Advanced Topic in Math for Teachers

Subgroups
(Reporter: Cheryl M. Roncal, DILE-Math)

Definition of Subgroup:
Let G , be a group. A subgroup of G is a nonempty subset H G with the property that H , is a

group. (Note: In order for H to be a subgroup of G, H needs to be a group with respect to the operation that it inherits
from G. That is, H and G always carry the same binary operation.)
Also, H G but H G , to denote that H is a proper subgroup of G.

Z ,+ + ,
Example: but Q is not a subgroup of R ,+ .
R ,+

Definition of Proper and Trivial Subgroups

If G is a group, then the subgroup consisting of G itself is the improper subgroup of G. All other subgroups are
proper subgroups. The subgroup {e} is the trivial subgroup of G. All other subgroups are nontrivial.
(Trivial has only one element)

Theorem:
A subset H of group G is a subgroup if:
(i.) e H ; (Identity element lies in H.)
(ii.) x , y H , then xy H ; (H is closed under the operation of G.)
(iii.) x H , then x1 H . (Its inverse also lies in H.)

Proof:
The fact that H G then conditions 1, 2, and 3 must hold follows at once from the definition of a subgroup.
Conversely, suppose H is a subset of G such that conditions 1, 2, and 3 hold. By 2 (
x , y H , then xy H ), we have at once that G2 (There is an element e in G such that for all x G,
ex=xe=x ) is satisfied. Also G3 (Corresponding to each a G, there is an element a' in G such that
aa' =a'a=e x H , then x1 H G1
) is satisfied by 3 ( ). It remains to check the associative axiom, . But
for all a, b, c H it is true that (ab)c = a(bc) in H, for we may actually view this as an equation in G, where the
associative law holds. Hence H G .

Example:
p
1. Prove that Q ={

/ p and q are non-zero integers} is a subgroup of R .
q
Solution:

(i.) In R , the identity element is 1.
1 p
Writing 1 in the form will imply a form of .
1 q
1
e of Q is Q
1
a c
(ii.) Consider arbitrary elements of Q : , be the elements of Q .
b d
a c
Show that of Q .
b d
a c ac
=
b d bd
ac p ac
Note ac and bd are integers, so the form will imply the form , thus Q .
bd q bd
1 1
a a a a
(iii.) Let
b
Q . Its inverse is
1
b ()
. Show that
1

b b () =1.

a a a
Similarly
b () =1 . inverse is
b b
. ()
Q is a subgroup of R .

2. Prove that S= { 3 /k Z } is a subgroup of R .
k

Solution:
(i.) e=1 1 S ? Yes, because 1=30 and 30 is in the form 3k .
(ii.) Let a ja j be elements of S.
Show: a j a j=a i+ j . The result is in the form of ainteger which is also of S.
i+j
a S .
k ( 1)
(iii.) ak S , then inverse is a .
a
( 1 )
( k ) =ak =ak (1 ) .

Show ak ak =1 .
k k kk 0
a a =a =a =1

S is a subgroup of R .
Exercise:
1. Prove that the set E of even integers is a subgroup of Z.

Solution:
(i.) Even integers is in the form 2m.
2m E .
e=0 2m+0=0+2 m=2 m
(ii.) Let 2m, 2n E .
Show that 2m + 2n E .
2m + 2n = 2(m + n), m+n is an integer.
2(m + n) E .
(iii.) Let 2m E .
The inverse of 2m is 2m . Then, 2m 2m = 0.
0 is an identity element, thus 2m is the inverse.

E is a subgroup of Z.

Cyclic Subgroups

Definition:
The group a is called the cyclic subgroup generated by a. a is the generator for G.

When a generates a , it means that a is created entirely out of the element of a. a is the
smallest possible subgroup of G which contains a.

If H G and a H , then H must contain the elements a , a2 , a3 , , since H is closed. It must also
contain e and a1 , hence all the elements , a2 , a1 ,e , a , a2 , , all powers of a. That is, a H .

Example:
1. Find the subgroup 5 of Z.
Solution: 5 = 1 5
5+5=2 5 5=1 5
5+5+5=3 5 5+ (5 ) =2 5
n 5=
5+5++ 5=n 5
5+e=5 5 ={ k 5/k Z }
n 5+ e=n 5

2. Find the subgroup

20 of Z 24 .
20
Solution: 20= 120=
20= 0
20
= { 20
, 16
, 12
, 8 , 4,
0 }
40=
20= 16 140=
20= 20

20= 60=12
20=160=16
80=
20= 8 180=
20= 12

20=100= 4
20=200=8
Exercise: Find the subgroup 4 of Z 18 .
Solution: 4= 4 2
4= 0
4=
4=8 6
4= 4
4=
12
4= 10
4=

4 = { 4 , 8 , 12, 16 , 2 , 6, 10 , 14 , 0 }
16
4= 14
4=

Theorem:
Let G be a group and a G . Then H= { ann Z } is a subgroup of G and is the smallest subgroup of
G that contains a, that is, every subgroup containing a contains H.

Proof:
Check the three conditions for a subset of a group to give a subgroup. Since ar a s=ar +s for r , s Z ,
the product in G of two elements of H is again in H. Thus H is closed under the group operation of G. Also
a =e , so e H and for a H , a H a a =e . Hence, all the conditions are satisfied, and, H G .
0 r r r r