Module 3 : Field Tests in Rock

LECTURE 10

3.6 GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION

In geophysical methods of site investigation, the application of the principles of physics are
used to the study of the ground. The soil/rock have different characteristics and comprised of
materials that have different physical properties. Using some geophysical instruments, it is
possible to map the ground characteristics together with their spatial variations. In this brief
notes, an overview of the commonly adopted geophysical techniques used in geotechnical
site investigation are discussed. The geophysical techniques which are discussed are,
electrical resistivity method, seismic refraction technique, cross hole technique and ground
penetrating radar (GPR).

3.6.1 Electric resistivity method

Electrical resistivity is the resistance of a volume of material to the flow of electrical

current. current is introduced into the ground through a pair of current electrodes resulting
potential difference is measured between another pair of potential electrodes. Apparent
resistivity is then calculated as,

V is the measured Potential difference (in Volts) and I is the current introduced (in Amperes).

Figure 3.36: Electrical resistivity arrangement and cumulative resisvity plot

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There are two different arrangements are possible with the four electrodes to be used. In
Wenner aarrangements, the electrodes are kept at equal distances where as, in case of
Schumberger arrangements, distances are different.
Using Wenner arrangement arrangement the resistivity is given by

Using Schumberger arrangement the resistivity is given by,

Figure 3.37: Wenner aarrangement

Figure 3.38: Schumberger arrangement

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Figure 3.39: A typical circuit for resistivity determination and electrical field for a
homogeneous sub surface stratum

Table 3.1: Resistivity of Different strata

Material Resistivity (ohm.m)
Sand 500-1500
Clay, saturated silt 0-100
Clayey sand 200-500
Gravel 1500-4000
Weathered rock 1500-2500
Sound rock >5000

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Advantages and limitations,

Method can be used to determine the depth and thickness of subsurface layers, depth
to the water table, and bedrock. Profiling can be used to detect and locate contaminant
plumes. Resistivity values can be used to estimate geological formations. The resistivity data
are sometimes ambiguous and proper interpretation is required. Method may be better
supplemented with other investigation methods like boreholes etc. Electrical resistivity is
slow because electrodes must be driven into the ground between measurements. Alignment
with buried electrical power lines, utilities and fences must be avoided as the current injected
into the ground will flow more easily through the metal feature. Data are influenced by near
surface conductive layers. The current will always travel most easily along highly conductive
layers. If the surface is highly conductive it may not be possible to collect data below the top
layer.

3.6.2 Seismic refraction method

Seismic refraction method is based on the measurement of the travel time of seismic
waves refracted at the interfaces between subsurface layers of different velocity. Seismic
energy is provided by a source (hammer, weight drop or small explosive charge) located on
the surface. The seismic waves travel through the subsurface at a velocity dependent on the
density of the soil/rock. When the seismic wave front encounters an interface where seismic
velocity drastically increases, a portion of the wave critically refracts at the interface,
travelling laterally along higher velocity layers. Due to compression stresses along the
interface boundary, a portion of the wave front returns to the surface. A series of seismic
receivers, geophones (right) are laid out along the survey line at regular intervals and receive
the reflected wave energy.

The test involves the measurement of travel times of P-and S-waves from an impulse
source to a linear array of points along the ground surface at different distances from
the source.
The output of all of the receivers recorded when the impulse load is triggered.

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Figure 3.40: Seismic Refraction Testing

The arrival times of the first waves to reach each receiver are determined and plotted
as a function of source-receiver distance.
Used for determination of wave velocity and thickness of each layer, and the dip
angle.
Effective for sites at which layers velocities increase with depth.

Figure 3.41: Seimic Refration testing for layered soil

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Figure 3.42: Geophical test setup and geophone alighnment and corresponding
arrival time of elastic waves

Figure 3.43: Time distance graph of seismic refraction testing

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Determine the thickness of the top layer

The value can be obtained from the plot shown. Thickness of second layer can be

obtained as

Here is the time intercept of the line cd in figure, extended backwards.

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Figure 3.44: Seismic velocities of some geologic material a) Unsaturated

b) Saturated

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Table 3.2: Wave velocity for different soil and rock types

Type of soil or rock P-wave velocity (m/sec)

Soil
Sand, dry silt and fine grained top soil 200-1000
Alluvium 500-2000
Compacted clays, clayey gravel and 1000-2500
dense clayey sand
Loess 250-750
Rock
Slate and shale 2500-5000
Sandstone 1500-5000
Granite 4000-6000
Sound Limestone 5000-10000

Travel time of waves depend on media (greatest in igneous, i.e. consolidated rocks, and least
in unconsolidated rocks) Seismic velocity increases markedly from unsaturated to saturated
zone. The acoustic velocity of a medium saturated with water is greatly increased in
comparison with velocities in the vadose zone. Thus, the refraction method is applicable in
determining the depth to the water table in unconsolidated sediments.

Limitations:-
If the Upper strata is denser than the lower - the method may not be very successful.
Velocity of contrast should be high.
Surface terrain and the interfaces of the layers are steeply sloping method may not
be successful

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3.6.3 Cross hole test

These test methods are limited to the determination of the velocity of two types of
horizontally travelling seismic waves in soil materials; primary compression (P-wave) and
secondary shear (S-wave) waves. It is assumes that, the method used to analyze the data
obtained is based on first arrival times or interval arrival times over a measured distance.
The Crosshole Seismic Test makes direct measurements of P-wave velocities, or S-wave
velocities, in boreholes advanced primarily through soil. At selected depths down the
borehole, a borehole seismic source is used to generate a seismic wave train. Downhole
receivers are used to detect the arrival of the seismic wave train in offset borings at a
recommended spacing of 3 to 6 m. The distance between boreholes at the test depths is
measured using a borehole deviation survey. The borehole seismic source is connected to and
triggers a data recording system that records the response of the downhole receivers, thus
measuring the travel time of the wave train between the source and receivers.

Figure 3.45: Typical sectional view of Cross hole test

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The P-wave or S-wave velocity is calculated from the measured distance and travel time for
the respective wave train. The seismic cross hole method provides a designer with
information pertinent to the seismic wave velocities of the materials in question. This data
may be used as follows:
For input into static/dynamic analyses,
For computing shear modulus, Youngs modulus, and Poissons ratio .
For determining Seismic Site Class using the appropriate Building Code; and
For assessing liquefaction potential.

Assumptions inherent in the test methods are,

Horizontal layering is assumed. Snells law of refraction applies to P-waves and S-

waves and to the velocities derived from crosshole tests. If Snells law of refraction is not
considered in the analysis of Crosshole seismic testing data, the report shall so state, and the
P-wave and S-wave velocities obtained may be unreliable for certain depth intervals near
changes in strata.

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