FRICTION. LUBRICATION A TEXTBOOK IN TRIBOLOGY K.C Ludema Professor of Mechanical Engineering The University of Michigan Ann Arbor ) CRE Press BocaRaton New York London Tokyo‘Tecoverackronodiapotgrah of terrace ih be) partly covered with eset ‘of yet fn de oan in engin oi The nage wa ceed Wy poazing lneerenee. (Geanon) microcap sbjectve (250) wa show Dx ther magneton ‘The graph on he nt cover shows that th “prtctve fm bale vp pogesvely ag, it ucions quel enough will vet seling fale of sling sae Acgsing Bator Now Staton Proje Br: ‘Ga Resa Macketing Manager: Sule alae ets Kevin Luong Macuting Shes Sebate der KE rion, wet, cao texto wbology by KC Laer Ince ibographial reerences and ines ISBN C-493-2695-0 (alk. pope) iorstss 1396 ea1¥9—ae0 senasccw Tis book cna information obuned from tent and highly regu sures. Reid Reatonble fos have been mae to publsh relable a and aformaton ut he stor and he pls emt assune eps fr the ayo al mato forthe consequences of eit Neither hs book nor any pat may be represen oan in ay orm bya meas teeoie or meaning pbocopyng,micolmig. and recording. o by any informa Clon trage reals) tem hou pir prmion a weg fom Be pune "Te one of CRC Pes dos nat extend copying for general dsbton, for romeo, fr cscting new wots oor ele. Specie perms sis be baie ig fem CRC ress Diet lines to CRC Fes. he, 2000 Corporate lv. NW, Boca Raton, Flori 888, ©1886 y CRC Pres, ne Listy of Congeess Cat Naber 96-1240 Pred on aides paperABOUT THE AUTHOR Kenneth C Ludema is Professor of Mechanical Engineering atthe Univesity ‘of Michigan in Ann Arbor. He holds B.S. degree from Calvin College in Grand Rapids, Michigan, an MS. and Ph.D. from the University of Michigan, and a PhD. from Cambridge University. He has been on the faculty of the University fof Michigan since 1962 and has taught courses in materials, manufacturing procestes, and inibology Dr. Ludema, along with his students, has published more than 75 papers, primarily on mechanisms of friction and boundary lubrication,ABOUT THIS BOOK ‘This book is intended primarily o be used asa textbook, written on the level of senior and graduate students with proficiency in engineering or sciences. Its intended to bring everyone who wants to solve probleme in friction and wear to the same understanding of what is (and, more important, what is not) involved, ‘Most engineers and scientists have learned few simple truths aout friction and ‘wear, few of which seem relevant when problems arise. It tums out that the “ibs” are often too simple and couched too much in te terms ofthe academic discipline in which they have been taught. This book suggests a different approach, namely, to explore the tribological behavior of systems by wel ‘designed experiments and tests, and to develop your own conclusions ‘One usefel way to contol friction and wear is by lubrication, though itis ‘often not the economical way. These three topics together constitute the broad area of tribology. Tibology has many entry points because ofits great breadth, The advancement of each of its subtopics requires concentrated effort, and many people spend a satisfying and useful career in only one of thet, BY conta, product designers and engineers need to be moderately proficient in all related {opics with some understanding of the more specialized topics. ‘THE STATUS OF TRIBOLOGY Tribology as a whole lags bebind engineering in general in the development of equitions, formulae, and methods for general use in engineering design. Indeed, there ae some useful methods and equstions available, mostly in ful film tid Ibrication and contact stress calculations. The reason for the advanced state of these topics is that very few variables xe needed to charactriae adequately the system under study, naely, uid properties and geometry inthe subject of quid Ibrication, and elastic propertcs of solids and geometzy in contact stress problems, {A few more vatiables are required to estimate the temperature rise of sliding surface, but a great number are necded in useful equations for friction and wear, ‘The shortage of goad design methods for achieving desired friction and product life virtually always results in postponing these considerations in product develop- ‘meal until mere days before production. By ths time the frst choice for materials, processes, shapes, and past function is alzeady locked in. The easy problems ate solved fist, sch as product weight, stength, vibration characteristics, production methods, and cos, In the absence of formalized knowledge in friction and wear the engineering community resorts to guesswork, anecdotal information from ven= dors of various products including lubricants and materials, randomly selected accelerated tests done with totaly inappropriate bench ests, and general over-design to achieve design goals. That eed not be, and ithas profound effect: the warranty ‘ost for problems in friction and wear exceed the combined warranty cots forall ‘other causes of product “failure” in the automotive and related industies,LEARNING TRIBOLOGY ‘Tribology is ultimately an applied art and as such should be based upon, or requires background knowledge in, many topics. I ie not a science by iteelt although research is done in several different sciences to understand the funds ‘mental aspects of tribology. Tis, unfortunatly, has had the effect of perpetuating (and even splintering) the eld along disciplinary lines. One wit has expressed. this problem in another sphere of life in the wards, "England and America ate divided by a common language.” Often people from the various disciplines and the ever present vendors offer widely different solutions to problems in tibology, ‘which bewilders managers who would like to believe that tribology isa simple and straightforward at. In academic preparation for designing products, most students in mechanical engineering (the seat of most design instruction) have taken courses in such topics as ld mechanies last (described as solid mechanics) Materials sence (survey of alomie structure and the physis of solids) Dynanics (mechanical mostly) eat trance Methods of mechanical design. ‘These are useful (ools indeed, but hardly enough to solve a wide range of ‘oblems in friction and weat. Students in materials engineering will have a different set of tools and will gravitate toward those problems in which their proficieacies can be applied. But the complete wibologist will have added some knowledge in the following: Plasticity Viseo-slasticy Contact mechanics ‘The full range of mechanical propenties of monolithic materials, composite smaterals, and layered structures (coatings, e.), especially fraetue toughness, creep falgue (clastic and low eye) Surface chemistry, oxidation, adhesion, adsorption Surface-making processes tm. Statistica surface topographialeharacttizaion methods 'b Libicant chemistry (0. and several more. ‘Many of these topics are addressed in thie book, though it would be well for students to consul specialized books on these topics.‘THE ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK Following are 14 chapters in which insight is offered for your use in solving ‘sibological probleme: + Chapter 1 informs you where to find farther information on thology and seuss he four major disciplines working in the fel ‘The next four chapters summarize some ofthe academic topics that may oe should have been a part of the early traning of tbologists: + Chapter 2 aes that fection and wear esstance ate separate fom the wal ‘mechanical propetesof materials and cannot be adequately desribed in rms of thse properties (though many authors dsagre) + Chapter 3 discusses stomie structure, alomie energy sates anda few phenom na that are virally alays ignored in the comtinoum approach to modeling ofthe sliding proce (and shoud not be). ‘Chapter 4 shows how rel surfaces ae made and discusses the inhomogeneous nature ofthe final product (Chapter Sis «shor summary ofthe complicated topics of contact mechanice and temperature rise of sliding surfaces, i perpecsive ‘Then, four chapters cover the core of tibology: (Chapter 6 gives ahistorical account of friction, presenting wo major point 2, Causes for the reat variability and unpredictability of frietio, and 1, What is requived to measure fiction reliably + Chapter 7's «synopsis 9f conventional lbreation — not much, bat enough to andetstand ie importance, + Chapter & discusses wear and provides an analysis of the many 1pes and rechanisme seen inthe tecinidl Irate. It discusses the actal events that ate loss of material from a singling interface, Chapter 9 is on chemicel aspects of Iuricaton, where fiction, wear, and Iubrication converge in such problems as seufing failure and breakin ‘The following three chapters discuss methods of solving problems in friction and + Chapter 10s an analysis of design equations in fiction and wear, showing that wsefl equations reguite more realistic aesumptions than superposition of individual, steady state mechanisms of wear. + Chapter 11 suggests some useful steps in aeuiing data on the fiction and ‘wear rites of components and mates forthe design of mechanical compo tent, both the technical and human aspect of the eff. + Chopier 12 desries how to diagnose wear problems and sts the atibates ofthe most common instruments for aiding abaysi,“The last two chapters cover topice that could have been tucked into obscure comers of earlier chapters, but would have been lost there: + Chapter 13 is on comings, listing tome of the many types of coatings but showing that the nature of wear depeads onthe thickness ofthe coating relative te the sie ofthe srxn field that ess from tiologieal interaction + Chapter 14 covers bearings and materials, lighly. ‘A minimum of references has boon used in this ext since iti not primarily a review ofthe literature. In general, each chapter has a list of primary source books which can be used for historical perspective. Where there is no such book, Setailed reference lists ate provided “There are problems sets for most of the chapters, Readers with taining in ‘mechanics will probably have difficulty with the problems in materials or physics ‘materialists will have wouble with mechanics; and scientists may require some ‘ime to fathom engineering methods, Stay with it! Real problems need all ofthese iscipines as well as people who are willing (o gein experience in solving problems Thie book isthe “final” form of a sot of courte notes Ihave used since 1964 Hundteds of students and practicing engineers have helped me over the years to _Ein my present perspective on the complicated and fascinating field of tibology. hope you will find this book to be useful Ken Ladema Ann Arbor, Michigan Fanuary 1996CONTENTS Chapter 1 ‘The State of Knowledge in Tibology ‘Available Literature in Tibology ‘Fournals and Periodicals Books Conferences on Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Held in the US. The Several Disciplines in the Field of Tribology The Consequences of Friction and Wear The Scope of Tribology References Chapter 2 ‘Strength and Deformation Properies of Solids Introduction Tensile Testing (Elastic) Failure Criteria Plastic Failure (Yield Crier) Transformation of Stes Axes and Mohr Circles (See Problem Set questions 2 a,b, and c) Material Properties and Mohr Cixcles (See Problem Set questions 2d and e) Von Mises versus Mohr (Tresea) Yield Criteria Visco-elasticity, Creep, and Stress Relaxation (See Problem Set question 21) Damping Loss, Anelastiity, and lxeversibility Hardness (See Problem Set question 2 g) Residual Stress (See Problem Set question 2 h) Fatigue Fracture Toughness Applicaton to Tribology References Chapter 3 Adbesion and Cohesion Properties of Solids: Adsorption to Solids Inoduction Atomic (Cohesive) Bonding Systems ‘Adhesion ‘Atomic Arrangements: Lattice Systems (See Problem Set question 3 a) Dislocations, Paste Flow, and Cleavage (See Problem Set question 3 b) Adhesion Energy ‘Adsorption and Oxidation Adsorbed Gas Fils (See Problem Set question 3 ¢)Chapter 4 Solid Surfaces ‘Technological Surface Making (See Problem Set question 4 a and b) Residual Stesses in Processed Surfaces (See Problem Set question 4 c) Roughness of Surfaces Final Conclusions on Surface Layers References Chapter 5 Contact of Noaconforming Surfaces and Temperature Rise on. Sliding Surfaces Contact Mechanics of Normal Loading (See Problem Set question 5 a) Recovery Upon Unloading (See Problem Set question 5 b) Adhesive Contact of Locally Contacting Bodies Arca of Contact (See Problem Set question 5 c) ‘sical and Thermal Resistance face Temperature in Sliding Contact (See Problem Set question 5 €) Comparison of Equations 5 through 9 Temperature Measurement References Chapter 6 Friction Classification of Frictional Contacts (See Problem Set question 6 a) Early Phenomenological Observations Early Theories Development ofthe Adhesion Theory of Friction (See Problem Set question 6 b) Limitations of the Adhesion Theory of Friction Adhesion in Friction and Wear and How it Functions ‘Adhesion of Atoms Elastic, Plastic, and Visco-elastic Blfects in Friction (See Problem Set question 6 c) Friction Influenced by Attractive Forces Between Bodies (See Problem Set question 6 €) Friction Controlled by Surface Melting and Other Thin Films Rolling Resistance or Rolling FrictionFriction of Compliant Materials and Structures, and of Pneumatic Tres (Gee Problem Set question 6 €) Inluence of Some Variables on General Frictional Behavior State and Kinete Friction “Tables of Coefficient of Friction Vteations and Friction Efect of Severe Uncoupled Vibration on Apparent Fiction “Tapping and igling to Reduce Fiction Eifets “Testing ‘Measuring Systems (See Problem Set questions 6 f and g) (See Problem Set questions 6 hi, andj) Ineraction Between Frictional Behavior and Transducer Response lectrica and Mechanical Dynamics of AmplieRecorders (See Problem Set question 6 k) Damping Analysis of Strip Chart Data How to Use Test Data References ‘Chapter 7 Lubrication by Inert Fluid, Greases, and Solids Intodvetion Fundamental Contact Condition and Solution ‘Practical Solution Classification of inet Liquid Lubricant Films ‘Surface Tension (See Problem Set question 7 2) Hydrosaties Hydrostynamies Shaft Lubrication Hydrodynamics (See Problem Set question 7 b) ‘Tire Traction on Wet Roads (See Problem Set questions 7 ¢ and) Squeeze Film Lubrication with Grease Lubrication with Solids References Chapter 8 ‘Wear Introduction ‘Terminology in Wear History of Thought on Wear Main Features in the Wear of Metals, Polymers, and Ceramies Dry Sliging of Metals O15 CRC Pres LLC(See Problem Set questions § a,b,c, end d) Oxidative Wear Dy Sliding Wear of Polymers (See Problem Set questions 8 e and 1) ‘Wear of Ceramic Materials Abrasion, Abrasive Wear, and Polishing (See Problem Set question 8 g) Erosion Fretting Practical Design References Chapter 9 Lubricated Sliding — Chemical and Physical Etfects Introduction Friction in Marginal Lubrication Wear in Marginal Lubrication Boundary Lubrication The Mechanical Aspects of Seuffing (without Chemical Considerations) The A Ratio ‘The Plasticity Index (See Problem Set questions 9 a and b) Thermal Criteria Sculfing and Boundary Lubrication Experimental Work Farther Mechanical Eifecs of the Boundary Lubricant Layer ry Boundary Lubrication (See Problem Set question 9 c) Surface Protection When A< 1 — Breakin Dynamics of Break-in ‘General Conditions ‘Competing Mechanical and Chemical Mechanisms Joint Mechanical and Chemical Interaction (See Problem Set question 9 d) Perspective Prognosis References Chapter 10 [Equations for Friction and Wear Introduction What is Available Types of Equations Fundamental Equations Empirical Equations (See Problem Set questions 10 a, band c) Semmiempitical Equations Models‘Toward More Complete Equations for Friction and Wear ‘The Search Analysis of Equations Results of Applying the Above Criteria to Equations in Erosion Observations " References ‘Chapter 11 Designing for Wear Life and Frictional Performance: ‘Wear Testing, Friction Testing, and Simulation Introduction Design Philosophy Steps in Designing for Wear Life Without Selecting Materials “The Search for Standard Components In-House Design Steps in Selecting Materials for Wear Resistance Restrictions on Material Use (Check of Static Load Determine Sliding Severity Determine Whether Break-in is Necessary Determine Acceptable Modes of Failure Determine Whether or Not to Conduct Wear Tests “Testing and Simulation ‘Standard Tests and Test Devices [Necessary Variables to Consider in Wear Testing Accelerated Tests Criterion for Adequate Simulation ‘Measurements of Wear and Wear Coefficients and Test Duration Material Selection Table (See Problem Set questions 11 a and b) Chapter 12 Diagnosing Tribological Problems Introduction Introduction to Problem Diagnosis Planning First Level of Surface Examination ; Second Level of Surface Observation: Electron Microscopy Selecting Chemical Analysis Instruments (See Problem Set question 12) ‘Appendix to Chaper 12 Instrumentation Resolving Power, Magnification, and Depth of Field in ‘Optical Microscopy ‘Surface Roughness Measurement O15 CRC Pres LLCMatters of Seale Size Seale of Things ‘The Lateral Resolution Required to Discern Interesting Features ‘The Capability of Chemical Analysis Instruments Introduction Structure and Behavior of Atoms, Blectrons, and X-Rays Basics Obtaining a Stream of Electron ‘The Measurements of X-Ray Energy Electron Impingement Description of Some Instruments Instruments that Use Elections and X-Rays ‘An Instrument that Uses an Ton Beam Instruments that Use Light Ellipsometry and Its Use in Measuring Film Thickness Radioactive Methods Chapter 13, Coatings and Surface Processes Tntroduction Surface Treatments (See Problem Set question 13) Surface Modilication Processes Coating Processes Quality Assessment of Coatings Chapter 14 Bearings and Materials Introduction Rolling Element Bearings Description Life and Failure Modes Sliding Bearings (See Problem Set question 14) Materials for Sliding Bearings References Problem SetLIST OF TABLES ‘Young's Modulus for Vaious Material Damping Loss for Vasious Materials Hardness Conversions Mobs Scale of Hardness and List of Minerals Latice Arrangements of Some Metals Properties of Common Elements ‘Time Required for Monolayers of N, to Adsorb on Glass Practical Range of Roughness of Commercial Surfaces Coefiicient of Friction of Various Substances Functional Groups of Solid Lubricants ‘Material Selection Table ‘Comparison of Main Chemical Analysis Instruments