BASIC ELECTRICAL IDEAS

AND UNITS
Electron Theory of Electricity

All matter is composed of atoms which are

made up of fundamental subatomic particle
called protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Each atom represents a sort of microscopic
solar system in which the nucleus contains
protons and around which the electrons
revolve in definite orbits.
 Orbital Electrons

All negatively charged electrons revolve

about the positive nucleus in definite orbits
Basically, there is a force of attraction
between the positive nucleus and each
negative electron
This force is counterbalanced by one that is
determined by the orbital motion of the
electron

Energy of the revolving electron

The energy required to displace the electron from the

nucleus so that it may revolve at some fixed radius
from the atomic center
The energy represented by its motion around the
nucleus, and
The energy that results from its spin on its own axis
 As the atoms become increasingly complex, the
positive charge of the nucleus is strengthened by
acquiring additional protons
Electrons rises proportionately to provide a structure
that is electrically neutral
Neutrons are also added to the nucleus but have no
effect upon the atomic charge
Protons and neutrons are bunched together in a
central core
Electrons are presumed to revolve in orbits or shells
around the nucleus
 Electron Shell and Orbits

Electron orbit the nucleus of an atom at certain

distance from the nucleus
Electrons near the nucleus have less energy than
those in more distant orbits
Energy levels
- orbit from the nucleus corresponds to a certain
energy level
- orbits are grouped into shells (energy band)
- each shell has a fixed maximum number of
electrons
- the shells are designated K, L, M, N and so on
- with K being the closest to the nucleus
Valence Electrons and Conductivity in
Solids

the outermost shell s known as the valence shell and

electrons in this shell are called valence electrons
Solid materials may be classified as conductors,
insulators, and semiconductors
Classification depends upon the number of valence
electrons
-Conductor : material that easily conducts electric
current. Valence electron<4
ex. Copper, silver, gold and aluminum
- Insulators: material that does not conduct electrical
current under normal conditions.
valence electron>4
ex. Phosphorus
- Semiconductor: material that is between
conductors and insulators in its ability to conduct
electrical current
valence electron = 4
ex. Germanium, silicon and carbon
Copper atom
Semiconductor material
Electric Charge and Electric Current

Electric charge unit coulombs

For each negatively charged electron it is 1.59 x1019 coulomb
Or one coulomb of electric charge is 6.24 x10 e
18

When one coulomb of electric charge passes a given

point every second the electric current is said to be
one ampere
One coulomb per second is one ampere
Q
I
t
Where: I = current, Ampere
Q = charge, coulombs
t = time, sec, during which electrons move
If the current is constant, charge is transferred at a
constant rate Q= It
For non-uniform current, the transferred charge will
vary with current changes, q=it
 Where: q = geometrically an area
i = plotted along y-axis
t = plotted along x-axis
Variations of current with time

i (ampere)

t ( seconds)
 The shaded area represents the number of coulombs
q xtransferred in t x sec
Example:

The current in a conductor changes uniformly from

zero to 2 amp in 3sec, remains steady at 2 amp for 6
sec, and then drops uniformly to 1.5 amp in 8 sec.
Calculate the total amount of charge transferred in
the elapsed time of 17 sec.
Between t= 1ms and t = 14ms, 8C of charge pass
though a wire. What is the current?
Electromotive Force (EMF)

Also known as electric pressure

Commonly called voltage
Unit is volt ( V)
When an emf is applied to the ends of a conductor it
is proper to refer to the existence of a potential
difference between such ends
Several methods are employed to develop an emf :
- combining certain kinds of metals and
chemicals into a device (battery)
- building a machine which generates voltage
when conductors are rotated near magnets.
 Electrical Resistance and Resistivity

Brief History
One of the fundamental relationships of circuit
theory is that between voltage, current and
resistance
This relationship and the properties of resistance
were investigated by the German physicist Georg
Simon Ohm
Ohm found that current depended on both voltage
and resistance.
From his investigation he was able to define the
resistance of a wire and show that the current was
 inversely proportional to this resistance
Resistance of Conductors
resistance of a material depends upon several
factors:
- type of material
- length of the conductor
- cross-sectional area
- temperature
 theresistance of a conductor is dependent
upon the type of material
the resistance of a metallic conductor is
directly proportional to the length of the
conductor
the resistance of a metallic conductor is
inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area of the conductor
 Factors governing the resistance of a conductor
at a given temperature may be expressed
mathematically:
l
R
A
Where: = resistivity
l = length
A = cross-sectional area
 Notes:
is the constant of proportionality called
resistivity
o Resistivity has a unit of -m if the length is in
meter and area is in meter square, and a unit of
CM-ohms/ ft if the length is in feet and the area
is in CM
Since most conductor are circular,

cross-sectional
d
2
area
d 2
A r2
2 4
 units of cross-sectional area of a conductor:
- square meter
- sq ft.
- Circular Mil (CM)
- Square-Mil (sq.mil)
Circular-Mil (CM)

A wire that has a diameter of 1 mil has an area of 1

circular mil (CM)
d = 1 mil
d2
A
4

A (1mil ) 2
4

A sq.mil
4

1CM sq.mil
4
If d = 0.001 inch

A (0.001inch) 2
4

A x106 in 2
4

1CM x106 in 2
4
Square-Mil

Unit of cross-section of small conductor whose side

is equal to one mil
s= 1 mil

As 2

A (1mil ) 2
4
1sq.mil CM

 If s = 0.001 inch

A (0.001inch) 2
A 1x106 in 2

For conversion purposes

4
CM x no. of sq mils


sq. mils x no.of CM
4
For a wire with a diameter of N mils (N =
any positive number)

d2 N2
A sq. mils
4 4
4
substituting CM 1 sq mil, we have

N2 N2 4
A sq.mils ( )( CM ) N 2CM
4 4
 Since d = N, the area in circular mils is simply equal
to the diameter in mils square, that is,

ACM (dmils ) 2
Volume to Resistance

Since the volume of the body is V=LA

l
from R ;
A
V
if L
A

R

V A
A
V
R 2
A
 V
If A=
L
L
R
V
L
2
L
R
V
Resistivity of Common Elements and Alloy @ 200C

Elements/ Alloy Resistivity (-CM/ft)

Copper, annealed 10.37
Aluminum 17
Tungsten 33
Zinc 36
Nickel 47
Manganin 265
Nichrome 600
Examples

Most homes use solid copper wire having a diameter

of 1.63 mm to provide electrical distribution to
outlets and light sockets. Determine the resistance of
a 75 meters solid copper wire having the above
diameter.
Calculate the resistance of the following conductor at
200C (a) material: copper with length 1000ft and
area of 3, 200CM (b) material: aluminum with
length 4 miles and diameter of 162 mils
 A kilometer of wire having a diameter of 11.77mm
and a resistance of 0.031 is drawn so that its
diameter is 5mm. What does its resistance become?
A copper wire whose diameter is 0.162 in has a
resistance of 0.4. If the wire drawn through a series
of dies until its diameter is reduced to 0.032 in.
What is the resistance of the lengthened conductor?
Assume that the resistivity remain unchanged.
 Seatwork

A copper wire of unknown length has a diameter of

0.25 in. and a resistance of 0.28 ohm. By several
successive passes through drawing dies the diameter
of the wire is reduced to 0.05 in. Assuming that the
resistivity of the copper remains unchanged in the
drawing process, calculate the resistance of the
reduced wire.
Calculate the resistance of 1km long cable, composed
of 19 strands of similar copper conductors, each
strand being 1.32 mm in diameter. Allow 5% increase
in length for the lay or twist of each strand in
complete cable. Resistivity of copper maybe taken as
1.723 x 10-8-m.
A piece of silver wire has a resistance of 1 ohm. What
will be the resistance of manganin wire of one-third
of the length and one third the diameter, if the
specific resistance of manganin is 30 times that of
silver.
 Temperature-Resistance Effect

As Temperature increases, more electrons will

escape their orbits, causing additional collision
within the conductor.
Any increase in the number of collision translates
into a relative increase or decrease in resistance.
For most conducting materials, the increase in the
number of collisions translate into a relatively linear
increase in resistance, as shown in Figure 3-6.
The rate at which the resistance of a material
changes with the variation on temperature is called
Temperature Coefficient () of the material.
 Any material for which resistance increases as
temperature increases is to have a positive temp.
coefficient (+)
For semiconductor materials, as the temperature
increases the number of charge electron increases,
resulting in more current.
Therefore, an increase in temp. results in a decrease
in resistance.
Semiconductors have negative temp. coefficient (-
)
 Referring to fig 3-6, applying similar triangle we
obtain
R2 R1

t2 T t1 T
This expression may be rewritten to solve for the
resistance, R2 at any temp t2 as follows
t2 T
R2 R1
t1 T
 Derived formula of R2 in terms of

R2 R1 1 1 (t2 t1 )
where:1 temperature coefficient of t1
 Examples:

The tungsten filament in an incandescent lamp has a

resistance of 9.8 at a room temp of 200 C and a
resistance of 132 at normal operating temp. Using
the temp coefficient formula for resistance calculate
the temperature of the heated filament.
A platinum coil has a resistance of 3.146 at 400 C
and 3.767 at 1000 C. Find the resistance at 00 C and
the temp coefficient at 400 C.
Two coils connected in series have a resistance of
600 and 300 with temp coefficient of 0.1% and
0.4% respectively at 200 C. Find the resistance of the
combination at a temp of 500 C. What is the effective
temp coefficient of the combination.
 Seatwork

An aluminum wire has a resistance of 20 at room

temp. (200 C). Calculate the resistance of the same
wire at temp of -40o C, 100o C and 200o C.
Tungsten wire used as filament in incandescent light
bulbs. Current in the wire causes the wire to reach
extremely high temp. Determine the temp. of the
filament of a 100W light bulb if the resistance at
room temp. is measured to be 11.7 and when the
light is on, the resistance is determined to be 144
Calculate the temp coefficient of resistance of
aluminum at 20 C. Using the value obtained,
determine the resistance of an aluminum conductor
at 620 C if its resistance at 20 C is 7.5 .
The resistance of electric device is 46 at 250 C. If
the temp coefficient of resistance of the material is
0.00454 at 200 C, determine the temp. of the device
when its resistance is 92.
 Rules in Sizing a Conductor
1. Every change of three gage number changes the
circular-mil area and resistance in the ratio of 2 to 1
or 1 to 2, depending upon the direction of the
change.
2. Every change of 10 gage numbers changes the
circular-mil area and resistance in the ratio of 10 to
1 or 1 to 10, depending upon the direction of the
change
3. Every change of one gage number changes the
circular-mil area and resistance in the ratio of 1
to 1 or 1 to 1 1/4 , depending upon the direction of
the change
4. A No. 10 wire may be assumed, for practical
purposes, to have a diameter of 100 mils, an area of
10, 000 cir mils, and a resistance of 1 ohm per
1,000ft.
5. A No.5 wire has a weight of 100lb per 1,000ft;
moreover, for every change of three gage numbers
the weight is halved or doubled , depending upon the
direction of the change
6. A No.15 wire has 100ft per lb (very nearly);
moreover, for every change of three gage numbers
the number of feet per pounds is doubled or halved,
depending upon the direction of the change.
7. Every change of 10 gage numbers changes the
pounds per 1,000ft and the feet per pound in the
ratio of 10 to 1, depending upon the direction of the
change
WIRE TABLE OF A COPPER WIRE
CONTINUATION
 Example

Without consulting the wire table, determine the

following data for a No.17 copper wire: (a) circular
mils; (b) resistance per 1,000ft; (c) pounds per
1,000ft; (d) feet per pound