CHAPTER II

BASIC THEORY

2.1 Concepts of Particle Swarm Optimization

Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is a population based stochastic
optimization technique developed by Dr. Eberhart and Dr. Kennedy in 1995,
inspired by social behavior of bird flocking or fish schooling. PSO shares many
similarities with evolutionary computation techniques such as Genetic Algorithms
(GA). The system is initialized with a population of random solutions and
searches for optima by updating generations. However, unlike GA, PSO has no
evolution operators such as crossover and mutation. In PSO, the potential
solutions, called particles, fly through the problem space by following the current
optimum particles. Each particle keeps track of its coordinates in the problem
space which are associated with the best solution (fitness) it has achieved so far.
(The fitness value is also stored.) This value is called pbest. Another "best" value
that is tracked by the particle swarm optimizer is the best value, obtained so far by
any particle in the neighbors of the particle. This location is called lbest. when a
particle takes all the population as its topological neighbors, the best value is a
global best and is called gbest. The particle swarm optimization concept consists
of, at each time step, changing the velocity of (accelerating) each particle toward
its pbest and gbest locations (local version of PSO). Acceleration is weighted by a
random term, with separate random numbers being generated for acceleration
toward pbest and lbest locations. In past several years, PSO has been successfully
applied in many research and application areas. It is demonstrated that PSO gets
better results in a faster, cheaper way compared with other methods. Another
reason that PSO is attractive is that there are few parameters to adjust. One
version, with slight variations, works well in a wide variety of applications.
Particle swarm optimization has been used for approaches that can be used across
a wide range of applications, as well as for specific applications focused on a
specific requirement.

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PSO carries the following merits (Kawang and Jong-Bae, 2006):
1. It is a derivative-free technique just like as other heuristic optimization
techniques.
2. Easy in its concept and coding implementation compared to other heuristic
optimization techniques.
3. It can generate high quality solutions within shorter calculation time and
stable convergence characteristics than other stochastic techniques.
4. There are several papers reported using PSO to replace the back-propagation
learning algorithm in ANN in the past several years. It showed PSO is a
promising method to train ANN. It is faster and gets better results in most
cases. It also avoids some of the problems GA met.
As stated before, PSO simulates the behaviors of bird flocking. Suppose the
following scenario: a group of birds are randomly searching food in an area. There
is only one piece of food in the area being searched. All the birds do not know
where the food is. But they know how far the food in each iteration. So what's the
best strategy to find the food? The effective one is to follow the bird which is
nearest to the food.
PSO learned from the scenario and used it to solve the optimization
problems. In PSO, each single solution is a "bird" in the search space. It is called
as "particle". All of particles have fitness values which are evaluated by the fitness
function to be optimized, and have velocities which direct the flying of the
particles. The particles fly through the problem space by following the current
optimum particles.
PSO is initialized with a group of random particles (solutions) and then
searches for optima by updating generations. Each particle is updated by
following two "best" values in every iteration. The first one is the best solution
(fitness) it has achieved so far. (The fitness value is also stored.) This value is
called pbest. Another "best" value that is tracked by the particle swarm optimizer
is the best value, obtained so far by any particle in the population. This best value
is a global best and called gbest. When a particle takes part of the population as its
topological neighbors, the best value is a local best and is called pbest

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 Initialize Iteration Number= 1

Calculation of Optimum Particle

Increase
Calculation of Pbest
Iteration
Number

Calculation of Gbest

Update velocity

Update particle

Last iteration
Number?

Print Results

Figure 2.1 Algorithm of PSO Method (Ziari, 2011)

Understanding the conceptual basis of the PSO, the task then becomes to
develop the algorithmic tools needed to implement the optimization. It is this
UCLA-PSO that is used to generate the results and examples presented in this
paper.
1. Define the Solution Space:The first step toward implementation of the PSO is
to pick the parameters that need to be optimized and give them a reasonable

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 range in which to search for the optimal solution. This requires specification
of a minimum and maximum value for each dimension in an N-dimensional
optimization. This is referred to as XminN, and X max N respectively, where
ranges from 1 to N.
2. Define a Fitness Function:This important step provides the link between the
optimization algorithm and the physical world. It is critical that a good
function be chosen that accurately represents, in a single number, the
goodness of the solution. The fitness function should exhibit a
functional dependence that is relative to the importance of each characteristic
being optimized. The fitness function and the solution space must be
specifically developed for each optimization; the rest of the implementation,
however, is independent of the physical system being optimized.
3. Initialize Random Swarm Location and Velocities:Tobegin searching for the
optimal position in the solution space, each particle begins at its own random
location with a velocity that is random both in its direction and magnitude.
Since its initial position is the only location encountered by each particle at the
runs start, this position becomes each particles respective pbest. The first
gbestis then selected from among these initial positions
4. Systematically Fly the Particles through the SolutionSpace:Each particle must
then be moved through the solution space as if it were a bee in a swarm. The
algorithm acts on each particle one by one, moving it by a small amount and
cycling through the entire swarm. The following steps are enacted on each
particle individually.
a. Evaluate the Particles Fitness, Compare to gbest, pbest: The fitness
function, using the coordinates of the particle in solution space, returns a
fitness value to be assigned to the current location. If that value is greater
than the value at the respective pbest for that particle, or the global gbest,
then the appropriate locations are replaced with the current location
b. Update the Particles Velocity:The manipulation of a particles velocity is
the core element of the entire optimization. Careful understanding of the
equation used to determine the velocity is the key to understanding the
optimization as a whole. The velocity of the particle is changed according

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to the relative locations of pbest and gbest. It is accelerated in the
directions of these locations of greatest fitness according to the following
equation:
(2.1)
Where vn is the velocity of the particle in the nth dimension and xn
is the particles coordinate in the nth dimension. This calculation is done
for each of the dimensions in an -dimensional optimization. Apparent from
this equation, the new velocity is simply the old velocity scaled by and
increased in the direction of gbest and pbest for that particular dimension.
and are scaling factors that determine the relative pull of pbest and
gbest. These are sometimes referred to as the cognitive and social rates,
respectively. is a factor determining how much the particle is influenced
by the memory of his best location, and is a factor determining how much
the particle is influenced by the rest of the swarm. Increasing encourages
exploration of the solution space as each particle moves toward its own
pbest; increasing encourages exploitation of the supposed global
maximum. More discussion on the selection of these constants will follow
in next section.
The random number function rand () returns a number between 0.0
and 1.0. It is generally the case that the two appearances of the rand()
function in (1) represent two separate calls to the function. Most
implementations use two independent random numbers to stochastically
vary the relative pull of gbest and pbest. This introduction of a random
element into the optimization is intended to simulate the slight
unpredictable component of natural swarm behavior. w is known as the
inertial weight, and this number (chosen to be between 0.0 and 1.0)
determines to what extent the particle remains along its original course
unaffected by the pull of gbestand pbest. This too is a way to balance
exploration and exploitation, and the choice of this value will be discussed
further in Section IV. The motion of the particle can be traced based on
(1). The particles furthest from gbestor pbestfeel the greatest pull from the
respective locations, andtherefore move toward them more rapidly than a

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 particle that is closer. The particle continues to gain speed in the direction
of the locations of greatest fitness until they pass over them. At that point
they begin to be pulled back in the opposite direction. It is this
overflying of the local and global maxima that many believe is one
secret to the PSOs success.
c. Move the Particle: Once the velocity has been determined it is simple to
move the particle to its next location. The velocity is applied for a given
time-step, usually chosen to be one (see Section IV for further discussion)
and new coordinate is computed for each of the dimensions according the
following equation: The particle is then moved to the location calculated
by
(2.2)
The composite nature of this algorithm composed of several independent
agents makes it especially conducive to implementation on parallel
processors
5. Repeat:After this process is carried out for each particle in the swarm, the
process is repeated starting at Step 4). In this way the particles move for
discrete time intervals before being evaluated. It is as though a snapshot is
taken of the entire swarm every second. At that time the positions of all the
particles are evaluated, and corrections are made to the positions of pbest, and
gbest before letting the particles fly around for another second. Repetition of
this cycle is continued until the termination criteria are met. There are several
methods to determine these termination criteria. The criterion most often used
in optimizations with the PSO is a maximum iteration number. With this
termination condition, the PSO ends when the process starting with Step 4)
has been repeated a user-defined number of times. Another criterion available
with the PSO is a target fitness termination condition. With this option the
PSO is run for the user-defined number of iterations, but at any time if a
solution is found that is greater than or equal to the target fitness value, then
the PSO is stopped at that point. This is useful when one has a very specific
engineering goal for the value of the fitness function, and is not necessarily
concerned with finding the best solution. In some cases if a solution is found

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 to be better than the target fitness, then the solution is good enough and there
is no reason to continue the run.

2.2 Capacitors
Capacitor is an electronic component that stores electric charge. The
capacitor is made of two close conductors (usually plates) that are separated by a
dielectric material. The plates accumulate electric charge when connected to
power source. One plate accumulates positive charge and the other plate
accumulates negative charge. The capacitance is the amount of electric charge that
is stored in the capacitor at voltage of 1 Volt. The capacitance is measured in units
of Farad (F). The capacitor disconnects current in direct current (DC) circuits and
short circuit in alternating current (AC) circuits.

2.3 Capacitance
The capacitance (C) of the capacitor is equal to the electric charge (Q)
divided by the voltage (V):

...................................................................................................... (2.3)

Where:
C is the capacitance in farad (F)
Q is the electric charge in coulombs (C) that is stored on the capacitor
V is the voltage between the capacitor's plates in volts (V)

2.4 Capacitance of plates capacitor

The capacitance (C) of the plates capacitor is equal to the permittivity ()
times the plate area (A) divided by the gap or distance between the plates (d):
............................................................................................... (2.4)

Where:
C is the capacitance of the capacitor, in farad (F) and is the permittivity of
the capacitor's dialectic material, in farad per meter (F/m).A is the area of
the capacitor's plate in square meters (m2) and d is the distance between
the capacitor's plates, in meters (m). A feature of plate capacitor is given
below:

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 Figure 2.2: A View of Plate Capacitor
The total capacitance of capacitors in series, C1, C2, C3,.. :
.................................................................. (2.5)

The total capacitance of capacitors in parallel, C1,C2,C3,.. :

CTotal = C1+C2+C3+... ............................................................................. (2.6)

2.5 Capacitor's current

The capacitor's momentary current ic(t) is equal to the capacitance of the
capacitor, times the derivative of the momentary capacitor's voltage vc(t):

..................................................................................... (2.7)

2.6 Capacitor's voltage

The capacitor's momentary voltage vc(t) is equal to the initial voltage of
the capacitor, plus 1/C times the integral of the momentary capacitor's current i c(t)
over time t:
................................................................. (2.8)

2.7 Energy of capacitor

The capacitor's stored energy EC in joules (J) is equal to the capacitance C
in farad (F) times the square capacitor's voltage VC in volts (V) divided by 2:
EC = C VC 2 / 2 ... (2.9)

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And, Angular frequency is denoted by following formula
= 2 f ................................................................................................ (2.10)
Where:
is angular velocity measured in radians per second (rad/s)
f is frequency measured in hertz (Hz).
The capacitor's reactance is referred by following equation
XC = ............................................................................................. (2.11)

2.8 Capacitor's impedance

The impedence of capacitor is given below at two forms.Cartesian form:
ZC = ................................................................................. (2.12)

Polar form:
ZC = XC-90....................................................................................... (2.13)

2.9 Capacitor types

There are various types of capacitor that is categorized in the following
table.
Table 2.1 Different types of Capacitor
Variable capacitor Variable capacitor has changeable capacitance
Electrolytic Electrolytic capacitors are used when high capacitance is
capacitor needed. Most of the electrolytic capacitors are polarized
Spherical
Spherical capacitor has a sphere shape
capacitor
Power capacitor Power capacitors are used in high voltage power systems.
Ceramic capacitor has ceramic dielectric material. Has high
Ceramic capacitor
voltage functionality.
Tantalum
Tantalum oxide dielectric material. Has high capacitance
capacitor
Mica capacitor High accuracy capacitors
Paper capacitor Paper dielectric material

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2.10 Power Losses in Distribution System
Distribution power losses divided into two categories which are technical
and non-technical losses.
1. Technical Losses
Technical losses caused by physical properties of the components of the
power system. The power dissipated in transmission lines and transformers
because of internal electrical resistance is a example. Technical losses are
naturally occurring losses (caused by action internal to the power system) and
consist mainly of power dissipation in electrical system component such as
transmission lines, power transformers, measurement system, etc. Technical
losses are possible to compute and control, provided the power system in question
consists of known quantities of loads. Technical losses occur during transmission
and distribution and involve substation, transformer, and line related losses. These
include resistive losses of the primary feeders, the distribution transformer losses
(resistive loses in windings and the core losses), resistive losses in secondary
network, resistive losses in service drops and losses in kWh meter. Losses are
inherent to the distribution of electricity and cannot be eliminated. Technical
losses are due to current flowing in the electrical network and generate the
following types of losses:
1) Copper losses those are due to I2R losses that are inherent in all inductors
because of the finite resistance of conductors
2) Dielectric losses that are losses that result from the heating effect on the
dielectric material between conductors
3) Induction and radiation losses that are produced by the electromagnetic
fields surrounding conductors.
Technical losses are possible to compute and control, provided the power
system in question consists of known quantities of loads. Technical losses can be
calculated using load flow studies. Power losses between two buses which also
called line losses calculated using load flow calculation in the power system. The
following are the causes of technical losses:
1) Harmonics distortion
2) Improper earthing at consumer end

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 3) Long single phase lines
4) Unbalanced loading
5) Losses due to overloading and low voltage
6) Losses due to poor standard of equipments.
2. Non-technical Losses
Non-Technical losses, on the other hand, are caused by actions external to
the power system or are caused by loads and condition that the Technical losses
computation failed to take into account. Non- Technical losses are more difficult
to measure because these losses are often unaccounted for by the system operators
and thus have no recorded information (Navani et al, 2003). Non-technical losses
include defective/incorrect metering, human error on installation, administrative
processes, and non-metered authorized customers, especially, theft. In several
cases, when total power losses of the system are large, it becomes evident that part
of non-technical losses (net company revenue loss) is serious because
theoretically the technical losses typically vary (Mahroki et al, 2012).

2.11 Load Flow Studies

Load flow studies (Jan, 2011) performed in major areas of power system
development and operation because of the following reasons:

1. Load-flow performed to determine the steady state operation of an electric

system. It calculates voltage drop on each feeder, voltage at each bus, and the
power flow in all branch and feeder circuits.
2. Determine the system voltage reminds within specified limits under various
contingency conditions, and whether equipment such as transformers and
conductors are overloaded
3. Load flows are often used to identify the need for additional generation,
capacitive or inductive AVR support or placement of capacitors and/ or
reactors to maintain the system voltages within the limits.
4. Losses in each branch and total system power losses are also able to be
calculated.
5. It is necessary to plan, economic scheduling and control and existing system as
well as planning its future expansion.

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6. It allows identification of real and reactive power flows, voltage profiles,
power factor and any overloads in the network. This allow engineer
investigating the performance of network under a variety operating condition.
Line power flows (Gachihi, 2009) consider the lines connecting buses i and
k. the line and the transformers at each end can be represented by a circuit with
series admittance yikand two shunt admittances yik0 and yki0 as shown on the figure

Figure 2.3 Representations of a line and transformers connected between two

buses

The current field fed by bus i into the line can be expressed as:

(2.14)

Where

.. (2.15)

V is the voltage magnitude at bus; yis admittance in the line

(2.16)

Equation 1 is rewritten as

. (2.17)

The power fed into the line from bus i is

.... (2.18)

Where S is Power, P is real power and Q is reactive power.

And

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 . (2.19)

Therefore

. (2.20)

Power fed into the line from bus k is:

... (2.11)

The power loss in the (i-k)th line is the sum of power flows determined from
equation (7) and (8) as follows:

for all i, k (2.12)

The total transmission loss can be computed by summing all the line flows of the
power system:

.. (2.13)

PLossis total power loss, Slis total power fed.

Where

.... (2.14)

Real (active) and reactive power can be expressed as follows:

.... (2.15)

(2.16)

Where is phase angle and is load angle

2.12 Literature Review

Some previous studies have been conducted by researcher to determine the
optimal placement and capacitor sizing to improve medium voltage network using
various optimization technique. Taghikhani et al (2012) conducted a study about
capacitor placement optimization in transmission system using hybrid PSO and
HBMO algorithms. Their study was proposed to know the optimal locations and
number of capacitors to improve voltage profile and reducing power loss. It was

17
applied to 14-bus IEEE transmission system. They concluded that the proposed
method has outperformed the other methods in terms of solution quality.
Kanan et al (2010) studied optimal location and sizing of capacitor in radial
distribution feeder to improve the voltage profile and reducing energy loss using
fuzzy expert system for the location of capacitor and applying particle swarm
optimization for sizing. It used Newton Raphsom algorithm to obtain the load
flow solution for the radial feeder. Voltage, power factor and real power loss
index were modeled by fuzzy membership function. Further, a fuzzy inference
system that contained a set of heuristic rules was designed to determine candidate
nodes suitable for the capacitor placement in the distribution system. The
proposed method was tested in IEEE 11 kV, 12-bus and 34-bus which simulated
on MATLAB. The results show that the total real power loss decreased 16.97%
by placing capacitor with PSO and average voltage increased 0.69%. They also
calculated that the saving cost using their proposed method attained up to $73.91.
Dehkordi et al (2011) presented approach to determine the optimal size and
placement of capacitor in Tabriz radial distribution system to minimize the cost,
reducing energy loss and improving voltage profile. They used loss sensitivity
factors as important parameters for sequencing of effective nodes in loss
reductions and PSO algorithm was used as an approach for optimal capacitor
placement. Their method was tested in 10 buses distribution system and applied in
all feeders. The result was compared with fuzzy reasoning method to determine
the performance of the proposed method. The test demonstrated the proposed
method of PSO attained loss reduction up to 11.17%. It was higher than applying
fuzzy reasoning method which attained 10.06%. Further, based on the case study,
the placement of the capacitor decreased the loss reduction 13.32%.
Ontoseno et al (2014) proposed a simplified direct search algorithm to
design compensation in distorted distribution systems resulted the total active
power loss reduction, power factor corrections, and decreasing of total harmonic
distortion level. This study used 13-bus and 34-bus system. The proposed method
reduced power loss approximately 34.449 kW for 13-bus and 117.34 kW for 34-
bus. It also increased the power factor up to 0.40 for 13-bus and 0.139 for 34-bus.
In other results, it decreased THD up to 0.62% for 13-bus and 0.94% for 43-bus.

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 Desai et al (2014) conducted a study using particle swarm optimization as a
heuristic based technique to improve line loss and reliability in placing and sizing
capacitors. The objective function is composed of the investment cost of DG and
capacitors along with loss and reliability which are converted into genuine dollars.
The proposed algorithm was tested in IEEE 69-bus. They placed 5 capacitors
which installed at bus of 11, 18, 50, 61 and 64. Energy loss decreased from 192.45
to 39.85 using the proposed method and the total cost could be managed from
$5285.03 to $3936.36.
Jovic et al (2010) proposed hybrid evolutionary and heuristic algorithm for
capacitor bank allocation. An evolutionary method based on genetic algorithm
was developed with reducing some parameters compared to the usual GA. A
heuristic stage is used to improve the optimal solution given by evolutionary
stage. A new cost-voltage node index is used in heuristic stage in order to improve
the solution. The efficiency of the proposed two-stage method has been tested in
different test networks, which were 10-bus, 23-bus, 34-bus and 69-bus. They
found that the proposed algorithm reduced energy loss up to 107.89 kW for 10-
bus, 62.35 kW for 23-bus, 62.46 kW for 34-bus and 438.36 kW for 69-bus. The
cost reduction attained $16.202, $10.065, $9.879, $34.977 for 10-bus, 23-bus, 34-
bus and 69-bus respectively. The proposed method gave significantly better
solutions in the 69-bus. The summarize of literature review described on
Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Summarize of literature reviews
No. Author Objectives Results
1 Taghikhani et Determine capacitor placement Proposed method has
al (2012) using PSO and HBMO outperformed in terms
algorithm on 14-bus of IEEE of solution quality.
transmission system
2 Kanan et al Finding optimal location and Real power loss
(2010) sizing of capacitors using fuzzy decreased 16.97%,
expert-PSO to improve voltage average voltage
and reducing energy loss on 12 increased 0.69% and it
and 14-bus of IEEE saved cost up to $73.91
transmission system.
3 Dehkordi et al Presented loss sensitivity factors Their method attained
(2011) and PSO to minimize cost, 11.17% loss reduction
reducing energy loss and on simulation and it
improving voltage profile. It reduced 13.32% on the

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 was tested in 10-bus distribution
system in Tabriz.
4 Ontoseno et al Designing compensation in
(2014) distorted distribution system
resulted power loss reduction,
power factor corrections, and
decreasing THD level using
simplified direct search
algorithm. It used 13 and 34-bus
system
5 Desai et al Proposed PSO to improve line
(2014) loss and reliability of capacitor
placement. It used 5 capacitors
on 69-bus of IEEE system.
6 Jovic et al Proposed hybrid evolutionary
(2010) and heuristic algorithm for
capacitor allocations. It was
tested on 10, 23, 34, and 69-bus
system.
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case study
Power loss decreased
34.4 kW and 117.3 kW
for 13 and 34-bus.
Power factor increased
up to 0.40% and
0.13%. THD decreased
0.62% and 0.94%.
Energy loss decreased
52.60 kW and total
cost could be managed
up to $1348.67
The best results that
attained was reducing
energy loss up to
438.36 kW for 69-bus
and reducing cost up to
$34.97 for 69-bus.