Replacing Problem formulation
x = Tz in the previous system gives: Controllability

Definition

T z(t) = ATz(t) + Bu(t) (15) Specifications
Integral Control
y (t) = CTz(t) + Du(t) (16) Observer
Observation
Hence Observability
Observer design

z(t) = T 1 ATz(t) + T 1 Bu(t) (17) Introduction to
optimal control
y (t) = CTz(t) + Du(t) (18)
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
= T 1 AT , B
Defining A = CT , the transfer function of
= T 1 B and C Modelling
the previous system is: Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation

G(s) = C(sI 1 B
n A) +D (19) To/from transfer
functions
1 1 1
= C T (sIn T AT ) T B +D (20) Properties
Stability
(21) State feedback
control
Using In = T 1 T , we get Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition

G(s) = C T T 1 (sIn A)1 T T 1 B + D = G(s) (22) Pole placement control
Specifications
Integral Control
Exercise: For the quarter-car model, choose:
Observer
Observation
x1 = zs , x2 = z s , x3 = zs zus , x4 = z s z us Observability
Observer design
and give the equivalent state space representation.
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Stability approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Definition Linear models
Linearisation
An equilibrium point xeq is stable if, for all > 0, there exists a > 0 To/from transfer
such that: functions
Properties
Stability
kx(0) xeq k < = kx(t) xeq k < , t 0
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition Definition
An equilibrium point xeq is asymptotically stable if it is stable and, Pole placement control
Specifications
there exists > 0 such that: Integral Control
Observer
kx(0) xeq k < = x(t) xeq , when t Observation
Observability
Observer design
These notions are equivalent for linear systems (not for non linear
Introduction to
ones). optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Stability Analysis approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
The stability of a linear state space system is analyzed through the To/from transfer
functions
characteristic equation det(sIn A) = 0. Properties

The system poles are then the eigenvalues of the matrix A. It then Stability
follows: State feedback

control
Problem formulation
Proposition Controllability
Definition

A system x(t) = Ax(t), with initial condition x(0) = x0 , is stable if Pole placement control
Re(i ) < 0, i, where i , i, are the eigenvalues of A. Specifications

Integral Control
Using Matlab, if SYS is an SS object then pole(SYS) computes the Observer
poles P of the LTI model SYS. It is equivalent to compute eig(A). Observation

Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
The Phase Plane approach
It consists in plotting the trajectory of the state variables (valid also for Olivier Sename
nonlinear systems). Trajectories that converge to zero are stable ! Introduction

Modelling
x 1 (t) = x2 (t)
given x1 (0) & x2 (0) Nonlinear models
x 2 (t) = 5x1 (t) 6x2 (t) Linear models

Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Stability Analysis - Lyapunov approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
The stability of a linear state space system can be analysed through the Modelling
Nonlinear models
Lyapunov theory. Linear models
It is the basis of all extension of stability for non linear systems, Linearisation
To/from transfer
time-delay systems, time-varying systems ... functions
Properties
Theorem Stability

A system x(t) = Ax(t), with initial condition x(0) = x0 , is State feedback
control
asymoptotically stable at x = 0 if and only if there exist some matrices Problem formulation
P = P T > 0 and Q > 0 such that: Controllability

Definition
T
A P + PA = Q (23) Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
see lyap in MATLAB. Observation
Proof: The Lyapunov theory says that a linear system is stable if there Observability
Observer design
exists a continuous function V (x) s.t.: Observer-based control
V (x) > 0 with V (0) = 0 and V (x) = dV dx 0. Introduction to

optimal control
A possible Lyapunov function for the above system is : V (x) = x T Px
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
About zeros approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
I Roots of the transfer function numerator are called the system Linear models
zeros. Linearisation
To/from transfer
I Need to develop a similar way of defining/computing them using a functions
Properties
state space model. Stability
I Zero: is a generalized frequency for which the system can have State feedback
control
a non-zero input u(t) = u0 et , but exactly zero output y (t) = 0. Problem formulation
Controllability
I The zeros are found by solving: Definition

A In B Specifications
det =0 (24) Integral Control

C D Observer
Observation
In Matlab use zero Observability

Observer design
I do remind that zeros may change the system behavior. Observer-based control
Introduction to
s+3
Example: find the zero of : s2 +5s+2
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback control State feedback

control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Objective of any control system approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
shape the response of the system to a given reference and get (or Stability
keep) a stable system in closed-loop, with desired performances, while State feedback
control
minimising the effects of disturbances and measurement noises, and Problem formulation
Controllability
avoiding actuators saturation, this despite of modelling uncertainties, Definition
parameter changes or change of operating point. Pole placement control

Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Formal objective of any control system approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Nominal stability (NS): The system is stable with the nominal model Linearisation
(no model uncertainty) To/from transfer

functions
Nominal Performance (NP): The system satisfies the performance Properties

Stability
specifications with the nominal model (no model
State feedback
uncertainty) control
Problem formulation
Robust stability (RS): The system is stable for all perturbed plants Controllability
about the nominal model, up to the worst-case model Definition

uncertainty (including the real plant) Specifications
Integral Control
Robust performance (RP): The system satisfies the performance Observer
specifications for all perturbed plants about the nominal Observation
Observability
model, up to the worst-case model uncertainty Observer design
(including the real plant). Observer-based control
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
About Feedback control approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
How to design a controller using a state space representation ? Linearisation
Tow cases are possible : To/from transfer

functions
I Static controllers (output or state feedback) Properties

Stability
I Dynamic controllers (output feedback or observer-based) State feedback
control
What for ? Problem formulation
Controllability
I Closed-loop stability (of state or output variables) Definition
I disturbance rejection Specifications
Integral Control
I Model tracking Observer
Observation
I Input/Output decoupling Observability
Observer design
I Other performance criteria : H2 optimal, H robust... Observer-based control
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Why state feedback and not output feedback? approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
y (s) 1
Example: G(s) = u(s)
= s2 s
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
1. Give the controllable canonical form considering x1 = y , x2 = y . functions
Properties
2. Case of output feedback= Proportional control : u = Kp y Stability
I Compute the closed-loop transfer function and check that the State feedback
closed-loop poles are given by the roots of the characteristic control
polynomial PBF (s) = s2 s + L. Problem formulation
Controllability
I Can the closed-loop system be stabilized ? Definition
3. Case of state feedback : consider the control law Pole placement control
Specifications
u = x1 + 3x2 + yref Integral Control
I Compute the state space representation of the closed-loop system. Observer
I What are the poles of the closed-loop systems? Observation
Observability
I Is it stable? Observer design
I If yes why this second control solves the problem? Observer-based control
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
A preliminary property analysis: Controllability approach
Olivier Sename
Controllability refers to the ability of controlling a state-space model Introduction

using state feedback. Modelling
Nonlinear models
Definition Linear models

Linearisation
Given two states x0 and x1 , the system (10) is controllable if there exist To/from transfer
functions
t1 > 0 and a piecewise-continuous control input u(t), t [0, t1 ], such
Properties
that x(t) takes the values x0 for t = 0 and x1 for t = t1 . Stability
State feedback
Proposition control
Problem formulation
The controllability matrix is defined by C = [B, A.B, . . . , An1 .B]. Then Controllability
Definition
system (10) is controllable if and only if rank (C ) = n. Pole placement control
If the system is single-input single output (SISO), it is equivalent to Specifications

Integral Control
det(C ) 6= 0.
Observer
Observation
Using Matlab, if SYS is an SS object then crtb(SYS) returns the Observability
controllability matrix of the state-space model SYS with realization Observer design
(A,B,C,D). This is equivalent to ctrb(sys.a,sys.b)
Introduction to
optimal control
Exercices Introduction to
Test the controllability of the previous examples: DC motor, suspension, digital control
inverted pendulum. Conclusion

State space
Definition of the state feedback control approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
A state feedback controller for a continuous-time system is: Linear models

Linearisation
To/from transfer
u(t) = Fx(t) (25) functions
Properties
Stability
where F is a m n real matrix.
State feedback
When the system is SISO, it corresponds to : control
u(t) = f1 x1 f2 x2 . . . fn xn with F = [f1 , f2 , . . . , fn ]. Problem formulation

Controllability
When the system is MIMO we have Definition
Specifications
u1 x1 Integral Control
u2 f 11 . . . f1n x Observer
. .. 2
. = .. .
Observation
.. .
.. Observability
fm1 . . . fmn Observer design
um xn Observer-based control
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
State feedback (2) approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
Using state feedback controllers (25), we get in closed-loop (for functions
simplicity D = 0) Properties
Stability

x(t) = (A BF )x(t), State feedback
(26) control
y (t) = Cx(t) Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
The stability (and dynamics) of the closed-loop system is then given by Pole placement control
the eigenvalues of A BF . Specifications

Integral Control
Then the solution y (t) = C exp(ABF )t x0 converges asymptotically to Observer
zero! Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Complete state feedback control for reference tracking approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Objective: y should track some reference signal r , i.e. Linear models
Linearisation
y (t) r (t) To/from transfer

functions
t
Properties
Then the state feedback control must be of the form: Stability
State feedback
control
u(t) = Fx(t)+Gr (t) (27) Problem formulation
Controllability
G is a m p real matrix. Then the closed-loop transfer matrix is : Definition

Specifications
1
GCL (s) = C(sIn A + BF ) BG (28) Integral Control
Observer
Observation
G is chosen to ensure a unitary steady-state gain as: Observability
Observer design
1 1
G = [C(A + BF ) B] (29) Observer-based control
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Synthesis of the state feedback control: the pole placement approach
control Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
Problem definition To/from transfer
functions
Given a linear system (5), does there exist a state feedback control law
Properties
(25) such that the closed-loop poles are in predefined locations Stability
(denoted i , i = 1, ..., n ) in the complex plane ? State feedback

control
Problem formulation
Proposition Controllability
Definition
Let a linear system given by A, B, and let i , i = 1, ..., n , a set of Pole placement control
complex elements (i.e. the desired poles of the closed-loop system). Specifications
Integral Control
There exists a state feedback control u = Fx such that the poles of Observer
the closed-loop system are i , i = 1, ..., n if and only if the pair (A, B) is Observation
Observability
controllable. Observer design
In Matlab, use F=acker(A,B,P) or F=place(A,B,P) where
Introduction to
P = [1 , . . . , n ] is the set of desired closed-loop poles. optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Pole placement control: the case of controllable canonical approach
forms Olivier Sename
Introduction
In this first case, we assume that the system state space representation Modelling
is of the form: Nonlinear models

Linear models
0 1 0 ... 0 0

Linearisation
0 0 1 0 ... .. To/from transfer

functions
.
.. .. .. .. ..

Properties

A= . . . . . , B = . and
.. Stability

0 .. State feedback
. 0 1 0 control
a0 a1 . . . . . . an1 1 Problem formulation

Controllability

C= c0 c1 ... cn1 . Definition
Let F = [ f1 f2 . . . fn ] Specifications
Then Integral Control
Observer
0 1 0 ... 0
Observation
Observability
0 0 1 0 ... Observer design
.. .. .. .. .. Observer-based control

A BF = . . . . . (30) Introduction to
optimal control
.
..

0 0 1 Introduction to
digital control
a0 f1 a1 f2 . . . ... an1 fn Conclusion
State space
the case of controllable canonical forms (cont..) approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Remind that the desired closed-loop polynomial writes: Linear models
(s 1 )(s 2 )...(s n ) or equivalently sn + n1 sn1 + . . . + 1 s + 0 . Linearisation

To/from transfer
The choice: functions
Properties
Stability
fi = ai1 + i1 , i = 1, .., n State feedback
control
is a problem solution and ensures that the poles of A BF are Problem formulation
Controllability
{i }, i = 1, n Definition
Specifications
Remark: the case of controllable canonical forms is very important Integral Control
since , when we consider a general state space representation, it is first Observer

Observation
necessary to use a change of basis to make the system under Observability
canonical form, which will simplify a lot the computation of the state Observer design
feedback control gain F (see next slide). Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Pole placement control: general procedure approach
Olivier Sename
Procedure for the general case:
Introduction
1. Check controllability of (A, B)
Modelling
2. Calculate C = [B, AB, . . . , An1 B]. Nonlinear models
Linear models
1
qn

Linearisation
q1 To/from transfer
qn A functions
Note C 1 = ... . Define T =

..

Properties
. Stability
qn
qn An1 State feedback
control
= T 1 AT and B
3. Note A = T 1 B (which are under the controllable Problem formulation
Controllability
canonical form) Definition

4. Choose the desired closed-loop poles and define the desired Specifications
Integral Control
closed-loop characteristic polynomial: Observer
sn + n1 sn1 + . . . + 1 s + 0 Observation
Observability
5. Calculate the state feedback u = F x with: Observer design
f = a + , i = 1, .., n Introduction to
i i1 i1 optimal control
Introduction to
6. Calculate (for the original system): digital control
Conclusion
u = Fx, with F = F T 1
State space
How to specificy the desired closed-loop performances? approach
Olivier Sename
The required closed-loop performances should be chosen in the
Introduction
following zone
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
which ensures a damping greater than = sin . Conclusion
implies that the real part of the CL poles are sufficiently negatives.
State space
Specifications (2) approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
Some useful rules for selection the desired pole/zero locations (for a functions
second order system): Properties

Stability
1.8
I Rise time : tr ' n State feedback
control
4.6
I Seetling time : ts ' n Problem formulation
Controllability
I Overshoot Mp = exp( /sqrt(1 2 )): Definition

= 0.3 Mp = 35%, Specifications
Integral Control
= 0.5 Mp = 16%,
Observer
= 0.7 Mp = 5%. Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Specifications(3) approach
Olivier Sename
Some rules do exist to shape the transient response. The ITAE (Integral
of Time multiplying the Absolute value of the Error), defined as: Introduction
Z Modelling
Nonlinear models
ITAE = t|e(t)|dt Linear models
0 Linearisation
To/from transfer
can be used to specify a dynamic response with relatively small functions
overshoot and relatively little oscillation (there exist other methods to do Properties
Stability
so). The optimum coefficients for the ITAE criteria are given below (see
State feedback
Dorf & Bishop 2005). control
Problem formulation
Order Characteristic polynomials dk (s) Controllability
1 d1 = [s + n ] Definition
2 d2 = [s2 + 1.4n s + n2 ] Specifications
3 d3 = [s3 + 1.75n s2 + 2.15n2 s + n3 ] Integral Control
4 3 2 2 3 4 Observer
4 d4 = [s + 2.1n s + 3.4n s + 2.7n s + n ] Observation
5 d5 = [s5 + 2.8n s4 + 5n2 s3 + 5.5n3 s2 + 3.4n4 s + n5 ] Observability

Observer design
6 d6 = [s6 + 3.25n s5 + 6.6n2 s4 + 8.6n3 s3 + 7.45n4 s2 + 3.95n5 s +Observer-based
n6 ] control
Introduction to
optimal control
and the corresponding transfer function is of the form:
Introduction to
digital control
nk Conclusion
Hk (s) = , k = 1, ..., 6
dk (s)
State space
Specifications(4) approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Integral Control or how to ensure disturbance attenuation approach
with a state feedback control? Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Preliminary remrak: a state feedback controller may not allow to reject Linearisation
To/from transfer
the effects of disturbances (particularly of input disturbances). functions
Let us consider the system: Properties

Stability
(

x(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t)+Ed(t), x(0) = x0 State feedback
control
(31) Problem formulation
y (t) = Cx(t) Controllability
Definition
where d is the disturbance. Pole placement control

Specifications
The objective is to keep y following a reference signal r even in the Integral Control
presence of d, i.e Observer

Observation
y
r 1
I Observability
t Observer design
y
d 0
I
Introduction to
t optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Formulation of the Integral Control approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
A very useful method consists in adding an integral term to ensure a Nonlinear models
unitary static closed-loop gain . Linear models
Linearisation
The method consists in extending the system by adding a new state To/from transfer
functions
variable:
Properties
Stability

z(t) = r (t) y (t) State feedback
control
x Problem formulation
We need to define the extended state vector . Controllability
z Definition
Then the new state space representation is given as: Pole placement control
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer

x(t) A 0 x 0 B E
= + u(t) + r (t) + d(t) Observation

z(t) C 0 z 1 0 0 Observability
Observer design

x Observer-based control
y (t) = C 0 Introduction to
z optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Synthesis of the Integral Control approach
Let us define: Olivier Sename

A 0 B Introduction
Ae = , Be = , Ce = C 0
C 0 0 Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
The new state feedback control is now of the form Linearisation
To/from transfer
x functions
u(t) = Fe = Fx(t)Hz(t) Properties
z Stability
State feedback
with Fe = [F H]. control
Then the synthesis of the control law u(t) requires: Problem formulation
Controllability
I the verification of the extended system controllability Definition
I the specification of the derised closed-loop performances, i.e. a Specifications
Integral Control
set Pe of n + 1 desired closed-loop poles has to be chosen,
Observer
I the computation of the full state feedback Fe using Observation
Observability
Fe=acker(Ae,Be,Pe) Observer design
We then get the closed-loop system
Introduction to
optimal control

x(t) A BF BH x 0 E
= + r (t) + d(t) Introduction to

z(t) C 0 z 1 0 digital control
Conclusion
x
y (t) = C 0
z
State space
Integral control scheme approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
The complete structure has the following form: Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
When an observer is to be used, the control action simply becomes: Observation
Observability
Observer design
u(t) = F x (t) Hz(t) Observer-based control
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Observer and output feedback

Stability
State feedback
control
control Problem formulation

Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Introduction approach
Olivier Sename
A first insight Introduction
To implement a state feedback control, the measurement of all the state Modelling
Nonlinear models
variables is necessary. If this is not available, we will use a state Linear models
estimation through a so-called Observer. Linearisation

To/from transfer
functions
Observation or Estimation Properties

Stability
The estimation theory is based on the famous Kalman contribution to
State feedback
filtering problems (1960), and accounts for noise induced problems. control
The observation theory has been developed for Linear Systems by Problem formulation
Controllability
Luenberger (1971), and doe snot consider the noise effects. Definition
Specifications
Other interest of observation/estimation Integral Control
In practice the use of sensors is often limited for several reasons: Observer
Observation
feasibility, cost, reliability, maintenance ... Observability
An observer is a key issue to estimate unknown variables (then non Observer design
measured variables) and to propose a so-called virtual sensor.
Introduction to
Objective: Develop a dynamical system whose state x (t) satisfies: optimal control
Introduction to
I (x(t) x (t)) 0 digital control
t
Conclusion
I (x(t) x (t)) 0 as fast as possible
State space
A first approach to estimation from input data: Open loop approach
observers Olivier Sename
Let consider Introduction

(

x(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t), x(0) = x0 Modelling
Nonlinear models
(32) Linear models
y (t) = Cx(t) Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Given that we know the plant matrices and the inputs, we can just
Properties
perform a simulation that runs in parallel with the system Stability
State feedback
x (t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t), given x (0)
(
control
(33) Problem formulation
y (t) = C x (t) Controllability

Definition
Therefore, if we would have x (0) = x(0), then x (t) = x(t), t 0. Specifications

Integral Control
BUT Observer
Observation
I x(0) is UNKNOWN so we cannot choose x (0) = x(0), Observability

Observer design
I the estimation error (e = x x ) dynamics is determined by A, i.e Observer-based control
Introduction to

satisfies e(t) = Ae(t) (could be unstable AND cannot be modified) optimal control
I the effects of disturbance and noise cannot be attenuated (leads to Introduction to

digital control
estimation biais)
Conclusion
NEED FOR A FEEDBACK FROM MEASURED OUTPUTS TO

CORRECT THE ESTIMATION !
State space
A preliminary property: Observability approach
Observability refers to the ability to estimate a state variable (often not Olivier Sename
measured !!). Introduction
Definition Modelling
Nonlinear models
A linear system (5) is completely observable if, given the control and Linear models
the output over the interval t0 t T , one can determine any initial Linearisation
To/from transfer
state x(t0 ). functions
It is equivalent to characterize the non-observability as : Properties

Stability
A state x(t) is not observable if the corresponding output vanishes, i.e. State feedback
if the following holds: y (t) = y (t) = y (t) = . . . = 0 control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Where does observability come from ? Definition
Compare the transfer function of the two different systems* Specifications
Integral Control
x = x + u Observer
Observation
y = 2x Observability
Observer design
and
Introduction to
optimal control
1 0 1
x = x+ u Introduction to
0 2 1 digital control
Conclusion

y = 2 0 x
State space
Observability cont. approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Proposition Modelling
C Nonlinear models

Linear models
CA Linearisation
The observability matrix is defined by O = .. . Then system To/from transfer

functions
.
Properties
CAn1 Stability
(10) is observable if and only if rank (O) = n. State feedback

control
If the system is single-input single output (SISO), it is equivalent to Problem formulation
det(O) 6= 0. Controllability
Definition
Using Matlab, if SYS is an SS object then obsv(SYS) returns the Specifications
observability matrix of the state-space model SYS with realization Integral Control
Observer
(A,B,C,D). This is equivalent to OBSV(sys.a,sys.c). Observation
Observability
Exercices Observer design
Test the observability of the previous examples: DC motor, suspension,
Introduction to
inverted pendulum. optimal control
Analysis of different cases, according to the considered number of Introduction to
digital control
sensors.
Conclusion
State space
Closed-loop Observer: estimation from input AND output approach
data Olivier Sename
Introduction
Objective: since y is KNOWN (measured) and is function of the state Modelling

Nonlinear models
variables, use an on line comparison of the measured system output y Linear models
and the estimated output y . Linearisation

To/from transfer
Observer description: functions
Properties
Stability
x (t) = Ax (t) + Bu(t) + L(y (t) C x (t)) State feedback

(34) control
x0 R n to be defined Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
where x (t) Rn is the estimated state of x(t) and L is the n p Pole placement control
constant observer gain matrix to be designed. Specifications

Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Analysis of the observer properties approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Th estimated error, e(t) := x(t) x (t), satisfies: Modelling

Nonlinear models
Linear models

e(t) = (A LC)e(t) (35) Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
If L is designed such that A LC is stable, then x (t) converges Properties
asymptotically towards x(t). Stability
State feedback
Proposition control
Problem formulation
(34) is an observer for system (5) if and only if the pair (C,A) is Controllability
observable, i.e. Definition

Specifications
Integral Control
rank (O) = n
Observer
C
Observation
Observability
CA Observer design
where O = .. . Observer-based control

. Introduction to
optimal control
CAn1 Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Observer design approach
Olivier Sename
The observer design is restricted to find L such that A LC is stable (so
that (x(t) x (t)) 0) and has some desired eigenvalues (so that Introduction
t
Modelling
(x(t) x (t)) 0 as fast as possible). This is still a pole placement Nonlinear models
problem. Linear models

Linearisation
To/from transfer
Specifications functions
Usually the observer poles are chosen around 5 to 10 times higher than Properties
Stability
the closed-loop system, so that the state estimation is good as early as State feedback
possible. This is quite important to avoid that the observer makes the control
Problem formulation
closed-loop system slower. Controllability
Definition
Design method Specifications
Integral Control
I In order to use the acker Matlab function, we will use the duality Observer
property between observability and controllability, i.e. : Observation
Observability
(C, A) observable (AT , C T ) controllable. Observer design
I Then there exists LT such that the eigenvalues of AT C T LT can Introduction to
be randomly chosen. As (A LC)T = AT C T LT then L exists optimal control
such that A LC is stable. Introduction to

digital control
I Matlab : use L=acker(A,C,Po) where Po is the Conclusion
set of desired observer poles.
State space
Observer-based control: integration of the observer into the approach
control loop Olivier Sename
Introduction
When an observer is built, we will use as control law: Modelling
Nonlinear models
u(t) = F x (t) + Gr (t) (36) Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
But: can we ensure that the scheme observer+state feedback works functions
(i.e is stable and meets the requirements)? Properties

Stability
We then need to study the stability of the complete closed-loop system,
State feedback
using the extended state: control
Problem formulation
T Controllability
xe (t) = x(t) e(t) Definition
Specifications
The closed-loop system with observer (34) and control (36) is: Integral Control
Observer
A BF BF BG Observation
x e (t) = xe (t) + r (t)
0 A LC 0 Observability
Observer design
y = [C 0]xe (t)
Introduction to
optimal control
The closed-loop system from r to y is then: Introduction to
digital control
y
= C(sIn A + BF )BG Conclusion
r
State space
Separation principle approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
Therefore, the characteristic polynomial of the extended system is: To/from transfer
functions
Properties
det(sIn A + BF ) det(sIn A + LC) Stability
State feedback
If the observer and the control are designed separately then the control
Problem formulation
closed-loop system with the dynamic measurement feedback is stable, Controllability
given that the controlled and observer systems are stable. Definition
The whole set of closed-loop poles then include those of the Specifications
state-feedback controlled system (i.e. the eigenvalues of A BF ), plus Integral Control
those of the observer (i.e. the eigenvalues of A LC). Observer

Observation
This corresponds to the so-called separation principle. Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
Introduction to optimal control State feedback

control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Introduction approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
The objective of an optimal control is to minimize a cost function which Modelling
penalizes
R
simultaneously the state and input behaviors, of the form Nonlinear models
Linear models
0 L(x, y )dt, i.e to reach a tradeoff between the transient response and Linearisation
To/from transfer
the control effort. functions
This objective is defined through the following criteria always Properties
considered in the quadratic form: Stability
State feedback
Z control
J= (x T Qx + u T Ru)dt Problem formulation
Controllability
0
Definition
In that form: Specifications
x T Qx is the state cost,

Integral Control
I
Observer
I u T Ru is the control cost, Observation
Observability
I Q and R are respectively the state and cost penalties. Observer design
It can be proved that the state feedback control that minimizes J in Introduction to
optimal control
closed-loop (given Q and R) is obtained solving an Algebraic Riccati
Introduction to
Equation (ARE) digital control
Conclusion
State space
Linear-Quadratic Regulator (LQR) design approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
LQR problem solution Linearisation

To/from transfer

Given a linear system x(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t), with (A, B) stabilizable, and functions
given positive definite matrices Q = Q T > 0 and R = R T > 0, if there Properties

Stability
exists P = P T > 0 s.t: State feedback

control
AT P + PA PBR 1 B T P + Q = 0 Problem formulation

Controllability
Definition
then the state feedback control u = Kx such that: Pole placement control
Specifications
Integral Control
1 T
K =R B P Observer
Observation
minimizes the quadractic criteria J (for given Q and R). Observability

Observer design
This problem is handled in Matlab through the lqr command. Observer-based control
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
Introduction to digital control State feedback

control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Toward digital control approach
Olivier Sename
Digital control Introduction
Usually controllers are implemented in a digital computer as: Modelling

Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
This requires the use of the discrete theory. Observer

Observation
m (Sampling theory + Z-Transform) m Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Definition of the Z-Transform approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Mathematical definition Nonlinear models
Because the output of the ideal sampler, x (t), is a series of impulses Linear models
Linearisation
with values x(kTe ), we have: To/from transfer
functions
Properties
x (t) = x(kTe ) (t kTe ) Stability
k =0 State feedback
control
Problem formulation
by using the Laplace transform, Controllability
Definition
ksTe
L [x (t)] = x(kTe )e Specifications
Integral Control
k =0
Observer
Observation
Noting z = esTe , we can derive the so called Z-Transform Observability
Observer design
k
X (z) = Z [x(k )] = x(k )z Introduction to
optimal control
k =0
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Properties approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Definition Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
k
X (z) = Z [x(k )] = x(k )z To/from transfer
functions
k =0
Properties
Stability
Properties
State feedback
control
Z [x(k ) + y (k )] = X (z) + Y (z) Problem formulation
Controllability
n
Z [x(k n)] = z Z [x(k )] Definition
d Specifications
Z [kx(k )] = z Z [x(k )] Integral Control
dz
Observer
Z [x(k ) y (k )] = X (z).Y (z) Observation
Observability
lim x(k ) = lim (z 1)X (z) Observer design
k 1z 1 Observer-based control
Introduction to
The z 1 can be interpreted as a pure delay operator. optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Zero order holder approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Sampler and Zero order holder Modelling

Nonlinear models
A sampler is a switch that close every Te seconds. Linear models

Linearisation
A Zero order holder holds the signal x for Te seconds to get h as: To/from transfer
functions
h(t + kTe ) = x(kTe ), 0 t < Te Properties

Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Zero order holder (contd) approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Model of the Zero order holder Linearisation
To/from transfer
The transfer function of the zero-order holder is given by: functions
Properties
1 esTe Stability
GBOZ (s) = State feedback
s s control
1 esTe Problem formulation
= Controllability
s Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Influence of the D/A and A/D Observer

Note that the precision is also limited by the available precision of the Observation
Observability
converters (either A/D or D/A). Observer design
This error is also called the amplitude quantization error. Observer-based control
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Representation of the discrete linear systems approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
The discrete output of a system can be expressed as:
Modelling
Nonlinear models

Linear models
y (k ) = h(k n)u(n) Linearisation
n=0 To/from transfer
functions
hence, applying the Z-transform leads to Properties

Stability
State feedback
Y (z) = Z [h(k )]U(z) = H(z)U(z) control
Problem formulation
Controllability
b + b1 z + + bm z m Y Definition
H(z) = 0 = Pole placement control
a0 + a1 z + + an z n U Specifications
Integral Control
where n ( m) is the order of the system Observer

Observation
Corresponding difference equation: Observability
Observer design
1 Observer-based control
y (k ) = b u(k n) + b1 u(k n + 1) + + bm u(k n + m)

an 0 Introduction to
optimal control

a0 y (k n) a2 y (k n + 1) an1 y (k 1) Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Some useful transformations approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
x(t) X (s) X (z) functions
(t) 1 1 Properties
(t kTe ) eksTe z k Stability
1 z State feedback
u(t) s z1 control
1 zTe
t s2 (z1)2
Problem formulation
Controllability
1 z
eat s+a zeaTe
Definition
1 z(1eaTe )
1 eat s(s+a) (z1)(zeaTe )
Specifications
Integral Control
zsin(Te )
sin(t) s2 + 2 z 2 2zcos(Te )+1 Observer
s z(zcos(Te )) Observation
cos(t) s2 + 2 z 2 2zcos(Te )+1 Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Poles, Zeros and Stability approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Equivalence {s} {z}
Modelling
The equivalence between the Laplace domain and the Z domain is Nonlinear models
Linear models
obtained by the following transformation: Linearisation
To/from transfer
sTe functions
z =e
Properties
Stability
Two poles with a imaginary part witch differs of 2/Te give the same State feedback
pole in Z. control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Stability domain Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Approximations for discretization approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Forward difference (Rectangle inferior) Nonlinear models

Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
z 1 Stability
s=
Te State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Backward difference (Rectangle superior) Pole placement control

Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
z 1 Observability
s= Observer design
zTe Observer-based control
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Approximations for discretization (contd) approach
Olivier Sename
Trapezoidal difference (Tustin)
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
2 z 1 Linearisation
s=
Te z + 1 To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Systems definition approach
Olivier Sename
A discrete-time state space system is as follows:
Introduction
(
x((k + 1)h) = Ad x(kh) + Bd u(kh), x(0) = x0 Modelling
(37) Nonlinear models
y (kh) = Cd x(kh) + Dd u(kh) Linear models

Linearisation
To/from transfer
where h is the sampling period. functions
Properties
Matlab : ss(Ad ,Bd ,Cd ,Dd ,h) creates a SS object SYS Stability
representing a discrete-time state-space model State feedback
From a discretization step (c2d) we have: control
Problem formulation
Z h Controllability
Definition
Ad = exp(Ah), Bd = ( exp(A)d)B Pole placement control
0 Specifications
Integral Control
For discrete-time systems, Observer
Observation
x((k + 1)h) = Ad x(kh) + Bd u(kh), x(0) = x0 Observability

(38) Observer design
y (kh) = Cd x(kh) + Dd u(kh) Observer-based control
Introduction to
the discrete transfer function is given by optimal control
Introduction to
G(z) = Cd (zIn Ad )1 Bd + Dd (39) digital control
Conclusion
where z is the shift operator, i.e. zx(kh) = x((k + 1)h)

State space
Solution of state space equations - discrete case approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
The state xk , solution of system xk +1 = Ad xk with initial condition x0 , is Nonlinear models

Linear models
given by Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
x1 = Ad x0 (40) Properties
x2 = A2d x0 (41) Stability
State feedback
xn = And x0 (42) control
Problem formulation
Controllability
The state xk , solution of system (37), is given by Definition
Specifications
x1 = Ad x 0 + Bd u 0 (43) Integral Control
x2 = A2d x0 + Ad Bd u0 + Bd u1 (44) Observer

Observation
n1 Observability
xn = And x0 + An1i
d Bd ui (45) Observer design
i=0
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
State space analysis (discrete-time systems) approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Stability Modelling
Nonlinear models
A system (state space representation) is stable iff all the eigenvalues of Linear models
Linearisation
the matrix F are inside the unit circle. To/from transfer
functions
Controllability definition Properties

Stability
State feedback
Definition control
Given two states x0 and x1 , the system (37) is controllable if there exist Problem formulation
Controllability
K1 > 0 and a sequence of control samples u0 , u1 , . . . , uK1 , such that xk Definition
takes the values x0 for k = 0 and x1 for k = K1 . Pole placement control

Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observability definition Observation
Observability
Definition Observer design

The system (37) is said to be completely observable if every initial state Introduction to
x(0) can be determined from the observation of y (k ) over a finite optimal control
number of sampling periods. Introduction to

digital control
Conclusion
State space
State space analysis (2) approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Controllability Nonlinear models
Linear models
The system is controllable iff Linearisation

To/from transfer
functions
Cd (A = rg[Bd Ad Bd . . . An1
d Bd ] = n Properties
d ,Bd )
Stability
State feedback
control
Observability Problem formulation
Controllability
The system is observable iff Definition
Specifications
O(Ad ,Cd ) = rg[Cd Cd Ad . . . Cd An1
d ]
T
=n Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Duality Observer design
Observability of (Cd , Ad ) Controllability of (ATd , CdT ). Introduction to
Controllability of (Ad , Bd ) Observability of (BdT , ATd ). optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
About sampling period approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Influence of the sampling period on the time response Modelling

Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Impose a maximal time response to a discrete system is equivalent to Observer-based control
place the poles inside a circle defined by the upper bound of the bound Introduction to
optimal control
given by this time response.
Introduction to
The closer to zero the poles are , the faster the system is. digital control
Conclusion
State space
Frequency analysis approach
Olivier Sename
As in the continuous time, the Bode diagram can also be used. Introduction
Example with sampling Time Te = 1s fe = 1Hz we = 2): Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Note that, in our case, the Bode is cut at the pulse w = . Observation
Observability
see SYSD = c2d(SYSC,Ts,METHOD) in MATLAB. Observer design
Sampling Limitations Introduction to

optimal control
Recall the Shannon theorem which imposes the sampling frequency at
Introduction to
least 2 times higher than the system maximum frequency. Related to digital control
the anti-aliasing filter . . . Conclusion

State space
Frequency analysis approach
Olivier Sename
As in the continuous time, the Bode diagram can also be used. Introduction
Example with sampling Time Te = 1s fe = 1Hz we = 2): Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Note that, in our case, the Bode is cut at the pulse w = . Observation
Observability
see SYSD = c2d(SYSC,Ts,METHOD) in MATLAB. Observer design
Sampling Limitations Introduction to

optimal control
Recall the Shannon theorem which imposes the sampling frequency at
Introduction to
least 2 times higher than the system maximum frequency. Related to digital control
the anti-aliasing filter . . . Conclusion

State space
About sampling period and robustness approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Influence of the sampling period on the poles Modelling

Nonlinear models
In theory, smaller the sampling period Te is, closer the discrete system Linear models
is from the continuous one. Linearisation

To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
But reducing the sampling time modify poles location . . . Poles and Observer design
zeros become closer to the limit of the unit circle can introduce Observer-based control
instability (decrease robustness). Introduction to

optimal control
Sampling influences stability and robustness Introduction to
Over sampling increase noise sensitivity digital control
Conclusion
State space
Stability approach
Olivier Sename
Recall Introduction
A linear continuous feedback control system is stable if all poles of the Modelling
closed-loop transfer function T (s) lie in the left half s-plane. Nonlinear models
The Z-plane is related to the S-plane by z = esTe = e( +j)Te . Hence

Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
Te functions
|z| = e and z = Te
Properties
Stability
State feedback
Jury criteria control
Problem formulation
The denominator polynomial (den(z) = a0 z n + a1 z n1 + + an = 0) Controllability
Definition
has all its roots inside the unit circle if all the first coefficients of the odd Pole placement control
row are positive. Specifications

Integral Control
an Observer
b0 = a0 an Observation
1 a0 a1 a2 ... ank ... an a0 Observability
2 an an1 an2 ... ak ... a0 an Observer design

b1 = a1 an1 Observer-based control
3 b0 b1 b2 ... bn1 a0Introduction to
2 bn1 bn2 bn3 ... b0 anoptimal control
.. .. bk = ak ank Introduction to
. . a0digital control
2n + 1 s0 b
bk bn1k n1
Conclusion
ck =
b0
State space
How to get a discrete controller approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
First way Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
I Obtain a discrete-time plant model (by discretization) To/from transfer
functions
I Design a discrete-time controller Properties
Stability
I Derive the difference equation
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Second way Controllability

Definition
I Design a continuous-time controller Specifications
Integral Control
I Converse the continuous-time controller to discrete time (c2d) Observer
I Derive the difference equation Observation
Observability
Observer design
Now the question is how to implement the computed controller on a Observer-based control
Introduction to
real-time (embedded) system, and what are the precautions to take optimal control
before? Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Discretisation approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
The idea behind discretisation of a controller is to translate it from Nonlinear models
Linear models
continuous-time to discrete-time, i.e. Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
A/D + algorithm + D/A G(s) Properties
Stability
To obtain this, few methods exists that approach the Laplace operator State feedback
(see lecture 1-2). control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Recall Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
z 1
s = Observer
Te Observation
Observability
z 1 Observer design
s = Observer-based control
zTe
Introduction to
2 z 1 optimal control
s =
Te z + 1 Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Implementation characteristics approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Anti-aliasing Linear models
Linearisation
Practically it is smart to use a constant high sampling frequency with an To/from transfer
functions
analog filter matching this frequency. Then, after the A/D converter, the
Properties
signal is down-sampled to the frequency used by the controller. Stability
Remember that the pre-filter introduce phase shift. State feedback

control
Problem formulation
Sampling frequency choice Controllability
Definition
The sampling time for discrete-time control are based on the desired Pole placement control
speed of the closed loop system. A rule of thumb is that one should Specifications
Integral Control
sample 4 10 times per rise time Tr of the closed loop system.
Observer
Observation
Tr Observability
Nsample = 4 10 Observer design
Te Observer-based control
Introduction to
where Te is the sampling period, and Nsample the number of samples. optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Delay approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Problematic Nonlinear models
Linear models
Sampled theory assume presence of clock that synchronizes all Linearisation
measurements and control signal. Hence in a computer based control To/from transfer
functions
there always is delays (control delay, computational delay, I/O latency). Properties
Stability
Origins State feedback

control
There are several reasons for delay apparition Problem formulation
Controllability
I Execution time (code) Definition
I Preemption from higher order process Specifications
Integral Control
I Interrupt Observer
Observation
I Communication delay Observability
Observer design
I Data dependencies Observer-based control
Hence the control delay is not constant. The delay introduce a phase Introduction to
optimal control
shift Instability!
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Delay (contd) approach
Olivier Sename
Admissible delay (Bode) Introduction
Modelling
I Measure the phase margin: PM = 180 + w0 [r], where w0 is the Nonlinear models
Linear models
phase at the crossover frequency w0 , i.e. |G(jw0 )| = 1 Linearisation
To/from transfer
PM
I Then the delay margin is DM = 180w0 [s]
functions
Properties
Stability
Exercise: compute delay margin for these 3 cases State feedback

control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Quantification approach
Olivier Sename
Effects Introduction
Modelling
I Non linear phenomena Nonlinear models
Linear models
I Limit cycles Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Example (stable for K<2) Properties

Stability
State feedback
control
0.25 Problem formulation
H(z) = Controllability
(z 1)(z 0.5) Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Quantification (contd) approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Results Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Quantification (contd) approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Results Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
Linearisation
To/from transfer
functions
Properties
Stability
State feedback
control
Problem formulation
Controllability
Definition
Specifications
Integral Control
Observer
Observation
Observability
Observer design
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion
State space
Conclusion approach
Olivier Sename
Introduction
Modelling
Nonlinear models
Linear models
I A state space approach for continuous-time and discrete-time Linearisation
MIMO systems To/from transfer

functions
I A first insight in optimal control... that can be extended towards Properties

Stability
predictive control (over a finite horizon)
State feedback
I The state space approach is also considered in Robust control, in control
order to Problem formulation
Controllability
I design H controllers Definition
I provide a robustness analysis in the presence of parameter Pole placement control
Specifications
uncertainties Integral Control
I prove the stability of a closed-loop system in the presence of non
Observer
linearities (as state or input constraints) Observation
I design non linear controllers (feedback linearisation...) Observability
I solve an optimisation problem using efficient numerical tools as Linear Observer design
Matrix Inequalities
Introduction to
optimal control
Introduction to
digital control
Conclusion

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State space

Modelling, analysis and control of linear systems using Nonlinear models

state space representations Linearisation

Olivier Sename State feedback

February 2017 Specifications

Linear models Modelling

Definition of the state feedback control Definition

state feedback control? Observability

Introduction State feedback

Jersey, 3rd edition, 1997. State feedback

Design, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2001. Integral Control

Dynamic Systems, Prentice Hall, 2005 Observability

I Implementation, tests and validation Observer

or sinusodal signals Linearisation

Knowledge-based method: State feedback

I dynamical systems where physical equations can be derived : Linear models

Modelling of dynamical systems Stability

as state space representations Problem formulation

differential equation system into a FIRST order differential equation in a Properties

Definition the state space model Controllability

the input, and the system can be represented as: Observer

angle (neglecting friction) and propose a state space model.

- G() : action of Coriolis and centrifugal forces, Observer

- D(): matrix of hydrodynamics damping coefficients, Observation

The dynamical equations are as follows: Linearisation

Many dynamical systems can be represented by Ordinary Differential Linear models

I u(t) Rm the control input Observer

y (t) = Cx(t) + Du(t) Properties

Extension: measurement= motor angular position Observer-based control

model Linear models

I Different operating conditions according to the wind speed To/from transfer

I Control objectives: maximize power , enhance damping in the first Properties

electro-mechanical model: Observer

rotational generator speed Introduction to

Let the following mass-spring-damper system. Introduction

coefficient, u the force generated by the active damper, and F1 is an Introduction to

where d = F1 , y = x1 with Definition

zs and zus ) are the relative position of the Properties

ms (resp. mus ) the mass of the chassis State feedback

suspension (of the tire), Pole placement control

zr is the road profile. Observer

can be reformulated into N simultaneous first-order differential Properties

equations defining the state variables : Stability

0 1 0 ... 0 0 Integral Control

particular point defined by: Introduction

Usually an equilibrium point satisfies: Introduction to

0 = f ((xeq (t), ueq (t), t) (9) Conclusion

For the pendulum, we can choose y = = f = 0.

I y measured output (here only the altitude z is measured) Observer

functions ? Olivier Sename

Equivalence transfer function - state space representation Nonlinear models

Consider a linear system given by: Linearisation

x0 = 0), (10) becomes: Controllability

s.x(s) = Ax(s) + Bu(s) (s.In A)x(s) = Bu(s) Specifications

Matlab: if SYS is an SS object, then tf(SYS) gives the associated Introduction to

It corresponds to the transfer function: Integral Control

c0 + c1 s + . . . + cn1 sn1 Observation

In Matlab : use expm(A*t) and not exp (if t is given). Introduction to

(cont..) Olivier Sename

General case of system (10) To/from transfer

The state x(t), solution of system (10), is given by Properties

Simulation of state space systems Observer