Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Information Technology Book 2017
Information Technology Book 2017
Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
iPbvq
Mvwe` P` ivq
mnhvMx AavcK
Kvgweqvb KjR, XvKv
weGmwm (Abvm) dwjZ c`v_wevb I BjKUwb
GgGmwm, dwjZ c`v_wevb I BjKUwb wefvM (iv.we)
nvqvi wWcvgv-Bb-KwDUvi mvq G cvMvwgs,bUvgm|
cvb cfvlK (M dvKvw), Av`gRx KvUbgU KjR, XvKv|
cixK: gvawgK I DP gvawgK wkv evW, XvKv| (NTRCA mb` cv)
|||
mvgmyvgvb
mnKvix AavcK
Kvgweqvb KjR, XvKv
weGmwm (Abvm), KwDUvi wevb (c_g kwY)
GgGmwm, KwDUvi wevb (c_g kwY)
cvb cfvlK, ivRavbx AvBwWqvj KjR, ivgcyiv|
bvkbvj AvBwWqvj KjR, wLjMuvI, XvKv
cixK: wkK wbeb I cZqb KZc (NTRCA)
cavb cixK: gvawgK I DP gvawgK wkv evW, XvKv|
Kvgweqvb cvewjKkb
cU2, jkvb mvKj2, XvKv
KZK cKvwkZ
gvevBj: 9881355, 01720557170/80/90
Kvgweqvb cvewjKk
cU-2, jkvb, XvKv
KZK cKvwkZ|
KwDUvi KvR
gvnv` Igi dviK f~uBqv
gvnv` Avbvqvi nvmb
cQ`
gvnv` BDbym wgqv
wP
msMnxZ
g~j: UvKv
jLKi cm K_v
Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw AbK weZ I cwieZbkxj welq| cwZwbqZB GB welq evcK Dbqb I MelYv
nQ| dj weeZbi G avivevwnKZvi m Zvj wgwjq Pjv cKZc KwVb KvR| DbZ weki `kjv
ivRbwZK, A_bwZK, mvgwiK cfwZ Af~Zc~e DbwZ I mvdj ARb KiQ Z_ I hvMvhvM chywi
GB wekvj mvebvK KvR jvwMq| GKwesk kZvxi Pvj gvKvejvi AbZg PvweKvwV nj Z_| mwVK
mgq mwVK Z_ eenvii gvag Dbqbi MwZ Zivw^Z Kiv hvq| h hZ `Zvi mv_ Z_ msMn,
msiY, eenvi I eevcbv KiZ cvie m ZZ `Z DbwZi Pig wkLi DVZ cvie| AwZ A mgqi
ga Dbqbkxj Kvbv `kK DbZ `ki KvZvi wbq hZ nj Z_ I hvMvhvM chywi Kvb weK bB|
KwgDwbKkb wmgm I bUIqvwKs, msLv cwZ I wWwRUvj wWfvBm I cvMvwgs fvlvi gZ iZc~Y
welqK h_vme weklYg~jK, mij I cvj fvlvq cYqb I icvqY Kiv nqQ| dj welqjv Zv`i
KvQ mnR AbyavebhvM I `qMvnx ne| eBwU co hvZ Qv-Qvx mnR eySZ cvi mw`K wekl
fve bRi `Iqv nqQ| eBwU iPbvi Rb DPZi kwYi BsiwR eBqi mnvqZv wbZ nqQ| Qv-
Qvx`i eySvi myweav_ eBwUZ wKQz wKQz BsiwR ki evsjv cwZk eenvi Kiv nqQ| eBwU iPbv
KiZ `wk-we`wk AbK eBqi mvnvh wbZ nqQ| mB mv_ `wk-we`wk mvgwqKx, Rvbvj I BUvibU Gi
mnvqZv wbZ nqQ mekl Z_ mshvRbi Rb| GRb mswk jLK I cKvkK`i KvQ Avgiv FYx|
Kmva Ges eB jLvi gZ `ytmvnmx GB KvRwU Kivi Rb Avgv`i AbyciYv w`q mvgbi w`K GwMq
wbqQb; Kvgweqvb KjRi kq Pqvigvb Ges wkvbyivMx ewZ Rbve jvqb Gg, K, evkvi (wcGgRGd)|
mB m fvBm Pqvigvb L`Kvi mwjgv iIkb Ges cig kq wkvwe`, Kvgweqvb KjR jkvb
Kvvmi Aa W. KiYvgq Mv^vgx| Zuv`i cZKi cwZ KZZv RvbvwQ|
RvZxq wkvg I cvVcyK evWi weklgwji wewfb civgk eBwUi gvb Dbqb wekl Ae`vb
iLQ| GbwmwUwe (NCTB) KZK
bZzb wmjevmi AvjvK eBwUi c_g msiY cKvk Kiv njv|
eBwU cKvk huv`i cZ I civ mnhvwMZv iqQ Zv`i mKji cwZ iBj AvwiK KZZv| eBwUi
Divi gvbvbqb h Kvb MVbg~jK mgvjvPbv, wb`kbv, civgk I mvweK mnhvwMZv mv`i MnYhvM
Ges GKv Kvg|
Mvwe` P` ivq
mvgmyvgvb
cKvkKi K_v
wkv RvZxq Rxebi meZvgyL x Dbqbi c~ekZ| Avi ` Z cwieZb kxj weki Pvj gvKvejv
Ki evsjv`kK Dbqb I mgwi w`K wbq hvIqvi Rb c qvRb mywkwZ Rbkw| fvlv Av`vjb
I gywhyi PZbvq `k Movi Rb wkv_xi AwbwnZ gav I mvebvi cwic~Y weKvk mvnvh Kiv
DP gvawgK wkvi AbZg j| GQvov cv_wgK i AwRZ wkvi gwjK vb I `Zv
mcmvwiZ I mym snZ Kivi gvag DPZi wkvi hvM Ki ZvjvI G ii wkvi Dk|
vbvRbi GB cwqvi wfZi w`q wkv_xK `ki A_ bwZK, mvgvwRK, mvswZK I cwiekMZ
cUf~wgi cw Z ` I hvM bvMwiK Ki ZvjvI DPgvawgK wkvi AbZg weeP welq|
RvZxq wkvbxwZ-2010 Gi j I DkK mvgb iL cwigvwRZ nqQ DP gvawgK ii wkvg|
cwigvwRZ GB wkvg RvZxq Av`k, j, Dk I mgKvjxb Pvwn`vi cwZdjb NUvbv nqQ, mB mv_
wkv_x`i eqm, gav I MnY gZv Abyhvqx wkLbdj wbaviY Kiv nqQ| GQvov wkv_xi bwZK I
gvbweK g~jeva _K i Ki BwZnvm I HwZn PZbv, gnvb gywhyi PZbv, wk-mvwnZ-mswZeva,
`kcgeva, cKwZ-PZbv Ges ag-eY-Mv I bvix-cyil wbwekl mevi cwZ mgghv`veva RvMZ Kivi
Pv Kiv nqQ| GKwU wevbgb RvwZ MVbi Rb Rxebi cwZwU wevbi ^Zt~Z cqvM I
wWwRUvj evsjv`ki icK 2021 Gi j evevqb wkv_x`i mg Ki Zvjvi Pv Kiv nqQ|
bZzb GB wkvgi AvjvK cYxZ nqQ DPgvawgK ii cvq mKj cvVcyK| D cvVcyK cYqb
wkv_x`i mvg_, ceYZv I c~e AwfZvK iZi m weePbv Kiv nqQ| cvVcyKjvi welq
wbevPb I Dcvcbi wkv_xi mRbkxj cwZfvi weKvk mvabi w`K weklfve iZ `Iqv
nqQ| cwZwU Aavqi iZ wkLbdj hy Ki wkv_xi AwRZe vbi BwZ c`vb Kiv nqQ Ges
wewP KvR, mRbkxj ck I Abvb ck mshvRb Ki g~jvqbK mRbkxj Kiv nqQ|
Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw G cvVcyKwU GKwesk kZKi m~PbvjM cwiewZZ mgqi cvcU wkv_x`i
Pvwn`v I `wfwi evcK cwieZbi cUf~wgZ cwigvwRZ KvwiKzjvgi AvjvK DP gvawgK ii Rb
iPbv Kiv nqQ|
GKwesk kZKi AxKvi I cZqK mvgb iL cwigvwRZ wkvgi AvjvK cvVcyKwU iwPZ nqQ|
KvRB cvVcyK wUi AviI mgwmvabi Rb hKvbv MVbg~jK I hywmZ civgk iZi m weewPZ
ne| cvVcyK cYqbi wecyj Kghi ga AwZ ^ mgq cyKwU iwPZ nqQ| dj wKQz fyjwU _K
hZ cvi| cieZx msiYjvZ cvVcyKwUK AviI my`i, kvfb I wUgy Kivi Pv AevnZ,
_vKe| evbvbi AbymZ nqQ evsjv GKvWgx KZK cYxZ evbvbixwZ|
cvVcyK
wU iPbv, mv`bv, bgybv ckv w` cYqb I cKvkbvi KvR hviv AvwiKfve gav I kg w`qQb
Zuv`i abev` vcb KiwQ| cvVcyKwU wkv_x`i Avbw`Z cvV I cZvwkZ `Zv ARb wbwZ Kie
ej Avkv Kwi|
Aavq weeiY cv bs
mv_ msMwZc~Y wewfb wP, AwWI, wfwWI eenvi Ges Qv-Qvx`i AskMnYg~jK Kvmi gvag cvVi
welqK wkv_x`i mvgb Aviv mnR, evaMg Ki Zvjv nq| Gi Rb KwDUvi Ges cRi
eenvi Kiv nq| wkKiv Zv`i mswk welqi AvcWU wiPvm/ MelYv mK BUvibU _K
cqvRbxq Z_ msMn KiZ cvi| Kvbv welq MelYvi Rb Avi jvBewii ga em _vKZ nq bv|
kyay BUvibU cek Ki DjwLZ/ cqvRbxq welq wjL mvP w`jB ei nq Avm kZ kZ ce iPbv
ev wewfb Qwe| wbw` welqi Dci AwWI Ges wfwWI cvIqv hvq| hv eenvi Ki wkKiv wWwRUvj
KbUU Zwi KiZ cvi|
wkKiv wbw` welqi Dci jKPvi/ ce/ AwWI/ wfwWI wbw` Iqe mvBU AvcjvW Ki ivLZ
cvi, wkv_xiv Kvm bv wMqI H jKPvi WvDbjvW KiZ cvi| eZgvb wKQz cixvI
AbjvBbi gvag bqv nq| cixvi LvZv g~jvqbI Z_ I chyw eenvi Kiv nq, bewK
cixvi Di c g~jvqb Ges iPbvg~jK Aski b^i wgjKiY, wewfb welqi MwWs Kiv Ges
wRwcG wbYq Kiv BZvw` mKj KvRB chyw wbfi ^qwqfve cZ Kiv nq| eZ gvb wewfb
cvewjK cixvi djvdjI BUvibUi gvag cKvk Kiv nQ| BUvibUi gvag weki eo eo
wekwe`vjqi AavcK`i mv_ hvMvhvM Ki w_wmm ccvi Zwi Kiv hvq| we`ki Kvbv
wekwe`vjq iwRkb Ki Ggwdj/ wcGBPwW wWwM ARb Kiv hvq|
1.1.4 wPwKrmv (Treatment)
eZgvb wPwKrmv wevb Z_ I hvMvhvM chywi eenvi DjL Kivi gZv| wPwKrmv wevbi wewfb
MelYv hv Z_ I chywwbfi Zv AvR gvbylK Gb
w`qQ `xN Ges my`i Rxeb| AvBwmwU eenvii dj
Gi, AvjUvmvD, Gg Avi AvB (MRI) cfwZ chywi
mydj Avgiv cq _vwK| bZzb Jla Avwevi Ges Jla
Gi Dbqb mvabi Rb Z_ I chyw eenvi Kiv nQ
wkky gvZMf _vKv Aevq wU wbYq Kiv me Ges chyw
I Jla viv H mKj wU mskvab Kiv me| fvPyqvj
wiqvwjwUi eenvi Ki gvbwmK ivMx`i wPwKrmv `qv
nQ| AvRKvj Uwjdvb Gi gvagI RbMY wPwKrmv
mev cq _vK| nvmcvZvj ivMx`i cvj&m, Zvcgvv,
kvm-ckv m, iPvc BZvw` cheY, ivMxi kixi vb, wP: wPwKrmv AvBwmwU
Ges ivMx`i iKW msiY Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw eenvi Kiv nq| g~jK_v wPwKrmv wPwKrmv
hcvwZ, ivMxi iKW, Iqe emW mvcvU, hvMvhvM I MelYvq AvBwmwU eeZ nq| wfwWI
Kbdviws Gi gvag Mvgi ivMxiv knii eo eo nvmcvZvji Wvvi`i civgk cZ cvi|
AvBwmwU eenvi Ki `ki evBi Wvvi`i mv_ hvMvhvM me| A_vr Wvvi Ges ivMx `yB vb
_K civgk Av`vb-c`vb Kiv me| ZvQvov GcvU wmg eenvi KiI Avgiv wPwKrmv msv civgk
cq _vwK|
KvR: Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw eenvii dj cw_ex GLb nvZi gyVvqevLv Ki|
Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw: wek I evsjv`k cwZ 5
KgPvwi`i eZb BjKUwbK Dcvq KgPvwi`i wbR wbR evsK wnmve Rgv nq hvq| GLb Avi
wcqbK Awdmi wewfb ig wewfb bvwUm wbq QzUv QzwU KiZ `Lv hvq bv, KviY GLb B-gBji
gvag mKji wbKU GKhvM hKvbv bvwUm ev msev` gyn~Zi ga cuQ hvq| eZgvb Awdm
KvMRi eenvi bB ejjB Pj| Awdmi bZzb KgPvwi`i cwkYI eenvi Kiv nq AvBwmwU|
my`i cvIqvi cqU cRUkbi gvag cwkYi KvRwU mb Kiv nq| hLvb B-gBj
msev` cvVvbv hvq bv mLvb gvevBj dvb Zv AvQB| ZvQvov cZK AwdmiB iqQ wbR^
Iqe mvBU| Gi gvag RbMY BQv KijB hKvbv mgq H Awdmi Kvhg mK mekl
msev` RvbZ cvi| eZgvb wewfb Awdmi KvRi `icI Avnevb Kiv nq BUvibUi gvag|
RgvI bqv nq BUvibUi gvag| Gi dj Awdm cvewjK M`vwis bB ejjB Pj|
1.1.7 evmvb (Residence)
Z_ I hvMvhvM chywi eenvi Avgv`i evmvbK Ki ZzjQ AwaKZi wbivc`| Avgiv
Avgv`i evmvbi evBii w`K wmwm
(KvR mvwKU) Kvgiv viv wbqY
KiZ cvwi| Gi dj Awbw` ew ev
Ab wKQzi MwZ-wewa gwbUwis Kiv hvq|
Ggb wK cqvRb iKwWs Kiv hvq|
ciewZZ Kvbv AcxwZKi NUbv NUj
iKWKZ Z_ _K Acivax mbv Kiv
ev wmv bqv hvq| wewfb BjwbK
hi ga mi eenvii dj Gjv
cqvRb Abyhvqx mev c`vb KiZ cvi| hgb- Ni _vKv Aevq jvBU, dvb, Gwm BZvw` Pvjy
_vK Ges KD bv _vKj Gjv e nq hvq| ZvQvov Avgv`i Nii `iRvq wewfb aibi mi I
evqvgwU wWfvBm eenvi Kiv nq _vK|
1.1.8 eemv-evwYR (Business)
eZgvb hyM Z_ I hvMvhvM chywi hyM| mKj B Z_ hvMvhvM chyw eeZ nQ| eemv-
evwYRI AvBwmwUi eenvi Acwimxg|
AvBwmwU eenvii dj eemv-evwYR GLb
kyay wbw` `vKvb ev eemv K`i ga
mxgve bq| BUvibUi gvag Qwoq
coQ mviv wek| BUvibU ev KwDUvi
bUIqvKi gvag BjKUwbK cwZZ
Kvbv cY ev mev q-weqi KvRKB
ej B-Kgvm| BjKUwbK dv Uvdvi,
mvcvB PBb gvbRgU wmg, BUvibU
gvKwUs, AbjvBb UvbRKkb cmwms,
BjKUwbK WUv BUviP, BbfwUs gvbRgU wmg Ges AUvgUW WUv KvjKkb
Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw: wek I evsjv`k cwZ 7
Gwgg: GwU GKwU mvgvwRK wgwWqv BUvibU mvwfm| hLvb eenviKvwiiv ge Ki Ges
gvwwgwWqv jLv, Qwe, AwWI, wfwWI) fvMvfvwM Ki GK Acii ga cfve wevi KiZ cvi|
Wvb KIqj, bcvii AbK cKkjxwe``i `j 2003 mvj GwU cwZv KiwQj|
gvBm GK wKb wbqQ Ges eZgvb Gi mvwfm e iqQ| gvBm Gi cavb kvLv efviwj
wnjvm, KvwjdvwbqvZ|
1.1.11 mvswZK wewbgq (Cultural Exchange)
c w _exi wewfb `ki Rxebhvvi aib, BwZnvm, ms w Z BZvw` wfb wfb | wewfb `k
AbK aibi Drme, cve Y D`& h vwcZ nq| c~ e GKB `ki wewfb Aj wfb wfb Drme
cvjb KiZ| wK Z_ I hvMvhvM c h y w i wewfb c e vni dj GK Aji wewfb Drme
mK Ab Aji jvKRb RvbZ cvi| mvUjvBU ev wWm eenvii gvag Avgiv
c w _exi wewfb `ki Aby vb `LZ cvwi| Avevi Avgv`i Aby vbI Abvb `ki
jvKRb `LZ cvi| Abvb `ki bvUK, wmbgv, Mvb BZvw` `L Avgiv H `ki
K w l, KvjPvi, BwZnvm, HwZn mK aviYv jvf KiZ cvwi| Gfve Z_ I hvMvhvM
c h y w i dj wewfb `ki ga ms w Zi wewbgq nq|
`kK mswkZv-
hme cwiek mvaviYi c`kbx AvM ARvbv ev wbwl wQj, mLvb DP gZvi jmn fvPzqvj
wiqwjwU Mvm (Pkgv) Gi mvnvh wgvwK e wewfb w`K _K `Lv hZ| D`vniY^ic ejv hvq-
GKwU HwZnvwmK wews (vcbv) RbmvaviY wewfb w`K _K `LZ cvib| Gi dj Zviv BwZnvmi
wbw` mgqi gvbyli Rxeb hvcb Dcjw KiZ cvi| Zviv GKwU UvwKs wmg (Pkgv), hv Zv`i
PjvPj (Movement) UvK Ki KwDUvi cvVvq| KwDUvi `kKi Dcjw cwieZbi mv_ mv_
BgR/ Qwe cwieZb Ki| fvPzqvj wiqwjwU MBwgs webv`bi GKwU Rbwcq gvag|
fvPzq vj wiqwjwU Ges nwiUR:
fvPzqvj wiqwjwU hv`yNi Ges HwZnvwmK mwUs G eeZ nq| GB mwUs (wg_wqv cqvM Ki) G
RbMY bZzb Ges DRbvc~Y Dcvq Z_ I hvMvhvM gvag BUviwf nq| wkky`i Rb
gbvhvMi mv_ hv`yNi c`kbx weiwKi| ZvB fvPzqvj wiqwjwU Gi gvag wg_wqv cwZZ
wkky`i G weiw `~i Kiv hvq Ges `kK msLv ew Kiv hvq|
wKQz fvPzqvj wiqwjwU nwiUR mvBU njv-
wZma (Monuments)
vb n (Stonehenge)
fvh (Sculptures)
nv (Caves)
HwZnvwmK feb (Historical Building)
cZZvwK dig (Archaeological dig)
cvPxb kni I Mvg (Old towns and village)
12 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
wbkvbv (target) wgm Kiv ev AcqvRb wevwiZ nIqv wQj wbZ-bwgwK evcvi| 1g Ges
2q wekhyi mgq G aibi evgvi cPzi eenvi wQj|
Z_I hvMvhvM chyw cwZiv wkK Ag~j cwiewZZ KiQ| AvBwmwUi mvnvh cwZiv
wk eZgvb smart A Zwi KiQ| vU A AwaKZi kwkvjx Ges wbfyj wbkvbvq
AvgY KiZ mg| mvgwiK evwnbx Gme Ai mv_ K_v ejZ ev wb`k w`Z cvi| wZwb
(Kgvvi) AK wbw` ey `L asm Kivi wb`k w`Z cvi Pvi cvki GjvKvi Kvbv iKg
asm mvab bv Ki|
(ii) c~e A Ges hcvwZ Zwi nZv aygv wewfb evwnbxi KgKZv`i ewMZ cqvRb
gUvbvi Rb| kci wZ mvab Kivi Rb GB AjvK GKmv_ eenvi Kiv
nZv| cPzi mb Ges mvgwiK hcvwZ I Ai Dci wbfi Ki hy eevcbvK
gvbeKw`K hy eevcbv ej|
ZLb Kvbv evwnbxi mb msLvi Dci H evwnbxi kw cwigvcY Kiv nZv| fvjv
Kkji Pq Zviv mb msLv ew i Kkj eenvi KiZ| hy Rqi Rb
RbvijMYi AwaK msLK mb, A Ges hcvwZi Pvwn`v wQj| mb`i mvnvh Kivi
Rb Ges mieivn wbwZ Kivi Rb Aviv jvK `iKvi nZv| ZvQvov mvwPweK KvRi
Rb Aviv AbK jvKi cqvRb wQj|
eZg vb bUIqvK Kw` K hy eevcbv AvBwmwUi my dj| Gi dj GKRb
Rbvij Zvi mb`i ch eY KiZ, Zv`i Aev b, Zv`i hy mivgi mieivn
BZvw` ch eY KiZ cvib|
G eevq mbiv wbR`i ga hvMvhvM eev DbZ KiQ| GKRb vqvW wjWvi k mb
Ges wg mb mbv KiZ cvi Ges hy Qovbv-wQUvbv hy mivg mK AeMZ nZ
cvi| Gi dj GKRb vqvW wjWvi mwVK mgq AwZ `Z wmv MnY KiZ cvi|
(iii) cwZivq AvBwmwU hy nIqvi c~e Ggb Kvbv wWfvBm ev h wQj bv hvi viv hy i
mvgwiK Kvhg cwigvc Kiv hZ| hy cieZx chvjvPbvq wbR`i wnmve Ges hZUzKz wZZ
_vK Zv w`qB hyi `Zv cwigvc Kiv nZv| Gjv mvaviYZ hyi gWj, gvbwP BZvw`
cheY Ki Ges DPc` KgKZvMY mivmwi cheY KiZv| G kZfvM MnYhvM Z_
msMn ckevaK wQj| Gi dj hycieZx AvnZ (BbRyiW) mb msLv Ges hy AskMnYi
ceYZvi ga Lye ewk cv_K j Kiv hvq|
cwZiv wk AvBwmwU hy nIqvi ci wiqj UvBg hy cheY, bUIqvKwfwK hyi eo AMMwZ
nq| hyi me NUbv mK ZrYvr Lei Av`k/wb`k mUvi cuQ hvq| GUv me nqQ-
KviY mbiv GLb hyvi mv_ AbK AvaywbK Bjwb hi mvnvh bq- hvi dj Zviv mnR
mwVK wmv wbZ cvi| ki UvMU Ges wbR`i Aevb eySZ cvi, GKvb _K Abvb
hZ KZ mgq jvMj Zv wnmve KiZ cvi| ki vcbv asm KiZ cvi| hLb Kvbv
wec`RbK hy AeZxY nq ZLb ZvrYvr Kgvvii wb`k cZ/ MnY KiZ cvi|
KvR: eZgvb hy mvaviY RbMYi gZzi nvi Lye Kg-Gi KviY evLv Ki|
Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw: wek I evsjv`k cwZ 21
evqvgwU hvPvBqi viv cwiPq cgvY eev KcviU I cvewjK wbivcv, BjKUwb cY Ges
weq K` GKwU mvaviY cwZ| wbivcv QvovI evqvgwUK hvPvBqi wKQz myweav iqQ|
GKwU evqvgwU wWfvBm hgb- wdvivbvi (Finger-scanner) wbg w jwLZ Aski
mg^ q MwVZ-
GKwU BbcyU wWfvBm ev vbvi (A reader or Scanner)
GKwU mdUIqvi hv- vb Kiv Z_K wWwRUvj digU icvi Ki Ges gvP cqU Zzjbv Ki|
GKwU WUveR, hLvb Zzjbv Kiv WUv msiwZ _vK|
cwiPq Pzwi iva Z_ MnY Kivi mgq mvaviYZ WUv Gbw Kiv nq| GLb `Lv hvK Kxfve
evqvgwUK hvPvBqi KvRwU mb nq
evqvgwUK BbcyUK icvi KiZ Ges gvwPs cqU Ae WUv mbv Kivi Rb GKwU eenvwiK
mdU&Iqvi eenvi Kiv nq| WUveRi ga gvP cqU cwqvKiYi Rb GKwU AvjMwi`g
eenvi Kiv nq Ges Z_K msLvevPK WUvq icvi Kiv nq| WUveRi gvb mekl evqvgwU
BbcyUi mv_ Zzjbv Kiv nq Ges cgvYi Rb bgybv wgj ev Awgj NvlYv Kiv nq|
1.3.7 evqvBbdigwU (Bioinformatics)
evqv-BbdigwU njv Re Z_ eevcbvi Rb KwDUvi chywi GKwU eenvi| Re I
RbwUK Z_ msiY, weklY Ges GKwKiYi KvR KwDUvii gvag Kiv nq, hv wRbwfwK
bZzb Jla Avwevi Ges Dbqbi KvR jvM| wnDgvb wRbg cR (Human Genome Project)
Gi dj RbmvaviY wRb mK cPzi Z_ Rvb, hvi dj evqv-BbdigwU Gi cqvRbxqZv ew
cqQ| wnDgvb wRbgi Dk- mKj gvbe wRb g wbaviY Kiv hv cvq wZb wewjqb Rvov|
evqv-BbdigwU wevb njv AvYyweK Re wevb Ges KwDUvi wevbi mgw^Z ic| bZzb
Jla Avwevii Rb gwjKzjvi UvMU (Molecular targets) mywbw` Kiv Ges gvbe `ni ivM
mcK evSvi Rb RbwUK Z_ eenvi Kiv| Gi ^xKwZi Rb AbK wekwe`vjq, miKvwi cwZvb,
Ges dvg v wmDwUKvj Kvvwb Mbbxq Rxewevbx (Computational biologists) Ges
evqvBbdigwU KwDUvi wevbx (Bioinformatics Computer Scientists) Gi
mg^ q evqvBbdigwU M c MVb KiQ|
22 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
Zwi Kiv nq GB bvbv chywZ| hgb- Avgv`i hw` wekl aibi GKwU DNA cqvRb nq
Zvnj eUg-Uc chywZ mB DNA Gi QvU QvU Dcv`vbjvK wgkY Ki mB KvwZ DNA
Zwi Kiv ne| Ze bvbv chyw aygv eUg-Uc chywB bq eis Uc-eUg chyw eenvi Ki G
`ywUi wgkY Kiv ne|
cwZ eQiB `Lv hvq, KwDUvii KvhgZv ew cvq wK `vg AvMi eQii Zzjbvq KgQ| KviY
Gi mv_I bvbv chywi mK iqQ| KwDUvii wfZii gvBvcmmi iqQ AmsL AwZ
z` z` mvwKU| Avi ZvZ eeZ nQ bvbv chyw| bvbv chywi dj gvevBjB KwDUvii
KvR Kiv hvq (eZgvb evRvi G aibi wKQz gvevBj AvQ)| ZvQvov G chywi dj KwDUvii
nvWwWi aviY gZv w`b w`b evoQ, hv 10/15 eQi AvM KbvI Kiv hZ bv|
BUvibUi ci GwUB chywi mePq eo Dcnvi| bvbvi KviY mvq wdK&kbi AbK wKQzB GLb
eve| welqwU GLb GZB evcK h, GwU kyaygv Avi wevbi Qv-Qvx`i ga mxgve bq eis
mKj wefvMi Qv-Qvx`i Rb Acvi mvebvi `yqvi Lyj w`qQ|
wewfb `ki miKvii mv_ cvq mKj eRvwZK KvvwbMyjv GLb bvbvchywi MelYvq KvR
KiQ| Rvcvb Zvi RvZxq MelYv evRUi wmsn fvM iLQ bvbv chyw msv welqjvi
Dci| ay Rvcvb bq BDivc, AvgwiKv, Pxb, Kvwiqv- mejv `kB bvbvchywi eenvi wbq
KvR KiQ| mKji bvbvchywi Dci GZ AvMn `L GUv eySZ evwK _vKj bv h, mvgbi hyM
ne bvbvchywi hyM| Kviv `ivM nqQ ? bvbv iveU kixii wfZi XzK mB me givgZ
Kie| Avgv`i nvZi Nwo nq hve KwDUvi, gvevBj| me wKQzB, Avi Zv me ne bvbv
chywi e`jZ|
KvR: wewfb `yNUbvq AbK cwiPq ARvbv jvK gviv hvq| G`iK eIqvwik wnmve Kei Kiv nq|
cieZxZ G`i AvZxq^Rb mbv Kivi cwZ AvQ wK? Zvgvi gZvgZi c weklY Ki|
1.4 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw eenvi bwZKZv (Morality in using ICT)
Avgiv ivv w`q nuU hvIqvi mgq ivvi `yB cvk wewfb aibi dji evMvb `wL, djjv
LvIqvi Dchy _vK, ZvB ej evMvb XzK BQvgZ dj LvIqv i Kwi bv| Avgiv mf gvbyl m
wnme Avgv`i GKwU bwZK `vwqZ _vK| eis hw` KLbv `Lv hvq Kvbv c-cvwLZ ev Ab
Kvbvfve evMvbi wZ nQ ZLb Avgiv evMvbK Avmb wZi nvZ _K iv Kivi Pv Kwi|
Kvbv evwoi `iRv Lvjv cjB Avgiv AcwiwPZ Kviv evwoZ XzK hvB bv| BUvibU Avgiv hLb
wewfb IqemvBU `wL, mLvb h gvbyl ev cwZvb IqemvBU Zwi KiQ Zviv h AskUzKz m
Avgv`i `LvZ PvBQ Avgiv mB AskUzKz `LZ cvB| Iqe mvBUi wbR^ ev Mvcb AskUzKzZ
Avgv`i XvKvi K_v bq, cqvRbI bB| mLvb hZ cvi Zv`i wbw` gvbylRb- hviv Mvcb
cvmIqvW eenvi Ki mLvb cek Ki wbw` Z_ mvwRq ivL, mLvb KvR Ki| eve Rxeb
Avgiv hw` Avgv`i Pvicvk ZvKvB Zvnj wewfb aibi Aciva msNUb nIqvi wP `LZ ev Lei
bZ cvB| hgb t mvmx, Pzwi, WvKvwZ, nvBRvwKs, cZviYv BZvw`| eZgvb hyM Z_ I hvMvhvM
chywi hyM| Avgv`i Rxebi cwZwU Z_ I hvMvhvM chywi eenvi Kiv nq| mKj
Avwevi/ Dbqb/ cwieZb gvbyli Rb hgb KjvY eq Avb Zgwb Gi Aceenvi gvbylK AbK
Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw: wek I evsjv`k cwZ 25
wec` ev nqivwbi ^xKvi Ki| Z_ chywi eenvi ewki fvMB GKKfve/ Z_i Av`vb-c`vbi
gvag nq _vK jvBf `Lvi myhvM Lye mxwgZ| ZvB Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw eenvi bwZKZvi
iZ Acwimxg| Avgv`i mgvRi Lye mvaviY Ges AwZ cwiwPZ NUbv- Avgiv cvqB `wL, gvbyl
gvevBj dvb K_v ejvi mgq wbRi Aevb mK wg_v Z_ `q hv gvUI DwPr bq| GUv
AbwZK KvR| Z_ I hvMvhvM chywi cavb gvag njv KwDUvi Ges BUvibU| Avgv`i DwPr
Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw eenvi bwZKZv eRvq ivLv| GLb Avgiv Rvbev AbwZK KvRjv wK wK
ew wekli wei AbwZK KvR:
B-gBji gvag nqivwb
KwDUvi wmgi wZ mvab Kiv
cZviYv Kiv
Acev` `qv
cwZvbi wei AbwZK KvR:
KwDUvi wmg AevwZ cek/ wbqY
wbwl ev msiwZ Z_ AwaKvi ev Pzwi
miKvwi cwZvbi wei mvBevi mvm Kiv
cvBiUKZ mdUIqvi weq I weZiY
mgvRi wei AbwZK KvR:
cbvMvwd/ Akxj I wkvPvi ewnf~Z welq c`kbi gvag hye mgvRK `~wlZ Kiv
Mvcbxq ev Aea Z_ cvPvi
A_bwZK Aciva
Aea AvwUKj weq
AbjvBb Ryqv
wbP wKQz KwDUvi ev BUvibUi gvag Kiv bwZKZv ewRZ Acivai bvg `qv njv-
vwgs (Spamming)
nvwKs (Hacking)
mvBevi AvgY (Syber Attack)
mvBevi Pzwi (Syber Theft)
UvBg G wimvm Pzwi (Time and Resource Theft)
md&UIqvi G BUjKPzqvj ccvwU cvBiwm (Software and intellectual Property Piracy)
fvBivm Ges Iqvg (Virus and Worm) BZvw`|
26 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
vwgs (Spamming)
B-gBj GKvDU cvqB wKQz wKQz APbv I AcqvRbxq B-gBj cvIqv hvq hv Avgv`i weiw
NUvq| G aibi B-gBjK mvaviYZ vg (Spam) ej|
nvwKs (Hacking)
mvaviYZ AbygwZ eZxZ Kvbv KwDUvi bUIqvK cek Ki KwDUvi eenvi Kiv A_ev Kvbv
KwDUviK gvnvQb Ki Zvi cyiv wbqY wbq bqvK nvwKs ej| h nvwKs Ki ZvnvK nvKvi
(Haker) ej|
mvBevi AvgY (Syber Attack)
mvBevi AvgY GK aibi BjwbK AvgY hvZ wwgbvjiv BUvibUi gvag KviI wmg
webv AbygwZZ cek Ki dvBj, cvMvg wKsev nvWIqvi asm ev wZ mvab Ki| GK mvBevi
Vandalism I ejv nq|
mvBevi Pzwi (Syber Theft)
AbjvBb evswKs eevq Z_ Pzwii mv_ mv_ UvKv cqmvI Pzwi Ki| GLvb Giv Kvbv bUIqvK cek
Ki jywKq _vK Ges BDRvi KZc c` Bbdigkbi WUveRi AbyKwc Zwi Ki| ci mB
BbdigkbMyjv eenvi Ki RvwjqvwZi gvag Kvivi GKvDU _K Zvi mg UvKv wbR GKvDU
Uvdvi Ki bq|
mvaviYfve mvBevi Pzwi `yB fve NUZ cvi, hgb-
K. WUv Pzwi (Data Theft)
L. AwZ Pzwi (Identity Theft)
WUv Pzwi (Data Theft):
Kvbv ew ev eemvq cwZvb _K AbygwZ eZxZ Bbdigkb Kwc A_ev msMn KivK WUv Pzwi
ejv nq| ewMZ eenvwiK Z_ wKsev Kvbv cwZvbi Ggb wKQz Z_ _vK hv Abi nvZ Mj
ew ev cwZvbi bvbvwea wZ nZ cvi| G aibi Z_ Ab KD nMZ Kij ZvK WUv Pzwi
wnme MY Kiv nq|
ew cwiPq Pzwi (Identify Theft):
GKRbi cwiPq eenvi Ki Ab Kvbv ew wKQz q Ki Zvi `vqfvi H ewi Dci PvcvbvK
cwiPq Pzwi ej| KvbvWv I AvgwiKvZ GB Aciva mePq ewk msNwUZ nq| KviI ew cwiPq
ev AwZ (Identity) Pzwi ejZ bUIqvK ev BUvibU eenviKvixi User ID Ges Password Pzwii
KvRK eySvq|
UvBg G wimvm Pzwi (Time and Resource Theft):
AbygwZ Qvov Kvbv KwDUvi ev bUIqvK eenvi KivK UvBg G wimvm w_ ej|
Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw: wek I evsjv`k cwZ 27
MelYv Kg Divi mgw jvf KiQ| dj wevb mvgbi w`K GwMq PjQ iKUi MwZZ|
wevb wbZ-bZzb mvebv wbq Avgv`i vi nvwRi nQ| wPwKrmv Z_ chywi evcK
eenvii dj gvbyli Mo Avqy ew cvQ| AvR Ni em Z_ chywi KjvY wPwKsmv mev cvIqv
me nQ| bZzb bZzb Jlai Dveb Ges ivM wbivgqi mekl cwZ AvR mevB Rb hvQb|
ivMxiv Ni em weki wewfb `ki DbZ nvmcvZvji Wvvi`i mv_ wfwWI Kbdviws Gi
gvag mivmwi K_v ejZ cvib Ges civgk wbZ cvib| wewfb cv_jwRK cixvi wicvU
BUvibUi gag `~i `k _vKv WvviK `LvZ cvib| eZgvb Avgv`i `kI UwjgwWwmb
cwZ cPwjZ iqQ| Gi dj `yMg GjvKv _KI RbMY Uwjdvbi gvag wPwKrmv mev cq _vK|
wk-mvwnZ Ges webv`b Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw:
mviv weki wUwf Pvbji Abyvb AvR Ni em DcfvM Kiv hvq| wewfb aibi w_wW Mg Ges
GwbgUW wewfb wmbgv webv`b bZzb gvv hvM KiQ| wWwRUvj cRKkbi dj `kK wmbgv,
bvUK I HwZnvwmK eYbv Avb`i mv_ DcfvM KiZ cvi| Z_ chywi KjvY AvR wk
mvwnZi evcK cmvi nQ Ges cKvkbvi hy nQ Divi mgw| mvwnZ I wk Kgi
djvdj AvR gyn~Z mviv wek Qwoq coQ Ges gvbyli KjvY mme Kg Ae`vb iL hvQ|
webv`bi K_vZv ejvB evj| Z_ chywi KjvY mviv wek AvR Avgv`i nvZi gyVvq| dj
Z_ chyw Avgv`i webv`bi mKj Pvwn`vK c~iY Ki hvQ|
Kwl Z_ I hvMvhvM chywi cqvM
Avgv`i `k Kwl cavb `k| G`ki 80% jvK Kwl KvR Ki RxweKv wbevn Ki| Kwl wki
DbwZi mv_ mviv `ki DbwZ wbfi Ki| Avi
GB Kwli Dbqb Z_ I hvMvhvM chywi eenvi
DjL Kivi gZv| AvR-Kvj Rwgi gvwU cixv-
wbixv Ki gvwUi wewfb Dcv`vbi DcwwZi Dci
wfw Ki wbaviY KiZ cvib, Kvbv gvwUZ
Kvbv dmj fvjv Drcv`b ne| Z_ chywi
e`jZ wewfb dmji Drcv`b Kkj KlKiv
RvbZ cvi, c~e Zviv ay AwfZvi AvjvK
Pvlvev` KiZ| ivM evjvBi AvgY _K ivi
Rb KvhKix Jla, cvKwRs eev, evRviRvZKiY BZvw`i Rb cqvRbxq vb eZgvb Z_ I
hvMvhvM chywi gvag cq _vK|
AbjvBb Kwl evRviI Pvjy nqQ-hvi dj KlKiv mnR ewk `vg KwlcY evRviRvZ KiZ
cvi| KlKiv Mvg _KB gyn~Zi ga eo eo knii cvBKvwi evRvii `vg RvbZ cvi| dj
Kg `vg dmj wew Ki jvKmvb w`Z nq bv| wevb I chywi wewfb MelYv I cqvMi dj
RbwUK Bwwbqvwis Gi gvag DbZ, AwaK djbkxj, cwZK~j cwiek mnbkxj Lv`km Avwevi
KiQ hv KwlZ ecweK cwieZb GbQ|
Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw: wek I evsjv`k cwZ 31
Abykxjbx
mRbkxj ck:
1| evsjv`ki AvqZb ewk eo bq wK Gi RbmsLv w`b w`b ew cvQ| G wekvj RbMvwi
Lv`i Pvwn`v c~iY wngwkg LvQ KZc| wevbxiv Lv`kmi Drcv`b ew Ges cwZKzj
cwiek djbkxj RvZ Dvebi Pv KiQ|
K. vqvmvRvwi Kvbv ivMi wPwKrmvq eeZ nq?
L. RbwUK Bwwbqvwis Kx?
M. wevbxiv Kvbv cwZZ kmi Drcv`b ew Ges cwZKzj cwiek djbkxj RvZ Dveb
KiZ cvi Zv eYbv Ki|
N. RbwUK Bwwbqvwis Gi dj wewfb djg~j, kvKmw Zvi Avw` ewk nvivQevLv Ki|
Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw: wek I evsjv`k cwZ 33
2| iwng wgqv GKRb KlK| wZwb Zvi wbRi RwgZ dmj Drcv`b Ki cwievii LiP
gUvq| wK G eQi Zvi RwgZ fvj dmj Drcb nqwb ZvB wZwb _vbv Kw l cwi`k Ki
wbKU civgki Rb Mjb| cwi`kK mvne Zvi Rwgi gvwU cixv KiZ Ges evRvi `i
hvPvB Ki Drcb dmj weqi civgk `b|
K. dmeyK wK?
L. iwng wgqv wKfve dmji evRvi `i mK RvbZ cvie?
M. gvwU cixv Ki wKfve Re mvii eenvi Kgvbv hvq? eYbv Ki|
N. Kwl Z_ I hvMvhvM chywi eenvievLv Ki|
ewbevPwb ck:
1| wbPi KvbvwUi KviY cw_ex AbK QvU nq AvmQ-
K. BUvibU L. RU wegvb Avwevi
M. mycvi KwDUvi Avwevi N. AvRv wZK nvBIq Zwi
wbPi AbyQ`wU co Ges 2 I 3bs cki Di `vI|
Kwig mvne evmvq GKv _vKb| GKw`b Awdm _K wdi `Lb Zuvi Nii `iRv Lvjv| Ni
XzK `Lb Avjgvwi, KwDUvi ZQbQ KiQ| AvjgvwiZ ii wP `LZ cjb| cywjkK
Rvbvj , cywjk i, Avjgvwi I KwDUvi jM _vKv nvZi Avyji Qvc msMn Ki wbq
Mjb| KqK w`bi gaB Pvi aiv coj|
2| AbygwZ Qvov KwDUvi bUIqvK cek Ki KwDUvii wbqY wbq bqvK Kx ej
K. vwgs L. nvwKs
M. mvBevi Pzwi N. cwRqvwiRg
3| Kvbv cwZZ Avyji Qvc eenvi Ki cywjk Acivax aiZ mg nqQ
K. RbwUK Bwwbqvwis L. evqvgwU
M. bvbv UKbvjwR N. AvwUwdwmqvj BbUwjR
4| BDwbqb Z_ I mevK` MVbi dj
i. Kgmsvbi mw nqQ|
ii. RbMYi hvMvhvM LiP KgQ|
iii. RbMYi mgq AcPq iva nqQ|
wbPi KvbvwU mwVK?
K. i L. i I ii M. i I iii N. i, ii I iii
wZxq Aavq
KwgDwbKkb wmgm I bUIqvwKs
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM & NETWORKING
eZgvb hyM Z_ chywi hyM| AvaywbK mfZvi gweKvk Z_ chywi cfve Acwimxg| Z_
chywi Rb cqvRb WUv KwgDwbKkb, Uwjdvb, gvevBj, Uwjwfkb Ges KwDUvi bUIqvK
eev| AvR wekevcx BUvibU hvMvhvM eevi cPjb mfZvK cwZwbqZ GwMq wbq hvQ|
eZgvb mgq KwgDwbKkb ejZ KwDUvi _K KwDUvii WUv vbviK evSvbv nq| mviv
wek AvR gvbyli nvZi gyVvq| gvbyl Z_i gnvmgy` Aevb KiZ cviQ| BUvibUi gvag
gvbyl wekevcx Dcv I Z_ wewbgq KiZ cviQ| G Dcv I Z_ wewbgq Kivi Rb
KwgDwbKkb wmg (ev DB_, Uvwgkb g_W, gvW), WUv KwgDwbKkb gvag (Kv-Gwqvj
Kvej, UzBW cqvi Kvej AcwUKvj dvBevi), Iqvijm KwgDwbKkb wmg (eyUz_, IqvB-
dvB, IqvB-gv) gvevBj hvMvhvM, KwDUvi bUIqvwKs eev I KvDW KwDwUs BZvw`
mK vb jvf Kiv cqvRb|
K. Drm (Source): WUv KwgDwbKkbi hme wWfvBm nZ WUv ev Dcv Zwi Kiv nq
ZvK Drm ej| hgb- KwDUvi, Uwjdvb BZvw`|
L. ciK (Transmitter): Drm _K WUv mivmwi ciY Kiv hvq bv| Gi Rb ciKi
cqvRb nq| Drm _K cvcKi wbKU WUv cvVvbvi Rb h h eeZ nq ZvK ciK
ej| hgb-gWg|
M. gvag (Medium): hvi gvag WUv GKvb _K Abvb A_ev GK KwDUvi _K Ab
KwDUvi vbvi Kiv nq ZvK WUv cevni evnK ev gvag ejv nq| hgb-Kvej, cvewjK
Uwjdvb jvBb, iwWI Iqf, gvBvIqf, AcwUKvj dvBevi, mvUjvBU I gWg BZvw`|
M. MvnK ev cvcK (Receiver): h hi gvag WUv MnY Kiv nq ZvK MvnK ev cvcK ej|
MvnK ev cvcK wnme gWg eenvi Kiv nq| MvnK KwDUvii mv_ hy gWg KwDUvii
AvbvjM msKZK wWwRUvj msKZ cwiYZ Ki|
N. Me (Destination): mekl h wWfvBm WUvmg~nK cvVvbv nq ZvK Me ej| Me
wnme mvfvi, cvmvbvj KwDUvi BZvw` eenvi Kiv nq|
WUv KwgDwbKkb eev (Data Communication System)
WUv KwgDwbKkb eevq KwDUvi _K KwDUvi A_ev KwUvi _K Ab Kvbv wWfvBm
WUv ev Z_i Av`vb-c`vb nZ cvi| G KwDUvi WUvi Drm, gWg ciK, cvewjK
Uwjdvb jvBb gvag, gWg cvcK Ges mvfvi Me wnme KvR KiQ| ciK nZ h gvagi
mvnvh WUv A_ev Z_ cvcKi KvQ cuQvq ZvK ejv nq gvag| Uwjdvb jvBb, Kvej BZvw`
G aibi gvagi D`vniY| wbPi wPi GKwU mvaviY WUv KwgDwbKkb eev `Lvbv njv
West
wbfi Ki| mvaviYZ Kv-Gwqvj Kvej eenvi Ki GK wKjvwgUvi
40 ch `~iZ wWwRUvj WUv North
ciY Kiv hvq, G WUv Uvdvi iU 200 Mbps (Megabits per second) ch nZ cvi
20
0
Ges Uvwgkb jm& AcvKZ Kg nq| Kv-Gwqvj Kvej `ycKvi| h_v: 1. w_bbU (Thinnet),
1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr
2. w_KbU (Thicknet)
KwgDwbKkb wmgm I bUIqvwKs 43
Kv-Gwqvj Kveji myweavmg~n
1. G aibi Kveji Uvwgkb jm& AcvKZ Kg nq|
2. WUv vbvii MwZ ewk|
3. AvbvjM Ges wWwRUvj Dfq WUv Uvwgkb G Kej eeZ nq|
4. UzBW cqvi Kej Acv G Keji gvag AwaK `~iZ Z_ cvVvbv hvq|
5. GwU dvBevi Kej Acv Kg eqej Ges mnR enbhvM|
Kv-Gwqvj Kveji Amyweavmg~n
1. WUv Uvdvi iU wbfi Ki Zvii `Ni Dci|
2. Kv-Gwqvj Kej UzBW cqvi Kej Acv wKQzUv eqej|
2.2.2 UzBW cqvi Kvej (Twisted Pair cable)
Uwjdvb jvBbi ga w`q Z_ I K^ii gvag hvMvhvM Kiv hvq| cw_exi cvq me `kB
hvMvhvMi Rb Gaibi gvag ejfve
eeZ nq| wmMbvj UvwgU Kivi Rb `ywU
cwievnx Kcvi ev Zvgvi ZviK cii mgfve
cuvwPq UzBW cqvi Kvej Zwi Kiv nq|
cuvPvbv Zvi `ywUK c_K ivLvi Rb G`i gvS
wP-2.9: UzBW cqvi Kvej
Acwievnx c`v_ eenvi Kiv nq| Gaibi
Kvej mvaviYZ gvU 4 Rvov Zvi eenvi Kiv nq| cwZ Rvov Zvii ga GKwU Kgb isqi
(mv`v) Zvi _vK Ges Aci Zvijv nq wfb isqi| Zvimg~n mshvRbi mgq 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
7, 8, b^ii wfwZ mshvM w`Z nq| cwZ Rvovi Zvi `ywUi GK GKwUi cy iZ nq 0.4 wgt wgt
_K 0.9 wgt wgt| Uwjdvb jvBb G Zvi eeZ nq| wWwRUvj wmMbvwjs Ges LAN-G GB
Kveji eenvi iqQ| WUv Uvdvii `~iZ evoj Gi WUv Uvdvii nvi Kg hvq| G
Kveji Uvwgkb j&m AbK ewk| Ze Abvb Kveji PvBZ UzBW cqvi Kveji `vg
Zzjbvg~jKfve Kg|
UzBW cqvi Kvej mvaviYZ `ycKvii nq| h_v:
K. AvbwkW UzBW cqvi Kvej ev BDwUwc (Unshielded Twisted Pair-UTP)
L. wkW UzBW cqvi Kvej ev STP (Shielded Twisted Pair-STP)
K. AvbwkW UzBW cqvi Kvej ev BDwUwc (Unshielded Twisted Pair-UTP)
UTP Kvej g~jZ GKvwaK Rvov UzBW cqvii mgw hv Avevi cvwK AveiY gvovbv
_vK| Zvii ga w`q hLb wmMbvj AwZg KiZ _vK ZLb Gi kw ev gvb gv^q jvc
cZ _vK| `yaibi UTP Kvej AvQ| h_v: UTP Catagory-5 I Catagory-6|
eZgvb jvKvj Gwiqv bUIqvKi Catagory-5 I Catagory-6 AvbwkW UzBW
cqvi Kvej ev BDwUwc Kvej eenvi Kiv nq|
44 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
dUv wWUKUii KvR njv dvBevi _K WUv Dvi Kiv (Detection)| cmwms BDwbU WUvK
AvwjwdKkb, wdvikb I wWgWyjkbi gvag eenviKvixi KvQ cuQvq|
KwgDwbKkb wmgm I bUIqvwKs 47
Zviwenxb ev Iqvijm gvag (Wireless medium)
Iqvijm KwgDwbKkb njv Ggb GK aibi hvMvhvM eev hLvb WUv Av`vb-c`vbi
Rb Kvbv cKvi Kvej ev Zvii cqvRb nq bv| Iqvijm KwgDwbKkb iwWI Iqf
Gi gvag ciK h GK wWfvBm _K Ab wWfvBm ev GK KwDUvi _K Ab
KwDUvi mshvM vcb Ki _vK| AwaKvsk cw_exi evqyg jB WUv PjvPji
wdwRKvj c_ wnme KvR Ki| hLb WUv PjvPji c_ cwZeKZv _vK Ges Zvihy
gvag vcb mgmv mw nq ZLb Iqvijm wmg eenvi Kiv nq| Zviwenxb gvag wZb
aibi| h_v:
1. iwWI Iqf (Radio Wave)
2. gvBvIqf (Microwave)
3. mvUjvBU (Satellite)
2.2.4 iwWI Iqf (Radio Wave)
iwWI Iqfi gvag AbK `~i _K WUv ciY Kiv hvq| GKviY
hvMvhvM eevq Ni I evBi evcKfve iwWI Iqf eenvi Kiv
nq| iwWI Iqf mnR Zwi Kiv hvq| GwU AbK `~i ch hZ
cvi Ges `vjvbKvVv ch f` KiZ cvi| G hvMvhvM eevq
msKZ ciYi MwZeM 24 wKjvweU cvi mK| iwWI Iqfi
wdKvqw 10 wKjvnvUR _K 1 wMMvnvURi ga mxgve| 10
wKjvnvUR _K 1 wMMvnvURi ga mxwgZ BjKUvgvMbwUK wP-2.13: iwWI Iqf
KUvgK ejv nq iwWI Iqf|
iwWI Iqf wZbwU k wYZ wef| h_v:
Kg kwi GKK wdKvqw (Low Power Single Frequency): G aibi iwWI Iqf
ay GKwU wdKvqwZ KvR Ki| GwU bviv ev bvgI cwiwPZ| Gi Uvwgkb wmgi
LiP Zzjbvg~jKfve Kg| Uvwgkb MwZ 1 _K 10 GgwewcGm (Mbps)|
DP kwi GKK wdKvqw (High Power Single Frequency): G aibi iwWI Iqf
Kg kwi GKK wdKvqw kwYi iwWI Iqfi Pq ewk `~iZ AwZg KiZ cvi Ges
Pjvi c_ Kvbv cwZeKZv _vKj Zv f` KiZ cvi| DP kwmb nevi KviY `~iZ
AwZgi mv_ mv_ wmMbvji gvbi AebwZ Lye GKUv nq bv| wiwcUvi eenvii gvag
wmMbvji AvIZvfz mxgvbv evovbv hvq| Uvwgkb MwZ 1 _K 10 GgwewcGm (Mbps)|
weZ KUvg (Spread Spectrum): G wmg GKK wdKvqwi cwieZ GKwU wbw`
mxgv ev ii wdKvqwi ga w`q WUv wmMbvj cvVvbv nq| h cwZZ wmMbvjK
KvwWs (Coding) Kiv nq ZvK ejv nq wPcm (Chips)| G KvwWs chywi gvag
wmMbvji wbivcv wbwZ Kiv hvq|
48 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
2. gvBvIqf (Microwave)
Zvi ev Kvej Qvov WUv Av`vb-c`vbi cwZ nQ gvBvIqf| gvBvIqf GK aibi
BjvgvMbwUK Iqf hv mK cvq 1 wMMv ev Zvi Pq
ewkevi Kb wewk| Kwg DcMn eevi gvag gvBvIqfi
mvnvh ciK I MvnK KwDUvii ga hvMvhvM vcb Kiv hvq|
gvBvIqf mshvM eenvi Ki WUv, Qwe, k vbvi Kiv
me| gvBvIqf wmg g~jZ `yUv Uvwmfvi (Transceiver)
wbq MwVZ| Gi GKwU wmMbvj UvwgU (Transmit) Ges AbwU
wiwmf (Receive) Kivi KvR eeZ nq| gvBvIqfi
wdKvqw i nQ 300 MHz30GHz| gvBvIqfi GwUbv
wP-2.14: gvBvIqf
eo Kvbv feb ev UvIqvii Dci emvbv nq hvZ wmMbvj ewk
`~iZ AwZg KiZ cvi Ges c_ Kvbv e cwZeKZv mw KiZ bv cvi|
gvBvIqfi ewk
K. gvBvIqf euvKv c_ PjZ cvi bv|
L. gvBvIqf wmg g~jZ `yUv Uvwmfvi (Transceiver) wbq MwVZ| Gi GKwU
wmMbvj UvwgU (Transmit) Ges AbwU wiwmf (Receive) Kivi KvR eeZ nq|
M. gvBvIqf gvag ciK I cvcKi ga Kvbv evav _vKj WUv UvwgU KiZ cvi bv|
N. gvBvIqfi GwUbv eo Kvbv feb ev UvIqvii Dci emvbv nq hvZ wmMbvj ewk
`~iZ AwZg KiZ cvi|
gvBvIqf `yaibi| h_v:
1. Uiwqvj (Terrestrial) gvBvIqf
2. mvUjvBU (Satellite) gvBvIqf
1. Uiwqvj (Terrestrial) gvBvIqf
G aibi chywZ f~-cB UvwgUvi I wiwmfvi emvbv nq| GZ gMvnvUR wdKvqw mxgvi
wbPi w`K wdKvqw eenvi Kiv nq| UvwgUvi I wiwmfvi `wiLvq hvMvhvM Ki _vK Ges
wmMbvj Kvbv gB gaeZx Kvbv evav (hgb- DP feb) AwZg KiZ cvi bv ev ec_
AwZg Ki bv|
2. mvUjvBU (Satellite) gvBvIqf
mvaviYZ Kwg DcMn ev mvUjvBU ejZ GKwU e Ab AviKwU eK K` Ki c`wY KivK
eySvq| hgb-Puv` cw_exK c`wY Ki| hvMvhvMi mvUjvBU nQ cw_exi Pvwiw`K c`wY
Ki Ggb vb iKU viv vwcZ wekl aibi Zviwenxb wiwmfvi/ UvwgUvi| eZgvb kZ kZ
mvUjvBU eeZ nQ|
KwgDwbKkb wmgm I bUIqvwKs 49
G chywZ hvMvhvM DcMni mnvqZv wbZ nq| GZ cw_ex _K 36,000 wKjvwgUvi Dci
wRIwmbvbvm K hvMvhvM mvUjvBU cw_exi mgvb MwZZ NyiZ _vK| G mvUjvBUi Rb
f~-c h wiwmwfs GwUbv eenvi Kiv nq Zv nQ cvivewjK| ciK h mK cvq 600 KvwU
ev Zvi KvQvKvwQ evi Kbwewk gvBvIqf msKZ DcMn cvVvq| DcMn cuQvbvi ci G
msKZ AZ xY nq co| DcMn AbKjv Uvcvvi _vK| G Uvcvvi xY msKZK
wij Ki 400 KvwU evi Kbwewk msKZ cwiYZ Ki cw_exi MvnK h diZ cvVvq|
mvUjvBU Uvwgkb Hme eeZ nq hLvb mvaviY Kveji gvag hvMvhvM Kiv me
nq bv| wekl Ki hme `ki ga mgy` ev wekvjvKvi cvnvo AewZ Zv`iK bUIqvKfz
KiZ mvUjvBUi Kvbv weK bB| GQvov GKwU gv mvUjvBU eenvi Ki GKB mgq
AbKjv `ki mv_ hvMvhvM vcb Kiv me nq|
2.3 Iqvijm KwgDwbKkb wmg (Wireless Communication System)
e`ywZK Kvi ev Zvii cwieZ ev webv Zvi wbw` `~iZ Z_i vbvi Kivi cwZ|
Iqvijm ki A_ njv Zviwenxb| Kvbv
cKvi Zvi eenvi bv KiB Z_ Av`vb-c`vbi
gvag hvMvhvM Kivi cwZK Iqvijm
KwgDwbKkb wmg ej| Iqvijm
KwgDwbKkb KLbI Kg `~iZ Avevi KLbI
nvRvi nvRvi gvBj `~iZ nZ cvi| AwaK `~ieZx
vb hLvb ^vfvweK Zvi eenvi Ki hvMvhvM
Kiv me nq bv mLvb Iqvijm cwZZ mnR wP-2.15: Iqvijm KwgDwbKkb
hvMvhvM Kiv hvq| Gi mvnvh cw_exi hKvbv cv wewfbfwmg
ve Z_ Av`vb-c`vb Kiv hvq|
hgbgvevBj I Uwjdvb K_v ejv, UU gvmwRs, PvwUs BZvw` KvR Lye mnRB Kiv hvq|
Iqvijm KwgDwbKkb wmg Zvii mvnvh Qvov Z_ vbvi KiZ wewfb aibi kw hgb-
iwWI wdKvqw (Radio Frequency-RF), kkw (Acoustic Energy) BZvw` eeZ
nq| G cwZZ ^ I `xN Dfq `~iZB Z_ vbvi Kiv hvq|
wbgwjwLZ gvag Iqvijm KwgDwbKkb mb nq:
iwWI wdKvqw KwgDwbKkb|
gvBvIqf KwgDwbKkb| hgb- kUi KwgDwbKkb|
BbdviW (Infrared-IR) kU-i KwgDwbKkb|
hgb- wigvU KUvj (Remote Control)|
50 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
ivDUvi (Router)
GwU GKwU eywgvb BUvibUIqvK KvbKwUwfwU wWfvBm hv jwRKvj GWm eenvi Ki `yB ev ZZvwaK
bUIqvK mMgUi ga WUv Av`vb-c`vbi eev Ki| ivDUvi wewfb
KwgDwbKkb bUIqvKi ga WUv Av`vb-c`vb Ki| GwU GK bUIqvK
_K Ab bUIqvK WUv vbvi Ki| WUv Drm I Mei Dci wfw
Ki ivDUvi WUv vbvii Rb mnR, wbivc` I Kg `~iZi c_wU eQ
bq| ivDUvi Drm KwDUvi _K Me KwDUvi WUv cvKU (WUvi
wP-2.33: ivDUvi
mgw) cuQ `q|
ivDUvii myweavmg~n:
1. WUv Uvwgkbi evavi mvebv Kgvq|
2. WUv wdvwis me nq|
3. wewfb aibi bUIqvK hgb-B_vibU, UvKb, wis BZvw`K mshy KiZ cvi|
ivDUvii Amyweav:
1. ivDUvii `vg ewk|
2. ivDUvi GKB cvUvKj bUIqvK Qvov mshy nZ cvi bv|
3. KbwdMvikb Zzjbvg~jK RwUj|
4. axiMwZmb|
MUIq (Gateway)
MUIq eenvi Ki bUIqvK mmviYi KvR Kiv nq| MUIq GKwU bUIqvKK AviKwU
bUIqvKi mv_ mshy Ki| GwU GKwU bUIqvK
KvbwwfwU wWfvBm hv wewfb KwgDwbKkb cvUvKj
UvjU Ki A_vr GK cvUvKjK Ab AviK aibi
cvUvKji mv_ mshy Ki|
MUIqi myweavmg~n (Advantages of Gateway)
1. WUv Uvwgkbi evavi mvebv Kg| wP-2.34: MUIq
2. wewfb cUvKjwewk bUIqvK mshy KiZ cvi|
MUIqi Amyweavmg~n (Disadvantages of Gateway)
1. GwU axi MwZmb|
2. Abvb wWfvBmi Pq eqej|
3. KbwdMvikb Kiv Zzjbvg~jK RwUj|
KwgDwbKkb wmgm I bUIqvwKs 65
Kbbv K`xq KwDUvi Qvov KwDUvi I hcvwZjvi ga Kvbv mshvM _vK bv|
vi UcvjwRi myweavmg~n
1. bUIqvKi Kvbv KwDUvi b njI bUIqvKi evwK Aski KvRi evNvZ nq bv|
2. GKB bUIqvK wewfb aibi Kvej eenvi Kiv hvq|
3. vi bUIqvK Kvbv KwDUvi hvM Kiv ev ev` `qv hvq, ZvZ KvR Kvbv weN NU bv|
4. K`xqfve bUIqvK iYveY ev mgmv wbicY mnR|
vi UcvjwRi Amyweavmg~n
1. G cwZZ K`xq KwDUvi b nq Mj m~Y bUIqvK wmgB APj nq co|
KviY cyiv bUIqvK nvei gvagB ciii m hy _vK|
2. vi UcvjwRZ cPzi cwigvY Kvej eeZ nq weavq GwU GKwU eqej cwZ|
KwgDwbKkb wmgm I bUIqvwKs 67
L. wis bUIqvK UcvjwR (Ring Network Topology)
wis UcvjvwR bUIqvK mejv KwDUviK Kveji gvag Ggbfve mshy Kiv nq h GKwU
wis ev jyci mw nq| G UcvjwRZ Kvbv kyi ev kl
cv mxgv LyuR cvIqv hvq bv| wis bUIqvK
KwDUvijv bvW (KwDUvi h we`yZ hy _vK
ZvK bvW ej) Gi gvag evKvi c_ ciii mv_
mshy nq bUIqvK Mo Zvj|
wis UcvjwR bUIqvK KwDUvijvK mivmwi
ciii mv_ hy _vK bv weavq bUIqvKi Kvbv
KwDUvi Ab hKvbv KwDUvi mivmwi msKZ wP-2.36: wis UcvjvwR
cvVvZ cvi bv| msKZwU ciK KwDUvi I MvnK KwDUvii gaeZx Abme KwDUvii
fZi w`q hq ZeB MvnK KwDUvi cuQ| G cwZwU KwDUviK AekB msKZ MnY
I ciYg nZ ne| GRb bUIqvKi Kvbv KwDUvi msKZ cybtciYi gZv nvivj wKsev
Lvivc nq Mj A_ev wewQb Aevq _vKj, cyiv bUIqvKwU AKRv nq co| G Lvivc
KwDUviwU AcmviY Ki cybivq mshvM mb KiZ nq|
wis UcvjwR eenvii myweavmg~n
1. bUIqvK Kvbv mvfvi KwDUvii cqvRb nq bv| A_vr GwU GK aibi wWwweDUW
WUv cmwms wmg|
2. bUIqvK KwDUvi msLv evojI Gi `Zv Lye ewk cfvweZ nq bv|
3. G bUIqvK Kvbv bvWK WUv Av`vb-c`vbi Rb K`xq Kvbv KwDUvii Dci wbfi
KiZ nq bv| hw` Kvbv KwDUvi b _vK Ze mB KwDUviK wis nZ ev` `qv hvq|
wis UcvjwR eenvii Amyweavmg~n
1. G bUIqvK GKwU gv KwDUvi mgmvq Avv nj cyiv bUIqvK APj nq coe|
2. wis UcvjwRi bUIqvKi Kvbv mgmv wbiycY ek RwUj|
3. bUIqvK Kvbv KwDUvi hvM Kij ev mwiq wbj Zv cyiv bUIqvKi Kvhg evnZ Ki|
4. G bUIqvK KwDUvii msLv evoj WUv Uvwgkbi mgqI eo hvq|
5. wis UcvjwRi Rb RwUj wbqY mdUIqvi eeZ nq|
M. evm bUIqvK UcvjwR (Bus Network Topology)
h UcvjwRZ GKwU g~j Zvii mv_ meKqwU IqvKkb ev KwDUvi mshy _vK ZvK evm
UcvjwR (Bus Topology) ejv nq| evm UcvjwRi
cavb KvejwUK ejv nq evKevb (Backbone)| evm
bUIqvK msMVb GKwU mshvM jvBbi mv_ meMyjv
bvW hy _vK| mshvM jvBbK mvaviYZ evm ejv nq|
GKwU KwDUvi Ab KwDUvi bvWi mshvM jvBbi
gvag msKZ cvVvq| Abvb KwDUvijv Zv`i
bvW mB msKZ cixv Ki Ges Kejgv cvcK
bvW mB msKZ MnY Ki| wP-2.37: evm UcvjwR
68 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
evm
vi UcvjwR
UcvjwR
wis UcvjwR
vi UcvjwR
wP-2.40: nvBweW bUIqvK|
70 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
eenvi:
KvDW KwDwUs AvRKi w`b Lye MyiZc~Y| MyMj Gi wewfb cqvM- hgb wRgBj, wcKvmv _K
kyi Ki cw_exi AvenvIqv ev Kvbv `ki Av`gkygvwii gZv wekvj Z_ eevcbv, eemvwqK,
evwbK BZvw` bvbvb Gi Acwimxg eenvi| mevcwi hvMvhvM GwU wPwKrmv I
gvbeKjvYI GwU GK Abb mx| GK K_vq KvDW KwDwUs GbQ Abb wece|
Abykxjbx
mRbkxj ck:
1| wmwm KjRi KwDUvi jve 50wU KwDUvi AvQ| wK Zv`i 1wU wcUvi iqQ, Gi
dj Kvbv WKzgU wcU KiZ nj cb-WvBf eenvi Ki H wbw` KwDUvi vbvi
Ki wcU KiZ nq| GZ wewfb mgmv `Lv `q| KjRi mKj Qv-Qvx jvcUc eenvi
KiQ| KjR KZc mKjK BUvibU eenvii myweav c`vbi wmv MnY KiQb|
K. ev DB_ Kx?
L. KwDUvi bUIqvK Kx?
M. Kxfve mKj mivmwi wcUviwU eenvi KiZ cvie Zv eYbv Ki|
N. KjR IqvBdvB mshvMi c hyw `vI|
2| BkwZqvK mvne GKwU Riix B-gBj Kivi Rb KwDUvi Ab Kijb| wK wZwb `LZ
cjb BUvibU KvR KiZ cviQb bv| GKRb nvWIqvi UKwbwkqvbK `Lvj wZwb
Rvbvb h, gWg wVK gZ KvR KiQ bv| GUv cwieZb KiZ ne|
K. WUv KwgDwbKkb wK?
L. eW ev wK?
M. gwWDjkb I wW-gwWDjkb cwqv evLv Ki|
N. WUv ciY gWgi f~wgKv wPmn eYbv Ki|
ewbevPwb ck:
1| wmwm KjRi GKwU feb 47wU K AvQ| cZK ig GKwU Ki wKvi mshy AvQ|
hKvbv bvwUm ev NvlYv GKhvM mevBK Rvbvbv hvq| GLvb
i. wmgc gvW WUv UvwgU nQ
ii. eWKv cwZZ WUv UvwgU nQ
iii. gvwKv cwZZ WUv UvwgU nQ
wbPi KvbwU mwVK?
K. i L. i I ii M. i I iii N. i, ii I iii
KwgDwbKkb wmgm I bUIqvwKs 73
AbyQ`wU co Ges 2 I 3 bs cki Di `vI-KjRi cvkvcvwk PviwU feb AewZ mKj
KwDUvi bUIqvKi AvIZvq Avbvi wmv MnY Kiv nqQ|
2| Zv`i bUIqvKwU Kvb aibi ne?
K. ISDN L. LAN
M. MAN N. WAN
3| bUIqvK Pvjy Kivi ci Zuviv
i. mKj GKwU wcUvi eenvi KiZ cvie|
ii. GK KwDUvii wWfvBm Ab KwDUvi vbvi KiZ cvie|
iii. mdUIqvi wimvm kqvi KiZ cvie|
wbPi KvbwU mwVK?
K. i L. i I ii
M. i I iii N. i, ii I iii
4| wbPi Kvb bUIqvK UcvjwRZ mePq ewk Kvej cqvRb nq
K. wis UcvjwR L. gk UcvjwR
M. evm UcvjwR N. wU UcvjwR
ZZxq Aavq
msLv cwZ I wWwRUvj wWfvBm
NUMBER SYSTEM & DIGITAL DEVICE
gvbe mfZvi m~PbvjM nZ i Ki GwUi gweKvki mv_ mv_ gvbyl MYbv Z_v wnmve-wbKvmi
cqvRbxqZv Abyfe KiZ _vK| cvPxbKvj MYbvi Rb nvZi Avyj, bywo cv_i, wSbyK, KvwV,
iwki wMU, `qvj `vM KvUv BZvw` eenvi KiZv| mgqi weeZb DbwZi avivevwnKZvq MYbvi
hy njv wewfb cZxK I wPi eenvi| eZgvb gvbyl MYbvi Rb `kwgK msLv cwZ
eenvi Ki| KwDUvi KvR Ki evBbvwi msLv cwZZ| GQvovI KwDUvi KvR Ki AKUvj,
nvWwmgj I wewfb KvWi gvag| KwDUvii hveZxq MvwYwZK I hywg~jK KvR eySvi Rb
eywjqvb AvjReiv, jwRK MBU, wW-giMvbi Dccv`, GbKvWvi, wWKvWvi, AvWvi, iwRvi I
KvDUvi BZvw` mK Rvbv cqvRb|
hgb: 125.625| GLvb 125 c~Yvsk, (.) ivwW cqU I .625 fMvsk|
c~Yvsk fMvsk
MSB 1 2 5 . 6 2 5 LSB
D`vniY: (1011)2
G 0 K we`yZi AbycwwZ (OFF) Ges 1 K
we`yZi DcwwZ (ON) wnme MY Kiv nq hv `kwgK evBbvwi `kwgK evBbvwi
msLv msLv msLv msLv
gwkbi Rb mnRB evaMg nq| Dwbk kZKi 0 0 8 1000
gvSvgvwS mgq Bsjvi MwYZwe` RR eywj evBbvwi 1 1 9 1001
2 10 10 1010
msLv cwZ Dveb Kib| GRb RR eywjK evBbvwi 3 11 11 1011
msLv cwZi RbK ejv nq| 4 100 12 1100
5 101 13 1101
mvaviYZ 0 _K + 0.8 fv ch jfjK jwRK 0 6 110 14 1110
Ges +2 fv _K +5 fv ch jfjK jwRK 1 7 111 15 1111
aiv nq| wWwRUvj Bjwb +0.8 fv _K +2.0 wP: `kwgK msLvi mgZzj evBbvwi gvb
fv jej msvwqZ bq weavq eenvi Kiv nq bv|
wP `yB Aevwewk we`yr Zi `Lvbv nqQ| GLvb 0 fv viv jwRK 0 Ges +5 fv viv
jwRK 1 wb`k Kiv nqQ|
D`vniY^ic: (375)8 GKwU AKUvj msLv| AKUvj msLv MYbvi myweav_ c~ei cvZvq `kwgK
msLvi mgZzj AKUvj gvb `Lvbv nqQ| AKUvj msLv cwZZ eeZ Ajvi Aevb ev
vbxq gvb:
MSB 83 82 81 80 . 81 82 83 ... LSB
MSB 512 64 8 1 . 1 1 1 ... LSB
8 64 512
MSB
LSB
MSB
LSB
(225.75)10 = (1110001.11)2
82 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
wbg eKwPi gvag `kwgK msLvK evBbvwi, AKUvj I nvWwmgvj icvii cwqv `Lvb
njv Binary Number
2
Decimal Number Octal Number
8
10 Hexadecimal Number
16
wP: `kwgK msLvK evBbvwi, AKUvj I nvWwmgvj msLvq icvi|
evBbvwi msLvK `kwgK icvi (Binary to Decimal Conversion)
K. c~Y msLvi : Kvbv evBbvwi c~Y msLv `kwgK icvi KiZ nj wbgwjwLZ avcjv AbymiY
KiZ ne
1. msLvwUK LSB (Least Significant Bit) weU nZ i Ki MSB (Most Significant
Bit) weU ch cwZwU AK chvqg 2 p viv Y KiZ ne| GLvb P = 0, 1, 2, 3
............
2. AZtci Ydjjvi hvMdj wbYq KiZ ne|
3. c` hvMdjB ne evBbvwi msLvwUi mgZzj `kwgK gvb|
D`vniY1: (110101)2 Gi mgZzj `kwgK gvb wbYq Ki|
MSB 110101 LSB
(110101)2 = 125 + 1 24 + 0 23 + 122 + 0 21 + 1 20
= 1 32 + 1 16 + 0 8 +1 4 + 0 2 + 1 1
= 32 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 53
(110101)2 = (53)10
fMvski :
1. fMvski msLvwUK MSB weU nZ i Ki D`vniY2: (0.1010)2 Gi mgZzj `kwgK
LSB weU ch cwZwU AK chvqg 2p viv Y gvb wbYq Ki|
KiZ ne| GLvb P = 1, 2, 3 ............ 1 2 3 4
(0.1010)2 = 1 2 + 0 2 + 1 2 + 0 2
1 1
hgb P = 1 nj 2 = 2 = .5 1 1 1 1
=12+0 +1 +0
1 1 4 8 16
P=2 nj 22 = 22 = 4 = .25
1 1
1 1 =2 +0+ +0
P=3 nj 23 = 23 = 8 = .125 8
1 1 = .5 + .125
P=4 nj 24 = 4 = = .0625
2 16 = .625
2. AZtci YdjMy jvi hvMdj wbY q KiZ
ne| (.1010)2 = (.625)10
3. c ` hvMdjB ne fM v skwUi mgZz j
`kwgK fM v sk gvb|
84 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
=(1000 1011 . 1111 1100 1101)2 = (0010 1111 1100 . 1011 1101)2
=(010 001 011. 111 111 001 101)2 = (001 011 111 100 . 101 111 010)2
= (2 1 3 . 7 7 1 5)8 = (1 3 7 4 . 5 7 2)8
(8B . FCD)16 = (213 . 7715)8 (2FC . BD)16 = (1374.572)8
nvWwmgj _K AKUvj icvi Kivi Rb mgZzj 4 weU Ki evBbvwiZ icvi KiZ
nq| evBbvwi msLvK mgZzj 3 weU Ki wbq AKUvj icvi KiZ nq|
D`v1: (35. 625)10 msLvwUK evBbvwi, AKUvj I nvWwmgvj cKvk Ki|
i) (35.625)10 msLvwUK evBbvwiZ icvi Ki: ii) (35.625)10 msLvwUK AKUvj icvi:
c~Y Aski , fMvski , c~Y Aski , fMvski ,
.625
2
LSB
MSB 1 .250
2 MSB
(35.625)10 = (100011.101)2
iii) (35.625)10 msLvwUK nvWwmgvj icvi:
c~Y Aski , fMvski ,
LSB
MSB
(.625)10 = (.A)16
(35)10 = (23)16
(35.625)10 = (23.A)16
msLv cwZ I wWwRUvj wWfvBm 89
D`vniY2: 3FC Kvb aibi msLv? msLvwUi mgK evBbvwi, AKUvj I `kwgK gvb wbYq Ki|
mgvavb: 3FC GKwU nvWwmgvj msLv|
i) 3FC msLvwUK evBbvwiZ icvi: ii) 3FC msLvwUK AKUvj icvi: iii) 3FC msLvwUK `kwgK icvi:
(3 F C)16 (3 F C)16 (3FC)16 = 3162 + F161+C160
= 3256 + 15 16 + 12 1
= (0011 1111 1100)2 = 768 + 240 + 12
= (0011 1111 1100)2 = (001 111 111 100)2
= (1020)10
(3FC)16 = (1111111100)2 = (1 7 7 4)8 (3FC)16 = (1020)10
(3FC)16 = (1774)8
eZgvb cRbi KwDUvi mvaviY wbqg weqvM Kiv nq bv| AwaKZi myweavi KviY AvaywbK
KwDUvi wmg weqvMi Rb cwic~iK wbqg (Complement Subtraction) eenvi Kiv nq|
D`vniY: 1. (110101)2 nZ (10110)2 weqvM D`v: 2. (110101.101)2 _K (10110.110)2 weqvM
Ki| Ki|
110101.101
110101
10110.110
10110
011110.111
011111
wbYq weqvMdj = (011111) wbYq weqvMdj = (011110.111)2
2
Kvbv GKwU msLv KZ weUi ne Zv wbfi Ki iwRviwUi k `Ni Dci| hgb- 4 weU, 8
weU, 16 weU, 32 weU, 64 weU, 128 weU BZvw` iwRvi|
D`vniY ^ic: +25 I 25 msLv `ywUK h_vg 8 weU iwRvii gvag cKvk `Lvbv njv:
+25 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
wP weU (Sign bit)
25 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
wP weU (Sign bit)
msLv cwZ I wWwRUvj wWfvBm 91
hnZz hvMdji wPweU 0, mnZz djvdj abvZK| myZivs hvMdj (00100101)2 ev (+ 37)10|
eo abvZK I QvU FYvZK: wbg 8 weU iwRvii Rb (+ 25)10 I (12)10 Gi hvMdj wbYq Kiv
njv|
(+ 25)10 : (00011001)2 12 (00001100)2
(12)10 : (11110100) 11110011 (1s complement)
1
(+13)10 : 1(00001101)2
(12)10 (11110100) (2s complement)
Kvwi weU wP weU wP weU
94 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
AwZwi Kvwi weU weePbv Kiv nq bv| hnZz sign Bit 0 mnZz djvdj abvZK|
myZivs hvMdj (00001101)2 ev (+ 13)10
eo FYvZK I QvU abvZK: wbg 8 weU iwRvii Rb (25)10 I (+ 12)10 Gi hvMdj wbYq
Kiv njv|
(25)10 (11100111) (+25)10 (00011001)2
(+12)10 (00001100)2 (11100110) (1s complement)
(13)10 (11110011) 1
(25)10 (11100111) (2s Complement)
hnZz hvMdji Sign bit 1 mnZz djvdj FYvZK| FYvZK djvdj memgq 2 Gi cwic~iK MVb _vK|
AZGe 2 Gi cwic~iK Ki cKZ djvdj cvIqv hve| AZGe 11110011 Gi 2 Gi cwic~iK
00001101|
wbYq djvdj = (11110011)2 ev (13)10|
`ywU FYvZK msLv: wbg 8 weU iwRvii Rb (25)10 I ( 12)10 Gi hvMdj wbYq Kiv njv|
+25 I +12 Gi 2 Gi cwic~iK h_vg 11100111 I 11110100
(25)10 (11100111)
(12)10 (11110100)
(37)10 1 (11011011)
AwZwi KvwiweU weePbv Kiv nq bv| hnZz Sign Bit 1 mnZz djvdj FYvZK Ges 2 Gi cwic~iK MVb
AvQ| myZivs 11011011 Gi 2 Gi cwic~iK 00100101 A_vr djvdj (11011011)2 ev (37)10|
wecixZ wPi mgvb msLv: (+25)10 (00011001)2
(25)10 (11100111)
0 1 (00000000)
AwZwi KvwiwU weePbv Kiv nq bv| KvRB djvdj 0 |
2s Complement eenvi Ki weqvM (2s Complement Subtraction)
1. `yqi cwic~iKi weqvM cwZ: (eo _K QvU)
i. h msLv weqvM Kiv ne, Zvi evgw`K k~b ewmq, hB msLv (hvnv) _K weqvM Kiv
ne, mB msLvi mgvb KiZ ne|
ii. hv weqvM Kiv ne, Zvi GKi c~iK ei KiZ ne|
iii. GKi c~iKi mv_ 1 hvM Ki `yqi c~iK ei KiZ ne|
iv. G `yqi c~iK, hv _K weqvM Kiv ne, Zvi m hvM KiZ ne|
v. hw` carry _vK (nvZ hw` 1 _vK) Zv wbYq hvMdj _K ev` w`Z ne| A_vr `yqi
c~iK carry ev` w`Z ne|
msLv cwZ I wWwRUvj wWfvBm 95
cv djvdjK gvbyli evaMg Kivi j Avevi eY, A, msLv I wekl wP icvi Kiv nq|
icvii G cwqvK wWKvwWs (Decoding) ej| KwDUvi GbKvwWs wewfb Dcvq Kiv nq _vK|
Kx-evW GbKvWvi T K GbKvW Ki ASCII KwDUvi T Gi
T UvBc Kiv nj KvW 01010100 Z icvi cqvRbxq cmwms i
evBbvwi msLv cwZi `ywU gwjK A 0 I 1 Gi gvag wewfb AwZxq msKZ Zwi Kiv nq|
hgb- 2, 4, 7 Ges 8wU weU w`q mevP 4(= 22), 16 ( = 24), 128 (= 27) Ges 256 (= 28) wU
c_K AwZxq msKZ MVb Kiv me| GLvb DjL h, KwDUvii Rb cwZwU A, eY ev wekl
wPK GK GKwU Kvivi (Character) ev wP wnme MY Kiv nq| GKwU Kvivii Rb
KqwU weU cvUvbi cqvRb Zv wbfi Ki Kvb cwZi KvW eenvi Kiv nQ Zvi Dci|
cqvMi i Dci wfw Ki wewfb aibi KvWi De nqQ| hgb
1. wewmwW (BCD) KvW
2. BwewmwWK (EBCDIC) KvW
3. AvjdvwbDgwiK KvW (Alphanumeric code)
4. AvmwK (ASCII) KvW
5. BDwbKvW (Unicode) BZvw`|
wbg ej eeZ wewfb aibi KvW wbq msw AvjvPbv Kiv njv:
wewmwW (BCD) KvW
BCD Gi c~Y ic njv Binary Coded Decimal| BCD KvW viv Kejgv `kwgK cwZi
cZxKjvK KvW Kiv nq| eYgvjvi eY ev Ab wKQzi Rb BCD KvW bB ev eenvi nq bv|
`kwgK msLvi cwZwU AK ( 0 _K 9) ch Gi mgZzj 4 (Pvi) weU evBbvwi wWwRU viv cwZvcb
KivK BCD KvW ej| 4 weU eenvii KviY BCD KvWi gvag 24 ev 16wU wfb Aev wb`k
Kiv hvq| AbK_vq BCD KvW GKwU 4 (Pvi) weU evBbvwiwfwK KvW| G Pvi weUi mg^q AbK
cKvi BCD KvW Zwi Kiv hvq| wbg KqK aibi BCD KvWi bvg `qv njv|
BCD 8421 KvW `kwgK cZxK wewmwW 8421 `kwgK cZxK wewmwW 8421
BCD 5421 KvW 0 0000 5 0101
BCD 2421 KvW 1 0001 6 0110
BCD 7421 KvW 2 0010 7 0111
3 0011 8 1000
BCD 6423 KvW BZvw`|
4 0100 9 1001
wP: `kwgK cZxK I mgZzj evBbvwi msLv|
Ze BCD 8421 KvW weklfve DjLhvM Ges ej eeZ KvW|
GLvb BCD 8421 KvW Natural Binary Coded Decimal (NBCD) KvW AvjvPbv Kiv njv|
1010, 1011, 1100, 1101 Ges 1111 KvWjv AeeZ _vK ej wewmwWZ G`i
eenvi Aea|
98 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
wewmwWZ cKvwkZ (icvwiZ bq) Kvbv `kwgK msLv cKZtc GKwU Dcvcb gv, GwU Kvbv
msLv wb`k Ki bv| m KviY h Kvbv msLvi meevgi k~b hgb A_nxb Ges ev` `qv hvq,
wewmwWZ cKvwkZ Kvbv msLvi ejvq Zv Kiv hve bv|
D`vniY-1: 25310 K wewmwWZ cKvk Ki| D`vniY-2: 100101110010BCD K `kwgK cKvk Ki|
mgvavb: 2 5 3 mgvavb:
1001 0111 0010
0010 0101 0011
(253)10 = (001001010011) BCD 9 7 2
(100101110010)BCD = (972)10
00101010 42 * 01011100 92 \
00101011 43 + 01011101 93 ]
00101100 44 , 01011110 94 ^
00101101 45 - 01011111 95 _
00101110 46 . 01100000 96 `
00101111 47 / 01100001 97 a
00110000 48 0 01100010 98 b
00110001 49 1 01100011 99 c
00110010 50 2 01100100 100 d
00110011 51 3 01100101 101 e
00110100 52 4 01100110 102 f
00110101 53 5 01100111 103 g
00110110 54 6 01101000 104 h
00110111 55 7 01101001 105 i
00111000 56 8 01101010 106 j
00111001 57 9 01101011 107 k
00111010 58 t 01101100 108 l
00111011 59 ; 01101101 109 m
00111100 60 < 01101110 110 n
00111101 61 = 01101110 111 o
00111110 62 > 01101111 112 p
00111111 63 ? 01110000 113 q
01000000 64 @ 01110010 114 r
01000001 65 A 01110011 115 s
01000010 66 B 01110100 116 t
01000011 67 C 01110101 117 u
01000100 68 D 01110110 118 v
01000101 69 E 01110111 119 w
01000110 70 F 01111000 120 x
01000111 71 G 01111001 121 y
01001000 72 H 01111010 122 z
01001001 73 I 01111011 123 {
01001010 74 J 01111100 124 |
01001011 75 K 01111101 125 }
01001100 76 L 01111110 126 ~
01001101 77 M 01111111 127 Delete
BDwbKvW (Unicode): cw_exZ Kej BsiwR-evsjvB bq Aviv AbK fvlv iqQ| Gme
fvlvq Avevi eYi msLvI AbK| hgb- Pxbv fvlvq cvq 85 nvRvi eY iqQ| Unicode Gi
c~Ybvg njv Universal Code ev mveRbxb KvW| weki mKj fvlvK KwDUvi KvWfy Kivi
Rb eo eo Kvvwbjv GKwU gvb Zwi KiQb hvK BDwbKvW ejv nq| 1991 mvj Apple
Computer Corporation Ges Xerox Corporation Gi h_ GK`j cKkjx BDwbKvW
Dveb Kib| BDwbKvW g~jZ 2 evBU ev 16 weUi KvW| G KvWi gvag 65,536 ev 216 wU
AwZxq wPK wbw` Kiv hvq| dj hme fvlvK KvWfy Kivi Rb 8 weU Achv wQj (hgb-
PvqwbR, Kvwiqvb, RvcvwbR BZvw`) mme fvlvi mKj wPK mnRB KvWfy Kiv mnRZi
njv| eZgvb G KvWi cPjb i nqQ|
msLv cwZ I wWwRUvj wWfvBm 101
G wZbwU gwjK wqvi Rb wZb aibi jwRK eZbx eenvi Kiv nq| G jwRK eZbxjv njv Ai
(OR), Av (AND) Ges bU (NOT)| Gme jwRK eZbxjv gwjK jwRK MBU bvg cwiwPZ|
eywjqvb AvjReivi ewk (Characteristics of Boolean Algebra)
1. eywjqvb AvjReivq gv `ywU A 0 Ges 1 eeZ nq|
2. eywjqvb PjKi `ywU gvb _vKvq eywjqvb AvjReiv `kwgK AvjReivi Zzjbvq AbK mnR cwZ|
3. eywjqvb AvjReivq Kvbv aibi fMvsk, jMvwi`g, eM, FYvZK msLv, KvwbK msLv
BZvw` eenvi Kiv hvq bv|
4. eywjqvb AvjReivq aygv hvM I Yi gvag mg MvwYwZK KvR Kiv hvq|
5. eywjqvb AvjReivq Kvbv aibi RvwgwZK ev wKvYwgwZK m~ eenvi Kiv hvq bv|
eywjqvb PjK I aeK (Boolean Variable and Constant)
eywjqvb AvjReivq `ywU evBbvwi A 0 Ges 1 eenvi Kiv nq| wWwRUvj BjKUwb eeZ e`ywZK
msKZK `ywU c_K we`yr cevn viv wbw` Kiv hvq| A_vr wWwRUvj eZbxi Kvbv vbi cevwnZ we`yr ev
fvRi cwigvYi wfwZ ejv hvq h, vbwU DP i cevwnZ nQ A_ev wbg ii fvR cevwnZ
nQ| G `ywU iK wbw` Kiv nq h_vg 1 Ges 0 viv| eywjqvb AvjReivq hvi gvb mgqi mv_
AcwiewZZ _vK ZvK eywjqvb aeK ej| hgb- A = 0 + 1, GLvb 0 Ges 1 nQ eywjqvb aeK|
eywjqvb AvjReivq hvi gvb mgqi mv_ cwiewZZ nq ZvK eywjqvb PjK ej| hgb- C = A +B,
GLvb A I B nQ eywjqvb PjK| aeKi gvb me mgq AcwiewZZ _vK wK PjKi gvb mgqi mv_
mv_ cwiewZZ nq| wewfb BjKUwbK eZbxi BbcyU I AvDUcyUi jwRK Aev wbw` Kivi Rb eywjqvb
PjK I aeK eenvi Kiv nq|
eywjqvb ^Ztwm (Boolean Postulates)
eywjqvb AvjReivq mg MvwYwZK KvR Kiv nq hwK hvM Ges hwK Yi mvnvh| eywjqvb
AvjReivq aygv hwK hvM I hwK Yi wbqgjvK eywjqvb ^Ztwm ej| eywjqvb
^ZtwmjvK `yfvM fvM Kiv hvq| h_v:
1. hvMi eywjqvb ^Ztwm (Boolean Postulates of OR)
2. Yi eywjqvb ^Ztwm (Boolean Postulates of AND)
hvMi eywjqvb ^Ztwm (Boolean Postulates of OR)
hvMi mgq eywjqvb AvjReiv hme wbqg gb Pj ZvK hvMi eywjqvb ^Ztwm ej| hvMi
mgq eyywjqvb PjKjvi gvbi ga h hvM wP (+) eenvi Kiv nq Zv cPwjZ hvMi wP bq|
eywjqvb AvjReivq G hvM wPK jwRKvj hvM ev (Logical OR) wnme eenvi Kiv nq|
hvMi PviwU wbqg cPwjZ| h_v
(1) 0 + 0 = 0
(2) 0 + 1 = 1
(3) 1 + 0 = 1
(4) 1 + 1 = 1
c_g wZbwU mgxKiY mvaviY exRMwYZi wbqg gb PjQ wK 4bs mgxKiY 1+1=1 Gi mv_
mvaviY exRMwYZi Kvbv wgj bB| myZivs cZxqgvb nQ h, eywjqvb hvM (+) wP Ges mvaviY
msLv cwZ I wWwRUvj wWfvBm 103
+ wPK eySvq bv| eywjqvb hvMK ejv nq jwRKvj AvwWkb (Logical Addition) A_ev
jwRKvj Ai Acvikb (Logical OR Operation)|
Dcii eywjqvb ^Ztwm _K ejv hvq h, eyywjqvb AvjReivq hvMi (OR) hKvbv
GKwUi gvb 1 nj hvMdj 1 ne, Ab_vq 0 ne|
Yi eywjqvb ^Ztwm (Boolean Postulates of AND)
Yi mgq eyywjqvb AvjReiv hme wbqg gb Pj ZvK Yi eywjqvb ^Ztwm ej| Yi mgq
eywjqvb PjKjvi gvbi ga Y wP (.) eenvi Kiv nq| jwRK Yi PviwU wbqg cPwjZ| h_v:
(1) 0 . 0 = 0
(2) 0 . 1 = 0
(3) 1 . 0 = 0
(4) 1 . 1 = 1
Dcii eywjqvb ^Ztwm ejv hvq h eywjqvb AvjReivq Yi (AND) hKvbv GKwUi
gvb 0 nj Ydj 0 ne, Ab_vq 1 ne| eywjqvb YK jwRKvj gvwwcKkb (Logical
Multiplication) A_ev jwRKvj Av Acvikb (Logical AND Operation) ejv nq|
eywjqvb c~iK (Boolean Complement)
eywjqvb AvjReivq hKvbv PjKi gvb 0 A_ev 1 nq| G 0 Ges 1 K GKwU AciwUi eywjqvb
c~iK ejv nq| eywjqvb c~iK ev ' wPi gvag cKvk Kiv nq| hgb: 0 Gi eywjqvb
c~iK 1 Ges 1 Gi eywjqvb c~iK 0| MwYZi fvlvq jLv nq eywjqvb c~iKi m~:
A Gi c~iK A ev A __
hw` A Gi gvb 0 nq Ze A = 1 1. 0 = 1
__
hw` A Gi gvb 1 nq Ze A = 0 2. 1 = 0
eywjqvb exRMwYZ c~iKi eenvi LyeB iZc~Y| eywjqvb exRMwYZ
3. A = A
A KiZ Mj cvqB c~iK wbYq KiZ nq|
eywjqvb Z bxwZ (Boolean Duality Principle)
ey w jqvb AvjReivq eeZ mKj Dccv` ev mgxKiY h `y w U wbqg gb GKwU ea
mgxKiY _K Avi GKwU ea mgxKiY wbY q Kiv hvq ZvK ey w jqvb Z bxwZ ej| A_ v r
ey w jqvb AvjReivq Ai (OR) Ges Av (AND) mv_ mK h y mKj Dccv` ev
mgxKiY Z bxwZ gb Pj| G wbqg `y w U njv
1. 0 Ges 1 cii wewbgq Ki A_vr 0 Gi cwieZ 1 Ges 1 Gi cwieZ 0 eenvi Ki|
2. Ai (+) Ges Av (.) cii wewbgq Ki A_vr Ai (+) Gi cwieZ Av (.) Ges Av
(.) Gi cwieZ Ai (+) eenvi Ki|
D`vniY: 1 + 1 = 1 mgxKiY
1 Gi cwieZ 0 Ges (+) Gi cwieZ (.) ewmq cvB
0.0 = 0 GUvI GKwU ea mgxKiY|
Avevi, 0.1 = 0 mgxKiY 0 Gi cwieZ 1 I 1Gi cwieZ 0 Ges (.) Gi cwieZ (+) ewmq
cvB 1 + 0 =1 GUvI GKwU ea mgxKiY|
104 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
evgc = A . A evgc = A . A
= 0. 1
= 1. 0 =0
=0 = Wvbc
= Wvbc
eywjqvb PjK A Gi hKvbv gvbi Rb A . A = 0 (cgvwYZ)
c_g Dccv`: A + B = A . B
wZxq Dccv`: A . B = A + B
wP: wW-giMvb
c_g Dccv`: A + B = A . B
c_g Dccv` Abymvi, A I B MnY msKZi Rb GKwU bi MBUi AvDUcyU msKZ hv nq,
Zvnjv A I B MnY msKZi Rb GKwU Av MBUi AvDUcyU msKZi mgvb|
wZxq Dccv`:
mZK mviwYi mnvqZvq AwZ mnR Dccv` `ywU cgvY Kiv me| wZbwU PjKi Rb wW-giMvbi
Dccv` cgvY Kivi Rb wbg GKwU mZK mviwY Zwi Kiv njv:
A B C A B A+B+C ABC
C A + B+C ABC ABC A + B+C
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
2q Dccv`: ABC = A + B + C
wbg mviwYZ BbcyU PjK A I B Gi mve gvb `qv njv Ges AvDUcyU Y Gi gvb BbcyUi Dci
wbfi Ki|
BbcyU AvDUcyU
BbcyU AvDUcyU
A B Y A B Y =A+B
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1
1 1
wP: `yB BbcyUi mZK mviwY wP: `yB BbcyUi Ai MBUi mZK mviwY
jwRK MBU (Logic gate): eywjqvb AvjReivq gwjK KvRjv evevqbi Rb h BjKUwbK
eZbx eenvi Kiv nq ZvB jwRK MBU| A_vr jwRK MBU njv GK aibi BjKUwbK eZbx hv
GK ev GKvwaK BbcyU MnY Ki Ges ay GKwU AvDUcyU c`vb Ki| Abfve ejv hvq h, hme
wWwRUvj mvwKU hywg~jK msKZi cevn wbqY Ki _vK mme mvwKUKB jwRK MBU ej|
jwRK MBU
GRb G MBUK BbfvUvi (Inverter) ejv nq| gb Kwi, GKwU bU MBUi BbcyU msKZ A Ges
AvDUcyU msKZ Y| eywjqvb PjK A Gi gvbi Rb c_K c_K `ywU (21 = 2) Aevb nZ cvi|
G eywjqvb mgxKiY ne: BbcyU AvDUcyU
A Y=A
Y = NOT (A ) 0 1
= A (A_vr A Gi gvb A Gi Dv) 1 0
mZK mviYx (Truth table)
wP: 2 BbcyU wewk NOR MBU Gi cZxK wP: 2 BbcyU wewk NOR MBU Gi mgK eZbx
BbcyU AvDUcyU
A B A+B Y= A + B
eywjqvb mgxKiY (Boolean expression): Y= A + B 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
wP: mZK mviwY
ZvwKfve hKvbv BbcyU wewk bi MBU Zwi Kiv hvq| G wZbwU BbcyU wewk bi MBUi
cZxK, mgK eZbx, eywjqvb mgxKiY `qv njv:
A A
A+B+C
B Y = A + B+ C B Y = A + B+ C
C C
wP: 3 BbcyU wewk NOR MBU Gi cZxK
112 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
wP: 2 BbcyU wewk NAND MBU Gi cZxK wP: 2 BbcyU wewk NAND MBUi mgK eZbx
eywjqvb mgxKiY (Boolean expression): Y = A.B
ZvwKfve hKvbv BbcyU wewk bv MBU Zwi Kiv hvq| wbP wZbwU BbcyU wewk bv MBUi
cZxK Ges eywjqvb mgxKiY `Lvbv njv
A
B Y = A . B.C
C
Y = A.A
wP: NAND gate w`q NOT gate evevqb
=A
dj bv MBUwU GKwU bU MBU wnme KvR Ki|
Y = AB.AB Y = AB.AB
= A.B = A .B
= AB wP: NAND gate w`q AND gate evevqb| = AB
ZvwKfve hKvbv BbcyU wewk G-Ai Zwi Kiv hvq| wbP wZb BbcyU wewk G-Ai MBUi
cZxK I eywjqvb mgxKiY `Lvbv njv A
B Y=ABC
eywjqvb mgxKiY (Boolean expression): Y=ABC C
Y = AB A
= AB + A B AB
Y = AB.AB
= AB + A B AB
B
= ( AB) . (A B)
wP : bv MBU w`q X-OR MBU evevqb|
G-Ai dvskbwU cheY Ki ay bv MBU viv Dcii G-Ai MBUi jwRK mvwKU Zwi Kiv njv|
ay NOR MBU w`q X-OR MBU Gi jwRK wP evevqb:
`ywU BbcyU A I B Gi X-OR MBUi AvDUcyU
Y = AB + A B A B
A+B
= AB + A B B
(A+B) + (A+B)
(A+B) + (A+B)
= (AB) (A B) A =(A+B) + (A+B)
A+B
= (A + B) . (A + B)
wP : NOR MBU w`q X-OR MBU evevqb
= (A + B) . (A + B)
= ( A + B) + ( A + B)
116 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
A
Y= AB
B
wP: 2 BbcyU wewk X-NORGi cZxK
= AB + A B
ZvwKfve hKvbv BbcyU wewk G-bi MBU Zwi Kiv hvq| wbP wZb BbcyU wewk G-bi
MBUi cZxK I eywjqvb mgxKiY `Lvbv njv
A
B Y= ABC
C
AB
Y = AB + A B
AB
wP: gwjK MBU w`q X-NOR MBU evevqb
ay bv MBU viv X-NOR MBUi evevqb
G-bi MBUi Avgiv Rvwb,
A B
Y = AB
= AB + A B AB
= AB + A B
A
= (AB) . (A B) (AB ).(A.B )
AB
B
= ( AB) . ( A B)
= ( A + B + ( A + B)
= ( A + B) . ( A + B)
A+ B
= ( A + B) . ( A + B)
wP: NOR MBU w`q X-NOR MBU evevqb
= ( A + B) + ( A + B)
118 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
GbKvWvi eenviKvixi `qv AvjdvwbDgwiK I wbDgwiK eYK wP: 8 to 3 jvBb GbKvWvii e-KwP
BCD, ASCII Ges EBCDIC KvW icvwiZ Ki _vK| GbKvWvi mvaviYZ BbcyU wWfvBm A_vr
Kx-evWi mv_ hy _vK|
gvbyli eeZ fvlv GbKvWvi KwDUvii evaMg fvlv
wbg 8wU BbcyU jvBb _K 3wU AvDUcyU jvBb GbKvWvii eKwP ev mZK mviwY `qv njv:
Input Output
Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 A B C
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
wP: 8 to 3 line GbKvWvii jwRK mvwKU wP: 8 to 3 line GbKvWvii mZK mviwY
GbKvWvii eenvi:
i. GbKvWvi AvjdvwbDgwiK KvWK ASCII I EBCDIC KvW icvi Ki|
ii. `kwgK msLvK wewfb KvW icvi Ki|
iii. GbKvWvii mvnvh `kwgK msLvK mgZzj evBbvwi msLvq icvi Ki|
3.7.8 wWKvWvi (Decoder)
wWKvW ki A_ njv KvWgy Kiv| wWKvWvi njv Ggb
GKwU mgevq mvwKU hvi mvnvh nwU BbcyU _K 2n wU
AvDUcyU jvBb cvIqv hvq| wZbwU BbcyU jvBb _K
mevwaK 8wU AvDUcyU jvBb cvIqv hvq| h Kvbv GKwU
AvDUcyU jvBbi gvb 1 nj evwK meKwU AvDUcyU jvBbi
gvb 0 ne| KLb Kvbv AvDUcyU jvBbi gvb 1 ne Zv
wbfi Ki BbcyUjvi gvbi Dci| wP: 3 to 8 jvBb wWKvWvii eK
WvqvMvg
msLv cwZ I wWwRUvj wWfvBm 119
wWKvWvii mvnvh KvW fvlvq (hgb- BCD) jLv msLvK `kwgK msLvq cKvk Kiv, RwUj
KvWK mnR KvW cwiYZ Kiv ev KvW Input Output
fvlvq jLv eYK mvaviY fvlvq cKvk Kiv A B C D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(hgb-Avw KvWi 100000 K A Z 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
icvwiZ Kiv) hvq| 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
KwDUvii AvDUcyU BDwbU KvW fvlvq 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
jLv Z_K mvaviY AvKvi cKvk KiZ 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
cqvRb nq wWKvWvii| wWKvWvii KvR wP: 3 to 8 jvBb wWKvWvii mZK mviwY
njv KwDUvi eeZ fvlvK gvbyli
evaMg fvlvq icvi Kiv|
gwkb fvlv wWKvWvi gvbyli evaMg fvlv
wWKvWvi logic mvwKU evevwqZ KiZ Avgv`i AvUwU AND gate (3-input) Ges 3wU bU MBU
jvMe| A B C
wWKvWvii eenvi: D0 = A B C
h mgevq mvwKU viv hvM Kiv hvq ZvK ej AvWvi| wWwRUvj Bjwb `yaibi AvWvi AvQ| h_v:
1. nvd-AvWvi (Half Adder) ev AahvMi eZbx
2. dzj-AvWvi (Full Adder) ev c~Y hvMi eZbx
nvd-AvWvi (Half Adder) ev Aa hvMi eZbx
`ywU evBbvwi weU hvM Kivi Rb eeZ eZbxK Aa-hvMi eZbx ej| Abfve ejv hvq, h
AvWvi `yUv weU hvM Ki hvMdj (Sum) I nvZ _vK msLv ev Kvwi (Carry) ei KiZ cvi
ZvK nvd AvWvi ej| AahvM ev nvd AvWvi w`q `ywU msLv hvM Kivi mgq PviwU wfb Aev
chewZ nq| wbg PviwU wfb Aev `Lvbv njv:
BbcyU AvDUcyU
X Y S C
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
wP: nvd AvWvii mZK mviwY|
Dj L , ey j xq hvM I mvaviY hvM GK bq| ey j xq hvM
1+1=1| my Z ivs Ai MU viv ey j xq hvM Kiv MjI mvaviY hvM Kiv hvq bv| AR
X, AvW Y, hvMdj S I Kvwi C nj nvd-AvWvii mZKS mviwY_K = X Y + Xwbg
Y i
mgxKiY
X Y cvIqv hvq| = X Y
C = XY
XY
S = XY + X Y
XY
C = XY
= YC i (X + X) + XCi (Y + Y) + XY( Ci + Ci )
[ A + A = 1 ]
= YC i .1 + XC i .1 + XY.1 = YC i + XCi + XY
CLK
CLR
A3 A2 A1 A0
wP: GKwU 4-weU cvivjvj jvW iwRvi
124 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
CLK
wP: GKwU 4-weU wkd&U iwRvi
Avc KvDUvi WvDb KvDUvi wicj Avc KvDUvi wicj WvDb KvDUvi
wmbvbvm KvDUvi:
h KvDUvi GKwU gv KK cvjm& mejv wdc-dci Aevi cwieZb NUvq ZvK wmbvbvm
KvDUvi ej| hgb-wis KvDUvi, MOD-10 KvDUvi BZvw`|
Avwmbvbvm KvDUvi:
h KvDUvi GKwU wdc-dci AvDUcyU AbwUi KK cvjm wnme eeZ nq ZvK Avwmbvbvm
KvDUvi ej| hgb-wicj KvDUvi| Avwmbvbvm KvDUvi `ycKvi| h_v:
wicj Avc KvDUvi: h KvDUvi QvU b^i _K eo b^ii w`K chvqwgK MYbv Kiv nq ZvK
wicj Avc KvDUvi ej| hgb: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ---------
wicj WvDb KvDUvi: h KvDUvi eo _K chvqwgKfve wbPi w`K MYbv Kiv nq ZvK wicj
WvDb KvDUvi ej| hgb: 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1
KvDUvii MVb (Structure of Counter)
mePq mnR I mij KvDUvi njv evBbvwi wicj KvDUvi| wicj KvDUvi njv Avwmbvbvm
KvDUvi| A_vr cZKwU wdc-dc Zvi AvDUcyU viv Zvi cvki wdc-dcK wUMvi
(Triggering) KiZ mvnvh Ki| wicj KvDUvi UvMj wdc-dc viv Zwi Kiv hvq hv me mgq
UvMj gvW KvR Kie| T UvBc wdc-dc GKwU UvMj wdc-dc|
126 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
FF0 wdc-dc KK cvj&m w`j wdc-dc UvMj Kie A_vr wdc-dcwUi AvDUcyU cwZ evi 0 _K
1 ev 1 _K 0 ne| Q0 K FF1 Gi KKi mvnvh mshy Kivi Q0 hLb 1 ne ZLb FF1
UvMj Kie| A_vr cwZ `yevi Ai FF1 UvMj Kie| Abyicfve Q1 K FF2 KKi mv_
mshy Kivq Q1 hLb 1 ne ZLb FF2 UvMj Kie| A_vr FF2 cwZ Pvi evi Ai UvMj
Kie|
KvDUvii cwZ (System of Counter)
evBbvwi msLv Kxfve MYbv Kiv nq KK AvDUcyU
Zv `kwgK I evBbvwi msLvi Zzjbv cvj&mi Q2 Q1 Q0
Ki KvDUvii KvR `Lvbv njv| msLv
0 0 0 0
KvDUvii eenvi 1 0 0 1
(Uses of Counter): 2 0 1 0
3 0 1 1
1. KK cvjmi msLv MYbvi Rb 4 1 0 0
2. UvBwgs wmMbvj c`vbi Rb 5 1 0 1
3. wWwRUvj KwDUvi 6 1 1 0
4. wWwRUvj NwoZ 7 1 1 1
5. e`ywZK `b MYbvi cwZ Pvi evi cwZ `yevi cwZevi
6. cvivjvj WUvK wmwiqvj WUvq cici UvMj cici UvMj UvMj Ki
icvi KiZ| Ki Ki
wP: 3- weU Avwmbvbvm (3- weU wicj KvDUvi) KvDUvii mZK
mviwY
Abykxjbx
mRbkxj ck:
1| wPwU j Ki
2| `yBwU evBbvwi weU hvM Kivi Rb nvd AvWvi eenvi Kiv nq| wK wZbwU weU hvM Kivi
Rb dzj AvWvii cqvRb nq| Avevi nvd AvWvi w`qI dyj AvWvi evevqb Kiv hvq|
K. gwjK MBU KqwU?
L. AvWvi wK? eYbv Ki|
M. nvd AvWvii mZK mviwY Zwi Ki|
N. nvd AvWvii mvnvh dzj AvWvi evevqb Ki|
ewbevPwb ck:
1| Avgv`i evmvq eW myBm Kvb MBUi kZ gb Pj?
K. AND L. OR M. NOT N. X-OR
2| (15)10 Gi mgK wewmwW KvW KvbwU?
K. 00001111 L. 00001101 M. 00010101 N. 00001001
wbPi mviwYwU `L Ges 3 I 4 bs cki Di `vI:
Input Output
A B S C
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
eZgvb hyM Z_ I hvMvhvM chywi hyM| www Z_v BUvibUi gvag mgM cw_ex GKmv_
Muv_v| Gi gvag Avgiv wekvj Z_ fvvii mv_ hy nZ cvwi| BUvibU eenviKvwi`i evDR
Kivi Rb wewfb Iqe mvfvi ivLv dvBjK Iqe cR ej | G cR mvaviYZ HTML viv jLv
nq| BUvibU eenviKvwiiv hvZ Lye mnR KvwZ Z_ LyuR cvq G Rb evemZ Ges
evjW Iqe mvBU wWRvBb KiZ nq| myZivs Iqe wWRvBb GKwU iZc~Y KvR eenviKvwi`i
AvK Kivi Rb|
eenvwiK:
bwfMkb (Navigation):
GKwU Iqe mvBU ZLbB mv_K nq hLb eenviKvwi ZvZ Lye mnR wePiY (Navigation) KiZ
cvi Ges Zvi cqvRbxq Z_ LuyR ei KiZ cvi| GKwU eenviKvwi eve Iqe mvBU AekB
cviwiK gZ wewbgqi myhvM _vKv DwPr| GKwU mvaviY wbqg njv eenviKvwi Zvi cqvRbxq
Z_ cZ AekB `yevii ewk wKK KiZ ne bv|
Uz wKK bwfMkb:
Dcii wP Z_i wZbwU i eenvi Kiv nqQ (Three Tier of Content) GLvb nvg cR _K
gBb mKkb (c_g wKK) Ges Gi ci mve-mKkb (wZxq wKK) hv Lye mnR| Ze Aviv GKwU
i mshy Kiv hZ cvi wewfb aibi WUvi Rb| Gi ewk iwewk Iqe mvBU eenviKvwiK
wavM Ki Ges weiwi KviY nq| ZvQvov AwaK iwewk Iqe mvBU wePiY (Navigation) mvP
Bwbi RbI RwUj|
nvg cR (Home Page):
K_vq AvQ, gvbyli gyL gbi K_v ej| Zgwb Kvbv Iqe mvBUi welq, KUU, Z_i cvPyhZv
BZvw`i aviYv eenviKvwiiv nvgcR _K cq _vK| GwU mvBUi wewfb mKkb I wjsK
mK ^Q aviYv c`vb Ki| GLvb aygv gBb mKkbi wjsK _vKv DwPr| nvgcR GKwU
mvBW gvc _vKZ ne hvZ eenviKvixiv Lye mnR Zv`i cqvRbxq Z_ mK RvbZ cvi|
eenviKvixiv hLb AwZ A mgq Zv`i cqvRbxq Z_ cvq ZLb Iqe mvBU wfwRU Zv`i Rb
nq DV Avb`gq|
mxwgZ UU Ges wjsK:
nvgcR Lye ewk jLv/ UU _vKv DwPr bq| GZ cR Zvi m`h nvivq Ges eenviKvixiv
wavM nq| mvaviYZ Kvbv nvgcR 400 (PvikZ) ki ewk _vKv DwPr bq| AbK
eenviKvix AvQ hviv Lye A mgq wbq Iqe mvBU evDR Ki, Zv`i c ewk jLv _vKj Zv
cov me nq bv| ZvQvov nvgcR AwaK jLv _vKj mvP Bwbi KvRI RwUj nq| myZivs mvP
Bwb Ges eenviKvix Dfqi RbB Avgv`i DwPr nvgcR h_vme Kg UU eenvi Kiv|
ZvQvov eenviKvixiv mvaviYZ nvgcR jevi Ub coZ ^vQ` eva Ki bv| myZivs GK
cR hZUzKz jLv me ZZUzKzB wjLv DwPr|
4.2 HTML Gi gwjK welqmg~n
HTML njv GKwU wcwUs fvlv| g~jZ wewfb aibi UvM eenvi Ki KvW wjLZ nq| myZivs
HTML viv Iqe cR Zwii Rb wKQz gwjK welqKvVvgv, wewfb aibi UvM, nvBcvi wjsK,
wP, Uwej BZvw` mshvRbi cwZ mK AvjvPbv Kiv njv|
Iqe wWRvBb cwiwPwZ I GBPwUGgGj 131
wbP HTML G eeZ wKQz mvaviY UvM Ges G`i eenvi eYbv Kiv njv-
UvMmg~n eYbv
<html> .. </html> HTML WKzgU wb`k Ki
<head> ..</head> cvMvgi Head wb`k Ki
<title> ..</title> cR UvBUj wb`k Ki
<body> ..</body> g~j Content Ask wb`k Ki
<a> ..</a> Anchor UvM
<abbr> ..</abbr> Abbriviation UvM
<b> ..</b> Kvbv UU bold KiZ eeZ nq
<i> ..</i> Kvbv UU italic KiZ eeZ nq
<big> ..</big> Kvbv UU ^vfvweKi Pq eo KiZ eeZ nq
<strong> ..</strong> Kvbv UU bold/strong KiZ eeZ nq
<sub> ..</sub> Subscripted UU wb`k Ki
<sup> ..</sup> Superscripted UU wb`k Ki
<blockquote> ..</blockquote> Kvbv D&wZ cKvk KiZ eeZ nq
<table> ..</table> Uwej Zwi KiZ eeZ nq
<col> ..</col> Uweji Kjvg Zwi KiZ eeZ nq
<td> ..</td> Uweji mj Zwi KiZ eeZ nq
<th> ..</th> Uweji wkivbvg wjLZ eeZ nq
<tr> ..</tr> Uweji mvwi Zwi KiZ eeZ nq
<form> ..</form> dig ZwiZ eeZ nq
<input> ..</input> digi BbcyU wd ZwiZ eeZ nq
<li> ..</li> wj ZwiZ eeZ nq
<ol> ..</ol> AWviW wj ZwiZ eeZ nq
<ul> ..</ul> Avb-AWviW wj ZwiZ eeZ nq
<p> ..</p> cvivMvd ZwiZ eeZ nq
Uwej: 4.1
HTML GwUweDUm: HTML UvM Gi KvhgZvK ewaZ Kivi Rb GwUweDUm eenvi Kiv nq| HTML
GwUweDUm BwjgUi cvmwK Z_ A_vr BwjgUi wKQz ewk wbw` Ki `qv nq| hgb- <font>
</font> UvMi GwUweDU wnme dUi wKQz ewk DjL Kiv nq| wbPi D`vniY dUi size, face, color
wbw` Ki `qv nqQ: <font size=13 face= Tahoma color=green> ILove my Country</font>
UvM GwUweDUm
<font> Size = face = color =
<h1> ...<h6>, <p> Align center/ left/ right
<img>, <table> Height = width = border =
<frameset> border = frameborder = framespacing =
<frame> noresize scrolling = yes/no/auto
Iqe wWRvBb cwiwPwZ I GBPwUGgGj 133
<body>
This is my first web page. I am learning now HTML.
</body>
</html>
<html> ev html UvM:
<html> Ges </html> UvM Gi ga m~Y cvMvg wjLZ nq A_vr <html> Ges </html> UvM
h_vg Iqe cR Gi i Ges kl wb`k Ki|
<head> ev head UvM:
G Ask wewfb aibi nWvi BwjgU _vK | Gjv Iqe cR ev WKzgUi bvg, vBj, wjsK,
WUvi Z_ BZvw` eYbv _vK| G Ask wbg wjwLZ UvMjv mshy Kiv hvq, Ze Dcii cvMvg
ay title UvM mshy Kiv nqQ-
<title>, <style>, < meta>, <link>, < script>, <noscript>, and <base>. Gjvi gvag evDRvi
cR mwKZ ekwKQz iZc~Y Z_ c`kbi cvkvcvwk mvP Bwb AcwUgvBRkbi gZv iZc~Y KvR
m~Y nq|
<body> ev body UvM:
<body> ev body UvM Kvbv cvMvgi mePq iZc~Y Ask| GKwU Iqe cRi g~j Content mg~n
body UvMi ga Aevb Ki| Iqe cRi h Ask Avgiv `LZ cvB / c`wkZ nq Zvi Rb mKj UvM G
Ask wjLv nq|
HTML G cvMvg wjLvi cwZ:
hKvbv c v M v g jLvi Rb Kvbv GwWUi eenvi Ki KvwWs KiZ nq| HTML G
c v M v g jLvi Rb c v _wgKfve bvUcW eenvi Kiv hZ cvi| Ze, evowZ my w eav
cvIqvi Rb Adobe Dreamweaver, Micresoft Expression Web, Coffee Cup
HTML Editor eenvi Kiv hvq|
134 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
wbP GKwU GBPwUGgGj HTML cvMvg jLvi avcjv eYbv Kiv njv
avc-1: c_g Start All Program Accessoriesy Noteped G wKK Ki bvUcW
Icb KiZ ne|
avc-2: bvUcW cqvRbxq HTML KvW jLZ ne
avc-3: dvBj gby _K Save as G wKK KiZ ne| dvBji GKwU bvg w`q .html GUbkb
Ki Save KiZ ne|
avc-5: Save nq Mj dvBji Dci Wvej wKK KijB hKvbv Iqe evDRvi viv Iqe cRwU
c`wkZ ne|
HTML nwWs: Avgiv hLb Kvbv cvivMvd wjwL ZLb mB cvivMvdi GKwU my`i wkivbvg
w`q _vwK| cvivMvdi wkivbvg `qvi Rb <h> </h> UvM eenvi Kiv nq| G wkivbvg
jLvi Rb 6 aibi UvM iqQ| Gjv njv- <h1> </h1>, <h2> </h2>, <h3>
</h3>, <h4> </h4>, <h5> </h5>, <h6> </h6>|
<h1> </h1> mePq eo wkivbvg jLvi Rb eenvi Kiv nq| Abvb UvMjv gv^q QvU
AvKvii wkivbvg `qvi Rb eenvi Kiv nq|
Iqe wWRvBb cwiwPwZ I GBPwUGgGj 135
D`vniY:
< h1>This is a heading</h1>
< h2>This is a heading</h2>
< h3>This is a heading</h3>
HTML cvivMvd: Iqe cR Kvbv Z_ ev eYbv my`ifve Dcvcbi Rb GKvwaK cvivMvd
AvKvi jLv nq| HTML G cvivMvd jLvi Rb <p> </p> UvM eenvi Kiv nq| evDRvii
gvag cZK cviv Gm Kivi Rb cZK cvivkl <br /> UvM w`Z nq| <br /> UvM bZzb
jvBb i Ki| cvivMvdi gaI Avgiv <br /> UvM eenvi Ki jvBb eK Zwi KiZ cvwi|
D`vniY:
<p>
This is a paragraph.
This is a paragraph.
This is a paragraph.
This is a paragraph.
</p>
<p>
This is a paragraph.<br />
This is a paragraph.<br />
This is a paragraph.<br />
This is a paragraph.<br />
</p>
HTML Lines:
Iqe cR Abyf~wgK iLv Zwi Kivi Rb <hr> UvM eenvi Kiv nq|
KvR: GKwU HTML cR Zwi Ki Zvgvi KjR mK wZbwU cviv (cZK cvivq Kgc
Pvi jvBb _vKe) wjL|
HTML <body> bgcolor Attribute:
Kvbv HTML WKzgUi evKMvD Gi is Kx ne Zv wb`k Kivi Rb G UvM eenvi Kiv nq|
<html>
<body bgcolor="#E6E6FA">
<h1>Hello world!</h1>
</body>
</html>
136 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
Iqe cR Kvjvi eenvii Rb Kvjvi KvW eenvi Kiv nq| G Kvjvi KvW Avevi wZbfve
jLv hvq-
mivmwi Kvjvii bvg wjL| hgb- red
Kvjvii nvWwmgvj KvW eenvi Ki| hgb- #ff0000
Kvjvii AviwRwe (rgb) KvW eenvi Ki| hgb- rgb (255,0,0)
Ze Iqe cRK my`i I AvKlYxq Kivi Rb wewfb aibi Kvjvii eenvi Kiv nq| G Kvjvi nZ
cvi evKMvD A_ev jLvZ| Kvjvi eenvii Rb nvWwmgvj KvW eenvi Kiv mnR| Ze me
Kvjvi Iqe cRi Rb Dchy bq| ZvB Iqe cRi Rb Kvjvi wbevPbi mZKZv Aej^b
KiZ ne|
wbP KZKMyjv Kvjvii KvW `qv njv| KvWi b^iMyjv cwieZb Kij KvjviI cwieZb nq|
myZivs BQvgZv Kvjvi KvW Zwi Kiv hvq|
4.2.6 nvBcviwj
nvBcviwj Gi gvag GKwU Iqe cRi mv_ Ab GKwU Iqe cR / WKzgUi mshvM Kiv nq|
Iqe cRK eenvi eve Kivi Rb nvBcviwjsK GKwU MyiZc~Y fwgKv cvjb Ki| nvBcviwjsK nQ
GKwU k/kQ/Qwe hvi Dci wKK Kij Ab GKwU Iqe cR / WKzgU Icb nq| Iqe cR evDR
Kivi mgq Avgiv hLb nvBcviwjsK k / kQ / Qwe Gi Dci gvDm Kvmi bB ZLb Kvmi Gi AvKwZ
cwieZb nq| HTML G <a> </a> UvM eenvi Ki nvBcviwjsK Kiv nq|
MVb: <a href= url> link text<a/>
GLvb, url viv h Iqe cR/ WKzgUwU Icb KiZ PvB ZvK eySvbv nqQ, Ges link
text nj nvBcviwjsK k hvi Dci wKK Kij KvwLZ cR/ WKz gU Icb ne|
nvBcviwjsK wnmve ay k bq, Qwe ev Ab Kvbv GBPwUGgGj (HTML) BwjgU
eenvi Kiv hvq|
D`vniY: <a href= http://www.dhakaeducationboard.gov.bd> Dhaka
Board<a/>
Dcii KvW wjLv Iqe cRwU Icb Kij, cR Dhaka Board UwU `Lv hve Ges Gi
Dci wKK Kij XvKv wkvevWi Iqe mvBUwU Icb ne|
nv&BcviwjsK (UviMU GwUweDU):
UviMU GwUweDU wjsK Kiv cR/ WKzgUwU Kv_vq Icb ne Zv wbw` Ki `q|
D`vniY: <a href= http://www.dhakaeducationboard.gov.bd target = _blank> Dhaka
Board<a/>
Dcii D`vniY viv XvKv wkvevWi Iqe mvBUwU GKwU bZzb DBv ev Uve G Icb ne| GKB
WKzgUi wewfb RvqMvq Rv Kivi Rb ev eyKgvK Zwi Kivi Rb AvBwW GwUweDU eenvi Kiv nq|
hgb <a id=tips> Usefull Tips Section </a>
GLvb GKB WKzgUi Usefull Tips Section bvgi cvivMvd Rv Kie|
KvR: GKwU Iqe cR wkv evW, wkv gYvjq, Zvgvi wkv evWi Uc wj vb
138 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
3q
...the rest of the definition... Kjvg
</FRAMESET>
GLvb ...the rest of the definition... j Iqe cRi
fvM Kiv Aski Kvbv Ask Kvbv cR/ wP _vKe Zv wjLZ nq|
D`vniY-4: wbPi KvW Iqe cRK 2 3 wMW fvM Kie
<FRAMESET rows="30%, 70%" cols="33%,34%,33%">
...the rest of the definition...
</FRAMESET>
Iqe wWRvBb cwiwPwZ I GBPwUGgGj 139
GLvb ...the rest of the definition...j Iqe cRi fvM Kiv Aski Kvbv Ask Kvbv
cR/ wP _vKe Zv wjLZ nq|
D`vniY-5: wbPi KvW Iqe cRK mgvb wZbwU Kjvg fvM Kie, ci 2q (gvSi) KjvgK
Avevi mgvb `yfvM fvM Kie-
<FRAMESET cols = "33%, 33%, 34%">
...contents of first frame...
<FRAMESET rows="50%, 50%">
...contents of second frame, first row...
...contents of second frame, second row...
</FRAMESET>
...contents of third frame...
</FRAMESET>
D`vniY-6
<frameset rows=20%,* > top.html
<frame name=top src=top.html>
index.html
Kvbv evDRvii gvag Iqe cR c`wkZ nq ZLb GwU Qwei dvBjK Abyiva cvVvq Ges wbw`
RvqMvq mU Ki| G KviY Src GKwU iZc~Y GwUweDU hvi A_ njv Source hv evDRviK ej
`q Qwei dvBjwU Kv_vq iqQ|
MVb: <img src=image file name with path>
D`vniY: <img src= z1.jpg>
GLvb, z1.jpg njv dvBji bvg, Qwe / wPi dvBjwU GKB dvvi _vKj ay bvg wjLjB
Pj| Ab_vq dvBji m~Y cv_ wjLZ nq|
Size GwUweDU: Dcii D`vniY Qwei Rb aygv dvBji bvg jLv nqQ, Gi dj Qwe / wPwU
h mvBRi AvQ AweKj mB mvBRiB c`wkZ ne| wK wewfb cqvRb wfb wfb mvBRi Qwe
Iqe cR hvM KiZ nq, ZvB UvMi ga Qwei `N Ges DPZv DjL Ki `qv hvq| hgb
<img src= z1.jpg width=200 height=150>
GLvb, `N 200 wcj Ges DPZv 150 wcj DjL Kiv nqQ| Gi dj Qwei Avmj mvBR
hv-B nvK DjwLZ mvBRB Iqe cR c`wkZ ne|
Aling GwUweDU: G GwUweDUm Gi gvag Qwe / wPi Aevb wbaviY Kiv nq A_vr QwewUi
Aevb Iqe cRi Wvb / evg / Dci/ wbP/ gvSLvb BZvw` Kv_vq Aevb Kie Zv
wb`k Ki|
D`vniY: <img src= z1.jpg width= 200 height = 150 align= left>
GLvb wPi Aevb left DjL Kiv nqQ| right, top, middle, bottom, absmiddle,
absbottom, baseline. Texttop BZvw` AckbI eenvi Kiv hvq|
Border GwUweDU: Avgiv hLb <img src= image file name with path> UvM eenvi Ki
Iqe cR Kvbv Qwe hvM Kwi ZLb Qwe / wPi Kvbv eWvi _vK bv| evBwWd eWvi k~b
wnmve aiv nq| Avgiv BQv Kij Qwe/ wPi eWvi hy KiZ cvwi ZvI Avevi BQv gZv gvUv
ev mi Ki|
D`vniY: <img src= z1.jpg width=200 height=150 border = 1>
GLvb, eWvi = 1 `qv nqQ| AcvKZ gvUv eWvii Rb 2/3/4 /... ... w`Z ne|
evbvi hy Kiv: Kvbv Iqe cR evbvi hy KiZ wbg DjwLZ avcmg~n AbymiY KiZ ne-
avc-1: c_g h QwewU evbvi wnmve eenvi Kiv ne Zv wbw` KiZ ne| awi dvBjwUi bvg
banner.jpg
avc-2: Iqe cRi HTML KvW <body></body> UvM wbgwjwLZ KvW wjLZ ne-
<a href=http://www.dhakaeducationboard.gov.bd/> <img src=banner.jpg
width=200 height=95 border=0 alt= Dhaka Education Board></a>
GLvb banner.jpg wPwU evbvi wnmve _vKe| evbvi wKK Kij XvKv wkv evWi Iqe mvBU
Icb ne|
4.2.8 HTML G Uwej
Iqe wWRvBb cwiwPwZ I GBPwUGgGj 141
Iqe cR Zwi Kivi mgq wewfb WUv Ges Z_ mnR, my`ifve Dcvcb Kivi Rb Uweji
cqvRb nq| Uwej njv KZKjv mvwi (Row) Ges (Column) Gi mg^q MwVZ| GKwU
Uweji mKj Dcv`vbjv <TABLE> </TABLE> UvM Gi ga _vK| Uweji cZK mvwii
iZ <TR> Ges cZK mvwii kl </TR> UvM nq|
Syn: <TABLE>
<TR>
</TR>
</TABLE>
Uwej Kjvg ev WUv/ AeR hvM Kivi Rb <TD> </TD> Rvo UvM eenvi Kiv nq|
D`vniY:
KvW AvDUcyU wbgic `Lv KvWi eLv-
hve-
<table> c_g <table> UvM viv Uweji i eySvbv
<tr> 100 200 300 nqQ|
<td>100</td> <tr> viv iv ev mvwii i eySvbv nqQ|
400 500 600
<td>200</td>
cieZx 3 jvBb <td> </td> viv 3 wU
<td>300</td>
</tr> Kjvg eySvbv nqQ|
<tr> ...... Giga WUv/ AeR jLv nqQ
<td>400</td> ( 100, 200, 300)
<td>500</td> </tr> viv iv ev mvwii kl eySvbv nqQ|
<td>600</td>
</tr>
2q mvwii Rb GKB KvW Avevi wjLv nqQ
</table> (WUv cwieZb Ki)
Uwej eWvi mshy Kiv:
Uwej eWvi mshy KiZ UvMi ga eWvi mvBR DjL KiZ nq| wbPi D`vniY eWvi mvBR
1 jLv nqQ| GLvb BQvgZv eWvi mvBR cwieZb Kiv hvq|
KvW AvDUcyU wbgic `Lv hve-
142 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
<table border="1">
<tr> 100 200 300
<td>100</td>
<td>200</td> 400 500 600
<td>300</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>400</td>
<td>500</td>
<td>600</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table border="1">
<caption>Monthly
savings</caption>
<tr> Monthly savings
<th>Month</th>
<th>Savings</th> Month Savings
</tr> January Tk.100
<tr> February Tk.50
<td>January</td>
<td>Tk.100</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>February</td>
<td> Tk.50</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table
style="width:180px;height:100px;background- Table Table
color:lightblue;"> header header
<tr style="background- Table cell Table cell
color:blue;color:white;"> 1 2
<th>Table header</th><th>Table header</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Table cell 1</td><td style="background-
color:lightgreen;">Table cell 2</td>
</tr>
</table>
KvR: ivj bs, bvg, wRwcG wkivbvgwewk wZb Kjvgi GKwU Uwej Zwi Ki 5 (cuvP) wU
iKW Afy Ki|
wWRvBb:
Avgiv hLb Kvbv Iqe cR wWRvBb Kwi ZLb Avgv`i wKQz iZc~Y welq gb ivLZ ne|
cqvRbxq mKj DcKiY/ KUU msMn KiZ ne| A_vr cR Zwi KiZ UU, wP BZvw`|
c_gB my`i I A_evaK GKwU UvBUj w`Z ne hvZ eenviKvwi mnR eySZ cvi| nvg cR
eo AvKvii eYbv `qv wVK bq, QvU QvU cviv AvKvi `qv DwPr|
w_g (Them):
w_g wnme my`i, A_c~Y, ewk cKvkK Kvbv UU/ BwjgU Iqe mvBUi cZK cR GKB
vb c`wkZ nq| Navbar, Header, Footer BZvw` cZK cR GKB wRwbm c`wkZ nq| Mc
AvBUgjv GKmv_ ivLv DwPr Ges h_v me duvKv vb (White Space) ivLv DwPr hvZ
eenviKvwi mnR eySZ cvi| iZc~Y wjsKUUjv ev Kiv Ges Qwe I UU evKMD
Kvjvi _K Avjv`v nIqv DwPr hvZ mnR eenviKvwii `w AvKlY Kiv hvq|
AvjvBbgU (Alignment):
Iqe cR Zwii mgq gBb BwjgU Gi UU Gi AvjvBbgU (Alignment) GKwU iZc~Y
welq| Ze m~Y cR GKB aibi AvjvBgU eenvi KiZ ne GgbwU bq| Iqe cRi
m`h ewi cqvRb wfb wfb AvjvBbgU eenvi Kiv hZ cvi|
vBwms:
Iqei BUvidR Zwii AvM KvMR- Kjg GKwU Lmov wWRvBb Ki wbj g~j wWRvBb Zwii
mgq DcKvi Avm| BUvidRi evbvi Kv_vq Kx gvci ne, evUb, wP Kv_vq Kx gvci ne
Zv wbw` KiZ ne| cRK GKvwaK iv Ges Kjvg wef Kiv hvq| KqwU Ask wef ne
Kvbv Ask KZUzKz eo ne Ges Kvbv Ask Kx c`wkZ ne Zv c~eB wVK Ki wbZ ne|
evjW Iqe cR:
cvki wP GKwU evjW Iqe cR| c_g j Kwi cRwUK Qq fvM fvM Kiv nqQ|
cZKwU fvM mgvb bq eis Zv`i cqvRb iZ
Abyhvqx Zv`i AvKvi Kiv nqQ| me mgq Qq
fvM fvM KiZ ne GgbwU wVK bq, cqvRb I
iZ Abyhvqx hKvbv msLK fvM Kiv hZ ci|
cRwUZ chv duvKv vb iqQ, hvi dj
UUjv eenviKvwii KvQ Ges AvKlYxq
nqQ| j ivLZ ne, KUUjv hb cR
myweb _vK| UU ev wjsK h_v me Kg nIqv
fvjv| nvg cR _K mKj wjsK hb gBb wP: evjW IqecR
mKkb _vK| eenviKvwi hb mevP `yB wKK Zvi KvwZ Z_ cvq|
Iqe wWRvBb cwiwPwZ I GBPwUGgGj 149
KvW jLv I GwWU Kiv:
Iqe cRi ewki fvM KvRB HTML eenvi Ki Kiv hvq, Ze WvqbvwgK Iqe cR wWRvBb
KiZ PvBj wewfb aibi Iqe cvMvwgs jvsqR eenvi KiZ nq| Gjvi ga AbZg njv
Rvfvw, cvB_b, GGmwc (ASP), RGmwc (JSP) BZvw`| HTML G jLv KvW hKvbv
GwWUi eenvi Ki mskvab ev cwieZb Kiv hvq|
WUveR Afz Kiv:
Iqe cR _K eenviKvixi wewfb cqvRbxq Z_ cvevi Rb WUveR Afz Kiv nq| Avevi
eenviKvixi KvQ _K wewfb Z_ Rvbv Ges msiY Kivi RbI WUveR cqvRb| GRb
eZgvb Iqe wWRvBb KiZ Mj WUveR eenvii K_v gb ivLZ ne|
Iqe cR Uws:
Iqe cR wWRvBbi ci KvwWs Kiv Ges WUveR Afz Kivi ci GwU cixv KiZ ne| GRb hKvbv
Iqe evDRvi eenvi Ki cRwU evi evi c`kb Ki `LZ ne| G UU, Qwe, wjsK BZvw` cixv
KiZ ne|
`jxq KvR: Zvgv`i KjRi wewfb Kvhg, ewk, bvwUk, dUv Mvjvwi BZvw` mshy Ki
Kgc 10 (`k) wU Iqe cR Zwi Ki| Zvgvi wkv evW wjsK Ki GKwU evbvi mshy
Ki| cRMyjv wjsK Ki GKwU Iqe mvBU wWRvBb Ki Zvgvi wkKi wbKU Dcvcb Ki|
4.5 Iqe mvBU cvewjk Kiv:
Avgiv Iqe mvBUi KvVvgv mK Rvbjvg| KZKjv Iqe cR wbw` wbqg ciii mv_
hy (wjsK) nq Iqe mvBU Zwi nq| Avgiv Iqe cR Zwi Kiv, wjsK Kiv wkLjvg| myZivs
Avgiv Iqe mvBU Zwi KiZ cvwi| ay Zwi KijB nebv GwU cvewjk KiZ ne| GLb Avgiv
Rvbe Kxfve Iqe mvBU cvewjk Kiv nq-
Kvbv Iqe mvBU cvewjk Kivi Rb wbgwjwLZ avcjv mb KiZ nq|
1| WgBb bBg iwRkb KiZ ne
c_g Iqe mvBUi GKwU my`i bvg wVK Ki mB bvgi WvgBb iwRkb KiZ ne|
WvgBb iwRkb Ki Ggb AbK Kvvwb iqQ| KvvwbMyjvi wbR^ wKQz wbqgKvbyb Ges
wd wbavwiZ AvQ| h KD wd cwikva Ki cQ` gZv bvg WvgBb bBg iwRw KiZ cvi|
iwRkbi c~e hme welq mK RvbZ ne
h bvg iwRw KiZ BQzK m bvg Ab KD eenvi Ki wKbv? GKB bvg `ywU iwRkb
nq bv|
iwRkbwU wbRi bvg bvwK Kvvwbi bvg ne|
WvgBbi mKj ckvmwbK gZv, wej BZvw` Kvi bvg ne|
Kvi gvag WvgBb iwRkb Kivbv ne|
WvgBbi Primary Ges Secondary DNS wK ne Zv wbaviY KiZ ne|
wewjs cwZ Kx ne Zv wbaviY|
150 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
WvgBb bg Gi `ywU Ask _vK, WU Gi cii AskK Ucjfj WvgBb ejv nq| GwU `L
cwZvbi aib eySv hvq| hgb
Ucjfj WvgBb WvgBbi aib
com evwYwRK cwZvb
mil gvwKb mbvevwnbxi Rb msiwZ
edu wkv cwZvb
net bUIqvK mvwfm
org AMvbvBRkb
Int AvRvwZK msv
gov ivxq cwZvb
AbK WvgBb bg Gi ci `yAiwewk AwZwi KvW hy _vK| GwU viv WvgBb bBg wU
Kvb `ki Zv eySv hvq| hgb: evsjv`ki Rb .bd hy nq|
2| Iqe cBR wWRvBb KiZ ne:
G mKj wbqg gb my`i I AvKlYxq Iqe cR Zwi KiZ ne|
3| Iqe mvfvi cR nvws:
Iqe cR wWRvBb Kivi ci Zv Iqe mvfvi nv KiZ nq| WvgBb bvgwU iwRkb
Kivi ci Zv Iqe nvws KvvwbZ vbvi KiZ nq| Iqe mvfvi ejZ wekl aibi
nvWIqvi I mdUIqviK eySvq hvi mvnvh H mvfvi ivLv Kvbv Dcv/Z_ BUvibUi
gvag Gm Kiv hvq|
Abykxjbx
mRbkxj ck:
1| wkv gYvjq `ki mKj wkv cwZvbK wbR^ Iqe mvBU Zwi Kivi Rb wb`k w`q
cwic Rvwi KiQb| Gi dj Gg Gg KjR Zv`i wbRm Iqe mvBU Zwi Kivi D`vM
MnY KiQb| KjRi Aa gnv`q G KvRi Rb wZb m`mi GKwU KwgwU MVb
KiQb| wZbRb Iqe mvBU Zwii cqvRbxq KvRjv fvM Ki wbq Iqe mvBU Zwii
KvR i Kijb|
eZgvb gvbyl cwZwbqZ mgmvi myLxb nQ| gvbyli Gme mgmv mgvavbi Rb KwDUvii
mvnvh cvMvg iPbv Ki| cvMvwgs fvlv nQ KwDUvii gvag mgmv mgvavbi Rb Zwi
cvMvgi msKZ ev KvW| cvMvgvi KwDUviK w`q mgmv mgvavb Kivi Rb cvMvgi fvlv,
gwkb fvlv, Avm^wj fvlv, DPii fvlv, Abyev`K cvMvg, cvMvgi msMVb, cvMvg Zwii
avcmg~n, AvjMwi`g, dvPvU I cvMvg wWRvBb gWj BZvw` mK Rvbv cqvRb| wm GKwU
Rbwcq KwDUvi cvMvwgs fvlv| 1970 mvj AvgwiKvi ej jveiUwiZ Wwbm wiwP wm fvlvi
Dveb Kib| wm cvMvwgs fvlv Rvbvi Rb Gi cv_wgK aviYv, ewk, cvMvg KvBwjs,
cvMvgi MVb, WUv UvBc, ivwkgvjv, Kx IqvW, BbcyU-AvDUcyU UgU, Kwkbvj UgU, jyc
UgU, Avi I dvskb mK vb jvf Kiv cqvRb|
cvMvg iPbvi ewki wfwZ cvMvgi fvlvmg~nK cavb `yfvM fvM Kiv nq|
h_v: wbg ii fvlv (Low Level Language) Ges DPii fvlv (High Level Language)|
KwDUvi ev Abyic hjv mivmwi eySZ cvi Gic fvlvK wbgii cg cRb ev bvPvivj
fvlv ejv nq|
PZz_ cRbI fvlv
wbgii fvlv Avevi `ycKvi| h_v: gwkbi ev hi fvlv
(Machine Language) Ges Avm^wj fvlv (Assembly DPii fvlv
Language)| cvk Gme fvlvi Aevb `Lvbv nqQ| gwkb fvlv
Avmgwej fvlv
I Avm^wj fvlvK jv-jfj fvlv ej| KviY Gjv
KwDUvii fvlvi (0 ev 1) KvQvKvwQ| Abw`K nvB jfj ev gwkbi fvlv
DPZi fvlv gvbyli fvlvi KvQvKvwQ, hgbBsiwR| DjL h wP: cvMvgi fvlvi
wbevni Rb cvMvgK gwkbi fvlvq icvi KiZ nq| i|
AcKvW (Opcode)
GZ wb`k bgvwbK _vK| AvcKvW ev Acvikb KvW w`q eySvbv nq wK Acvikb ev KvR KiZ
ne| hgb- Sum Ges Sub AvcKvW w`q h_vg hvM Ges weqvMi KvR eySvbv nq|
wb`k
DPviY I c~Yic evLv
bgvwbK
SUB SUBtract weqvM SUB w`q `ywU Acvi-Gi ga weqvM Kivi wb`k eySvbv nq|
MUL MULtiply Y MUL w`q `ywU Acvi Gi ga Y Kivi wb`k eySvbv nq|
DIV DIVide fvM DIV w`q `ywU Acvi Gi ga fvM Kivi wb`k eySvbv nq|
OUT OUTPUT AvDUcyU ggwii Kvbv wbw` welqK AvDUcyU cvVvbvi wb`k|
Acvi (Operand):
AcKvW hvi Dci KvR Ki ZvK Acvi ej| Acvii Aevbi wVKvbv eySvbvi Rb GLvb
mvaviYZ AvjdvwbDgwiK eY eenvi Kiv nq| hgb: A, B, A1, B1, AM, XY BZvw`|
156 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
ge (Comment):
KgU ev ge wb`ki Kvbv Ask bq| ge Avmj cZK wb`ki evLv hvZ fwelZ cvMvgvi
ev Ab KD cvMvgi mwVK A_ mnR eySZ cvi| cvMvgi wbRi myweavi Rb eeZ nq|
Acvi wdi ci Kvjb (t) ev mwgKvjb (;) w`q ge jLv hvq|
D`vniY: A I B hvM Ki C Aevb ivL| GLvb A ev B Gi Aevbi AvWmKI h_vg A
ev B ejv nq| wbP A I B hvM Ki C Aevb ivLvi Rb Avm^wj fvlvi cvMvg `Iqv njv|
CLR AvwKDgyjUi Lvwj Ki|
INP: A A msLvwUK BbcyU _K cavb ggwi A Aevb ivL|
INP: B B msLvwUK BbcyU _K cavb ggwi B Aevb ivL|
LDA: A AvwKDgyjUi A ivL|
ADD: B B K AvwKDgyjUii msLvi mv_ hvM Ki hvMdj AvwKDgyjUi ivL|
STA : C AvwKDgyjUii msLv C Aevb ivL|
OUT : C djvdj C PjKi gvag c`kb Ki|
STP _vg|
Avm^wj fvlvq wjwLZ cvMvg KwDUvi mivmwi eySZ cvi bv| GRb G RvZxq cvMvgK gwkb
fvlvq icvi KiZ nq| G icvii KvR wekl cvMvg eenvi Kiv nq| h cvMvgi mvnvh
Avm^wj fvlvi cvMvgK gwkb fvlvq icvi Kiv nq ZvK Avm^jvi ej| wbgi wP
Avm^wj fvlvq cvMvg wbevn cwqv `Lvbv njv
Avm^wj fvlvq cvMvg fvlv Avm^jvi AeR cvMvg
GK ev GKvwaK dvskb wbq wm cvMvg MwVZ| Ze wm cvMvg main () bvgi GKwU BDRvi
wWdvB dvskb AekB _vKZ nq| main () dvskb Abvb jvBewi Ges BDRvi wWdvB dvskb
Kj Ki| KvBj Ges wbevni mgq wm cvMvg main () dvskb _K i Ki|
wm++ (C++)
wm ++ GKwU ej eeZ AeR AwiqUW cvMvg fvlv| 1980 mvj hyivi GwU G wU ej
jveiUwiZ Rb vDmUc (Bjarne Stroustrop) wmgyjv 67 Gi Kvm Ges wm cvMvwgs cwZi
mg^q AeR AwiqUW cvMvwgs Gi ewk mb GKwU bZzb fvlv Dveb Kib| wZwb G
fvlvq bvg `b wm DB_ Kvm| cieZxZ bZzb wKQz ewk hvM Ki 1983 mvj Gi bvgKiY Kiv
nq wm++| wm++ hgb wm Gi cvwmwWDi cvMvwgs Gi myweav c`vb Ki Zgwb AeR AwiqUW
cvMvwgs cwZ Abygv`b Ki| GRb wm++ K nvBweW cvMvg fvlv ej|
wm++ Gi bvgi mv_ wm Gi BbwgUvj AcviUi (++) hy, ZvB mvaviYfve wm++ K wm Gi
ewaZ msiY ejv nq| Avevi wm++ K wm Gi mycvimU ejv nq| KviY wm Gi cvq me ewk
wm++ G we`gvb|
wm cvMvgi gZv cwZwU wm++ cvMvg GK ev GKvwaK dvskbi mgwi Ges cwZwU wm++
cvMvg main () bvg GKwU BDRvi wWdvB dvskb AekB _vK| hKvbv wm++ cvMvg
wbevni mgq Zv main () _KB i nq| main () dvskb Abvb jvBew i Ges BDRvi
wWdvB dvskb eenvi Ki|
wfRyqvj ewmK
wekweLvZ gvBvmd&U Kvvwb KZK cYxZ GUI (Graphical User Interface) cwieki Rb
Zwi ewmK jvsqRi AvaywbK msiY njv wfRyqvj ewmK| mnR jvsqR, AmvaviY wWevwMs
myweav Ges GKwUf G jvBewi eenvii Abvb myhvM wfRyqvj ewmKK Lye A mgqi ga
wecyj LvwZ Gb w`qQ| DBvR cvMvwgs jvsqR wnmve GwU eZgvb RbwcqZvi kxl Aevb
KiQ| c_g _K KqKwU fvmb AwZg Ki wfRyqvj ewmK 4, 5 Gici GmQ wfRyqvj ewmK
6| wfRyqvj ewmK 5 Gi wZbwU GwWkb iqQ:
i. Learning Edition ii. Professional Edition iii. Enterprise Edition.
wfRyqvj ewmK wkLvi Rb h welqjv Rvbv cqvRb| hgb- cR (Project), dg (Form) gwWDj
(Module), AeR (Object), cvcvwUR (Properties) gW_ (Method) I BfU (Event)|
Rvfv (Java)
1995 mvj hyivi mvb gvBvwmg KvvwbZ (Sun Microsystem) GK`j wekli
mwwjZ cPvq cPwjZ cvMvg fvlvjv wWwq bZzb PgK wbq Avm Rvfv cvMvg fvlv| eZgvb
BUvibU I B-gBji hyM bUIqvK cvMvg fvlv wnme Rvfv fvlvi weK bB|
160 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
diUvb (Fortran)
FORTRAN ki A_ nQ Formula Translation. 1957 mvj wevb I cKkj mg~n dg~jvi
MvwYwZK weklYi gvag mgmv mgvavbi Rb AvBweGg Kvvwb KZK G DPii fvlvi Dveb nq|
cieZxZ 1977 mvj ch G fvlvi ek KqwU msiY ei Kiv nq| hgb- FORTRAN II, FORTRAN
IV, FORTRAN 77 BZvw`|
cvB_b (Python) : cvB_b GKwU mvaviY Dk evLv, BUviwf, AeR IwiqUW Ges
DPii cvMvwgs fvlv| cvB_b GKwU cvMvwgs fvlv hv mgmv mgvavbi Rb GKRb cvMvgvii
eeZ Uzj| cvB_b mnR Ges ^vZ kwkvjx fvlv| cvB_bK cvqB TCL, cvj, iwe, cK ev
Rvfvi m Zzjbv Kiv nq|
cavb ewkjv nj: (i) Lye cwivi, cvVhvM wmbUv| (ii) kwkvjx A`kb gZv|
(ii) ^vZ eyi wwZwebvm|
cvB_b hmg cavb AcviwUs wmg cvIqv hvq mjv njv DBvR, wjbv/BDwb,
AcviwUs wmg/2| GQvovI bU I Rvfv fvPzqvj gwkbI cvB_b AvQ|
5.7 PZz_ cRbi fvlv (4th Generation Language)
PZz_ cRbi fvlvK (Fourth Generation Language) msc 4GL ejv nq| mfZvi
gweKvki mv_ mv_ wewfb cRbi fvlvi De nqQ| eZgvb ej eeZ KqKwU PZz_
cRbi fvlv nQ SQL, NOMAD, RPG III, FOCUS, Intelect BZvw` KqKwU PZz_ cRbi
fvlv| PZz_ cRbi fvlv gvbyli fvlvi gZv| Gaibi fvlv DPii fvlvi PqI evaMg
Ges mnR eenvihvM| mvaviY eenviKvixi KvQ KwDUvii eenvi mevP chvq mnR
Kivi Dk Gaibi fvlv Zwi Kiv nqQ|
KwDUvi eeZ wekl KqKwU fvlvK 4GL ejv nq| hgb
bvPvivj jvsqR AwZ DPii fvlv
AvKUivj fvlv eenvi ev cqvMwfwK fvlv
4GL Gi ewk
1. G fvlvq wjwLZ Kvbv cvMvg wewfb Kvvwbi Zwi KwDUvi GKB mv_ Kvbvic
cwieZb QvovB eenvi Kiv hvq|
2. G fvlvq cyLvbycyL ev wevwiZ cwqvKiYi eYbv w`Z nq bv|
3. G fvlvq cvMvg jLvi ci cyivUv KvBj Kivi cqvRb nq bv| GKwU Kgv jLvi mv_
mv_B KvBj nq hvq|
4. G fvlv eenvi Ki WUvemi cqvRb Abyhvqx WUv msiY, Kzqwi, wicvU BZvw` KvR Kiv hvq|
5. K_vcK_b ixwZZ ck Dii gvag eenviKvix WUvemi mv_ mshvM vcb Ges
WUv Av`vb-c`vb KiZ cvi|
5.8 Abyev`K cvMvg (Translator Software)
KwDUvii Avw` fvlv njv 0 I 1| KwDUvi evBbvwi msKZ 0 I 1 Qvov Ab wKQz eyS bv| Avgiv
hKvbv cvMvwgs fvlvZB cvMvg iPbv Kwi bv Kb; gwkbi gvag wbevn KiZ nj AekB ZvK
gwkbi fvlvq icvi KiZ ne| DPii Ges Avm^wj fvlvq iwPZ cvMvgK Drm cvMvg ej|
DPii fvlv ewZZ Ab hKvbv fvlvq wjwLZ cvMvgK ej AeR (Object) cvMvg ej| Abyev`K
mdUIqvi njv GK aibi KwDUvi cvMvg hv GK cvMvwgs fvlvq wjwLZ mvm cvMvgK (Source
Program) Ab cvMvwgs fvlvi AeR cvMvg (Object Program) icvi Ki| Abfve ejv hvq, h
162 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
cvMvg Drm cvMvg K gwkbi fvlv ev hi fvlvq Abyev` Ki (e cvMvg icvi Ki) m
cvMvgK Abyev`K cvMvg ej| hgb- wKDewmK GKwU cvMvg jLv njv wK KwDUvi G cvMvgwU
eySe bv, G cvMvgwUK Abyev` Ki gwkbi fvlvq (evBbvwiZ) eywSq w`Z nq| G Abyev`i KvR
Abyev`K cvMvg eeZ nq| KwDUvi GKgv gwkb fvlv eySZ cvi ej Ab fvlvq jLv Drm
cvMvgK gwkb fvlvq Abyev` bv Ki wbj Zv KvhKi KiZ cvi bv|
Abyev`K cvMvg wZb cKvi
1. KvBjvi (Compiler)
2. BUviwcUvi (Interpreter)
3. Avm^jvi (Assembler)
5.8.1 KvBjvi (Compiler)
DPii fvlvq jLv Drm cvMvgK e cvMvg icvwiZ Kivi cvMvgK KvBjvi ej| KvBjvi m~Y
cvMvgwUK GKmv_ co Ges GKmv_ Abyev` Ki| KvBjvi mnvqK ggwiZ _vK| cqvRbi mgq
Zv`i ivg Avbv nq| wfb wfb nvB jfj fvlvi Rb wfb wfb KvBjvi jvM| Kvbv wbw` KvBjvi
GKwU gv nvB jfj fvlvK gwkb fvlvq cwiYZ KiZ cvi| hgb- h KvBjvi ewmKK gwkb fvlvq
Abyev` KiZ cvi Zv wK KvejK gwkb fvlvq Abyev` KiZ cvi bv| KvBjvi cyiv Drm cvMvgi
Dci GKmv_ KvR Ki| G KviY KvBjvi Pvjbvi Rb ewk cwigvY ggwii cqvRb co|
mvaviYZ DPii fvlvi GKwU UgU hfvlvi Pvi cuvPwU wb`k cwiYZ nq| KvBjvi Abyev`
Kiv QvovI Drm cvMvgi YvY wePvi KiZ cvi|
High level Language Program Compiler Machine Language Program
Drm cvMvg (DPii fvlv) Abyev`K cvMvg e fvlv (hvwK fvlv)
wP: KvBjvii KvRi aviv|
KvR 1. Drm cvMvgK e cvMvg Abyev` Kiv|
2. cvMvgK wjsK Kiv|
3. cvMvg Kvbv fyj _vKj Zv Rvbvbv|
4. cavb ggwiZ cqvRbxq wZ Aevbi eev Kiv|
5. cqvRb e ev Drm cvMvgK Qvwcq ei Kiv|
KvBjvii myweav
1. KvBjvi m~Y cvMvgwUK GKmv_ Abyev` Ki dj cvMvg wbevni MwZ ` Z nq|
2. cvMvg wbevn Kg mgq jvM|
3. KvBjvii gvag icvwiZ cvMvg m~Yic gwkb cvMvg icvwiZ nq|
4. GKevi cvMvg KvBj Kiv nj ciewZZ Avi KvBji cqvRb nq bv|
5. cvMvg Kvbv fyj _vKj Zv gwbUi GKmv_ c`kb Ki|
KvBjvii Amyweav
1. KvBjvi cvMvgi mejv fyj GKmv_ c`kb Ki dj cvMvg mskvab ewk mgq jvM|
2. KvBjvi eo aibi cvMvg nIqvq GwU msiY ggwiZ ewk RvqMv jvM|
3. cvMvg wWevwMs I Uws Gi KvR axiMwZ mb|
cvMvwgs fvlv 163
BbcyU: djvdj jvfi Dk hme WUv I Bbdigkb ev Z_ KwDUvi `qv nq mjvB njv BbcyU|
cmwms: cmwms njv cvMvg `qv wb`k Abymvi c`q Z_K cwqvKiY Kiv|
AvDUcyU: AvDUcyU ejZ cwqvKiYi dj cv djvdjK evSvq|
wbg D`vniYi mvnvh GKwU cvMvgi wZbwU Ask `Lvbv njv:
A = 50
Input
B = 60
C = A+B Processing
dvPvUi ewk:
GKwU DbZgvbi dvPvU wbgwjwLZ ewkmg~n _vK
1. mnR cvMvgi Dk eySv hvq|
2. cvMvgi fyj wbYq mnvqZv Ki|
3. cvMvg iPbvq mnvqZv Ki|
4. cvMvg cwieZb Ges cwieab mnvqZv Ki|
5. mnR I msc RwUj cvMvg jLv hvq|
dvPvU Zwi Kivi wbqgvewj (Rules of drawing flowchart):
1. dvPvU Zwi Kivi Rb cPwjZ cZxK eenvi Kiv DwPr|
2. Zxi wP w`q Dci _K wbP ev evg _K Wvb w`K cevn `Lvbv DwPr|
3. dvPvU Zwi Kivi mgq mshvM wP hZv Kg nq ZZvB fvjv|
4. dvPvU mnR evaMg nIqv DwPr|
5. dvPvU wbw` Kvbv cvMvgi fvlvq jLv DwPr bq|
6. wPjv QvU eo nj wZ bvB Ze AvKwZ wVK _vKZ ne|
7. cqvRb wPi mv_ ge w`Z ne|
8. GKvwaK cevniLv cii Q` KijI Zv`i ga Kvbv jwRKvj mK eySvq bv|
9. dvPvUi Kvbv Aski wevwiZ eYbv cqvRb nj m Aski Rb c_Kfve dvPvU
eenvi Kiv hZ cvi|
10. dvPvU hZ`~i me GK cvq AuvKv DwPZ| GKvwaK cvi cqvRb nj c~eeZx cvq c~e
wbavwiZ cwqvi Rb eeZ wbavwiZ wP w`Z ne|
dvPvUi cKvif`:
dvPvUK cavbZ `yfvM fvM Kiv hvq| hgb
1. wmg dvPvU Ges
2. cvMvg dvPvU|
1. wmg dvPvU: wmg dvPvU Dcv MnY, cwqvKiY, wZZ msiY I djvdj c`kbi
cevn `Lvbv nq| A_vr h dvPvUi gvag Kvbv eevi msMVbK mnR Zzj aiv hvq
ZvK wmg dvPvU ej|
cvMvwgs fvlv 169
mwUs ev
WKzgU Kx Acvikb
mvRvb
gvR ev
P^K Uc cevni w`K
GKwKiY
mnvqK
Ad-jvBb wZ MnY/ wbMgb
wqv
hvMvhvM
KvjU ev mshyw cv Uc
gvag
Start/End Process
Input/Output Connector
2. wbevPb (Selection)
hme wmvi cqvRb nq ev Zzjbv Ki Kvh
wbevn KiZ nq m G vKPvi eeZ nq|
4. Rv (Jump)
cvMvg mij AbygK f Ki cvMvgi ga GK jvBb
_K cieZx jvBb bv wMq Dci ev wbP Ab Kvbv
jvBb _K KvR i Kij ZvK Rv ej|
KvR: AvjMwi`g I dvPvUi ga cv_K jL|
AvjMwi`g: dvPvU:
avc-1 : i Ki|
avc-2 : `ywU msLv wbaviY Ki, GKwU eo AbwU QvU| =
=
avc-3 : QvU msLvwU w`q eowUK fvM Ki fvMkl wbYq Ki|
avc-4 : fvMkl hw` 0 nq Ze 5 bs avc hvI Ab_vq 3bs avc hvI|
avc-5 : M. mv. wbYq Ki|
avc-6 : djvdj QvcvI|
avc-7 : kl Ki|
172 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
D`vniY-5: GKwU abvZK msLvi dvKUvwiqvj wbYq Kivi Rb AvjMwi`g I dvPvU Ab Ki|
AvjMwi`g: dvPvU:
avc-1 : i Ki|
avc-2 : N Gi gvb co|
avc-3 : F=1 ; i=1
avc-4 : F = F * i
i=i+1
avc-5 : hw` i < = N, Ze 4bs avc hvI|
avc-6 : F Gi gvb QvcvI|
avc-7 : kl Ki|
Global Declaration Section: G Ask GKvwaK dvskb ev cvMvgi meLvb eeZ nq Ggb
PjK ev fwiqej NvlYv Kiv nq|
main() Function Section: GKwU Kgb dvskb nQ main () dvskb| main () dvskbwU C
cvMvg AekB Afy ne| main() Function Gi `ywU Ask iqQ| h_v:
1. Declaration Part: G Ask cqvRbxq PjK hv wbevn Ask eenvi Kiv ne Zv NvlYv KiZ nq|
2. Execution Part: G Ask cvMvg wbevn Ki| main () Function G `ywU Ask `ywU wZxq
ebxi ga ivLZ nq|
Subprogram Section:
G Ask GK ev GKvwaK eenviKvixi Zwi dvskb _vKe hv main() Function G Call Kiv
ne| mvaviYZ main() Function Gi kl Gme dvskb _vK, Ze G`iK main() dvskbi
AvMI wjLv hvq|
GLvb GKwU mvaviY D`vniYi mvnvh Dcii `qv C cvMvgi MVb AvjvPbv Kiv njv|
D`vniY-1 : `ywU msLvi hvMdj wbYq Ki msLv `ywU mn hvMdj wcU Kivi Rb cvMvg wjL|
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main()
{
int x, y, sum;
x = 15;
y = 10;
sum = x +y;
printf (1st Number = %d\n,x);
printf (2nd number = % d\n, y);
printf( summation = % d\n, sum);
getch();
}
djvdj: 1st Number = 15
2nd Number = 10
Summation = 25
cvMvg weklY:
1. #include<stdio.h> cvMvgi wfZi printf () GKwU jvBewi dvskb eenvi Kiv nqQ| G
dvskbwU stdio.h bvgK nWvi dvBj iqQ| wm cvMvg hme jvBewi dvskb eenvi Kiv
nq mjv h nWvi dvBj iqQ cvMvgi kyiZ m nWvi dvBji bvg #include Gi
mv_ mshy KiZ cvi|
2. #include<conio.h> cvMvg wfZi getch ( ) jvBewi dvskb eenvi Kiv nqQ| G
dvskbwU GKwU conio.h bvgK nWvi dvBj iqQ| ZvB #include Gi mv_ D nWvi
dvBjwUi bvg mshy Kiv nqQ|
3. main ( ) cvMvgi g~j dvskb| main ( ) _KB cvMvgi KvhKvwiZv i nq| cwZwU cvMvg
main () dvskb AekB _vKe|
cvMvwgs fvlv 179
Signed type
Double Precision
int Signed char
Long double
Short int
Unsigned char
long int
wP: WUvi cKvif`
180 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
2. BDRvi wWdvB WUv UvBc (User Defined Data Type): C cvMvwgs G BQvbyhvqx WUv
UvBc Zwi Kiv hvq| G`iK Kvg WUv UvBc ev BDRvi wWdvBb WUv UvBc ejv nq|
Gaibi WUv UvBc wnme mvaviYZ UvBc Wwdbkb ev Ges BwbDgwiUW ev eeZ nq
_vK| G WUv UvBc nQ vKPvi, Kvm, BDwbqb BZvw`|
3. wWivBfW WUv UvBc (Derived Data Type): G WUv UvBc Gi ga Avi, dvskb,
vKPvi, cqUvi I idvi Afy|
4. GgwU WUv UvBc (Empty data type): GgwU WUv UvBc wnme mvaviYZ fqW (Void),
fvjyjm (Valueless) ev bvj (Null) eeZ nq _vK|
C cvMvg WvUv UvBc wWKqvi Kivi cwZ
Charactar WUv UvBci MVb: Integer WUv UvBci MVb: Float WUv UvBci
char < variable name>; int < variable name>; MVb:
char ch; (GLvb ch GKwU variable) int number1; float number1;
char ch = `x (variable assign Kivi short int number2; double number2;
wbqg) long int number3: long double number3;
hgbGKRb wkv_xi evsjv, BsiwR, Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw G wZbwU welqi b^i cvMvg BbcyU AvKvi
`qvi Rb wZbwU fwiqej `iKvi ne| G x, y I z K fwiqej wnme eenvi Kiv hvq|
fwiqej wWKqvikb:
cvMvg WUv wbq KvR Kivi mgq cwZwU WUvi Rb GKwU fwiqej eenvi KiZ nq| Avevi
cwZwU fwiqeji bvgi c~e Zvi WUv UvBc DjL KiZ nq| WUv UvBcmn Kvbv fwiqeji
bvgKiY Kivi cwqvK fwiqej NvlYv ejv nq| C Z fwiqej NvlYv Kivi wbqg njv
data_type variable_name:
data_type variable_name = value; (value assign Kivi )
D`vniY:
int x;
int x = 10; (value assign Kivi )
C Z Kvbv aibi WUvi Rb Kvbv WUv UvBc KiZ nq Zv wbg `Lvbv njv
character UvBc WUv ivLvi Rb data_type Ask char wjLZ nq|
integer UvBc WUv ivLvi Rb, data_type Ask int wjLZ nq|
float UvBc WUv ivLvi Rb, data_type Ask float wjLZ nq|
double UvBc WUv ivLvi Rb, data_type Ask double wjLZ nq|
g~jZ Kvbv fwiqej wWKqvi Kivi mgq data_type Aski gvag KvBjviK Rvwbq `qv
nq h, mswk fwiqej ggwiZ wK aibi WUv ivLZ eenvi Kiv ne| A_vr mswk
fwiqeji Rb ggwiZ KZ evBU RvqMv wbavwiZ ne|
fwiqej ev PjK jLvi wbqgvewj
fwiqej NvlYv, bvgKiY Ges Zv eenvii Rb KZKjv mywbw` wbqg AbymiY KiZ nq|
wbg mjv DjL Kiv njv:
fwiqej bvgKiY Kej AvjdvewUK Kvivi (a, , z, A, , Z), wWwRU (0, 1, 2,
., 9), Ges Avvivi () eenvi Kiv hvq| Avvivi eZxZ Ab Kvbv kvj
Kvivi (hgb- !, @, #, $, %, *, +, BZvw`) eenvi Kiv hvq bv| hgb-hsc com,
Mycomp ea fwiqej; wKy hsc@com I My&Comp Aea|
fwiqej bvgi ga Kvbv duvKv vb ev White space _vKZ cvi bv| hgb-
MyNumber, Number1, MyComp ea fwiqej| wKy My Number, Number 1 I
My Comp Aea|
fwiqej bvg wWwRU ev A w`q i nZ cvi bv| hgbNumber1 I Number10 ea
fwiqej; wKy 1 Number I 10Number Aea|
wm cvMvg eo nvZi Ges QvU nvZi Aijv Avjv`v A_ enb Ki| ZvB MyNumber,
Number1 I Number10 bvg fwiqej NvlYv Ki h_vg myNumber, number 1 I
Number10 bvg eenvi Kiv hvq bv|
184 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
Kvbv KxIqvWi bvg fwiqej wnme eenvi Kiv hvq bv Ges main Kvbv KxIqvW bv
njI fwiqej bvg wnme main envi Kiv hvq bv| Aek Kx-IqvWmg~ni bvgi GK ev
GKvwaK eY eo nvZi nid wjL AvBWwUdvqvii bvg wnme eenvi Kiv hvq| Ze Gic
bv KivB Dg| hgb-Int, Char, Main, MAIN BZvw` ea fwiqej| wKy int, private,
main BZvw` Aea|
fwiqej bvgKiY hKvbv msLK Kvivi eenvi Kiv hvq| Ze ANSI wbqg Abyhvqx
`ywU fwiqeji bvgi cv_K AekB c_g 31wU Kvivii ga nZ ne| GRb
fwiqej bvgKiY 31wU Kvivii ewk eenvi bv KivB fvjv|
fwiqeji cKvif`: wWKvikbi Dci wfw Ki fwiqejK `yfvM fvM Kiv hvq| h_v:
1. jvKvj fwiqej (Local Variable) I 2. Mvevj fwiqej (Global Variable)
1. jvKvj fwiqej (Local Variable): Kvbv dvskbi ga fwiqej wWKqvi Kij ZvK
D dvskbi jvKvj fwiqej ev vbxq PjK ejv nq| dvskbi ga NvlYv Kiv PjK D
dvskbi evBi eenvi Kiv hvq bv| jvKvj fwiqeji KgKv aygv mswk dvskbB mxgve
_vK| wfb wfb dvskb GKB bvgi jvKvj fwiqej _vKZ cvi|
2. Mvevj fwiqej (Global Variable): mKj dvskbi evBi cvMvgi kyiZ NvlYvKZ
fwiqejK Mvevj fwiqej ejv nq| Mvevj fwiqej mvaviYZ cvMvgi iZB wWKqvi Kiv
nq| Gaibi fwiqeji KgKv Kvbv dvskbi ga mxgve bq ej GK Mvevj ev mveRbxb
fwiqej ej|
Mvevj fwiqej main() dvskbi c~e NvlYv KiZ nq Ges Mvevj fwiqej int,char,float
BZvw` WUv UvBc nZ cvi| wm cvMvg fwiqej KvhKvwiZvi Dci wbfi Ki fwiqejmg~nK
AviI KqKfvM wef Kiv hvq| h_v:
1. AUvgwUK fwiqej (Automatic Variable)
2. GUvibvj fwiqej (External Variable)
3. vwUK fwiqej (Static Variabe)
4. iwRvi fwiqej (Register Variable)
KvR: aeK I PjK Gi ga cv_K jL|
5.12.5 C-Gi AcviUi (Operator)
wm fvlvq MvwYwZK (Mathemetical) Ges hwK (Logical) KvR wbqY Kivi Rb KZKjv
wekl Kvivi hgb: +,-,*,/,++,--, BZvw` wP eeZ nq| Gme wekl KvivijvK ejv
nq AcviUi| G AcviUi hme WUvi (hgb-BwURvi UvBc WUv, dvwUs cqU WUv BZvw`)
mvnvh Kvh mv`b Ki Zv`iK ej nq Acvi| Kvbv AcviUii mv_ Acvi eenvi Ki
expression Zwi Kiv nq| hgb- a + b (a*b)/c njv GKUv expression| A_vr KZKjv
Acvi ,AcviUi Ges KbvUi wgwjZ dj njv Gckb (Expression) ev ivwkgvjv|
D`vniY^ic ejv hvq, x = (a + b + c)/3 ; GKwU Gckb| GLvb, a, b, c njv Acvi
(Operand)
+ , = Ges / njv AcviUi Ges 3 njv GKwU KbvU|
cvMvwgs fvlv 185
hme AcviUi GKwU gv Acvi wbq KvR Ki Zv`iK unary operator ej|
D`vniY: x+y | GLvb operator wU unary operator njv|
hme AcviUi `ywU Acvi wbq KvR Ki Zv`iK binary operator ej| binary operator
jv `yUv Acvii gvSLvb eeZ nq| hgb-
(a + b) x ; GLvb + AcviUiwUi a I b `yUv Acvi Ges - AcviUiwU `yUv Acvi (a
+ b) I x K wbq KvR Ki| ZvB G + I - binary operator|
wm fvlvq AcviUiK AvU fvM fvM Kiv hvq| h_v:
1. MvwYwZK AcviUi (Arithmetic Operators)
2. wijkbvj AcviUi (Relational Operators)
3. jwRKvj AcviUi (Logical Operators)
4. AvmvBbgU AcviUi (Assignment Operators)
5. BbwgU Ges wWwgU AcviUi (Increment and Decrement Operators)
6. Kwkbvj AcviUi (Conditional Operators)
7. weU IqvBR AcviUi (Bitwise Operators)
8. kvj AcviUi (Special Operators)
1. MvwYwZK AcviUi (Arithmetic Operators)
C cvMvg wewfb iKg MvwYwZK KvR (hgb-hvM, weqvM, Y, fvM cfwZ) Kivi Rb hme cZxK
ev AcviUi eeZ nq mme AcviUiK Arithmetic Operator ejv nq| C Z g~jZ cuvPwU
Arithmetic Operator AvQ| hgb
AcviUi (Operator) bvg (Name) eenvi (Uses)
+ plus hvM Kivi Rb eeZ nq|
- minus weqvM Kivi Rb eeZ nq|
/ division fvM Ki fvMdj wbYqi Rb eeZ nq|
* multiplier Y Kivi Rb eeZ nq|
% modulas fvMkl ei Kivi Rb eeZ nq|
C Z m~PK Gi KvR Kivi Rb Kvbv AcviUi bB| ZvB m~PKi KvR cvMvg wbPi gZv Ki Dcvcb
KiZ nq,
a4 K wjLZ nq a*a*a*a;
3a3 K wjLZ nq 3*a*a*a ;
2(a+b)2 K wjLZ nq 2*(a+b) * (a+b) ;
Ze Gaibi KvR Kivi Rb C Gi wbR^ wKQz function AvQ|
186 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
Y = 2ab2d/3c Y = (2*a*b*b*d)/(3*c)
Y = 4m2 + 6n +2 Y = 4*m*m + 6 * n +2
Z = ax2 + bx + c Z = a*x*x+b*x+c
3a2 + 2b y = (3*a*a+2*b)/4
y= 4
wm fvlvq wZb aibi eevi gvag WUv BcyU `qv hZ cvi| h_v:
1. AvmvBbgU UgU (Assignment Statement)
2. digUW BbcyU (Formated Input)
3. wiwWs G Kvivi (Reading a character)
cvMvwgs fvlv 191
myZiv s scanf ( ) BbcyU UgU eenvi Kivi c~e format specifications mK fvjv aviYv _vKv
cqvRb|
wbPi Uwej wewfb aibi format specifications Gi eenvi DjL Kiv njv:
format specifications eenvi
%c Single character UvBci WUv BbcyU ev AvDUcyU Kivi Rb
eeZ nq|
%d ev %i decimal integer UvBci WUv BbcyU ev AvDUcyU Kivi Rb
eeZ nq|
%f floating point UvBci WUv BbcyU ev AvDUcyU Kivi Rb
eeZ nq|
%u unsigned integer UvBci WUv BbcyU ev AvDUcyU Kivi Rb
eeZ nq|
%o octal integer UvBci WUv BbcyU ev AvDUcyU Kivi Rb
eeZ nq|
%x hexadecimal integer UvBci WUv BbcyU ev AvDUcyU Kivi
Rb eeZ nq|
%s String UvBci WUv BbcyU ev AvDUcyU Kivi Rb eeZ nq|
h_v: wm fvlvq `yaibi eevi gvag WUv AvDUcyU cvIqv hZ cvi| h_v:
1. digUW AvDUcyU (Formated Output)
2. ivBwUs G Kvivi (Writing a character)
1. digUW AvDUcyU (Formated Output): C fvlvq AvDUcyU UgU wnme ej eeZ
dvskb njv printf ( ), hvi mvnvh ws ev wsmn wewfb UvBci (hgb: int, char, float
BZvw`) WUvi gvb gwbUii c`vq c`kb Kiv hvq|
printf ( ) Gi MVb njv:
printf (String);
String wnme hKvbv word ev character ev sentence nZ cvi| A_vr printf ( ) dvskb Gi
c_g ebx ( ) wfZi Wvej KvUkbi ga hv jLv nq printf ( ) dvskbwU gwbUii wY ZvB
c`kb Ki|
D`vniY: COMPUTER kwU gvS GK jvBb duvKv vb mn wcU Kivi Rb cvMvg wjL|
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
void main ( )
{
clrscr ( ) ;
printf (\n COMPUTER);
printf (\n);
printf (\n COMPUTER);
getch ( ) ;
}
Output:
COMPUTER
COMPUTER
getch () ; else
} printf (\n%d is not a leap year, y);
getch ( );
}
AvDUcyU: Enter 1st value: 25 djvdj: Enter a year: 2012
Enter 2nd value: 35 2012 is a leap year
Largesr Number is: 35
3| else if UgU:
wm cvMvg Ab_vq hw` A_ if-else UgU Gi mv_ else if UgU eenvi Kiv nq|
cvMvg GKvwaK kZ hvPvB Kivi Rb GKvwaK if UgU Gi cwieZ else if UgU
eenvi Kiv nq| else if UgU eenvii digU njv
if (Condition1) D`vniY: else if UgU eenvi Ki wZbwU
{ msLvi ga eo msLvwU wbYqi Rb cvMvg
statement 1; wjL|
} #include <stdio.h>
else if (Condition2) #include <conio.h>
{ void main ( )
statement 2; {
} int a, b, c ;
else if (Condition3) printf (Enter 3 inetger value:);
{ scanf (%d %d %d, &a, &b, &c);
statement 3; if ((a>b) && (a>c))
} printf (\n Lagest value is %d, a);
............................ else if ((b>a) && (b>c))
else printf (\n Lagest value is %d, b);
{ else
DefaultBlock; printf (\n Lagest value is %d, c);
} getch ( );
BlockN; }
............................
djvdj:
if Ges else if Gi ci c_g ebxi ga Enter 3 inetger value: 3 7 9
kZmg~n wjLv nq| cvMvg GKvwaK msLK Largest value is 9
else if UgU _vKZ cvi| Ze if wKsev
else wKsev if ...else mwKZ GKwU gv
UgU mvw`Z nq|
Switch statement: else if Gi gZ cvMvg GKvwaK UgU _K wbw` Kvbv UgU
wbq KvR Kivi Rb C cvMvg switch UgU eenvi Kiv nq| mvaviYZ ewk msLK else if
UgU eenvii cwieZ switch UgU eeZ nq| switch UgU Gi mv_ AwZwi
cvMvwgs fvlv 199
{
int menu, numb1, numb2, total ;
printf (Enter two numbers --?) ;
scanf (%d %d, &numb1, &numb2 ) ;
printf (Enter your choice \n ) ;
printf (1=addition\n) ;
printf(2=subtraction \n) ;
scanf (%d, &menu ) ;
switch ( menu ) {
case 1: total = numb1 + numb2; break;
case 2: total = numb1 - numb2; break;
default: printf (Invalid option selected\n) ;
}
if ( menu == 1 )
printf (%d plus %d is %d\n, numb1, numb2, total) ;
else if ( menu == 2 )
printf (%d minus %d is %d\n, numb1, numb2, total) ;
getch ( ) ;
}
DcwiD cvMvgwU ivb Kij xb wbgv djvdj `Lve|
Enter two numbers: 25 10
Enter your choice
1 = addition
2 = subtraction
1
25 plus 10 is 35
5.12.9 jyc (Loop)
wm cvMvg UgUmg~n mvaviYZ ^sqwqfve I chvqg GKevi Ki mvw`Z nq| cvMvg
hme UgU `yB ev ZZvwaKevi mvw`Z nq mjvK jywcs UgU ejv nq| cvMvgi ga
GKB KvR evi evi mb KivK jyc ev P ej|
jyc UgUmg~n mvaviYZ `ywU Ask wbq MwVZ| h_v:
1. jyc ewW (Loop Body)
2. U Kwkb (Test Condition)
cvMvg hZY ch U Kwkb ev kZ _vK, jyc ewWi AveZb ZZY ch PjZ _vK| jyc
ewW I U Kwkbi wbevni Dci wfw Ki jyc UgUmg~nK `yfvM fvM Kiv nq| h_v:
GwU KUvj jyc (Entry Control Loop):
cvMvwgs fvlv 201
GwU KUvjjyc jyc ewWi wbevn ii AvMB U Kwkb cixv Kiv nq| Kwkb mZ bv nj
jyc ewW mvw`Z nq bv|
GwU KUvj jyc (Exit Control Loop):
GwU KUvj jyc c_g kZnxbfve GKevi jyc ewW wbevn nq| Zvici U Kwkb cixv Kiv nq|
wbP GwU KUvj jyc I GwU KUvj jyc Gi dvPvU `Lvbv njv
Entry Entry
Loop Body
Test
Conditions False
True
True Test
Loop Body Conditions
False
GLvb expression 1-G ii gvb assign KiZ nq| expression 2 Z kl gvb conditional
operator eenvi Ki DjL KiZ nq| increment / decrement viv i _K kl gvb ch
KZ Ki ew / nvm cve Zv cKvk Ki|
Simple I Compound statement Gi ga g~j cv_K njv Simple statement G GKwU
statement _vK Ab_vq Compound G GKvwaK statement _vK| Simple I Compound
statement DfqwU viv jyci vKPvi `Lvbv njv| cixvq jyci vKPvi wjLZ Kvbv wKQz
DjL bv Kij Simple statement w`q vKPvi `qvB fvjv|
D`vniY1: 1 _K 50 ch msLvjvi ga D`vniY2: Kvbv msLv gwjK wKbv Zv hvPvB
weRvo msLvjv ei Kivi GKwU cvMvg Kivi GKwU cvMvg wjL|
wjL| #include <stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h> #include<conio.h>
#include<conio.h> int main (void)
main () {
{ int num, i, is_prime;
int i ; printf (Enter the number to test:)
for (i = 1; i< = 50; i ++) scanf (%d, &num):
{ is_prime=1;
if (i % 2 ! = 0) for (i=2; i<=num/2; i=i+1);
printf (%d, i); if ( (num %i) = = 0) is_prime = 0;
} if (is_prime = = 1)
getch () printf (The number is prime. \n) ;
return 0 ; else
} printf (The number is not prime.
\n);
cvMvgwU ivb Kij wbPi djvdj c`wkZ ne: }
djvdj:
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
Enter the number to test: 3
31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49
The number is prime.
While Loop: wm cvMvg kZ mvc GK ev GKvwaK UgU GKwU wbw` msLKevi mv`b
KiZ while loop UgU eenvi Kiv nq| while loop K for loop Gi weK wnmve eenvi
Kiv hvq| while Gi condition c_gB check nq Ges condition false nj jyc execute nq bv|
while loop UgU digvU njv
Simple statement Gi : Compound statement Gi :
expression 1; expression 1;
while (expression 2) while (expression 2)
{ {
statement statement 1
expression 3; .
} .
cvMvwgs fvlv 203
statement n
expression 3;
}
GLvb, expression 1-G ii gvb assign KiZ nq| expression 2 Z kl gvb conditional
operator eenvi Ki DjL KiZ nq| expression 3 viv i _K kl gvb ch KZ Ki ew/nvm
cve Zv cKvk Ki|
D`vniY-1: 1 + 3 + 9 + 27 + 81+........+N D`vniY2: 1+2+3+4+ ............ + n avivi
avivi hvMdj wbYqi cvMvg| hvMdj wbYqi GKwU cvMvg wjL| hLvb
#include <stdio.h> n njv Kvbv abvZK c~Y msLv|
#include<conio.h> #include <stdio.h>
main () #include<conio.h>
{ main ()
int i, n, s; {
printf (Enter the last number: ) int s = 0 ;
; int i = 1 ;
scanf (%d, &n) ; int n;
i = 1; printf (Enter the total number of value:);
s=0; scanf (%d,&n);
while (i<=n) while (i<=n)
{ {
s = s+ i; s = s + i;
i = i * 3; i ++;
} }
printf (The result is %d, s) ; printf (The sum of the value is %d\n,s);
getch ( ) ; getch();
} }
DcwiD cvMvgwU ivb Kij xb wbgv cvMvgwU ivb Ki wbPi bgybv WUv BbcyU
djvdj `Lve| w`j djvdj c`wkZ ne
Enter the last number: 250 Enter the total number of value: 50
The sum of the value is 1275
The result is 365
dowhile Loop: wm cvMvg kZ mvc GK ev GKvwaK UgU GKwU wbw` msLKevi mv`b
KiZ do-while loop UgU eenvi Kiv nq| Ze for Ges while hZ ewk cvMvg eeZ nq ZZewk
do-while loop jyc eeZ nq bv| do-while loop AZc GKevi execute ne, hw`I condition
false nq, KviY GLvb condition ci check nq| do-while loop-wU aygv do loop bvg cwiwPZ|
do-while/do loop Gi MVb nQ
204 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
Avi njv GKB aibi ev mgcKwZi PjKi mgvek| hgb- Mark(20) GKwU Avi, hLvb 21
Rb Qvi gvKm msiY Kiv hve| G Avii c_g PjKwU njv Mark(0), wZxqwU Mark(1),
ZZxqwU Mark(2) Ges GKzkZgwU Mark (20)| Avii GKwU bvg _vK, index _vK Ges Gi
m`m ev AvBUgmg~nK ebx (Braket) Gi ga Dcvcb Kiv nq| Avi eenvi Kiv mnR| GUv
cvMvgK mnR, my`i I QvU Ki Ges RwUjZv Kgvq|
gb Kwi, Kvbv welqi cuvP Rb Qvi cixvi b^i njv: 80,90,70,50,85|
Mark wbq MwVZ Avi `Lvbv njv: Mark [5] = [80, 90, 70, 50, 85]
Avii GK GKwU AvwjgU ev m`mK Zvi Aevb viv evSvbv nq| hgb
Mark [0] = 80
Mark [1] = 90
Mark [2] = 70
Mark [3] = 50
Mark [4] = 85
Avi eenvii myweav:
1. GKB bvg AbKjv PjK eenvi Kiv hvq|
2. Avii Dcv`vbjv ggwiZ cvkvcvwk Aevb Ki|
3. cvMvg wbevn `Z nq|
4. Avi DPii fvlvi GKwU Abb ewk|
5. Avi cvMvgK mnR, my`i I QvU Ki Ges RwUjZv Kgvq|
Avi eenvii Amyweav:
1. AviZ GKB RvZxq WUv A_vr GKB UvBci WUv ivLZ nq| wfb wfb UvBci WUv
GKwU AviZ ivLv hvq bv|
2. cvMvg wbevni mgq NvlYvKZ Avii mvBR KLbv cwieZb Kiv hvq bv|
3. cKZ WUv Acv Avii mvBR AbK ewk NvlYv Kiv nj ggwii AcPq nZ cvi|
AviK cavbZ `yfvM fvM Kiv hvq| h_v:
1. GKgvwK Avi (One dimentional array)
2. wgvwK Avi (Two dimentional array)
1. GKgvwK Avi (One dimentional array): Avii Af y Roll[0] 201
Dcv`vb ev WUvjv hw` GKwU gv Kjvg I GKvwaK mvwi A_ev Roll[1] 202
GKwU gv mvwi Ges GKvwaK Kjvg Dcvcb Kiv nq ZvK Roll[2] 203
GKgvwK Avi ejv nq| hgb 5 Rb Qvi ivj b^i h_vg
Roll[3] 204
201,202,203,204,205 K 5wU PjK
Roll[4] 205
Roll0,Roll1,Roll2,Roll3,Roll4 viv cKvk Kiv hvq|
hgb- GKgvwK Avii D`vniY: Roll[4]|
GLvb, WUv UvBc nQ int Avi bvg nQ Roll Ges Avii m`m msLv nQ 5 Ges m`mjv
nQ wm cvMvwgs fvlvq GKwU GKgvwK Avi Zwii wbqg: data type variable name [size]
206 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
D`vniY: GKwU KjRi Kvbv kwYi cuvP Rb Qvi ivj b^i Ges cixvq AwRZ b^i BbcyU wnme
c`vb Ki AvDUcyU wnme D ivj b^i Ges cixvq AwRZ b^img~n Avi AvKvi c`kbi Rb
GKwU cvMvg wjL|
#include <stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define Max 5
main ()
{
int i, roll [Max] ;
float Mark [Max] ;
for (i = 0; i<Max; i++)
{
printf (\nEnter Roll [%d] & Mark [%d]:, i, i) ;
scanf (%d%f, &Roll [i], &Mark [i]);
}
for (i = 0; i <Max; i++)
printf(\nRoll [%d] = %d Mark [%d] = %, 2f, i, Roll [i], i, Mark [i]) ;
getch () ;
}
cvMvgwU ivb Kivj wbPi digU BbcyU w`Z ne| AZtci cvki djvdj c`wkZ ne|
Enter Roll [0] & Mark [0] : 101 56.5 Roll [0] = 101 Mark [0] : 56.50
Enter Roll [1] & Mark [1] : 102 66 Roll [1] = 102 Mark [1] : 60.00
Enter Roll [2] & Mark [2] : 103 45.5 Roll [2] = 103 Mark [2] : 45.50
Enter Roll [3] & Mark [3] : 104 74.5 Roll [3] = 104 Mark [3] : 74.50
Enter Roll [4] & Mark [4] : 105 85 Roll [4] = 105 Mark [4] : 85.00
wgvwK Avi:
h Avii Dcv`vbjv GKB mv_ GKvwaK mvwi I GKvwaK Kjvg WUv Dcvcb Kiv nq ZvK
wgvwK Avi ejv nq| wgvwK Avi NvlYv GKgvwK Avii gZvB Ze GLvb `ywU
subscript Gi cqvRb nq| GKwU subscript viv iv Ges Aci subscript viv Kjvg eySvq|
wbg mark[3,4] bvg GKwU wgvwK Avi `Lvbv njv, hvi mvwi 6wU I Kjvg 4wU|
0 1 2 3
0 Mark[0,0] Mark[0,1] Mark[0,2] Mark[0,3]
1 Mark[1,0] Mark[1,1] Mark[1,2] Mark[1,3]
2 Mark[2,0] Mark[2,1] Mark[2,2] Mark[2,3]
3
4
5 Mark[5,0] Mark[5,1] Mark[5,2] Mark[5,3]
C cvMvgi w-gvwK Avii MVb wbg `qv njv:
data_type array_name [row_size] [column_size]
D`vniY-1: 1 _K 10 ch bvgZvi QK c`kbi Rb wgvwK Avi eenvi Ki GKwU cvMvg wjL|
cvMvwgs fvlv 207
#include <stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define Row 10
#define Col 10
main ()
{
int r, c;
int mul [Row] [Col] ;
printf (\t\t ===================== \n) ;
printf (\t\tMULTIPLICATION TABLE\n ) ;
printf(\t\t ===================== \n ) ;
for (int j= 1; j< = Col; j++)
printf (%4d, j) ;
printf (===================== \n);
for (int i= 0; i<Row; i++)
{
r = i + 1;
printf (%2d | , r) ;
for (int j= i; j<= Col; j++)
{
c = j;
mul [i] [j] = r*c;
printf (%4d, mul [i] [j]);
}
printf (\n) ;
}
getch () ;
}
cvMvgwU ivb Kij wbPi djvdj c`wkZ ne:
=====================
MULTIPLJCATION TABLE
=====================
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
5.12.11 dvskb (Function)
wm cvMvg hLb Kvbv wbw` KvR mv`bi Rb KZKjv UgU Kvbv bvg GKwU eKi
ga ivLv nq ZLb ZvK dvskb ejv nq| cwZwU wm cvMvg Gic GK ev GKvwaK dvskbi mgw|
208 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
dvskb Pbvi mnR Dcvq njv dvskbi bvgi kl GK Rvov c_g ebx ( ) _vK, G c_g
ebxi ga AbK wKQz _vKZ cvi, Avevi bvI _vKZ cvi| cwZwU dvskbi GKwU bvg _vK, h
bvg KvBjvi ZvK mbv Ki| cvMvg wbevni mgq KvBjvi hLb Kvbv dvskb Kj cvq
ZLb g~j cvMvgi KvR wMZ iL Kj dvskb wbevn i Ki Ges wbevn kl g~j dvskb
cZveZb c~eK cieZx jvBb _K wbevn Pvwjq hvq| Ze G cwqvq AwZwi wKQzUv mgq eq
nq| ZvB QvU Kvbv cvMvgi Rb mvaviYZ dvskb eenvi Kiv nq bv|
dvskbi cqvRbxqZv (Importance of Function)
1. dvskbi mvnvh cvMvgK msw AvKvi iPbv Kiv hvq|
2. dvskbi eenvi GKB aibi KvRi Rb GKB aibi UgU evi evi jLvi cqvRb nq bv|
3. cvMvgi fyj mskvab ev wWevwMs Kiv mnR nq|
4. eenviKvix Zvi cqvRb Abyhvqx dvskb Zwi Ki Kvh mv`b KiZ cvi|
dvskb Gi cKvif` (Types of Function)
wm-Z G eeZ dvskbmg~nK `ywU fvM fvM Kiv nq| h_v:
1. jvBewi dvskb (Library Function)
2. BDRvi-wWdvB dvskb (User Defined Function)
jvBewi dvskb (Library Function)
hme dvskb wekl wKQz Kvh mv`bi Rb wm cvMvg we-Bb AvQ ZvK jvBewi dvskb ej|
wm KvBjvi jvBewi dvskb bvg KZKjv we-Bb dvskb AvQ mjvK Zv`i wbR^
digvU Abyhvqx main () dvskb eenvi Kiv hvq| print (), scanf (), getch (), getchar (), abs
(), sqrt (), sin (), cos(), tan (), rand () Gaibi jvBewi dvskbi D`vniY| jvBewi dvskb
eenvi mnR, GRb Kej H dvskbi eenviwewa Ges digvU RvbjB Pj|
wbP C fvlvq KZKjv Library function Gi GKwU QK `qv njv:
dvskb mswk nWvi dvBj dvskbi KvR
abs() stdio.h cig gvb wbYq Ki|
div() stdio.h fvMi eeZ nq|
printf() stdio.h AvDUcyU gvb AvDUcyU gvag cvVvq
scanf() stdio.h BbcyU gvb MnY Ki|
putchar() stdio.h AvDUcyU gvag GKwU evZv cvVvq|
getchar() stdio.h BbcyU gvag _K GKwU evZv MnY Ki|
sqrt() math.h eMg~j wbYq Ki|
sin() math.h mvBb gvb wbYq Ki|
dvskb mswk nWvi dvBj dvskbi KvR
cos() math.h KvmvBb gvb wbYq Ki|
tan() math.h UvbRU gvb wbYq Ki|
cvMvwgs fvlv 209
GLb cvMvgvi BQ Kij hZMyjv cvMvg wKsev cvMvgi hZvb `ywU c~YmsLv c`vb Ki
hvMdj c`kbi cqvRb ne meLvbB DcwiD cvMvg dvskb wjLZ ne| wK GZ mgmv
njv, GZ Ki cvMvgi Kjie Ges hKvbv vb `ywU c~YmsLv c`vb Ki hvMdj c`kbi
Rb Kej mB bvg wjL dvskbwU Kj KijB ne. GRb cyiv cvMvg KvW jLvi cqvRb bB|
dvskbi MVb: function_name (argument list)
argument declaration;
{
local variable declaration;
210 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
executable statement 1;
executable statement 2;
.....................................
.....................................
return (expression);
}
GLvb,
Function_name : fwiqej aib Abyhvqx dvskbi bvg w`Z ne|
argument list : hme fwiqej eenvi Ki wewfb cKvi Acvikb Pvjvbv ne Zvi ZvwjKv|
local variable declarations: kyay GB dvskb hme fwiqej eeZ ne Zv`iK NvlYv KiZ nq|
return : h gvb g~j cvMvg diZ Avme Zv DjL KiZ nq|
dvskbi wewfb Dcv`vb: wm/wm++ cvMvg Kvbv jvBewi wKsev BDRvi wWdvB dvskb eenvi
KiZ Mj mvaviYZ wbg wjwLZ PviwU welq weePbv KiZ nq
dvskb eYbv (Function Definition)
dvskb Kj (Function Call)
dvskbi cvUvUvBc (Function Prototype)
dvskbi wiUvb UvBc I wiUvb UgU (Functions Return Type and Return Statement)|
dvskbi eYbv (Function Definition)
dvskb eYbvi gvag KvBjviK Rvwbq `qv nq h, GUv wK KvR
Kie Ges wKfve Kie| GKwU BDRvi-wWdvB dvskb KZKMyjv D`vnviY:
UgU wbq MwVZ nq| mvgvb wKQz ewZg Qvov dvskbi cwZwU int Sum ( )
{
UgU mwgKvjb viv kl nq| BDRvi-wWdvB dvskbi eYbv Zvi // . . . . . . .
eenviKvix ev main() dvskbi Dci wKsev wbP _vK wK fZi bq| return (0) ;
BDRvi wWdvB dvskb NvlYvi digvU njv }
ReturnType FunctionName (ArgumentList) void main ( )
{
// FunctionBody
// . . . . . . .
// ReturnStatement (Depends on ReturnType) }
) int Sum (int, int)
GLvb, ReturnType hKvbv ea WUv UvBc, FunctionName
]
{
eenviKvix KZK `qv dvskbi bvg Ges ArgumentList dvskb eeZ // . . . . . . .
retrun (0) ;
AviMygUi ZvwjKv| FunctionBody-Z dvskbi wevwiZ eYbv _vK|
}
FunctionBody-Kgb ne Zv dvskbi aib A_vr mgmvi Dci wbfi
Ki|
DjL, dvskbi c_g ewbi ga Kvbv fwiqej NvlYv Kiv nj ZvK AvigU fwiqej ejv
nq| wm++ cvMvg dvskb Kvbv AvigU fwiqej bv _vKj AvigU ZvwjKv void jLv nq
Ze wm++ KvBjvi Zv evaZvg~jK bq| dvskbi bvg GKwU AvBWwUdvqvi; myZivs AvBWwUdvqvi
cvMvwgs fvlv 211
bvgKiYi wbqgvbyhvqx dvskbi hKvbv ea bvg eenvi Kiv hZ cvi| Ze eenviKvix dvskb GKB
bvg Aci Kvbv fwiqej ev AvBWwUdvqvi _vKj mB bvgi Kvbv dvskb eenvi Kiv hvq bv|
wm/wm++ cvMvg eeZ jvBewi dvskmg~ni eYbv mswk nWvi dvBj ewYZ eenvi Kij
cvMvgi iZB A_vr main() Gi c~e #include wWiwf UgUi mvnvh H jvBewi dvskb
mswk nWvi dvBj mshy KiZ nq|
dvskb Kj (Function Call)
hLb GKwU dvskb Aci Kvbv dvskbK eenvi Ki, ZLb ZvK eenviKvix ev g~j dvskb Ges
h dvskbwU eenvi Kiv nq ZvK eeZ ev K dvskb ejv nq| Avi G
cwqvi bvg dvskb Kj| dvskb Kj cwqvq GKwU dvskbi mv_ Aci D`vnviY:
int Sum ( )
GK ev GKvwaK dvskb mshy Kiv nq| dvskb Kj GKwU UgU| {
myZivs Gi kl AekB mwgKvjb (;) _vKZ ne| GK Rvov c_g // . . . . . . .
ebx () `L hgb dvskb Pbv hvq; Zgwb Gi Rvov c_g ebxi return (0) ;
}
kl AwZwi GKwU mwgKvjb `L dvskb Kj eySv hvq| hKvbv
wm/wm++ cvMvgi main() dvskb Aci GK ev GKvwaK jvBewi wKsev void main ( )
BDRvi-wWdvB dvskb Kj KiZ cvi| Gfve GK dvskb GK ev {
// . . . . . . . .
GKvwaKevi Ab hKvbv dvskb eenvi KiZ cvi| DjL, main() Sum ( ) ;
GKwU BDRvi-wWdvB dvskb njI Ab Kvbv BDRvi-wWdvB dvskb }
main() dvskb Kj KiZ cvi bv| wm/wm++ KvBjvi main() dvskbK WvBfvi dvskb ev PvjK
dvskb wnme MY Ki eeZ Abvb dvskb Kj Ki| Kvbv dvskb (jvBewi ev BDRvi-
wWdvB) Kj Kivi digvU njv:
FunctionName (Parametre or Argument List)
A_vr dvskbi bvgi kl c_g ebxi () ga cvivwgUvii gvbmn (hw` _vK) dvskb Kj Kiv nq|
wiKvwmf dvskb (Recursive Function)
GKwU dvskb Ab Kvbv dvskbK hKvbv msLK evi Kj KiZ cvi| Avevi Kvbv dvskb
wbRI wbRK Kj KiZ cvi| hLb Kvbv dvskb wbRB wbRK Kj Ki ZLb ZvK wiKvwmf
dvskb ejv nq Ges GB cwqvK wiKvmb (Recursion) ejv nq| Kvb msLvi dvwiqvj wbYq
wiKvwmf dvskbi GKwU Av`k D`vniY| Avgiv Rvwb, dvwiqvj njv GKwU MvwYwZK cwZ|
hKvbv abvZK msLv N Gi dvwiqvj gvb njv 1 nZ N ch ^vfvweK msLvMyjvi Ydj|
hgb- 3 Gi dvwiqvj 6 (3!=321=6), 4 Gi dvwiqvj 24 (4!=4321=24)
wbg wiKvwmf dvskb eenvi Ki Kvbv msLvi dvwiqvj wbYqi Rb GKwU cvMvg `qv njv:
/* Finding Factorial using Recursive Function */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<time.h>
212 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
K. KvBjvi Kx ?
L. wP eeZ cZxKjvi bvg I eenvi wjL|
M. `ywU msLvi Mo wbYqi Rb cZxKjv wKfve eeZ nZ cvi? eYbv Ki|
N. Kvbv mgmv mgvavbi Rb dvPvU AZ iZc~Y weklY Ki|
2| wg. Rb AvgwiKvi bvMwiK| wZwb iwdKi ez| evsjv`ki BwZnvm, mswZ mK Rvbvi
Rb wg. Rb evsjv`k GmQb| wg. Rb wewfb Z_ msMni Rb wfb wfb kYx ckvi
gvbyli mv_ KZv ejZ nQ| wKy wg. Rb evsjv bv Rvbvi KviY mgmv nwQj| iwdK wewfb
Z_ BsiwRZ icvi Ki wg. RbK mvnvh Ki|
K. Abyev`K cvMvg wK?
L. GKwU WUveR cvMvgi bvg wjL Ges Gi ewk wjL|
M. KvBjvi I BUvicUvii ga cv_K wjL|
N. DP ii fvlvi ewkjv AvjvPbv Ki|
ewbevPwb ck:
1| wm Kvb aibi fvlv?
K. gwkb fvlv L. nvB jfj fvlv M. wgW jfj fvlv N. Avm^jx fvlv
2| wbPi KvbwU Abyev`K cvMvg?
K. cvB_b L. IivKj M. BUvicUvi N. AvjMj
3| Kvbv cvMvg iPbvi c~e
i. AvjMwi`g Zwi KiZ nq|
ii. dvPvU Zwi KiZ nq|
iii. wWevwMs KiZ nq|
wbPi KvbvwU mwVK?
K. i L. i I ii M. i I iii N. i, ii I iii
4| cvMvg Kvbv UgU evi evi wbevni Rb wbPi KvbwU eeZ nq?
K. jyc L. Avi M. dvskb N. Kwkbvj UgU
l Aavq
WUveR gvbRgU wmg
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Avgiv Avgv`i cqvRbxq Z_ wewfbfve msiY Ki ivwL| my-kLj Ges wbw` wbqg Abyhvqx
msiY Kij mnR gvwbcyjkb Kiv hvq| mvRvbv Kvbv wbw` iKW LyuR ei Kiv mnR nq|
ZvQvovI wewfb MvwYwZK wnmve-wbKvm Kiv hvq| cqvRbxq Z_ wbq wicvU Zwi Kiv, GgbwK
Mvdi mvnvh Dcvcb BZvw` mnR Kivi Rb WUveR gvbRgU wmg mdU&Iqvi eenvi
Kiv nq| GKvwaK WUv Uweji ga wijkb Zwi Kiv, WUvi wmwKDwiwU iv Kiv BZvw` mK
vb ARb Kiv AZ MyiZc~Y|
6.1.2 DBMS-Gi KvR: Kvbv Z_ ev iKW msiYi Rb c_gB Avgv`i WUveR Zwi
KiZ nq| AZci WUv Uwej WUv / iKW Afy KiZ nq| WUveR gvbRgU wmg
KvRwU Ki _vK| AbK mgq AhvwPZ ew KZK WUveR wZM nq _vK, wewfb cKvi
mdU&Iqvi (fvBivm) vivI WUveR wZM nZ cvi| myZivs WUveRi wbivcv iv Ki
eenviKvix wbqY KiZ nq| wewfb KviY Avgv`i WUveR iKW Af y ev ev` w`Z nq|
hgb-Rb Ges gZi wnmve msiYi Rb WUveR Zwi Kiv nj wk Rb MnY Kij iKW hvM
KiZ ne Ges KD gviv Mj WUveR _K iKW ev` w`Z ne| WUveR MnYhvM Kivi Rb
WUvi evbvb Ges msLvi fzj nIqv Pjebv| hyMi mv_ Zvj wgwjq Pjvi Rb Avgv`i WUveR
cwieZb KiZ nq- bZzb wd hy ev Kvbv wd gyQ djZ nq| G KvRjvI WUveR
gvbRgU wmg Gi mvnvh Kiv nq| wewfb KviY iKW cwieZb KiZ nq hgb- Kviv eqm,
ckv, eZgvb wVKvbv BZvw` cwieZbkxj gvb| WUveR iKWjv Kvbv ewki wfwZ
Kvbv wd Abyhvqx mvRvbv _vKj Lye mnR Kvbv wbw` iKW LyR ei Kiv hvq| iKWmg~n
mvRvbv ev LuyR ei Kivi KvRI G mdU&Iqvii gvag Kiv hvq| GKwU WUveR AbKjv
wd _vK wK me KvR G`i cqvRb nq bv| wbw` wKQz wdi cqvRb nq| G cqvRbxq
wd wbq my`i wicvU Zwi Kiv Ges PvU ev Mvd eenvi Ki Z_ AvKl Yxqfve Dcvcbi
KvRI G mdU&Iqvii gvag Kiv nq|
6.2 wijkbvj WUveR gvbRgU wmg
Relational Database Management System-RDBMS
WUveR gvbRgU wmg KZKMyjv cvMvgi mg^q MwVZ GKwU md&UIqvi| A_vr h md&UIqvi
eenvi Ki WUveR gvbRgU wmgi iKWjv wewfb Uwej / dvBj Rgv nq Ges Kzqwii
gvag GKvwaK WUveRi ga wijkbkxc Zwi Kiv hvq ZvK wijkbvj WUveR gvbRgU wmg
ejv nq| GwU cii mKhy KqKwU dvBj wbq MwVZ| WUveR Zwi, wbqY, iYveY cfwZ
KvRi Rb G eevcbv cwZ eenvi Kiv nq| wijkbvj WUveR gWj njv AvaywbK WUveR
UKbvjwRi wfw| 1970 mvj GWMvi KW (Edgar Codd) mec_g wijkbhy WUveR cwZ ceZb
Kib| wZwb Zuvi cewZZ WUveRK PgrKvi MvwYwZK m~i wfwZ cwZwZ Kib|
wijkbvj WUveR gWj WUvi wZbwU w`K iqQ| h_v
(i) WUv vKPvi (Data Structure)
(ii) WUv BwUwMwU (Data Integrity) I
(iii) WUv gvwbcyjkb (Data Manipulation) |
wijkbvj WUveR gvbRgU wmg Zwi Kivi Rb evRvi AbK mdUIqvi AvQ| h_v:
gvBvmdU AvKmm (Microsoft Access)
IivKj (Oracle)
wWeR (Dbase)
gvBvmdU wfRyqvj ewmK (Microsoft Visual Basic)
gvBvmdU wfRyqvj dcv (Microsoft Visual Foxpro)
cvIqvi wevi (Power Builder)
Wjwd (Delphi)
Bbdiwg (Informix) BZvw`|
216 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
(v) ZvwiL I mgq (Date/ Time): G wdwU ZvwiL ev mgqi Rb eenvi Kiv nq| 100 _K
9999 eQii ZvwiL I mgqi Rb G wd eeZ nq| G wdi Rb ggwiZ 8 evBU
RvqMv cqvRb| ZvwiL I mgq wewfb digU nZ cvi| hgb-
digU eYbv D`vniY
General Date/ Time digUi Default mwUs njv General 4/3/13, 05:34:00 PM
Date Date- G digU ZvwiL I mgq hgb GwU Kiv ne or
wVK ZgbB c`wkZ ne| Ze aygv ZvwiL GwU 4/3/13 05:34:00 PM
Kij kyaygv ZvwiL Ges kyaygv mgq GwU Kij
aygv mgq c`wkZ ne| Avi ZvwiL I mgq GK
GwU Kij ZvwiL I mgq DfqB c`wkZ ne|
Long w`bi bvg, gvmi bvgmn (K_vq) ZvwiL c`kbi Saturday,
Date Rb G Ackb wmj KiZ ne| April 3, 2013
Medium gvmi bvg msc (K_vq) cKvkmn ZvwiL c`kb 3-Apr-13.
Date Kivi Rb G Ackb wmj KiZ nq|
Short w`b, gvm Ges mvjK msLvq c`kbi Rb G Ackb 4/3/13
Date wmj KiZ nq|
Long mgqi mv_ AM ev PM mn c~Y mgq (Nv-wgwbU 5:25:27 PM
Time mK) c`kbi Rb G Ackb wmj KiZ nq|
Medium AM ev PMmn mK ev` mgq c`kbi Rb G 5:58 PM
Time Ackb wmj KiZ nq|
Short w`b-ivZ Pwek NvwfwK mgq c`kbi Rb G 13:00
Time Ackb wmj KiZ nq| hgb-ivZ GKUvK cKvk
Kie 01:00 Ges ejv GKUvK cKvk Kie 13:00
(vi) ggv (Memo):
Memo, Text Gi cwic~iK wnme eeZ nq| mvaviYZ eYbvg~jK jLv ev eYbvi Rb G wd
eenvi Kiv nq| G wdi aviY gZv KwDUvi wWi aviY gZvi Dci wbfi Ki| mvaviYZ
G wd 65,536wU Kvii jLv hvq|
(vii) Kviw (Currency):
gy`v ev UvKvi A BbcyU Kivi Rb $ eenvi Kiv nq| kyaygv gy`v ev UvKv msv WUv GwU Kivi
Rb Currency UvBc wmj KiZ nq| G wdi WUvi Dci MvwYwZK Acvikb m~Y chvR|
G wdi Rb ggvwiZ 8 evBU RvqMv cqvRb|
(viii) OLE Object: hme Z_ WUveR bq Ggb mdUIqvi AvQ Ges wjsK Gi gvag
^qswqfve WUveR bqvi G WUv UvBc eenvi Kiv nq| hgb- gvBvmdU Gj,
cvIqvi cqU BZvw` cvMvg nZ WUveR bqvi Rb G WUv UvBc eenvi Kiv nq|
220 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
(ix) Hyperlink: mvaviYZ WUveR cvMvgi mv_ Iqe cRi Kvbv dBj wKsev Ab Kvbv
eenvwiK cvMvgi dvBj wjsK Kivi Rb G WUv UvBc eenvi Kiv nq|
(x) Look up wizard: mivmwi Kvbv WUv GwU bv Ki Kvbv wj _K WUv wbevPb Ki
WUv BbcyU Kivi Rb G WUv UvBc eenvi Kiv nq|
WUv Uwej wdi bvgKiY: Uwej UvM wmj Ki wWRvBb wfDZ wKK Kij wbPi DBvwU Avme-
Kvqwi Gckb:
[
hKvbv Kvqwi Zwi KiZ Gckb eenvi Kiv nq| G Gckbi Dci wfw Ki Kvqwi
djvdj wbevwPZ Ki| Gckb Zwi Kivi Rb mvaviYZ Literal, Constant eeZ nq|
Literal: hme fvjyK WUveR gvbRgU h_vh_fve mB fvjy wnmve weePbv Ki ZvK
Literal ej| Kvbv fvjyK Literal wnmve NvlYv KiZ
UU Gi Wvej KvUkb w`Z nq | hgb- Dhaka
ZvwiLi # viv Ave KiZ nq | hgb- # 04-09-2007 #
msLvi Kvbv wP w`Z nq bv mivmwi eenvi Kiv hvq|
Constant: Constant nQ AcwieZbxq UU ev msLv| Kvbv Uwej Gckb, Kvqwi, dg,
wicvU ev gvvZ eenvi Kiv hvq| Gckb wevi wbPi Constant fvjy eenvi KiZ cvi|
Kvbv duvKv ws Gi mv_ gvwPs Ki|
Null hKvbv duvKv Gckbi mv_ gvwPs Ki|
False Kvbv jwRKi Gckbi djvdj wg_v nj Zvi mv_ gvwPs Ki|
True Kvbv jwRKi Gckbi djvdj mZ nj Zvi mv_ gvwPs Ki|
Arithmetic AcviUi:
wbDgwiK Gckb Zwi KiZ Arithmetic AcviUi eenvi Kiv nq| hgb - hvM, weqvM, Y,
fvM BZvw`i Rb eeZ nq|
AcviUi eYbv
+ hvM wP|
- weqvM wP|
* Yb wP|
/ fvM wn|
\ c~Y msLvq fvMdj wbYqi Rb|
Mod 2 wU msLvK fvM Ki fvMkl cKvk Ki|
() Mc Gckbi Rb eeZ nq|
^ Gcvbbwkqvi|
Comparison AcviUi:
`ywU Gckbi ga Zzjbv KiZ Comparison AcviUi eeZ nq| GK wijkbvj
AcviUiI ejv nq| Kvbv wbw` WUvK LyuR ei Kivi Rb Comparison AcviUi eenvi
Kiv nq| Comparison AcviUi jwRKvj djvdj cKvk KiZI eeZ nq|
AcviUi eYbv
= mgvb wP|
> AcviUii evg Ask Wvb Aski Pq eo|
>= AcviUii evg Ask Wvb Aski Pq eo A_ev mgvb|
< AcviUii evg Ask Wvb Aski Pq QvU|
<= AcviUii evg Ask Wvb Aski Pq QvU A_ev mgvb|
<> mgvb bq/ Amgvb|
Between .. And i eySvbvi Rb eeZ nq|
Concatenation AcviUi:
`ywU wsK hvM Kivi Rb Concatenation AcviUi eenvi Kiv nq| & wP nQ
Concatenation AcviUi| + wP vivI `ywU wsK hvM Kiv hvq|
hgb- djvdj = ws 1 & ws 2 A_ev,
djvdj = ws 1 + ws 2
226 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
Logical AcviUi:
AcvKZ RwUj Gckb Zwii Rb jwRKvj AcviUi eeZ nq| GwU `ywU GckbK GK
Ki Ges GckbwU mZ ev wg_v g~jvqb Ki|
AcviUi eYbv
Eqn `ywU GckbK Bitwise Zyjbv Ki| GwU cvMvwgs G eeZ nq|
Common Gckb:
WUveR gvbRgU wmg mPivPi eenvihvM KwZcq Common Gckb iqQ| Kgb
Gckbjv wbPi wP `Lvbv njv-
wP: mwUs
Roll Name GPA Roll Name GPA
01 Radia 3.50 02 Alvie 5.00
02 Alvie 5.00 04 Joyeta 5.00
03 John 4.50 05 Radit 4.90
04 Joyeta 5.00 03 John 4.50
05 Radit 4.90 01 Radia 3.50
WUv UwejK hw` GKwU wdi Dci BbWws Kiv _vK Ze Kvbv WUv GwWU Kij cvMvg
^qswqfve (Automatically) BbW AvcWU Ki Ges Gi Rb LyeB A cwigvY mgq jvM|
Ze hw` GKvwaK wdi Dci BbWws Kiv _vK Zvnj Kvbv WUv GwWU Kij BbW AvcWU
Kivi Rb AbKY mgq ai Acv KiZ nq| GKvwaK wdi Dci Ges AbK iKWi Rb
B Kiv nj AcvKZ ewk ggvwii cqvRb nq| ZvQvov BbW msiYi RbI wKQy ewk
RvqMv jvM| WUv GwUi BbW dvBji idvimg~n AvcWU nZ ek mgqi cqvRb nq|
mRb WUv GwU KiZI ewk mgq jvM| G KviY Kejgv mme wdi DciB BbWws Kiv Dg
hv mPivPi wewfb Acvikb hgb- Finds, Queries Ges Sorts BZvw`Z eeZ nq|
Bws Kivi cwZ:
h Uwej Bwsqi KvR Kiv ne mB UwejwU wWRvBb wfD gvW Icb KiZ ne|
h wdi Dci Bws Kiv ne mB wdi Dci gvDm cqUvi ivLZ ne|
DBvi wbPi w`K Field Properties _K General Uve wmj KiZ ne|
Indexed Ackbi Wc WvDb Aviv wKK Kij wKQz Ackb `Lv hve|
Yes (No duplicates) wmj Ki cybivq dvBjwU mf KiZ ne|
zWU- 2
MvBW wUPvi-1
zWU- 3
zWU- 4
G cwZZ Kvbv WUv Uweji GKwU iKW Ab Uweji GKvwaK iKWi mv_ wijkb iv
Ki| aiv hvK, Kvbv wkv cwZvbi Uwej-A njv MvBW wUPvi`i Z_ Uwej Ges Uwej-B
njv Qv-Qvx`i Z_ Uwej | GLvb Uwej A Gi GKwU iKWi Rb Uwej B Gi GKvwaK
(3wU) iKW AvQ| wbgi wP One to Many wijkb wb`k Ki `Lvbv njv
Uwej -A Uwej -B
: MvBW wefvM ivj Qv-Qvxi MvBW wUPvii
bs wUPvii bvg bs bvg bvg
01 wg. gwZqvi AvBwmwU 101 Avjfx wg. gwZqvi
02 wg. `jvqvi AvBwmwU 102 fxc wg. gwZqvi
03 wg. mRj cwimsLvb 103 wRmvb wg. gwZqvi
04 wg. Gm Avng` evsjv 104 myRb wg. mRj
05 wg.mvBdzj Bmjvg mv. we`v 105 Ave`yjvn wg. mRj
wP: One to Many Relation
Many to Many:
hLb Kvbv Uweji GKvwaK iKWi Rb Ab Uweji GKvwaK iKW _vK ZLb ZvK Many
to Many wijkb ej| hgb: GKvwaK Qv GKvwaK welq cQ` KiZ cvi|
welq- 1
zWU- 1
welq- 2
welq-3
zWU- 2
welq- 4
`ywU Uweji ga hLb Dfq c GKvwaK gvwPs iKW _vK ZLb Zv`i ga Many to Many
wikjkb cwZv Kiv hvq| G wijkb cwZv Kivi Rb ZZxq AviKwU Uweji cqvRb nq- hvK
Rvskb (Junction) Uwej ejv nq| gb Kwi, Uwej A Z Qv-Qvx`i ivj Ges bvg iqQ ,
Aciw`K Uwej B Z DPgvawgK chvq cwVZ wewfb welqi bvg Ges H welqi KvW b^i
iqQ| G A Uweji Kvbv iKWi wecixZ B Uwej GKvwaK gvwPs Km _vKZ cvi|
Avevi B Uweji Kvbv iKWi wecixZ A Uwej GKvwaK gvwPs iKW _vKZ cvi| GiKg
wijkb Zwi KiZ PvBj ZZxq GKwU Rvskb (Junction) Uwej Zwi Kivi cqvRb nq| Rvskb
Uwej Dfq WUveRi cvBgvwi Kx wbq `ywU wd Zwi KiZ ne| Many to Many wijkbkc
Rvskb Uweji Rb Dfq w`K _K One to Many wijkbwkci gZv| aiv hvK, A Uwej Ges
B Uweji ga Many to Many wijkb Zwi KiZ J bvg GKwU Junction Uwej Zwi Kiv
njv| J Uweji KvQ Ab `ywU wijkb One to Many wijkbi gZv KvR Kie|
232 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
UwejJ
ivj bs welq KvW welqi bvg
501 101 evsjv 1g c
501 102 evsjv 2q c
501 107 BsiwR 1g c
504 108 BsiwR 2q c
504 107 BsiwR c_gc
504 237 KwDUvi wkv c_g c
hme WUv Uweji ga wijkb vcb Kiv nq Zv`i ga AZ GKwU Kgb wd _KZ nq| G
Kgb wdi bvg, WUv UvBc, digU, wd mvBR BZvw` e GKB _vKZ nq| wijkbvj WUv
Uweji GKwU wdK cvBgvwi Kx wnme wPwZ KiZ nq|
h wdi WUvMyjv AwZxq m wdK cvBgvwi Kx wd ej| hw` GKvwaK wdi mg^q
cvBgvwi Kx MwVZ nq ZLb ZvK KvwRU cvBgvwi Kx ej| cii mKhy `ywU WUv Uweji
c_gwU cvBgvwi Kx hw` 2q WUv Uwej eeZ nq ZLb ZvK dib Kx ej| DjL h 2q Uwej
GKwU cvBgvwi Kx _vKe|
WUveR gvbRgU wmg 233
3. Zvici result UwejwU wmj Ki Add evUb wKK KiZ ne| Zvici std UwejwU wmj
Ki Add evUb wKK Kij Uwej `ywU Relationships DBvZ `Lv hve|
4. Show Table WvqvjM ei KvR evUb wKK Kij ZLb c`vq wbgi Relationships DBvZ
`Lv hve|
5. Zvici result Uweji roll wdK WvM Ki std G Qo w`Z ne| Gici c`vq Edit
Relationship WvqvjM e Avme|
234 Z_ I hvMvhvM chyw
6. G Edit Relationship e _K Create evUb wKK Kij wbgi wPi bvq wijkb Zwi ne|
7. File gby _K Save evUb wKK Ki wijkbwU GKUv bvg w`q Save KiZ ne|
6.8 KcviU WUveR (Corporate Database)
KcviU WUveR njv cwZvwbK chvqi mB WUveR ev Kvbv cwZvb KZK evwYwRK wfwZ
eeZ nq| enr GUvicvBRi GKvwaK eemv-evwYR _vKZ cvi| cwZwU eemv cwZvbi wewfb
aibi wefvM ev AbywefvM _vK hgb- Drcv`b, weq, weZiY, wecbb, MvnK mev, gvbe m`
Dbqb, AvBwU, AwWU, MvnK mev BZvw`| cwZvbjv Zv`i wbR^ cqvRb G WUveR Mo
Zvj hLvb D cwZvbi AvIZvq _vKv mKj WUvi GK wekvj msMn _vK| wewfb cwZvbK
Zv`i Kgx, Zv, mieivnKvwi, Askx`vi Ges miKviK wbfyj I mgqgZv Z_ c`vb KiZ nq|
KcviU WUveR G KvRwUK mnR Ki Zvj| KcviU WUveR cwZvbi Z_mg~n msiwZ
nq Ges cieZxZ wewfb KvRi Rb G WUveRK cwqvKiY Kiv nq|
myZivs CAESAR kwU Gbw nq XHNVHN nq Mj, hv Chiper Text wnme cwiwPZ|
KvR: Zvgvi wbRi bvgi GKwU Gbw KvW Zwi Ki| hLvb cZKwU eY Zvi c~eeZx
eY viv cwZvwcZ nq|
Abykxjbx
mRbkxj ck:
wbPi AbyQ`jv co Ges ckMyjvi Di `vI:
1| XYZ KjRi Aa gnv`q Zuvi KjRi Qv-Qvx`i fwZ Z_, cixvi iRv, eZbi
wnmve, cfvlK`i Z_mg~n KwDUvi msiYi wPv KiQb| GRb KjRi Z_ I
hvMvhvM chyw welqi cfvlK wg. Lvbi civgk PvBjb| wg. Lvb Aa gnv`qK GKwU
wijkbvj WUveR gvbRgU mdUIqvi q Kivi civgk w`jb|
K. RDBMS Gi c~Yic wjL|
L. wd I iKW ejZ Kx eyS?
M. Qv-Qvx`i ivj, bvg, wRwcG, wVKvbv wbq GKwU Ges ivj, bvg, wewfb welqi b^i wbq
GKwU WUv Uwej Zwi Ki Ges G`i ga wijkb Zwi Ki|
N. Aa gnv`q Zuvi KjRi Rb wijkbvj WUveR Zwi Kij wK wK myweav cve? weklY Ki|
2| eZgvb evsjv`k Z_ I hvMvhvM chywZ AbK mdjZv GbQ| GLb wewfb KvR hgb
zj KjR fwZ, PvKzwii Ave`b, fvUvi mbvKiY BZvw` AbjvBbi gvag Kiv hvq| Gi
dj wewfb Z_ AwZ mnR cvIqv Ges eenvi Kiv hvq|
K. mwUs wK?
L. KvwRU cvBgvwi Kx ejZ wK eyS?
M. miKvwi cwZvb WUveRi eenvi eYbv Ki|
N. wewfb miKvwi cwZvb WUveR Zwi Kij RbMY wK wK myweav cve? evLv Ki|
ewbevPwb ck:
1| WUveR gvbRgU wmg Zwi Kivi Rb wbPi Kvbv mdUIqviwU cqvRb?
K. IivKj L. BDwb M. wm N. Rvfv
2| WUveR ge wjLvi Rb H wdi WUv UvBc Kx ne?
K. text L. Number M. OLE object N. memo
3| many to many wijkb Zwi KiZ KZwU Uwej cqvRb nq?
K. 2 wU L. 3 wU M. 1 wU N. 4 wU
4| wmwm KjR Zvi Qv-Qvx, wkK, KgKZv, KgPvix`i Z_ msiYi Rb wijkbvj
WUveR gvbRgU wmg Zwi KiQ| Gi dj
i. mnRWUv GwU KiZ cvie|
ii. msLvevPK WUvmg~n m~ MvwYwZK wnmve KiZ cvie|
iii. KvwZ iKW mnR LyuR ei KiZ cvie|
wbPi KvbvwU mwVK?
K. i L. i I ii M. i I iii N. i, ii I iii