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Rev7 Final Version DTC MC - TS - NI - v2 - Pasca Accepted (Adobe Press Quality)
Rev7 Final Version DTC MC - TS - NI - v2 - Pasca Accepted (Adobe Press Quality)
is not fully optimized to achieve fast sampling frequency. In r : rotor time constant J : moment of inertia
[20], a significant increment in the sampling frequency to s : stator flux linkage space vectors in stationary reference frame
twice of that obtained with a DSP (which is 40 kHz) is r : rotor flux linkage space vectors in stationary reference frame
reported. r : rotor electrical speed in rad/s
vs : stator voltage space vector in stationary reference frame
This paper presents an effective way to design, simulate and
implement the flux and torque estimations for hysteresis-based
DTC utilizing FPGAs. The main contribution of this paper is Te,ref + HBTe
the development of the flux and torque estimators using an (a) Te,ref
optimized VHDL code on the FPGA (i.e. from scratch), to
Te,ref - HBTe
achieve a sampling frequency of 200 kHz. With the highest
sampling frequency, it is therefore possible for the torque Te,ref + HBTe
ripple to be restricted within its hysteresis band and hence (b) Te,ref
minimize the ripple by reducing the band size. Moreover, the
Te,ref - HBTe
performance of flux estimation as well as the inherent current
control in DTC system can be improved. Taking this into Te,ref + HBTe
account, the estimations in DTC are the main parts to be Te,ref
implemented using FPGA, as they involve complex (c)
calculations (e.g. integrals, square-root, multiplication and Te,ref - HBTe
precise current scaling factor). The optimized VHDL code DT
design will be based on the MATLAB simulation model, Fig. 1. The waveforms of output torque sampled at DT in the hysteresis
where the type of data, number of bits (resolution), sampling comparator for (a) low speed, (b) middle speed and (c) high speed
time, and scaling factor performed in simulation are similar to
that of FPGA implementation. The estimations of stator flux
and torque in the DTC of the induction machine will be To illustrate this, waveforms of discretized electromagnetic
presented in Section II. The equations of stator flux and torque torque under 3 different steady-state operating conditions are
in discrete form and sector identification will be given in shown in Fig. 1. These are drawn so that only the effects of
Section III. Section IV will present the description of the motor speed and the applied voltage are considered. During
estimations using MATLAB simulation and Modelsim Altera the positive torque slope, the active voltage vector is applied;
simulation. Finally, the simulation and experimental results otherwise, the zero voltage vector is selected. It can be noticed
are compared, to verify code/design effectiveness at the that the torque slopes (for positive and negative slopes) vary
highest sampling frequency. with the operating speed. As a result, the torque switching
frequency and hence the VSI switching frequency also vary
II. MAJOR PROBLEM IN HYSTERESIS-BASED DTC with operating conditions. Thus, it is common practice to
select the device with switching capability based on the worst
Despite its simplicity, the DTC based on hysteresis case of operating conditions.
controller causes some major problems such as variable
inverter switching frequency, high torque ripple and high B. High torque ripple
sampling requirement for digital implementation [3-8]. These In digital implementation, the output torque is calculated,
problems are briefly described as follows. and the appropriate switching states are determined at fixed
sampling time (DT in Fig. 1). This, however, causes a delay
A. Variable inverter switching frequency
between the instant the variables are sampled and the instant
In hysteresis-based DTC, the switching frequency of a VSI in which the corresponding switching status is passed to the
is mainly governed by the switching of the torque hysteresis inverter, therefore, the torque ripple cannot be restricted
comparator. The slope of the torque waveform, which directly exactly within the hysteresis band. If the band is set to be too
affects the switching of the hysteresis comparator, vary with small, the overshoot of the torque beyond the hysteresis band
the operating conditions (rotor speed, stator and rotor fluxes, could cause a reverse active voltage vector selection, instead
DC link voltage) [5]. This can be seen from the discrete form of a zero voltage vector selection. The selection of the reverse
of the torque equation given by (1): voltage vector causes the torque to decrease rapidly and as a
result the torque ripple increases [8, 18, 21-24]. This situation
Te,n 1 Te,n 1 1
Torque slope Te,n
is illustrated in Fig. 1(a).
t
s r
(1) C. The need for high speed processor
P m vs,n jr s,n j r,n
3 L
Reducing torque ripple by lowering the band width of
2 Ls Lr hysteresis comparator would be fruitless when the processor
where: used has a limited sampling frequency. The problem of high
Te : electromagnetic torque P : number of pole pairs torque ripple can be eliminated if a high-speed processor is
t : small value Lm : mutual inductance
: total flux leakage factor Ls : stator self-inductance utilized, where the discrete hysteresis controller performs
s : stator time constant Lr : rotor self-inductance closer to the operation of an analog based comparator. As
> REPLACE THIS LINE WITH YOUR PAPER IDENTIFICATION NUMBER (DOUBLE-CLICK HERE TO EDIT) < 3
TorqueandStatorFluxEstimator
T* + Torque
hysteresis Voltagge
vectorr
Test
Lookuup
+ table
* Flux hysteresis
comparator
est
sector
Test Statorfluxandtorq
S que
est estimators
ia i b ic Vdc
Sa
Te Inducctionmachineand
Sb
Figg. 9. RTL viewer of
o the sector judgm
ment inverrterlookuptable
s baseddsimulator(FPGA) Sc
in the system have been designed in fully generic VHDL code, [4] A. Tripathi, et al., "Torque ripple analysis and dynamic performance of
a space vector modulation based control method for AC-drives," Power
independent of the target implementation technology, without Electronics, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 20, pp. 485-492, 2005.
the need for third party products or special FPGAs. Given that [5] D. Casadei, et al., "Implementation of a direct control algorithm for
most of the DTC research solutions have limitations on the induction motors based on discrete space vector modulation," Power
Electronics, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 15, pp. 769-777, 2000.
performance of the implementation of the torque and flux [6] C. Lascu, et al., "A modified direct torque control for induction motor
estimator, obviously this contribution has been eagerly sensorless drive," Industry Applications, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 36,
awaited by researchers to support, enable and take forward pp. 122-130, 2000.
their DTC improvements. [7] T. G. Habetler, et al., "Direct torque control of induction machines
using space vector modulation," Industry Applications, IEEE
Transactions on, vol. 28, pp. 1045-1053, 1992.
VIII. CONCLUSIONS [8] T. Noguchi, et al., "Enlarging switching frequency in direct torque-
controlled inverter by means of dithering," Industry Applications, IEEE
This paper has achieved the reduction of the sampling time Transactions on, vol. 35, pp. 1358-1366, 1999.
(to increase the sampling frequency) by using FPGAs, so that [9] J. Beerten, et al., "Predictive Direct Torque Control for Flux and
Torque Ripple Reduction," Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions
the width of the band of the hysteresis controller can be used on, vol. 57, pp. 404-412.
to directly control the torque ripple. The technique retains the [10] J. Kley, et al., "Performance evaluation of model predictive direct
simple control structures of the DTC drive. The paper torque control," in Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 2008.
PESC 2008. IEEE, 2008, pp. 4737-4744.
presented an effective way to design, simulate and implement [11] G. Papafotiou, et al., "Model Predictive Direct Torque Control; Part II:
hysteresis-based DTC utilizing FPGAs. All modules in the Implementation and Experimental Evaluation," Industrial Electronics,
system have been designed in fully generic VHDL code, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 56, pp. 1906-1915, 2009.
[12] T. Geyer, et al., "Model Predictive Direct Torque Control&; Part I:
which is independent of the FPGA target implementation Concept, Algorithm, and Analysis," Industrial Electronics, IEEE
technology. All calculations in the modules are conducted in Transactions on, vol. 56, pp. 1894-1905, 2009.
two's complement fixed-point arithmetic with appropriate [13] B. K. Bose and P. M. Szczesny, "A microcomputer-based control and
word sizes. The choice of word sizes, the binary format and simulation of an advanced IPM synchronous machine drive system for
electric vehicle propulsion," Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions
the sampling time used are very important in order to achieve on, vol. 35, pp. 547-559, 1988.
a good implementation of the estimators. To get simpler [14] L. Lianbing, et al., "A high-performance direct torque control based on
implementation and fast computation, several methods were DSP in permanent magnet synchronous motor drive," in Intelligent
Control and Automation, 2002. Proceedings of the 4th World Congress
introduced: i) the backward Euler approach to calculate the on, 2002, pp. 1622-1625 vol.2.
discrete integration operation of stator flux, ii) the modified [15] S. M. A. Cruz, et al., "DSP implementation of the multiple reference
non-restoring method to calculate complicated square root frames theory for the diagnosis of stator faults in a DTC induction
motor drive," Energy Conversion, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 20, pp.
operation of stator flux, iii) a new sector analysis method; the 329-335, 2005.
simulation results of the DTC model in MATLAB/Simulink, [16] A. Jidin, et al., "Simple Dynamic Overmodulation Strategy for Fast
which performed double-precision calculations, are used as Torque Control in DTC of Induction Machines with Constant
Switching Frequency Controller," in Industry Applications Society
references to digital computations executed in FPGA Annual Meeting (IAS), 2010 IEEE, 2010, pp. 1-8.
implementation. The Hardware-in-the-loop (HiL) method is [17] N. R. N. Idris, et al., "A New Torque and Flux Controller for Direct
used to verify the minimal error between MATLAB/Simulink Torque Control of Induction Machines," Industry Applications, IEEE
Transactions on, vol. 42, pp. 1358-1366, 2006.
simulation and the experimental results. The design, which [18] A. Jidin, et al., "An Optimized Switching Strategy for Quick Dynamic
was coded in synthesizable VHDL code for implementation Torque Control in DTC-Hysteresis-Based Induction Machines,"
on Altera APEX20K200EFC484-2x device, has produced very Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 58, pp. 3391-3400,
good estimations, giving minimal errors when being compared 2011.
[19] E. Monmasson and M. N. Cirstea, "FPGA Design Methodology for
to MATLAB/Simulink double-precision calculations. Industrial Control Systems: A Review," Industrial Electronics, IEEE
Transactions on, vol. 54, pp. 1824-1842, 2007.
[20] S. Ferreira, et al., "Design and prototyping of direct torque control of
ACKNOWLEDGMENT induction motors in FPGAs," in Integrated Circuits and Systems
Design, 2003. SBCCI 2003. Proceedings. 16th Symposium on, 2003,
The authors would like to thank the Universiti Teknologi pp. 105-110.
Malaysia (UTM) and the Ministry of Higher Education of the [21] J. W. Kang and S. K. Sul, "Analysis and prediction of inverter
Malaysian government for funding this research. switching frequency in direct torque control of induction machine
based on hysteresis bands and machine parameters," Industrial
Electronics, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 48, pp. 545-553, 2001.
[22] A. Jidin, et al., "Extending switching frequency for torque ripple
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[25] A. Saleem, et al., "Hardware-In--the-Loop for on-lline identification and Auzani Jidin (M M09 IEEE) receivved his B.Eng.
control of thrree-phase squirrell cage induction motors," Simulaation degree, M.Eng. degree
d and PhD degree
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in steady staate operation forr direct torque controlc of inducction Engineering at Universiti Tekknikal Melaka
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Record of the 2000
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discontinuous SVPWM," Turk J Elec Eng & Comp Sci, vol. 18, p. p 6, Romania, and thee Ph.D. degree froom Nottingham
2010. Trent University, Nottingham, U.K K. in 1996.
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for the Inductioon Motor Drive," presented
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C and
International Conference
C on Commputer as a Tool, 2007.
2 Technology D
Department, Annglia Ruskin
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C Applicatioons," University, Cam mbridge, U.K., affter previously
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M Universitty, U.K. He has
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Features, Design Tools,
T and Applicaation peer reviewed papers, three of which have
Domains of FPGAs,"
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& Applicationss (ISIEA), 2010 IE EEE Symposium onn, 2010, pp. 691-695. Technicall Committee of thhe IEEE Industriaal Electronics Socciety, Fellow of
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Recognition Syystem for Embedd ded Real-Time Appplications," Industtrial Transactions on Industriaal Electronics. He H was General Chair of ISIE
Electronics, IE
EEE Transactions on vol. 58, pp. 8500-859, March 2011 Conference (Cambridge, 20008). He coordinated a European rennewable energy
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