CHAPTER 2. FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF COMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS FLOW 2-1 Derive conservation of mass using the elemental control volume shown at right. C.V. mass loss equals Zflow-out - Zflow-in ; (a) flow through front and back sides: ye a -py,dzdr + [pv,+ sqrt (b) flow through left and right sides: 3 (&) flow through botiem and.top sides: -py8dz + [pvr + Riovpdnase 2 -py,rdBdr + [py, + Ro», )de)edédr (@) mass loss within the element: + Lip 168 dea) ‘The sum of (a,b,c) must equal (d) to conserve mass. Since (r,0,2) are independent of time, we may cancel the differentials (dr de dz) and rewrite the final result: La la a a TRO + 2H) + Soy) + 2 = 0 (Ans.) This is the (compressible) Equation of Conrimuity in cylindrical polar coordinates. 2.2 Simplify the result of (2-1) abave to the case of steady plane compressible flow in ‘polar coordinates and derive a suitable stream Function for this case. For plane flow, 3/22 = 0 and v, = 0; for steady flow, a/@= 0. The continuity equation above in Prob, 2-1 reduces to the following relation, with its stream-function equivalence: a a ery) * 3.0%) = - HE ES ‘By comparing terms, we see that the velocities are related to stream function as follows:¥ ache iw (Ans,) pr 20 “5 ‘This is the steady plane polar-coordinate compressible stream function, 2-3 Simplify the result of (2-1) above to the case of steady plane compressible flow in axisymmerric coordinates and derive a suitable steam function for this case. For axisymmetric flow, 8/88 = 0 and vg = 0; for steady flow, 3/8t=0. The continuity equation above in Prob. 2-1 reduces to the following relation, with its stream-function equivalence: Bone ory «0 = 2 Be geh By comparing terms, we see that velocities are related to stream function as follows: (Ans,) pr is is one form of the steady plane axisymmetric compressible stream function. 2-4 Use the Navier-Stokes equation to derive the “weak” form of the Bernoulli relation. For steady, incompressible flow with zero viseasity, the Navier-Stokes equation reduces 10 P(VV)V = -Vp + pg,where (VV)V=V(V?2) + Ox¥ where the latter identity follows from Eq. (1-10) of the text. Now “dot” this entire equation with a differential arc length dr, giving the intermediate result L [=Vp + V(Vi2)- g]-dr = (Vxu)-dr p For any direction dr, the left hand side consists of three exact differentials. ‘The right hand. side vanishes for the particular direction dr along a streamline of the flow, since a streamline is everywhere perpendicular to the cross-product of velocity and vorticity. For this case, then, the dot product above becomes ROORIETARY MAATEMAL. ‘© 2006 The McCrau Compane. ne Unsteddavtoain porated oy tetaathes wededeeaertier = 1B = cu pcpratin ena stodent ings Matus you ae Spied punvonwy sth + par = 0, Pp or = pip + Vi2 + gz = constant (Ans.) ‘This is the “weak” form of the steady, incompressible Bernoulli equation [that is, it docs not account for heat transfer or shaft work] and assumes that the coordinate 2 is “up”. ‘The “constant” may vary in value from streamline to streamline. 2-5 Show that the incompressible energy equation (2-40) reduces, for zero and k, 10 the “strong” form of Bernoulli's equation, If we simply sot j and ke equal to zero in Eq, (40), we obtain the oversimplified result De/Dt = 0, of ¢ = constant as a particle moves through the flow. This is a “weak” iso- thermal-type result, implying no interaction between work and heat transfer in a flow. If, instead, we combine energy and momentum, using (2-19) to substitute for the stress tensor in (2-40), we obtain the result ou, aya = Paiva 2 - pve + p Vg + ensem i ‘Substituting into Eq, (2-40) and setting 1, k, and div(¥) equal to zero, we obtain Pp ptet pp + Vib ee) = 0, or: ¢ + pip + V2 + gz = constantalonga streamline (Ans.) where, again, 2 is “up”. This is the “strong” form of Bernoulli's equation and is related to the steady-flow-energy-equation of thermodynamics. I holds even for compressible flow as long as viscous and heat-conduction effects are negligible. 246 Consider the proposed incompressible axisymmetric flow field z= CU? - A), v,= 0 in the region 0.5 2S.1,0< r0, to determine if it is a realistic solution for (a) inviscid; or (b) viscous, incompressible flow. ‘The stream function, by definition, satisfies continuity exactly. with velocity components 3 Bie “ cin wer: ve Be cy @ ‘There are no shear strains, but the normal strain rates are finite: ex, =C, By =-Cy (hence there are finite viscous normal stresses), The sum of these strain rates is zer0, hence the flow is incompressible. Note that the vorticity is also zero: ‘Thus the flow is isrovational, and a velocity potential also exists. We conclude that the stream function y = Cxy represent a valie potential-flow field ‘When plotted in the x-y plane for various values of C , the result is the pattern of streamtines shown.on page 21. We could interpret this as flow (a) between two intersecting FROPRIETAEY OATERIAL. © 2006 The Mera. Companies nc Uimitedtstbetion permite oto teaetwers ancl edueators or = 2O = svcpepartn yeas sen ing hr Mana ou\\ streams; (b) of a stream against a plane wall; or (c) of flow around a 90° corer. Patterns (b) and (b) would not be realistic for viscous flow, because the “walls” are not no-slip lines of zero velocity. Since the flow is izrotational, the viscous momentum term (j1 V2¥) vanishes identi- cally [see Eq. (2-107) in the text] and, if we neglect gravity for convenience, the Navier- Stokes equations yield the pressure gradients a a Ren pcx : recy Integration of these simple relations yields the exact pressure distribution in the fluid: p= -dpCix+y) + constant (Ans.) But this is precisely Bernoulli's equation, which is what we expect when an irrotational flow is tested directly in the Navier-Stokes equation. 2-8 Investigate the incompressible stream function y = C(x2y - y3/3), where C>0. Follow the same procedure as Prob. 2-7 above. The velocity components are a a x. pve =. 1p Caley) pve gh = -20y from which we may compute that the vorticity, di), = Qv/@x - du/@y, is identically zero and the flow is irrotational. The streamlines of this exact patential flow are plotted on page 22. {sing without permizion.Only the (symmetric) upper half plane is shawn far convenience. We could interpret this flow as (a) flow caused by three intersecting streams; (b) flow against « 120° comer; or (c) flow around a 60° corner, Patterns (b} and (b} would not be realistic for viscous flow, because the “walls” are not no-slip lines of zero velocity. Since: the flow is irrotational, the viscous momentum term (j1 V2V) vanishes identi- cally [see Eq. (2-107) in the text] and, if we neglect gravity for convenience, the Navier- Stokes equations yield the pressure gradients ap 3 | 8 | phn 2 = 2p +zy) | H = 20") Integration of these simple relations yields the exact pressure distribution in the fluid: Ep Certs2ny*+y5 + consunt = 1p (7+) + consane (Ans.) But this is precisely Bernoulli's equation, which is what we expect when an irrotational flow is tested directly in the Navier-Stokes equation, 29 Analyze the following plane polar unsteady incompressible flow: 2 c, Q y= 0 Y= Pll expe e. ‘with Cand V constnt and gravity neglected. This flow satisfies continuity exactly. If we [PROPRIETARY MATERIAL © 2006 The Metra Compares to {nied darbunion peers coy toachars andwaxtator Toe = BB = ‘ouee preperation. you area samt sng thi Mam you sre ‘ing I athe prion.substitute these velocities into the @-momentum equation in Appendix B, assuming radial symmetry or ap/ae = 0, we find that it is also satisfied exactly. The pressure distribution (r,t) could then be found from the radial momentum equation but is not shown here.] “Thus the given distribution is indeed an exact solution to the Navier-Stokes equations. This problem was discussed earlier, without proof of its exactness, in Prob. 1-6 on page 3. ‘The instantaneous vorticity profiles, 1a c on RY) ma and velocity profiles are plotted for various times on page 3. 2-10 Using © from Eq, (2-46), prove the inequalities in Eq. (2-47), ‘We are to find the conditions under which the dissipation function, © = pratetecdheteg hy + Aaeb+cy is positive, where we adopt the simpler notation (a, b,c, f, g, h) for the strain rates (exxctyy.€z2.2xy€yztzx). The first thing to notice is that only the coefficient His concerned with the shear strain raves (f,g:h), Ik is easy to visualize pure shear flow with zero normal. strain, ¢.g. Couette flow or fully-developed duct flow. For this case, we require positive @ = j(f? + g? +h2), with no contribution from A. It follows that P cannot be positive in such flows unless n> oO (Ans, a) “This is the first condition to-be proved. With 1 thus guaranteed positive, it follows that the normal-strain-rate terms will also have to stay positive to keep @ positive in cases where there is no shear strain (such as flow through normal shock waves), ‘Thus we require A@tbicy + Beebe) 20, 2a? + b+ 3) o: Ap + R 20, where R 2 (a+b+c) ‘This is equivalent torequiring that A ® (-Ryjq)- To minimize R, we simply set [PROPRIETARY MATERIAL.» 2006 The Metra: Compania, ne ted tention pron ary tency and mabeator cur pagar. yeu ae aside vag this Mana you are Sanat veut pernbalons@R/da = AR/db = AR = O and solve for =e, Then Rmjg = 2/3, and thus BR 2 - mB (Ans. b) ‘This was the second condition to be proved. 2-11 Non-dimensionalize the differential equation of compressible irrotational flow: we oe am 2 add a ey wae Ga mse = 0 where a is the speed of sound of the gas. We only need a velocity scale U and alength scale L , since mass units are not present. Appropriate nondimensional variables are: xtye ee BE pee Ut = tye et * usty* a L L UL Substituting these variables into the basic differential equation and dividing out the leading coefficient, we obtain the following nondimensional differential equation: a Fer mute nage aye ae = bog eta 4 aur =0 5A + Oyo +e 8s w nat HF Examining this relation, we see that no dimensionless parameters appear (ANs.). [Actually, correlating a* with temperature and velocity would in fact lead to two imporant parameters, the Mach number and the specific heat ratio.) 2-12 Repeat the nondimensionalization of the Navier-Stokes equation for slow viscous flaw by noting that the pressure should scale as (\U/L). What happens if Re << 1? ‘To proceed, it is only necessary to modify dimensionless pressure in Eq. (2-83) to P* = (p-paIL/(UU). Let us neglect gravity and buoyancy and consider only the Navier- Stokes equation with constant p and eet = -Vp + wey Introduce the variables from Eq, (2-83), including the new p*, and clean up by dividing ‘out the coefficient of the viscous term, ‘The result is the following dimensionless equation: PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2006 The Mcrae Companies, ne Lited elton peretted oye tances ord ederstrs or ‘uae paparaien youre sedentuing tes Manual yow are ‘ing it oeihout peerion.= -W* + Weve where Re = pULP ‘Tho only parameter is the Reynolds number, which occurs only in the “inertia or acceleration term. If the Reynolds number is very small, Re << 1, then inertia is negligible, and the balance of fluid forces is between pressure and viscosity: Vp = VV if Rexel (Ans.) ‘This is the creeping-flow or Stokes-flow approximation. It linearizes the Navier-Stokes ‘equation and enables many slow viscous flaws to be solved analytically [see Section 3.9]. 2-13 Nondimensionalize the equations of motion for free convection near a hot vertical plate, using dimensionless variables which have no direct velocity scale (°U"): ub vL x TT, tet we weak yee Tt. aaa 7, On Pa TT, where L is alength scaleand v is kinematic viscosity. ‘The equations of motion are given in the statement of Prob. 2-13. Introducing these variables into the continuity equation gives du*/Ox* + dv*/dy* = 0 , with no Parameters appearing. Substitute these variables into the momentum equation and divide by the leading coefficient. The result is the dimensionless momentum equation: aut aut aus due aber TAL? ut + ve = GT +e oe re a oy* u ax aye? ve ‘The single parameter, which occurs only in the buoyancy term, is the Grashof Number. Substitute the same variables into the energy equation and divide by the leading cocfficient. The result is the dimensionless energy equation: oT + woe t Se Here a second parameter arises, associated with the conduction term: the Prandl Number. ‘By merely nondimensionalizing the equations of motion, we conclude, correctly, that free convection problems are dependent upon both the Grashof and Prandt! numbers. [ROPRIETARY MATERIAL, © 2006 The RecGra {ited it tin permit oto toahar {its preparation you ae atident ust is Reus ou Se ‘ing tethont perms,2:14 Make a control-volume analysis of laminar flow in the pipe entrance as shown and find a formula for the friction drag on the pipe walls, Let the exit velocity be parabolic: u = C(rg? - 12), ‘The proper control volume includes the entrance and exit and passes just inside the tube walls, exposing the wall-friction drag force acting to the lefton the fluid. First relate “(C” to the inlet by using the integral continuity relation: fovea =0 = -puge + pfced-bamdr = pues cf . & “ oe C= Ue With C known, the drag is computed by applying the integral x-momentum equation: BR, = (pg pymi- Drag = forp veda) = -pURn2 + fotci?- Pitan ar a e ‘The value of the last integral on the right is mechs = xpU3}3 since C= 2U7e ‘The force equation above may thus be solved for the desired drag force: Drag = mr(p,-p,- 4pU) (Ans.) 2-15 Ilustrate “boundary-layer behavior with Prandil’s model differential equation: 2 cot 4 ye 0, with uO) =0 and uv) bounded vw assuming that € << 1. For finite e, we assume a solution u = exp(my), leading to em+m+1=0, on om, = Sf-1t W-4)) 2 ‘Then the general solution has the form u = A exp(myy) +B exp(m2y). To satisfy the initial condition u(0) = 0, we must have B=- A. Then our desired “boundary layer” type PROMMETARY MATERIAL 6 2006 The MeGrawsHatCompanie, he:PROPRIETARY MATERIAL % 2006 The MeGraw-HitCompanie, nc Untied drtation pert! ony ta tear and weston for solution is given by m, wale - 0 7) For € > 0, both m2 are negative and thus the solution is bounded at large y. For very ‘small €, we may approximate my =-1 and my = - 1/e. If we neglect the second derivative term entirely (€ = 0, corresponding to “inviscid” ‘or “slip” conditions), the basic differential equation reduces to du . ¥ Bt ¥ 7 0, withsolution w= Ce This is equivalent to the first term of the boundary-layer solution. It is impossible in this “inviscid” case 10 satisfy the “no-slip” initial condition, u(0) = 0. ‘These two solutions, inviscid and boundary-layer, are compared in the figure below. ‘The boundary-layer solutions satisfy the no-slip condition and, for small &, merge into the inviscid solution at larger y. The “boundary-layer” is very thin. This mathematical behavior can be generalized into the asymptotic expansion methods of Section 4-11. c ._—— “Laviscid™ solution nto you area sadent ing this Manu, you 36 ‘ning wbout pormason.2-16 Consider the plane, incompressible, cartesian stream function in the region 0 < y < «0 b wa ae shee where (a, b, ©) are positive constants. (a) Determine if this is an exact solution to the continuity and Navier-Stokes equations if gravity and pressure gradient are neglected. (6) What are the dimensions of (a, 6, c)? (c) If y= 0 represents a wall, does the no-slip condition hold there? (d) Is there any vorticity in the flow field? If so, what is its form” Solution: (a) First use the stream function (x,y) te determine the velocity components: WF he be O: ye oy Ox Check continuity nytt OK, satisfied. ‘The Navier-Stokes j-momentum equation simply gives 0 =, while x-momentum yields 2, 2, prety vey 2 po ace) = 4M & ete") ax oy ‘ax? ay’ ‘Thus Navier-Stokes is satisfied if a = ou! p Ans(a) (6) The units of a and b are velocity, m/s. The units of c are inverse length, m". Ans.(b) (e) At y=0, the “wall”, w = 0 (no-slip) and v= -a (wallsuetion), — Ans.(c) (d) This is a boundary-layer flow with suction, and there is vorticity, highest at the wall: - be? Ans) PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2005-The PlcGraw Hill Companies, le Linitedsiribtian permed onto iethers and educator far -28- couse preparation i you area student wsng tis Marwal you are ‘ing thou peers,2-17 Use Eq, (2-86) for density in the gravity term of the Navier-Stokes equation (2-295) and let = py in the acceleration term and let = constant. For free convection, with U replaced by 4#(pol,) and the hydrostatic assumption, Vp ~ pug =-sg k, nondimensionalize ‘Navier-Stokes and show that the Grashof number appears. Solution; With these assumptions, the Navier-Stokes equation for free-convection becomes ae = poAT-Tpgk+ BV7V ‘Now introduce the dimensionless variables from Eqs. (2-81), with the single change V* = PoLV/y, and collect terms, divide out the leading coefficient, and rearrange: S Ago BVP, POA TE ayy yetyem GTO + VHVE De® rt ‘The Grashof number appears by itself, as the coefficient of the 7* term. If we non- dimensionalized the energy equation also, the Prandt! number would appear there. 218 Flow through a well designed contraction or nozzle is nearly frictionless, as shown for example in White (2003), Sec, 6,12, Suppose that water at 20°C flows through a horizontal nozzle at a weight flow of 50 N/s. If entrance and exit diameters are 8 em and 3 cm, respectively, and the exit pressure is | atm, estimate the entrance pressure from Bernoulli's equation. PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2006-The Macrame ll Companies, a. Lnited eerution peeved onto teachers and eOacaton for ~29- (out preparation you ae student usr ie Maru you ae ting utthout premio,‘Solution; For water at 20°C, p= 998 kg/m’. First find the inlet velocity from the weight flow: we = me LDRh = oonhyo 81-5)5 (008m? . solve for Fy = 02 5 Now use one-dimensional continuity to citienase V2 im the exit and substitute into Bernoulli: orem: ao" “= 723" Evi = Spire . of meen - Pyt= n+ Ba 02)? =p + SVE 01350Pa4 228 (7.23), solve p, =127,000Pa Ans. 2-19 Show, using Gauss’ theorem [Kreyzig (1999), Sect, 9.8] that the control volume mass relation, Eq, (2-111), leads direetly to the partial differential equation of continuity, Eq. (2-6), Solution; Gauss’ theorem relates an area integral to a volume integral over the same region: ForanyvectorQ, — [ VeQalvol) = JQedA vol For continuity, Eq. (2-111), the relevant vector Q = pV. Also, for a fixed contra! volume, we can slip the time derivative inside the volume integral of Eq. (2-111) and then use the theorem 4 5 pdwol) = § Latvoty Hence Eq.(2-111} becomes acy? cr & ie dlvol) + Spvean = de +¥.pV]dool) = 0 ‘ownterae USER ms The ci Caprese (ite titi prot athens a econ or -30- ten preparation yous eden ng fe Manu ou are tah Rectiont perme,Since the elemental volume cfvol) is arbitrary, it follows that the terms inside the braces [] are identically equal to zero. "These terms are in the fact the equation of continuity, Eq. (2-6). ‘NOTE: A similar derivation for a moving control volume is given by Panton (1995), p. 88. 2-20 In discussing incompressible flow with constant 4, Eq. (2-30), we cavalierly said, * from Eq, (2-292), Be less cavalier and show that the many viscous “many terms vanis terms in Eqs. (2-292) do indeed reduce to the single vector term /V*V, in three dimensions. Solution: The writer goes ahead and laboriously works out cach viscous term for ‘constant viscosity yx é Ou, 8. Ow a 8, au aw a av, 8, au ey, BONGO UG a Ut Rt 5 Cua aIaG ta 6, ow av 8 ow, 8, du dw. 8) dw by, + LAS ales Ou it gta + ing la ao = 2, 2, 2, eB po Tg A exactly similar terms in v and w a a? at ‘The original terms split into two groups, the first of which contains V-V = 0and other is 4 multiplied by V"(uv,w). Add up these latter three termsand you get yeV7V. Anis, PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2006-The Macrame Companies, a. Lnited eerution peeved onto teachers and eOacaton for -31- (out preparation you ae student usr ie Maru you ae sing tout2-21 _ In deriving the basic equations of motion in this chapter, we skipped over the partial differential equation of angular momentum. Did we forget? Do some reading, perhaps in Lai et al. (1995) or Malvern (1997), and explain the significance of the angular momentum differential equation. Solution: In heavy-duty continuum mechanics, differential elements are allowed to have concentrated couples or moments per writ volume. Let us denote such a vector moment by J” Take Fig, 2-1 of the text and speci to moments about the 2 axis only, as shown in the sketch at right ‘Summation of moments about the central = axis gives (tye dda) dy + [tpt Otyaldy)dy Kd dz) dy/2 (ay dy dz) dx/2 = [Eny+(OtaylOx)dx]dy dz) dx’? = = T, dxdy dz Neglecting 4“-order differentials, we obtain (t-tay)dx dy dz - J, dx dy dz, or: (y+ toy) = Te. Similarly, for the other two axes, (tey = tye) ~ Ty and (te - tex) = Ty So the concentrated couple causes shearssiress differences. If T=0, ty = ty, the stress tensor is symmetric. PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2906 The Crm Companie, ne Upetetleltios exited yt tts sed savas Fr -32- paraien youre a siedent uring thes Manual yw are ‘ing it oeihout peerion.