University of Guyana

Faculty of Technology
Department of Civil with
Environmental Engineering

CIV4218 Structural Design II

~ Assignment #1 ~

Name: Jonathan
Hohenkirk
USI: 1012950
Lecturer: Mr. Sukha
Table of Contents
What are Design Methods/Philosophies?....................................................................1
Working Stress Method (WSM)/ Allowable Stress Design (ASD)...............................1
Load Factor Method................................................................................................. 2
Limit State Method.................................................................................................. 2
Load and Resistance Factor Design Method.........................................................3
References.................................................................................................................. 4

What are Design Methods/Philosophies?

A design philosophy is a set of assumptions and procedures which are used to
meet the conditions of serviceability, safety, economy and functionality of the
structure. Several design philosophies have been introduced from different parts of
the world. The three (3) design philosophies that have been used by engineers are:
1. Working Stress Method(WSM)/ Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
2. Load Factor Method
3. Limit State Method(LSM) (Mosely, Bungey and Hulse 2007)

Working Stress Method (WSM)/ Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

This is the traditional method of design, used not only reinforced concrete but
also for structural steel and timber. Working Stress Method of design was evolved
around the year 1900 and is based on linear elastic method. This method ensures
adequate safety by suitably restricting the stresses in the materials induced by the
expected working loads on the structure. At the worst combination of working loads,
the stresses in materials are not exceeded beyond permissible values.
(CivilDigital.com 2015)
The permissible stresses are found out by using a suitable factor of safety to
material strength, e.g. for concrete in compression due to bending, a factor of
safety equal to 3.0 is considered on 28 days. Characteristic strength and factor of
safety equal to 1.8 is considered on the yield strength for mild steel reinforcement
in tension due to bending. The Working Stress Method does not consider the mode
of failure of the structure. (CivilDigital.com 2015) Also, the reserve strength of
materials beyond yield point is not considered in this method of design. The WSM
assumes strain compatibility, whereby the strain the reinforcing steel is assumed to
be equal to that in the adjoining concrete to which it is bonded.
Summary of the WSM
1. Since the specifications set limit on the stresses, it became working stress
method
2. Factor of safely for yield stress, allowable stresses are less than f y.
3. Pure elastic approach for analysis of structures under working loads.
 4. Yielding or buckling never occurs at working loads
5. This method is based on the condition that the stresses caused by service
loads without load factors are not to exceed the allowable stresses which are
taken as a fraction of the ultimate stresses of the materials, f c for concrete
and fy for steel.
6. It deals only with elastic behaviour of member perfectly elastic at all stages
of loading; Stress-strain relations obey Hooks law (linear)
7. Tensile stresses are taken by steel only.
8. The Modular ratio is well defined value independent of time which is not true
9. Results in larger compression steel percentage
10.Working stress method does not give reasonable measure of strength, which
is more fundamental measure of resistance than is allowable stress.
11.Another drawback in working stress method is that safety is applied only to
stress level. Loads are considered to be deterministic (without variation). For
example, Permissible bending & direct compression are as fraction of
crushing strength. (CivilDigital.com 2015)

Figure 1 Graph showing the unused nonlinear

portion of the stress strain curve used in the
WSM

Load Factor Method

In this we make use of the nonlinear region of stress strain curves of steel
and concrete. The safety is ensured by introducing load factor and the concept of
modular ratio and its associated problems are avoided entirely in this method. The
safety measure design is introduced by an appropriate choice of the load factor,
defined as the ratio of the ultimate load to the working load. The Load Factor
Method makes it possible for different types of loads to be assigned different load
factors under combined loading conditions, thereby overcoming the related
shortcoming of WSM.
This method generally results in more slender sections, and often economical
designs of beams and columns, particularly when high strength reinforcing steel and
concrete are used. However, the satisfactory strength performance at ultimate
loads does not guarantee satisfactory serviceability performance at the normal
service loads. (CivilDigital.com 2015)
The designs sometimes result in excessive deflections and crack-widths under
service loads, owing to the slender sections resulting from the use of high strength
reinforcing steel and concrete. The distribution of stress resultants at ultimate load
is taken as the distribution at the service loads, magnified by the load factor(s); in
other words, analysis is still based on linear elastic theory. (CivilDigital.com 2015)

Limit State Method

Limit state design of an engineering structure must ensure that (1) under the
worst loadings the structure is safe, and (2) during normal working conditions the
deformation of the members does not detract from the appearance, durability or
performance of the structure. Despite the difficulty in assessing the precise loading
and variations in the strength of the concrete and steel, these requirements have to
be met. (Mosely, Bungey and Hulse 2007)
The purpose of design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that a structure
will not become unfit for its intended use- that is, that it will not reach a limit' state.
Thus, any way in which a structure may cease to be fit for use will constitute a limit
stale and the design aim is to avoid any such condition being reached during the
expected life of the structure. The two principal types of limit state are the ultimate
limit state and the serviceability limit state. (Mosely, Bungey and Hulse 2007)
 a) Ultimate limit state
This requires that the structure must be able to withstand, with an adequate
factor of safety against collapse, the loads for which it is designed to ensure the
safety of the building occupants and/or the safety of' the structure itself. The
possibility of buckling or overturning must also be taken into account, as must the
possibility of accidental damage as caused , for example, by an internal explosion.
(b) Serviceability limit states
Generally the most important serviceability limit states are:
1. Deflection - the appearance or efficiency of any part of the structure must
not be adversely affected by deflection nor should the comfort of the building users
be adversely affected.
2. Cracking - local damage due to cracking and spalling must not affect the
appearance, efficiency or durability of the structure.
3. Durability- this must be considered in terms of the proposed life of the
structure and its conditions of exposure.

Load and Resistance Factor Design Method

This method employs the principle of limit state design as well and originated in the
United States of America.
Summary of the LRFD
1. Similar to plastic design, LRFD focuses on limit state design, where strength
or failure condition is considered.
2. Factored load factored strength, or
(Loads load factors) resistance resistance factors
3. . In general, load factors (>1) amplify loads, while resistance factors (< 1)
reduce strength.
References
CivilDigital.com. 2015. 3 Major Design Philosophies: Working Stress, Ultimate Load
and Limit State | CivilDigital |. September 14. Accessed February 1, 2017.
http://civildigital.com/3-design-philosophies-working-stress-ultimate-load-
limit-state/.
. 2015. How is Working Stress Method (ASD) different from Limit state method
(LRFD or LFD)? Assumptions, Advantages and comparisons | CivilDigital |.
December 19. Accessed February 1, 2017. http://civildigital.com/how-is-
working-stress-method-asd-different-from-limit-state-method-lrfd-or-lfd-
assumptions-advantages-and-comparisons/.
Mosely, Bill, John Bungey, and Ray Hulse. 2007. Reinforced Concrete Design to
Eurocode 2. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.