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Design: 1 Definitions 2 Design As A Process
Design: 1 Definitions 2 Design As A Process
Design is the creation of a plan or convention for the con- ciplines. This allows for many diering philosophies
struction of an object, system or measurable human inter- and approaches toward the subject (see Philosophies and
action (as in architectural blueprints, engineering draw- studies of design, below).
ings, business processes, circuit diagrams, and sewing The person designing is called a designer, which is also
patterns).[1] Design has dierent connotations in dif-
a term used for people who work professionally in one
ferent elds (see design disciplines below). In some of the various design areas, usually also specifying which
cases, the direct construction of an object (as in pottery, area is being dealt with (such as a fashion designer, con-
engineering, management, coding, and graphic design) is cept designer, web designer or interior designer). A de-
also considered to use design thinking. signers sequence of activities is called a design pro-
Designing often necessitates considering the aesthetic, cess. The scientic study of design is called design sci-
functional, economic, and sociopolitical dimensions of ence.[5][6][7][8]
both the design object and design process. It may in- Additional denitions, Design is planning to manufac-
volve considerable research, thought, modeling, inter- ture an object, system, component or structure. Then,
active adjustment, and re-design. Meanwhile, diverse the word design can be used as a noun or a verb. In a
kinds of objects may be designed, including clothing, broader sense, the design is an applied art and engineering
graphical user interfaces, skyscrapers, corporate identi- that integrate with technology.
ties, business processes, and even methods or processes
of designing.[2] With a design denition is fairly broad, the design has a
myriad of specications that professionals in their elds,
Thus design may be a substantive referring to a categor- and yet there is one institution that can collect all of the
ical abstraction of a created thing or things (the design of
manifesto of the design as a whole, although it does not
something), or a verb for the process of creation, as is mean we do not nd the schools that initiated the birth of
made clear by grammatical context. It is an act of cre- designers.
ativity and innovation.
1
2 2 DESIGN AS A PROCESS
3. the design process is understood in terms of a dis- 1. Designers do not work this way extensive empirical
crete sequence of stages. evidence has demonstrated that designers do not act
as the rational model suggests.[21]
The Rational Model is based on a rationalist philoso- 2. Unrealistic assumptions goals are often unknown
phy[10] and underlies the waterfall model,[16] systems de- when a design project begins, and the requirements
velopment life cycle,[17] and much of the engineering de- and constraints continue to change.[22]
sign literature.[18] According to the rationalist philosophy,
design is informed by research and knowledge in a pre-
dictable and controlled manner. Technical rationality is 2.2 The Action-Centric Model
at the center of the process.
The Action-Centric Perspective is a label given to a col-
lection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to
2.1.1 Example sequence of stages The Rational Model.[12] It posits that:
Implementation introducing the designed so- At least two views of design activity are consistent with
lution into the environment the Action-Centric Perspective. Both involve three basic
activities.
Evaluation and conclusion summary of pro-
cess and results, including constructive criti- In the Reection-in-Action paradigm, designers alter-
cism and suggestions for future improvements nate between "framing", making moves, and evaluate
moves. Framing refers to conceptualizing the problem,
Redesign any or all stages in the design process i.e., dening goals and objectives. A move is a tenta-
repeated (with corrections made) at any time before, tive design decision. The evaluation process may lead to
during, or after production. further moves in the design.[11]
In the Sensemaking-Coevolution-Implementation
Each stage has many associated best practices. [20]Framework, designers alternate between its three titular
activities. Sensemaking includes both framing and
evaluating moves. Implementation is the process of
2.1.2 Criticism of the Rational Model constructing the design object. Coevolution is the
process where the design agent simultaneously renes its
The Rational Model has been widely criticized on two mental picture of the design object based on its mental
primary grounds picture of the context, and vice versa.[25]
3
Visual design
Army design methodology[28]
Web design
Applied arts
Architecture
4 Philosophies and studies of de-
Automotive design
sign
Biological design
Communication design There are countless philosophies for guiding design as
the design values and its accompanying aspects within
Conguration design modern design vary, both between dierent schools
of thought and among practicing designers.[29] Design
Design management philosophies are usually for determining design goals. A
Engineering design design goal may range from solving the least signicant
individual problem of the smallest element, to the most
Experience design holistic inuential utopian goals. Design goals are usu-
ally for guiding design. However, conicts over imme-
Fashion design diate and minor goals may lead to questioning the pur-
Game design pose of design, perhaps to set better long term or ulti-
mate goals. John Heskett, a 20th-century British writer
Graphic design on design claimed, Design, stripped to its essence, can
be dened as the human nature to shape and make our en-
Information architecture vironment in ways without precedent in nature, to serve
Information design our needs and give meaning to our lives.[30]
Industrial design
4.1 Philosophies for guiding design
Instructional design
Design philosophies are fundamental guiding principles
Interaction design
that dictate how a designer approaches his/her practice.
Interior design Reections on material culture and environmental con-
cerns (sustainable design) can guide a design philosophy.
Landscape architecture One example is the First Things First manifesto which
was launched within the graphic design community and
Lighting design
states We propose a reversal of priorities in favor of
Modular design more useful, lasting and democratic forms of communi-
cation a mindshift away from product marketing and
Motion graphic design toward the exploration and production of a new kind
of meaning. The scope of debate is shrinking; it must
Organization design
expand. Consumerism is running uncontested; it must
Product design be challenged by other perspectives expressed, in part,
through the visual languages and resources of design.[31]
Process design
In The Sciences of the Articial by polymath Herbert A.
Service design Simon, the author asserts design to be a meta-discipline
4 5 TERMINOLOGY
of all professions. Engineers are not the only profes- Speculative design, the speculative design process
sional designers. Everyone designs who devises courses doesnt necessarily dene a specic problem to
of action aimed at changing existing situations into pre- solve, but establishes a provocative starting point
ferred ones. The intellectual activity that produces mate- from which a design process emerges. The result
rial artifacts is no dierent fundamentally from the one is an evolution of uctuating iteration and reec-
that prescribes remedies for a sick patient or the one that tion using designed objects to provoke questions and
devises a new sales plan for a company or a social wel- stimulate discussion in academic and research set-
fare policy for a state. Design, so construed, is the core of tings.
all professional training; it is the principal mark that dis-
tinguishes the professions from the sciences. Schools of
engineering, as well as schools of architecture, business, 4.3 Methods of designing
education, law, and medicine, are all centrally concerned
with the process of design.[32] Main article: Design methods
A design approach is a general philosophy that may or Exploring possibilities and constraints by focusing
may not include a guide for specic methods. Some are to critical thinking skills to research and dene prob-
guide the overall goal of the design. Other approaches are lem spaces for existing products or servicesor the
to guide the tendencies of the designer. A combination of creation of new categories; (see also Brainstorming)
approaches may be used if they don't conict. Redening the specications of design solutions
Some popular approaches include: which can lead to better guidelines for traditional
design activities (graphic, industrial, architectural,
Sociotechnical system design, a philosophy and etc.);
tools for participative designing of work arrange- Managing the process of exploring, dening, creat-
ments and supporting processes - for organizational ing artifacts continually over time
purpose, quality, safety, economics and customer
requirements in core work processes, the quality of Prototyping possible scenarios, or solutions that in-
peoples experience at work and the needs of society crementally or signicantly improve the inherited
situation
KISS principle, (Keep it Simple Stupid), which
strives to eliminate unnecessary complications. Trendspotting; understanding the trend process.
User-centered design, which focuses on the needs, 5.1 Design and art
wants, and limitations of the end user of the de-
signed artifact. Today, the term design is widely associated with the
applied arts as initiated by Raymond Loewy and teachings
Critical design uses designed artifacts as an em- at the Bauhaus and Ulm School of Design (HfG Ulm) in
bodied critique or commentary on existing values, Germany during the 20th century.
morals, and practices in a culture.
The boundaries between art and design are blurred,
Service design designing or organizing the experi- largely due to a range of applications both for the term
ence around a product, the service associated with a 'art' and the term 'design'. Applied arts has been used
products use. as an umbrella term to dene elds of industrial design,
graphic design, fashion design, etc. The term 'decorative
Transgenerational design, the practice of making arts' is a traditional term used in historical discourses to
products and environments compatible with those describe craft objects, and also sits within the umbrella
physical and sensory impairments associated with of applied arts. In graphic arts (2D image making that
human aging and which limit major activities of ranges from photography to illustration), the distinction
daily living. is often made between ne art and commercial art, based
5.3 Design and production 5
An example of a business workow process using Business Pro- [11] Schn 1983
cess Modeling Notation.
[12] Ralph 2010
Process design (in contrast to design process men- [16] Royce 1970
tioned above) refers to the planning of routine steps of a [17] Bourque and Dupuis 2004
process aside from the expected result. Processes (in gen-
eral) are treated as a product of design, not the method of [18] Pahl et al. 2007
design. The term originated with the industrial designing
of chemical processes. With the increasing complexities [19] Cross, N., 2006. T211 Design and Designing: Block 2, p.
99. Milton Keynes: The Open University.
of the information age, consultants and executives have
found the term useful to describe the design of business [20] Ullman, David G. (2009) The Mechanical Design Pro-
processes as well as manufacturing processes. cess, Mc Graw Hill, 4th edition ISBN 0-07-297574-1
[26] Thomas Fischer: Design Enigma. A typographical Dorst, K.; Cross, N. (2001). Creativity in
metaphor for enigmatic processes, including designing, in: the design process: Co-evolution of problem-
T. Fischer, K. De Biswas, J.J. Ham, R. Naka, W.X. solution. Design Studies. 22 (2): 425437.
Huang, Beyond Codes and Pixels: Proceedings of the doi:10.1016/0142-694X(94)00012-3.
17th International Conference on Computer-Aided Ar-
chitectural Design Research in Asia, p. 686 Dorst, K., and Dijkhuis, J. Comparing paradigms
for describing design activity, Design Studies (16:2)
[27] Jane Anderson: Architectural Design, Basics Architec-
1995, pp 261274.
ture 03, Lausanne, AVA academia, 2011, ISBN 978-2-
940411-26-9, p. 40 Faste, R. (2001). The Human Challenge in Engi-
[28] Headquarters, Department of the Army (July 2015). ATP neering Design (PDF). International Journal of En-
5-0.1: Army Design Methodology. Washington D.C.: gineering Education. 17 (45): 327331.
United States Army.
McCracken, D.D.; Jackson, M.A. (1982). Life
[29] Holm, Ivar (2006). Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and cycle concept considered harmful. SIGSOFT
Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations and underly- Software Engineering Notes. 7 (2): 2932.
ing assumptions shape the built environment. Oslo School doi:10.1145/1005937.1005943.
of Architecture and Design. ISBN 82-547-0174-1.
Newell, A., and Simon, H. Human problem solving,
[30] Heskett, John (2002). Toothpicks and Logos: Design in Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1972.
Everyday Life. Oxford University Press.
Pahl, G., and Beitz, W. Engineering design: A sys-
[31] First Things First 2000 a design manifesto. manifesto
tematic approach, Springer-Verlag, London, 1996
published jointly by 33 signatories in: Adbusters, the
AIGA journal, Blueprint, Emigre, Eye, Form, Items fall ISBN 3-540-19917-9.
1999/spring 2000
Pahl, G., Beitz, W., Feldhusen, J., and Grote, K.-
[32] Simon (1996), p. 111. H. Engineering design: A systematic approach, (3rd
ed.), Springer-Verlag, 2007 ISBN 1-84628-318-3.
[33] Mark Getlein, Living With Art, 8th ed. (New York: 2008)
121. Ralph, P. Comparing two software design process
theories, International Conference on Design Sci-
[34] American Psychological Association (APA): design. The
ence Research in Information Systems and Tech-
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,
nology (DESRIST 2010), Springer, St. Gallen,
Fourth Edition. Retrieved January 10, 2007
Switzerland, 2010, pp. 139153.
[35] American Psychological Association (APA): engineering.
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Lan- Royce, W.W. Managing the development of large
guage, Fourth Edition. Retrieved January 10, 2007 software systems: Concepts and techniques, Pro-
ceedings of Wescon, 1970.
[36] Faste 2001
Schn, D.A. The reective practitioner: How pro-
fessionals think in action, Basic Books, USA, 1983.
8 Bibliography Simon, H.A. The sciences of the articial, MIT
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