Compilers:: 1 MR - Binu Vargis Asstprofessor Computerscienceengg

01-03-2017
Compilers:
A compiler is a program that reads a program
written in one language the source
language and translates it into an
equivalent program in another language
the target language
Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

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Compilers:
As an important part of this translation
process, the compiler reports to its user the
presence of errors in the source program.

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Compilers:

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Compilers:
At first glance, the variety of compilers may
appear overwhelming.
There are thousands of source languages,

ranging from traditional programming
languages such as FORTRAN and Pascal to
specialized languages.

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Target languages are equally as varied;
A target language may be another

programming language, or the machine
language of any computer.

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Compilers are sometimes classified as:

single-pass
multi-pass
load-and-go
Debugging
optimizing

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The basic tasks that any compiler must

perform are essentially the same.
By understanding these tasks, we can

construct compilers for a wide variety of
source languages and target machines using
the same basic techniques.

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Compilers HISTORY:
Throughout the 1950s, compilers were
considered notoriously difficult programs to
write.
The first FORTRAN compiler, for example, took

18 staff-years to implement.

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The Analysis-Synthesis Model of

Compilation:
There are two parts of compilation:
Analysis
Synthesis

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Compilation:
The analysis part breaks up the source

program into constituent pieces
creates an intermediate representation of the

source program.

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Compilation:
The synthesis part constructs the desired

target program from the intermediate
representation.

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Compilation:
source Front IR Back machine

code End End code
errors

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Compilation:
During analysis, the operations implied by the

source program are determined and recorded
in a hierarchical structure called a tree.
Often, a special kind of tree called a syntax

tree is used.

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Compilation:
In syntax tree each node represents an

operation and the children of the node
represent the arguments of the operation.
For example, a syntax tree of an assignment

statement is shown below.

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Compilation:

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Analysis of the Source Program:
In compiling, analysis consists of three phases:
Linear Analysis:
Hierarchical Analysis:
Semantic Analysis:

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Scanning or Lexical Analysis (Linear

Analysis):
The identifier, position.
The assignment symbol :=
The identifier initial.
The plus sign.
The identifier rate.
The multiplication sign.
The number 60.

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Syntax Analysis or Hierarchical

Analysis (Parsing):
Assignment
Statement
:=
Identifier Expression
Position +
Expression Expression
Identifier *
Initial
Identifier Number
Rate 60

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1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:

A compiler operates in phases.
Each of which transforms the source program

from one representation to another.
A typical decomposition of a compiler is

shown in fig given below

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The Phases of a Compiler:

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Linear Analysis:
In which the stream of characters making up the

source program is read from left-to-right and
grouped into tokens that are sequences of
characters having a collective meaning.

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In a compiler, linear analysis is called lexical

analysis or scanning.
For example, in lexical analysis the characters

in the assignment statement
Position: = initial + rate * 60

Would be grouped into the following tokens:

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The identifier, position.
The assignment symbol :=
The identifier initial.
The plus sign.
The identifier rate.
The multiplication sign.
The number 60.

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The blanks separating the characters of these

tokens would normally be eliminated during
the lexical analysis.

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They follow a pattern for its executions:

L (L |d)
letter followed by letters and digits is a pattern that
matches a word like x or y with the
token id (= identifier)

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Lexemes & Tokens

Lexeme:
A string of characters that is a lowest-level
syntactic unit in the programming language.
These are the words and punctuations of the
programming language.
Token:
Its a syntactic category that forms a class of
lexemes.

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Token Lexeme Pattern
letter followed by letters and

ID x y n0
digits
NUM -123 1.456e-5 any numeric constant
IF if if
LPAREN ( (
any string of characters

LITERAL ``Hello''
(except ``) between `` and ``

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Hierarchical Analysis:
In which characters or tokens are grouped

hierarchically into nested collections with
collective meaning.

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Hierarchical analysis is called parsing or syntax

analysis.
It involves grouping the tokens of the source

program into grammatical phases that are
used by the compiler to synthesize output.

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The grammatical phrases of the source

program are represented by a parse tree.
Statement( Start Symbol)
S->id =E
Expressions
E->E + T/T
Term or Terminal Symbols
T-> T*F/F
Factors
F-> id
Productions ( P) : A finite set of production
rules or simply Productions
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Assignment
Statement
:=
Identifier Expression
Position +
Identifier *
Initial
Identifier Number
Rate 60

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In the expression initial + rate * 60, the phrase

rate * 60 is a logical unit because the usual
conventions of arithmetic expressions tell us
that the multiplication is performed before
addition.
Because the expression initial + rate is
followed by a *, it is not grouped into a single
phrase by itself

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The hierarchical structure of a program is

usually expressed by recursive rules.
For example, we might have the following

rules, as part of the definition of expression:

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Any identifier is an expression.

Any number is an expression
If expression1 and expression2 are expressions,
then so are
Expression1 + expression2
Expression1 * expression2
(Expression1 )

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Semantic Analysis:
In which certain checks are performed to ensure

that the components of a program fit together
meaningfully.

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The semantic analysis phase checks the source

program for semantic errors and gathers type
information for the subsequent code-
generation phase.

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It uses the hierarchical structure determined

by the syntax-analysis phase to identify the
operators and operand of expressions and
statements.

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An important component of semantic analysis

is type checking.
Here are the compiler checks that each

operator has operands that are permitted by
the source language specification.

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For example, when a binary arithmetic

operator is applied to an integer and real. In
this case, the compiler may need to be
converting the integer to a real. As shown in
figure given below

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Symbol Table Management:

An essential function of a compiler is to record the
identifiers used in the source program and collect
information about various attributes of each
identifier.
These attributes may provide information about

the storage allocated for an identifier, its type, its
scope.

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The symbol table is a data structure containing a

record for each identifier with fields for the
attributes of the identifier.
When an identifier in the source program is

detected by the lexical analyzer, the identifier is
entered into the symbol table.

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However, the attributes of an identifier cannot

normally be determined during lexical analysis.
For example, in a Pascal declaration like

Var position, initial, rate : real;
The type real is not known when position, initial

and rate are seen by the lexical analyzer.

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The remaining phases gets information about

identifiers into the symbol table and then use this
information in various ways.
For example, when doing semantic analysis and

intermediate code generation, we need to know
what the types of identifiers are, so we can check
that the source program uses them in valid ways,
and so that we can generate the proper
operations on them.

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The code generator typically enters and uses

detailed information about the storage assigned
to identifiers.

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Each phase can encounter errors.
However, after detecting an error, a phase

must somehow deal with that error, so that
compilation can proceed, allowing further
errors in the source program to be detected.

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A compiler that stops when it finds the first

error is not as helpful as it could be.
The syntax and semantic analysis phases

usually handle a large fraction of the errors
detectable by the compiler.

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Error Detection and Reporting:

Errors where the token stream violates the
structure rules (syntax) of the language are
determined by the syntax analysis phase.
The lexical phase can detect errors where the

characters remaining in the input do not form
any token of the language.

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Intermediate Code Generation:

After Syntax and semantic analysis, some
compilers generate an explicit intermediate
representation of the source program.
We can think of this intermediate

representation as a program for an abstract
machine.

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This intermediate representation should have
two important properties;
it should be easy to produce,
easy to translate into the target program.

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We consider an intermediate form called
three-address code,
which is like the assembly language for a

machine in which every memory location can
act like a register.

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Three-address code consists of a sequence of
instructions, each of which has at most three
operands.

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Temp1 := inttoreal (60)
Temp2 := id3 * temp1
Temp3 := id2 + temp2
id1 := temp3

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Code Optimization:
The code optimization phase attempts to
improve the intermediate code, so that faster-
running machine code will result.

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Code Optimization:
Some optimizations are trivial.
For example, a natural algorithm generates

the intermediate code (1.3), using an
instruction for each operator in the tree
representation after semantic analysis, even
though there is a better way to perform the
same calculation, using the two instructions.

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Code Optimization:
Temp1 := id3 * 60.0
id := id2 + temp1
There is nothing wrong with this simple

algorithm, since the problem can be fixed
during the code-optimization phase.

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Code Optimization:
That is, the compiler can deduce that the
conversion of 60 from integer to real
representation can be done once and for all at
compile time, so the inttoreal operation can
be eliminated.

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Code Optimization:
Besides, temp3 is used only once, to transmit
its value to id1. It then becomes safe to
substitute id1 for temp3, whereupon the last
statement of 1.3 is not needed and the code
of 1.4 results.

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MACHINE INDEPENDENT OPTIMIZATION

Less space or faster execution.
Achieved in following ways:
Elimination of redundancies.
Computations in program are rewritten/rearranged to
make it run faster.
Code Optimization has nothing to do with a
Program Algorithm.
It usually doesnt take into account M/C
properties suchh as instruction set, registers etc.

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Places for Improvements??
source Front IR Back machine

code End End code
User can improve errors

by changing
algorithms &
transforming Compiler can use
loops registers & select
Compiler can do proper M/C
GLOBAL or LOCAL instructions.
optimization
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Techniques used in Compilers at Intermediate

code level without changing meanings:
Compile time evaluation
Elimination of common sub expressions
Dead Code elimination
Frequency reduction
Strength reduction

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COMPILE TIME EVALUATION

When all operands in an operation are constants,
the operation can be performed during
compilation.
Example:
x=5*3+9+y;
can be written as:
x = 24 + y ;
It reduces compile time evaluation.

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ELIMINATION OF COMMON SUBEXPRESSIONS:

Avoid recomputing a common sub expression by using
its previously computed value.
Its called Common Sub expression if it was previously
computed & the values of variables are not changed
since previous computation.
X = y * z;
.
A = y * z + 6;
The subexpression y*z can be saved in temp variable.

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Dead Code Elimination

A program may contain code that never get used.
a = 5;
b = 3;
X = a * b + 6;
Print a,b;
a = 5;
b = 3;
Print a,b;

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Frequency reduction
Some instructions can be moved out of a loop
If keeping it out doesnt make in difference better
reduce the frequency of executing it.
while (i<=100)
z = 5;
{
while (i<=100)
z = 5;
{
x = z * I;
x = z * I;
i++;
i++;
}
} Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor
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Strength Reduction
Replacement of time consuming operation by a
faster operation.
In some cases multiplication can be replaced by an
addition operation.
X = 2*y can be written as z = y + y
x can be written as x*x

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Machine dependent Optimization

Number of load and store statements can be
reduced by properly utilizing CPU registers for
storing intermediate values.
Use smaller and faster machine instructions.
Use appropriate addressing modes to handle
different high level data structures.
Can be re-arranged to make efficient
utilization of instruction pipelining.
Rearrangement to reduce the code size.
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Load and Store statements can be reduced. HOW?

x=x+y+z
Three address code derived from Syntax Tree:
T1 = x + y
MOV R1,x
ADD R1,y
MOV T1, R1 MOV R1, x
T2 = T1 + z ADD R1, y
MOV R1, T1 ADD R1, z
ADD R1, z MOV x, R1
MOV T2, R1
x = T2
MOV R1, T2
MOV X, R1 Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor
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Cousins of the Compiler:

As we saw in given figure, the input to a
compiler may be produced by one or more
preprocessors, and further processing of the
compilers output may be needed before
running machine code is obtained.

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Skeletal Source Program
Preprocessor
Source program
Compiler
Target assembly program
Assembler
Relocatable machine code
LIBRARY, RELOCATABLE
Loader/link-editor OBJECT FILES
Absolute machine code

1.3. A LANGUAGE-PROCESSING SYSTEM 76
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Cousins of the Compiler:

Preprocessors:
preprocessors produce input to compilers.
They may perform the following functions:
Macro Processing:
File inclusion:
Rational Preprocessors:
Language extensions:

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Preprocessors:
Macro Processing:
A preprocessor may allow a user to define macros

that are shorthands for longer constructs.

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Preprocessors:
File inclusion:
A preprocessor may include header files into the
program text.
For example, the C preprocessor causes the

contents of the file <global.h> to replace the
statement #include <global.h> when it processes a
file containing this statement.

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Preprocessors:
defs.h main.c
#include defs.h //////

////// //////
---------
////// //////
---------
////// ---------
---------
---------
---------

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Preprocessors:
Rational Preprocessors:
These processors augment older languages with
more modern flow-of-control and data-structuring
facilities.

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Preprocessors:
Language extensions:
These processors attempt to add capabilities to
the language by what amounts to built-in macros.
For example, the language Equal is a database
query language embedded in C. Statements
beginning with ## are taken by the preprocessor
to be database-access statements, unrelated to C,
and are translated into procedure calls on routines
that perform the database access.

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Other forms of Intermediate Code

Three address code
Abstract syntax tree
Postfix notation

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Abstract Syntax tree
z = x + (y * A)

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Postfix Notation
Operator appears after operands.
Traversing is done from right to left.
z=x+y*A

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Quadruple representation:
OPERATOR OPERAND 1 OPERAND 2 RESULT
The quadruple representation of z = x + y * A

Operator Operand 1 Operand 2 Result
* Y A Temp1
+ X Temp1 Temp2
= Temp2 - z

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Triple representation:
OPERATOR OPERAND 1 OPERAND 2
Triple representation of z = x + y * A
OPERATOR OPERAND 1 OPERAND 2

1 * Y A
2 + X (1)
3 = Z (2)

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Code Generation
The final phase of the compiler is the
generation of target code
consisting normally of relocatable machine

code or assembly code.

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Code Generation
Memory locations are selected for each of the
variables used by the program.
Then, intermediate instructions are each

translated into a sequence of machine
instructions that perform the same task.
A crucial aspect is the assignment of variables

to registers.
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INTERMEDIATE CODE GENERATED ASSEMBLY CODE
T1 = x + y MOV R1,x
ADD R1,y
MOV T1, R1
T2 = T1 + z MOV R1, T1
ADD R1, z
MOV T2, R1
x = T2 MOV R1, T2
MOV X, R1
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Assignment 3:
1. Consider the statement
4.0
R= 2
Explain the processing of above statement with
respect to all phases of compiler.
2. For the statement given below, generate intermediate
code in the format:
i) Postfix notation
ii) Abstract syntax tree
iii) Quadruple
iv) Triple
v) Three address code
+
=
( )
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The Grouping of Phases:

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Front and Back Ends:

The phases are collected into a front end and
a back end.
The front end consists of those phases that

depend primarily on the source language and
are largely independent of the target machine.

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These normally include lexical and syntactic
analysis, the creating of the symbol table,
semantic analysis, and the generation of
intermediate code.
A certain among of code optimization can be

done by the front end as well.

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The front end also includes the error handling
that goes along with each of these phases.

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The back end includes those portions of the
compiler that depend on the target machine.
And generally, these portions do not depend

on the source language, depend on just the
intermediate language.

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In the back end, we find aspects of the code
optimization phase, and we find code
generation, along with the necessary error
handling and symbol table operations.

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LANGUAGE PROCESSOR
DEVELOPMENT TOOLS
There are several software tools that help in
the production of a compiler. Two best known
are :
1. LEX : a lexical analyser generator
2. YAAC: a parser generator

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LEX
At lexical phase, we use regular expressions to
specify patterns to LEX
It generates code that allows to scan and
match strings in the i/p
LEX is a software tool that takes i/p a
specification of Regular Expression
Also takes action as i/p on recognising each of
these patterns.
The o/p of LEX is a C- Program for lexical
analyses Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor
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Lex source program LEX Lex.yy.c

lex.1
C a.out
COMPILER
Source program for Sequence of tokens

a.out
lexical analysis

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1. First, a specification of lexical analyzer as

prepared by creating a program lex.1 in the
lex language.
2. Then, lex.1 is run through the lex compiler
to produce a C- program lex.yy.c
3. lex.yy.c is a C- program containing
recogniser for Regular Expression together
with user supplied code.
4. Finally, lex.yy.c is run through C- compiler to
produce an object program a.out which is a
lexical analyzer that transforms an i/p stream
into tokens Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor
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Input is a set of Regular Expression and associate

actions (written in C)
Output is a table driven scanner (lex.yy.c)
INPUT PATTERN:
First part ( definition) OPTIONAL
%%
pattern action (REGULAR EXPRESSION)
%% (OPTIONAL)
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LEX Specifications
Declarations
%%
Translation rules
%%
User functions
Any of these three sections can be empty but the %%
between the declaration & rules cannot be omitted.

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Declarations Section
This section contains entries that:
Include standard I/O header file.
Define global variables.
Define the list rule as the place to start
processing.
Define the tokens used by the parser.
Define the operators and their precedence.

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Rules Section
The rules section defines the rules that parse
the input stream.

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Programs Section
The programs section contains the following subroutines. Because these
subroutines are included in this file, you do not need to use the yacc library when
processing this file.
main The required main program that calls

the yyparse subroutine to start the
program.
yyerror(s) This error-handling subroutine only prints

a syntax error message.
yywrap The wrap-up subroutine that returns a

value of 1 when the end of input occurs.

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YACC
It creates a C-Program for parser.
Available as a command on the Unix system.

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YACC Specifications YACC Lex.yy.c
C
y.tab.c a.out
COMPILER
Input Tokens from a.out OUTPUT

LEX
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Steps:
YACC Specification file is prepared.
YACC transforms the file containing
specifications into a C Program called y.tab.c,
which is a parser in C Language.
Y.tab.c is run through C Compiler which
produces object program a.out.
The parser a.out can be run to parse a source
containing stream of tokens.
The input of YACC is divided into three sections
as given below: Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor
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Declarations
%%
Translation rules
%%
C - FUNCTIONS Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

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FIRST PART
DECLARATIONS section consists of token
declarations & C code bracketed by
% { .%}
YACC definitions.
%start
%token
%union
%type

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YACC Takes grammar as input, reads it and

generates C code for a syntax analyser or parser.
Actions associated with a rule/grammar are
entered.
Represents a GRAMMAR
Left-hand side is followed by a colon & a right
hand side.
Multiple right-hand sides may be separated by
|
It contains all PRODUCTIONS

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Third Part
Contains valid C code that supports the
language processing.
Symbol Table implementation.
Functions that might be called by actions
associated with the productions in the second
part.

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OVER.....

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Compilers:: 1 MR - Binu Vargis Asstprofessor Computerscienceengg

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01-03-2017

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

There are thousands of source languages,

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

Target languages are equally as varied;

A target language may be another

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

Compilers are sometimes classified as:

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

The basic tasks that any compiler must

By understanding these tasks, we can

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

The first FORTRAN compiler, for example, took

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

The Analysis-Synthesis Model of

There are two parts of compilation:

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

The Analysis-Synthesis Model of

The analysis part breaks up the source

creates an intermediate representation of the

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

The Analysis-Synthesis Model of

The synthesis part constructs the desired

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

The Analysis-Synthesis Model of

source Front IR Back machine

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

The Analysis-Synthesis Model of

During analysis, the operations implied by the

Often, a special kind of tree called a syntax

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

The Analysis-Synthesis Model of

In syntax tree each node represents an

For example, a syntax tree of an assignment

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

The Analysis-Synthesis Model of

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

Analysis of the Source Program:

In compiling, analysis consists of three phases:

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

Scanning or Lexical Analysis (Linear

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

Syntax Analysis or Hierarchical

Mr.Binu Vargis AsstProfessor

1.3 The Phases of a Compiler:

Each of which transforms the source program

A typical decomposition of a compiler is

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The Phases of a Compiler:

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The Phases of a Compiler:

In which the stream of characters making up the

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In a compiler, linear analysis is called lexical

For example, in lexical analysis the characters

Position: = initial + rate * 60

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The Phases of a Compiler: