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A Mathematical Model of Drying Processes: April and in L o RN
A Mathematical Model of Drying Processes: April and in L o RN
~
Printed in Great Britain Q 1989 Perganm Press plc
Abstract-A drying model is proposed which may be used to describe drying behavior of hygroscopic and
non-hygroscopic materials. The constant rate, the first falling rate and the second falling rate periods in
drying are addressed separately. The concept of bound water conductivity is introduced. Movement of
bound water and its contribution to moisture transfer within hygroscopic materials are discussed. The
bound water conductivity is found to be affected by moisture content as well as desorption isotherms of
the drying material. The major internal moisture transfer mechanisms are considered to be capillary flow
of free water in the wet region and movement of bound water and vapor transfer in the sorption region.
The convective heat and mass transfa coe&ients are assumed to vary with the surface free water content
in the first falling rate period. Three systems with different hygroscopic properties, wool, brick and corn
kernels, are chosen to evaluate the validity of this model. The moving finite element method is used to
solve the differential equations numerically. The predicted drying curves and the temperature and moisture
distributions compare favorably with reported experimental results.
NOMENCLATURE
Szentgyorgyi and Molnar [16] proposed a two-zone scopic properties influence the contribution of each
model based on the diffusion model. By assuming that mechanism and consequently affect the drying rate.
a constant moisture content is equal to that in sorption In general, moisture transport in the dry zone is not
equilibrium with the drying medium in the dry zone, simple, and the moisture content in each zone is not
a solution was obtained. A fairly satisfactory approxi- constant. Furthermore, for porous materials, the con-
mation of temperature distribution was predicted, as vective mass transfer coefficient varies with the surface
compared with the experimental results. moisture content 121, 221.
Most of the models described above have not been The convective heat and mass transfer coefficients
able to predict drying rates and the dist~bution of at the surface are important parameters in drying
temperature and moisture content for both hygro- processes ; they are functions of velocity and physical
scopic and non-hygroscopic materials over a wide properties of the drying medium 1231,and in general,
range of boundary conditions and drying regimes. can be expressed in the form
This is because, the moisture transport in materials is
caused by a variety of mechanisms [ 1, 17-201, each of Nu = a Reh Pr (1)
which is prevalent under different conditions. The
local moisture content, temperature and the hygro- Sh = a Reh SC (2,
A mathematical model of drying processes 299
When the surface moisture content reaches its laries may be assumed to follow the Hagen-Poiseuille
maximum sorptive value, no free water exists. The law [23]
surface temperature will rise rapidly, signaling the
start of the second falling rate period, during which a
receding evaporation front often appears, dividing
the system into two regions, the wet region and the The total mass flow rate of free water can then be
sorption region. Inside the evaporation front, the expressed in terms of the local velocity and cor-
material is wet, i.e. the voids contain free water and responding capillary radius, r,, which is defined as the
the main mechanism of moisture transfer is capillary radius of the largest capillary in which free water
flow. Outside the front, no free water exists. All water exists, i.e.
is in the sorptive or bound water state and the main
mechanisms of moisture transfer are movement of
bound water and vapor transfer. Evaporation takes
place at the front as well as in the whole sorption
region, while vapor flows through the sorption region
to the surface. where y(r) is the pore volume density function, defined
With the above definitions of the constant rate, as
first falling rate and second falling rate periods, the
characteristics of most drying processes can be
described mathematically.
Since the internal moisture transport mechanisms, The relationship between the pore saturation and the
the desorption isotherms, and the convective heat and pore density function is
mass transfer coefficients are all important factors in
the model, they will be discussed in turn. c
r@fdr 1
j_
s=;,__ =_ y(r) dr (8)
Capifkiry flow cf freewater rma ,?s lw
In porous materials, voids provide capillary paths r y(r) dr
Jr,,,
for free water to flow. The driving force for capillary
flow is tension gradient or pressure gradient. The per- where rmax is the overall largest capillary in the porous
tinent expression [9,10] for capillary IIow of free water material. Comparing equations (4) and (5) with equa-
is given by tion (7}, iu, may be expressed as
J,,. = -p,:(VP,-VP,-p,g).
g; ~(4 dr
ln,,n (9)
or a function of free water content. Consequently, the ductivity depends on the microscopic structure of the
following form is obtained to predict the capillary material and is of the order of lo- m* s- [18, 201.
conductivity of free water for non-hygroscopic Therefore, in the wet region, it can be neglected com-
materials : pared with the capillary conductivity of free water.
However, in the sorption region, both movement of
D, = (1.604T-394.3)jK, bound water and vapor transfer play important roles
(13)
in moisture transfer. The transport equation for
bound water may be expressed as
and similarly, for hygroscopic materials
Jb = -,,+P = -+P,. (14)
D, = (1.604T- 394.3)j?K,,
Since the bound water in the sorption region is in
equilibrium with vapor in the gas phase, equation (14)
Movement of bound water may be written as
Movement of bound water, sometimes known as
liquid moisture transfer near dryness or sorption
diffusion, has been studied by a number of inves-
Jb = +P~~VU= -pOD,VU (15)
tigators [17-20,24,28]. It has been shown that liquid
moisture transfer still exists in the sorption region and where Db is an Arrhenius-type function of tem-
is a strong function of free water content. Whitaker perature [17, 301. Thus the bound water conductivity
[20,29] studied gas phase convective transport in the may be written as
dry region which contains irreducible water and con-
cluded that there could be a liquid moisture flux in that
region. Bramhall [28] proposed a sorption diffusion
model for the wood drying process which assumed where Ed is defined as the activation energy of move-
that, when the adsorbed water molecules receive ment of bound water. Experimental data in the litera-
enough energy to break the sorptive bonds, they may ture [28,30] show that the activation energy of bound
leave and migrate until captured by other sites. The water movement is different from the vaporization
energy is then received by other molecules and the heat of free water because the sorption characteristics
process is repeated. He also tried to show that the of the material influence the movement of bound
activation energy of sorption diffusion is the same as water. Recently, Okazaki and co-workers [31, 321
the evaporation heat of water. studied moisture transfer mechanisms in sorptive
Movement of bound water however cannot be sim- porous materials by including the effect of condensate
ply defined as a diffusion process, which often creates flow in fine capillaries, which may also be regarded as
confusion in the analysis of liquid moisture transfer bound water. It is hard to tell whether the water in
in drying processes. Moreover, the bound water con- fine capillaries in a porous material comes from con-
ductivity measured is strongly inlIuenced by moisture densation or from connected fine capillaries, but it is
content. Therefore, movement of bound water may clear that movement of bound water plays an impor-
rather be due to flow along very fine capillaries or tant role in moisture transfer in the sorption region.
through cellular membranes.
In the present study, for moisture transfer in the Vapor flow
sorption region, the following assumptions are made : During a drying process, water vapor flows through
(1) bound water exists in any hygroscopic porous the voids of a porous material by convection and
material ; for food products, the bound water refers diffusion. The equations for vapor flow and airflow
to the cellular water [17, 19, 241, and for granular may be written as
porous material, it refers to the water in the dead
PvMw K D,M,
ends, or very fine capillaries ; J, = -VP+- (17)
RT pg RT VP,
(2) liquid transfer in the sorption region is defined
as movement of bound water, as shown in Fig. 2; for J = (P-P&K&
food products the bound water moves through the a mD,MV(P-PJ (18)
RT zvp+ RT
semi-permeable membranes along the array of the
cellular structure, and for granular porous materials where m is the ratio of air and vapor diffusion
the bound water moves along very fine capillaries ; coefficients. Two kinds of diffusion may be important
(3) movement of bound water may have the charac- in drying processes, molecular diffusion and Knudsen
teristics of capillary flow, with the driving force being diffusion. When the capillary size is large in com-
gas phase pressure or vapor pressure gradient ; parison with the mean molecular free path of water
(4) the bound water conductivity is a strong func- vapor, 1, molecular diffusion prevails, and
tion of moisture content.
D, = SD,,.
At room temperature, the bound water con- z
302 P. CHEN and D. C. T. PEI
When the capillary size is equal to or smaller than 1, sorption region, if the local temperature is low; i.c.
Knudsen diffusion predominates, and P, cc P, the gas phase pressure gradient is small and
the contribution of convection to the vapor transfer
D, = EDK. is small. However, if the temperature approaches the
z
boiling temperature of water, the contribution of con-
By assuming the airflow is negligible, the approxi- vection to vapor transfer becomes significant.
mate relationship between gas phase pressure drop Sorption equilibrium
and vapor pressure drop can be obtained The interaction between bound water and solid
material can be expressed by a sorption equilibrium
(19) curve, which shows the relationship between the
amount of adsorbed or bound water and relative
Substituting equation (19) into equation (17) humidity at a certain temperature. In drying
processes, desorption isotherms are often used, as
shown in Fig. 3.
VP In region A, water is more tightly bound to solid
and in region B water is more loosely bound. The
higher the curve, the stronger the water-solid inter-
action, the more the bound water in solid.
EM,
= _iTVP,. (20) Several correlations for desorption isotherms have
been proposed. The most applicable to food products
In most convective drying processes, the tem- are the modified Henderson equation [34], and Chung
perature gradient in the wet region is small and vapor and Pfosts equation [35]. In the present study, the
flow is much less than flow of free water [33]. In the modified Henderson equation is used
A mathematical model of drying processes 303
w
FIG. 3. Desorption isotherms.
PV
J/=-= l-exp(-B,U$) (21)
p,*
The left-hand side of the equation may be neglected. It should be noted that the convective heat transfer
The heat transfer equation can also be written from coefficients, h and h,, are functions of velocity and
energy conservation considerations, and the con- properties of the flowing medium. During the con-
vective term may be neglected stant rate period, they may be determined by the
classical correlations. In the first falling rate period,
(pr,)?$ = V(k,VT,)-~~A~ +q, they are further affected by the free water content at
the surface. Equations (22) and (23) may be used to
determine the values of h and h,.
= V(ksVT,)+q, (26) In the second falling rate period, the evaporation
front recedes from the surface and divides the material
into the wet region and the sorption region. The free
moisture content at the receding evaporation front is
where q, is the heat source term For dielectric heating zero? and the moisture content is thus equal to the
in the wet region; it may be assumed to be pro- maximum sorptive value. The following moving
portional to the moisture content [3X]. If there is no boundary conditions are obtained from the mass and
soluble substance in the water, the vapor pressure in heat balances at the evaporation front, i.e. at r = S(t)
the wet region can be calculated from the Clausius-
Clapeyron equation. T, = T,, il, = U2 = I/,,,, (33)
Sorption region
In the sorption region, the main mechanisms of
moisture transport are movement of bound water and
vapor transfer. From mass and energy conservation,
respectively, the moisture and heat transfer equations
in the sorption region can be written as where U,,,, is the maximum sorptive moisture content.
Usually, the substantial derivative of moisture content
^ I
moisture content is equal to the maximum sorptive Since the maximum sorption moisture content is very
value. The predicted moisture distribution at 130 min low (about 0.015), brick is usually regarded as a non-
agrees well with the measured distribution at the hygroscopic material.
beginning of the second falling rate period. In Fig. 6, The convective heat and mass transfer coefficients
it can be seen that the predicted temperature dis- in the first falling rate period may have the following
tribution agrees well with the experimental data. relationship with the free water content at the surface :
U, = 0.0105~0~2+0.0125exp(20~-20). (41)
I t = 0 min
G.
- COMPUTED RESULT
DATA OF NISSAN
0
Ri*
r
t bin)
FIG. 4. Drying curve of wool. FIG. 5. Moisture distribution of wool during drying.
A mathematical model of drying processes 307
.s
I l t=Ol I
300
0 I 2 3 4 5
(cm) X
FIG. 8. Temperature distribution of brick during drying.
t=Omin
I I I I I I I I
0 Rin of internal moisture transfer. Furthermore, since the
r corn kernels are so small, they may be regarded as
FIG. 6. Temperature distribution of wool during drying. spherical.
The physical properties and the drying conditions
are listed in Table 1 [48, 50, 511; the sorption curve
in Figs. 7-9. Figure 7 indicates the variation of the for yellow corn kernels was correlated from the data
average moisture content with time; the predicted of Rodriguez-Arias [52]
result shows a very short constant rate period (about
15 min). The second falling rate period starts at 78
rj = 5 = 1-exp(-(0.43T-75.0)~,3~18-0~0037T)).
min. The predicted temperature distribution at differ-
ent times agrees well with the data, as shown in Fig. (44)
8. No data on moisture distributions were reported.
Considering only the sorption region, the numerical
solutions for drying of individual or thin layers of
Drying of corn kernels
corn kernels in two different air conditions were
The drying of individual or thin layers of corn
obtained, as shown in Figs. 10-12. The present model
kernels has been studied by many investigators [46-
gives an excellent prediction of the drying curves
50]. In most of the experimental studies, the initial
reported in the literature [45, 471. In grain drying
moisture content of the corn kernels is equal to or less
processes, the problem of shrinkage often exists to
than the maximum sorptive value. Thus, only the
sorption region is involved and so no constant rate
period will be observed. Therefore, movement of
0.30
bound water and vapor flow are the main mechanisms - coM~uTE0 RESULTS
T, = 353 K H =9.3%
0.25 - v,= 5m s-1
0.20
- COMPUTED RESULTS 1
DATA OF PRZESMYCKI
0.16 To = 353 K
va = 5 m s-
T --- - PRZESMYCKIS MODEL
;i
$j 0.12
B
,f 0.18
0.00; I I I I I 0 I 2 3 4
4 8 12 16 20
t (h) (cm) X
FIG. 7. Drying curve of brick. FIG. 9. Moisture distribution of brick during drying.
308 P. CHEN and D. C. T. PEI
)- 320 c
t=o
293 I I I
t(h) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6 1.0
FIG. 10. Drying curve of corn kernels. r/R
FIG. 12. Temperature distribution of corn kernels during
some extent. If the rate of shrinkage is known, the drying.
moving velocity of the outer surface can be taken
into account. This can also be handled by the present content, the second falling rate period starts. During
drying model. the second falling rate period, a receding evaporation
front divides the material into wet and sorption
CONCLUSIONS regions, and the hygroscopic properties of the
(1) A generalized mathematical model of drying material will contribute to the drying rate.
processes is proposed. It has been successfully used to (2) The mechanism of moisture transfer in the sorp-
describe the drying behavior of several non-hygro- tion region has been postulated as movement of
scopic and hygroscopic materials. If the initial moist- bound water. In the sorption region, the local vapor
ure content is high enough, a constant rate period pressure is related to the desorption isotherms, and
will be observed. When the free water content at the therefore movement of bound water is also affected
surface reaches the critical, i.e. 30% of the saturated by the hygroscopic properties of the drying material.
free water content, the continuous water layer at the The bound water conductivity may be determined by
surface breaks into wet patches and the first falling equation (16).
rate period starts. When the free water content at the (3) The convective heat and mass transfer
surface is equal to zero, or the surface moisture con- coefficients vary with the free water content at the
tent is equal to the maximum sorptive moisture surface. Considering the effect of percolation thres-
hold, a criterion of the free water content is defined,
0.5 which has the value of about 30% of the saturated
- COMPUTED RESULTS free water content. Thus, equations (22) and (23) may
To = 344 K v,, = 2.3 m s- be used to estimate the varying heat and mass transfer
H-11.8% R = 0.41 cm coefficients during the first falling rate period.
0.4
(4) The present drying model has been successfully
t used to simulate the drying processes of brick, wool
and corn kernels. The predicted drying curves and
.-.
\ Smin
-I the temperature and moisture distributions compared
favorably with the reported experimental results.
\
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310 P. CHEWand D. C. T. PEI
R&sum&-On propose un modtle de sechage qui peut Ctre utilise pour dtcrire le sechage des materiaux
hygroscopiques et non hygroscopiques. Les p&odes de vitesse constante, de premiere diminution et de
seconde diminution dans le &hage sont examinees separiment. On introduit le concept de conductivite
deau free. On discute le mouvement de Ieau Ii&e et sa contribution au transfert ~humidit~ dans les
materiaux hygroscopiques. La conductivite de ieau lice est affect&e par le taux dhumidite et aussi par les
isothermes de d&sorption du matiriau. Les principaux micanismes du transfert interne dhumiditt sont
consider&s dtre lecoulement capillaire de leau libre dam la region mouillee, le mouvement de leau lite et
le transfert de vapeur dam la region de sorption. Les coefficients de convection de chaleur et de masse sont
supposes variables avec le taux deau libre a la surface, dans la piriode de premiere diminution. Trois
systtmes avec differentes proprietes hygroscopiques, bois, brique et grains de mais,sont choisis pour &valuer
la vaiiditi de ce modele. La methode des elements finis mobiles est utilis&e pour resoudre num~riquement
les equations diff~rentielles. Les courbes de sechage et les profils de temperature et ~humidit~ calculis sont
compares favorablement aux resultats experimentaux connus.
Z~rnenf~~-us wird ein Model1 vorgestellt, das zur Beschreibung des Tr~knungsverbaltens von
hygroskopischen und nicht-hygroskopischen Materialien herangezogen werden kann. Die einzelnen
Trocknungsperioden werden getrennt betrachtet. Es wird das Konzept der Leitfahigkeit des gebundenen
Wassers eingefiihrt. Die Bewegung des gebundenen Wassers und sein Beitrag zum Feuchtetransport
innerhalb hygroskopischer Materialien wird diskutiert. Es wird herausgefunden, da8 die LeitBihigkeit
des gebundenen Wassers vom Feuchtegehalt sowie den Desorptionsisothermen des Trocknungsmaterials
beeinflu& wird. Die wichtigsten internen Feuchtetransport-M~hanismen sind : die KapiIlarstromung von
freiem Wasser in der nassen Region und die Bewegung von gebundenem Wasser und Dampf in der
Sorptionsregion. Es wird angenommen, da6 sich der konvektive Warme- und StolBransport mit der freien
Wasseroberflache in der ersten Trocknunnsperiode Indert. Fiir die Validierung des Modells werden drei
Systeme mit unterschiedlichem hygroskop&chem Verhalten-Wolle, Ziegel und-Kornsamen-ausgewahlt.
Zur numerischen Ldsung der Differentialgleichungen wird die Methode der beweglichen finitenElemente
herangezogen. Die berechneten Trocknungskurven und die Temperaturen und Feuchteverteilungen stim-
men recht gut mit vorhandenen experimentellen Ergebnissen iiberein.