Turtlesymposium1998 PDF

NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-436
PROCEEDINGS OF THE
EIGHTEENTH INTERNATIONAL
SEA TURTLE SYMPOSIUM
3 - 7 March, 1998
Mazatln, Sinaloa
Mxico
Compilers
F. Alberto Abreu-Grobois
Raquel Briseo-Dueas
Ren Mrquez-Milln
Laura Sarti-Martnez
U. S. Department of Commerce
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
National Marine Fisheries Service
Southeast Fisheries Science Center
75 Virginia Beach Drive
Miami, FL 33149
June 2000
F. A. Abreu-Grobois, R. Briseo, R. Mrquez, and L. Sarti (Comps.)
NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-436
PROCEEDINGS OF THE EIGHTEENTH

INTERNATIONAL SEA TURTLE SYMPOSIUM
3-7 March 1998

Mazatln, Sinaloa MEXICO
Compilers:
Raquel Briseo-Dueas
Ren Mrquez-Milln
Laura Sarti-Martnez
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
William M. Daley, Secretary
NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION

D. James Baker, Administrator
NATIONAL MARINE FISHERIES SERVICE

Penelope D. Dalton, Assistant Administrator for Fisheries
June 2000
Technical Memoranda are used for documentation and timely communication of preliminary
resuits, interim reports, or special-purpose information, and have not received complete formal
review, editorial control, or detailed editing.
Table of Contents i
Proceedings of the 18th International Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation
NOTICE
The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) does not approve, recommend or endorse any
proprietary product or material mentioned in this publication. No reference shall be made to
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would indicate or imply that NMFS approves, recommends or endorses any proprietary product
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the advertised product to he used or purchased because of NMFS publication.
Correct citation of this report is:
Abreu-Grobois, F.A., R. Briseo-Dueas, R. Mrquez, and L. Sarti, compilers. 2000. Proceedings

of the Eighteenth International Sea Turtle Symposium. U.S. Dep. Commer. NOAA Tech. Memo.
NMFS-SEFSC-436, 293 pp.
Copies may be downloaded free from the Internet at:

http://www.nmfs.gov/prot_res/turtles/symposia.html
Technical Editor: W.N. Witzell
Copies of this report can be obtained from:
National Marine Fisheries Service

Miami Laboratory
Sea Turtle Program
75 Virginia Beach Drive
Miami, FL 33149
or
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5258 Port Royal Road
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(800) 553-6847 or (703) 605-6000, Fax (703) 321-8547
ii Table of Contents
PREFACE
For the first time in its history, the International Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conser-
vation migrated to a site outside of the United States. Thus the Eighteenth edition was hosted by the
Mazatln Research Unit of the Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnologa of the Mexican National
Autonomous University (UNAM) in Mazatln, Sinaloa (Mexico) where it was held from 3-7, March,
1998.
Above all, our symposium is prominent for its dynamism and enthusiasm in bringing together
specialists from the worlds sea turtle populations. In an effort to extend this philosophy, and fully aware
of how fast the interest in sea turtles has grown, the organizers paid special attention to bring together
as many people as possible. With the tremendous efforts of the Travel Committee and coupled with a
special interest by the Latin American regions devotees, we managed to get 653 participants from 43
countries. The number of presentations increased significantly too, reaching a total of 265 papers, rang-
ing from cutting-edge scientific reports based on highly sophisticated methods, to the experiences and
successes of community-based and environmental education programs.
A priority given by this symposium was the support and encouragement for the construction of
"bridges" across cultural and discipline barriers. We found success in achieving a multinational dialogue
among interest groups- scientists, resource managers, decision makers, ngo's, private industry. There
was a broad representation of the broad interests that stretch across these sectors, yet everyone was able
to listen and offer their own best contribution towards the central theme of the Symposium: the conser-
vation of sea turtles and the diversity of marine and coastal environments in which they develop through
their complicated and protracted life cycle. Our multidisciplinary approach is highly important at the
present, finding ourselves at a cross roads of significant initiatives in the international arena of environ-
mental law, where the conservation of sea turtles has a key role to play.
Many, many people worked hard over the previous 12 months, to make the symposium a suc-
cess. Our sincerest thanks to all of them:
Program committee: Laura Sarti (chair), Ana Barragn, Rod Mast, Heather Kalb, Jim Spotilla, Richard
Reina, Sheryan Epperly, Anna Bass, Steve Morreale, Milani Chaloupka, Robert Van Dam, Lew Ehrhart,
J. Nichols, David Godfrey, Larry Herbst, Ren Mrquez, Jack Musick, Peter Dutton, Patricia Huerta,
Arturo Jurez, Debora Garcia, Carlos Surez, German Ramrez, Raquel Briseo, Alberto Abreu; Regis-
tration and Secretary: Jane Provancha (chair), Lupita Polanco; Informatics: Germn Ramrez, Carlos
Surez; Cover art: Blas Nayar; Designs: Germn Ramrez, Raquel Briseo, Alberto Abreu. Auction:
Rod Mast; Workshops and special meetings: Selina Heppell; Student prizes: Anders Rhodin; Resolu-
tions committee: Juan Carlos Cant; Local organizing committee: Raquel Briseo, Jane Abreu; Posters:
Daniel Ros and Jeffrey Semminoff; Travel committee: Karen Eckert (chair), Marydele Donnelly, Brendan
Godley, Annette Broderick, Jack Frazier; Student travel: Francisco Silva and J. Nichols; Vendors: Tom
McFarland and J. Nichols; Volunteer coordination: Richard Byles; Latin American Reunin: Angeles
Cruz Morelos; Nominations committee: Randall Arauz, Colleen Coogan, Laura Sarti, Donna Shaver,
Frank Paladino. Once again, Ed Drane worked his usual magic with the Treasury of the Symposium
Significant financial contributions were generously provided by government agencies.
SEMARNAP (Mexicos Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources and Fisheries) through its central
office, the Mazatln Regional Fisheries Research Center (CRIP-Mazatln) and the National Center for
Education and Capacity Building for Sustainable Development (CECADESU) contributed to the logis-
tics and covered the costs of auditoria and audiovisual equipment for the Symposium, teachers and their
hotels for the Community Development and Environmental Education workshop in the 5th Latin American
Table of Contents iii
Sea Turtle Specialists; DIF (Dept of Family Affairs) provided free accomodation and food for the more
than 100 participants in the Latin American Reunion. In this Reunion, the British Council-Mexico spon-
sored the workshop on the Project Cycle. The National Chamber of the Fisheries Industry (CANAINPES)
kindly sponsored the Symposiums coffee breaks. Personnel from the local Navy (Octave Zona Naval)
provided invaluable aid in transport and logistics. The Scientific Coordination Office from UNAM (CIC-
UNAM) and the Latin American Biology Network (RELAB) also provided funding. Our most sincere
recognition to all of them
In the name of this Symposiums compilers, I would like to also express our gratitude to Wayne
Witzell, Technical Editor for his guidance and insights and to Jack Frazier for his help in translating and
correcting the English of contributions from some non-native English speakers. Many thanks to Angel
Fiscal and Tere Martin who helped with the typing in the last, last corrections and editions for these
Proceedings.
To all, from around the world, who generously helped make the 18th Symposium a huge suc-
cess, shared their experiences and listened to ours, our deepest gratitude!
Eighteenth International Sea Turtle Symposium President
EIGHTEENTH INTERNATIONAL SEA TURTLE SYMPOSIUM
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
F. Alberto Abreu-Grobois President

David Owens President Elect (19th Symposium)
Jeannette Wyneken Past President (17th Symposium)
Jane Provancha Secretary
Edwin Drane Treasurer
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
C. Kenneth Dodd 1998
Llewellyn Ehrhart 1998
Deborah Crouse 1999
Blair Witherington 1999
Jack Frazier 2000
Tom McFarland 2000
Colin Limpus 2001
Joca Tom 2001
Karen Eckert 2002
Brendan Godley 2002
Past Presidents:
James Richardson 12th Symposium
Sally Hopkins-Murphy 13th Symposium
Barbara Schroeder 14th Symposium
Jack Musick 15th Symposium
Richard Byles 16th Symposium
iv Table of Contents
CONTENTS
PART I. ORAL PRESENTATIONS
I. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
1 Lisa DeCarlo, Michael Salmon, and Jeanette Wyneken. Comparative studies of retinal design among sea
turtles: histological and behavioral correlates of the visual streak.
1 Luis Gllego, Claudia Mendoza, and Francisco de Ass Silva. The fluid dynamic processes regulating arterial
blood flow in sea turtles.
2 David Owens. Reproductive problems in captive and wild sea turtles.
2 Thane Wibbels and Robert LeBoeuf. Development and evaluation of a sexing technique for hatchling sea
turtles.
3 Jeanette Wyneken. Sea turtle locomotion.
II. CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT.
4 Jorge Ballestero, Randall M. Arauz, and Ral Rojas. Management, conservation, and sustained use of olive
ridley sea turtle eggs (Lepidochelys olivacea) in the Ostional Wildlife Refuge, Costa Rica: an 11 year review.
6 Pablo Arenas Fuentes, Laura Sarti, and Pedro Ulloa. Conservation and management of sea turtles in Mexico.
8 Elvira Adelaida Carillo Crdenas. Management program and traditional catch procedures in wild.
8 Jacques Fretey. The status of sea turtles and regional coordination along Africas Atlantic littoral.
8 Cristina Garca. INEs program for sea turtle conservation and coastal development.
9 Vicente Guzmn-Hernndez and Mauricio Garduo Andrade. Changes in the nesting levels of Eretmochelys
imbricata in Campeche, Mexico after two decades of protection.
11 Zandy Hillis-Starr and Brendalee Phillips. Buck Island Reef National Monument hawksbill nesting beach
study- Could conservation be working?
14 Jonathan D. R. Houghton and Kim T. Hudson. The sea turtles of Kefalonia- A step towards sustainability.
16 Douglas J. Hykle. The Convention on Migratory Species and marine turtle conservation.
16 Mara Elena Ibarra Martn, Georgina Espinosa Lpez, Flix Moncada Gaviln, Jorge Angulo Valds,
Gonzalo Nodarse Andreu, Gloria Hernndez Aguilera, and Johan Pacheco Roberto. University project on
study of Cuban sea turtles.
19 Ren Mrquez Milln. The ridley sea turtle populations in Mexico.
19 Rod Mast. Common sense conservation.
20 Charlie Manolis, Elvira Carrillo C., Grahame J. W. Webb, Hiroko Koike, Rogelio Diaz F., Felix Moncada
G., Alexis Meneses P., Gonzalo Nodarse A., Georgina Espinosa L., and Bryan Baker. Research update on the
Cuban hawksbill turtle program.
Table of Contents v
22 Jane R. Mbendo, George M. Wamukoya, and Felix P. Kaloki. Sea turtle recovery action plan for Kenya.
24 Jeanne A. Mortimer. Sea turtles in the Republic of Seychelles: An emerging conservation success story.
27 Cuauhtmoc Peaflores Salazar, Javier Vasconcelos Prez, Ernesto Albavera Padilla, and Ren Mrquez
Milln. Twenty five years nesting of olive ridley sea turtle Lepidochelys olivacea in Escobilla beach, Oaxaca,
Mexico.
29 Kartik Shanker. Conservation and management of the olive ridley on the Madras coast in South India.
29 Lucinda K. Taft, Chris Wold, Thomas T. Ankersen, Lizbeth Espinoza, Mario Boza, Anne Meylan, and
Peter Meylan. Agreement for the conservation of sea turtles on the Caribbean coast of Panama, Costa Rica and
Nicaragua.
30 Sebastian Trong and Thomas A. Rankin Gonzlez. Illegal harvest of nesting green turtles Chelonia mydas in
Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica.
III. DEVELOPMENTAL HABITS AND HABITATS.
32 Karen A. Bjorndal. Roles of sea turtles in marine ecosystems: Nutritional ecology and productivity.
32 Llewellyn M. Ehrhart, William E. Redfoot, and Dean A. Bagley. Green turtles in three developmental habi-
tats of the Florida Atlantic coast: Population structure, fibropapillomatosis and post-juvenile migratory destina-
tions.
32 Yolanda M. Len and Carlos E. Diez. Ecology and population biology of hawksbill turtles at a Caribbean
feeding ground.
33 William E. Redfoot and Llewellyn M. Ehrhart. The feeding ecology of juvenile green turtles utilizing the
Trident Basin, Port Canaveral, Florida as developmental habitat.
33 Robert P. van Dam and Carlos E. Diez. Hawksbill turtles in the Caribbean: The Mona perspective.
34 Blair E. Witherington. Habitats and bad habits of young loggerhead turtles in the open ocean.
36 George R. Zug and Richard E. Glor. Skeletochronological age estimates of green sea turtles living in a Florida
developmental habitat.
IV. GENETICS AND EVOLUTION.
37 Dean A. Bagley, Anna L. Bass, Steven A. Johnson, Llewellyn M. Ehrhart, and Brian W. Bowen. Origins of
juvenile green turtles from an East Central Florida developmental habitat as determined by mtDNA analysis.
38 Anna L. Bass. Mixed stock analysis of juvenile hawksbill foraging grounds in the Caribbean.
38 Brian Bowen and Stephen Karl. Population structure, phylogeography, and molecular evolution.
38 Peter Dutton, George Balazs, Andrew Dizon, and Ana Barragn. Genetic stock identification and distribu-
tion of leatherbacks in the Pacific: Potential effects on declining populations.
39 Peter H. Dutton, Elyse Bixby, and Scott K. Davis. Tendency toward single paternity in leatherbacks detected
with microsatellites.
39 G. Espinosa, A. Robainas, G. Bordn, E. Garcia, M. Ramos, G. Hernndez, and M. Rodrguez. Contribu-

vi Table of Contents
tion of a nesting colony of hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata, to some feeding grounds in the Cuban
platform.
41 Kristina L. Kichler and Mark T. Holder. A computer program that uses genetic data to infer the maximum
likelihood estimates of sperm competition and multiple paternity.
42 M. Katherine Moore and R. Martin Ball. The incidence of multiple paternity in loggerhead turtle nests on
Melbourne Beach, Florida U.S.A.
V. METHODS IN CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT.
43 Miguel Angel Carrasco, Ren Mrquez, Juan Daz, Vernica Benitez, No Villanueva, and Mara del
Carmen Jimnez. Effect of partial shadow in the incubation temperature in Kemps ridley (Lepidochelys kempii)
nest, in the beach hatcheries, at Rancho Nuevo, Tamaulipas, Mexico.
44 Brenda J. Cruz and J. Frazier. More on error taboos: Counting eggs and egg shells.
46 Ma. del Carmen Jimnez Quiroz, Ren Mrquez Milln, No A. Villanueva, Manuel Snchez, Juan Daz,
Alma Leo Peredo, M. A. Carrasco, and Jaime Pea. Metallic or internal tags- Can we omit any in Rancho
Nuevo, Mexico?.
48 Dimitris Margaritoulis. An estimation of the overall nesting activity of the loggerhead turtle in Greece.
50 N. J. Pilcher and S. Enderby. Green turtle hatchling swimming performance and the effects of prolonged
captivity.
51 Barbara A. Schroeder. Nesting beach surveys: The importance of complete data reporting.
VI. MODELING AND POPULATION BIOLOGY.
52 Karen A. Bjorndal, Alan B. Bolten, and Milani Y. Chaloupka. Green turtle growth rates: Evidence for a
density-dependent effect and Caribbean-Pacific differences.
52 Karen A. Bjorndal, Jerry A. Wetherall, Alan B. Bolten, and Jeanne A. Mortimer. Green turtle nesting at
Tortuguero, Costa Rica: An encouraging trend.
52 Milani Chaloupka. Modelling the sustainability of sea turtle egg harvests in a stochastic environment.
55 Milani Chaloupka. Sea turtle growth dynamics: A review.
56 Johan Chevalier and Marc Girondot. Recent population trend for Dermochelys coriacea in French Guiana.
58 Susanna Clusella Trulls, Joel Senz, and Mara T. Fernndez. Comparison of three methods for estimating
the size of olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) arribadas at Nancite beach, Santa Rosa National Park, Costa
Rica.
60 Michael S. Coyne, Mark E. Monaco, and Andr M.Landry, Jr. Kemps ridley habitat suitability index model.
60 M. Kirsten Dahlen, Rebecca Bell, James I. Richardson, and Thelma H. Richardson. Beyond D-0004:
Thirty-four years of loggerhead (Caretta caretta) research on Little Cumberland Island, Georgia, 1964-1997.
62 Sheryan P. Epperly, Joanne Braun-McNeill, and Anna L. Bass. In-water population index surveys: North
Carolina, U.S.A.
62 Mauricio Garduo Andrade. Growth of hawskbill turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata, off Rio Lagartos, Yucatn,
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Mexico.
63 Rhema Kerr and James I. Richardson. Estimating annual survival of nesting hawksbills (Eretmochelys
imbricata), Jumby Bay Project, Long Island, Antigua.
64 James I. Richardson, Rebecca Bell, and Thelma H. Richardson. Demographics of the Jumby Bay nesting
hawksbills (Eretmochelys imbricata) at Pasture Bay Beach, Long Island, Antigua, West Indies.
64 Manjula Tiwari and Karen Bjorndal. A comparison of morphological and reproductive caracteristics of nest-
ing loggerhead populations.
VII. NESTING AND FORAGING BEHAVIOR.
65 Blanca Lzara Anderes Alvarez. Hawksbill turtle feeding habits in Cuban waters.
67 Mauricio Garduo Andrade. Spatial and seasonal distribution of hawskbill turtle nestings in Las Coloradas,
Yucatan, Mexico.
67 Ma. del Carmen Jimnez Quiroz, Ren Mrquez M., No A. Villanueva L., and M.A. Carrasco A. Charac-
teristics of consecutive nesting of Kemps ridley (L. Kempii) at Rancho Nuevo, Tamps.
68 Gonzalo Nodarse, Felix Moncada, Alexis Meneses, and Carlos Rodriguez. Long-term monitoring of nesting
of the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) in the Southwest platform of Cuba.
VIII. NESTING BEACHES.
70 Monica Aureggi, Guido Gerosa, and Sedat V.Yerli. Canid predation on marine turtle nests at Akyatan, Turkey,
Eastern Mediterranean
72 Sarah S. Bouchard and Karen A. Bjorndal. Nutrient transfer and energy flow from marine to terrestrial eco-
systems by loggerhead sea turtles at Melbourne Beach, Florida, U.S.A.
73 Yakup Kaska, Robert W. Furness, and Ibrahim Baran. Sex ratio of hatchlings in nests can be estimated from
the mean temperature during the middle third of incubation.
75 Kostas Katselidis and Dimitrios Dimopoulos. The impact of tourist evelopment on loggerhead nesting activity
at Daphni Beach, Zakynthos, Greece.
77 Yoshimasa Matsuzawa, Wataru Sakamoto, Katsufumi Sato, Kiyoshi Gotou, Kazuyoshi Ohmuta, Yasuyuki
Asai, and Hajime Ueda. Sand color, temperature, and sex ratio of emerging hatchlings on loggerhead s nesting
beaches in Japan.
77 Carlos Peres Roman, Ivan Ortega Gasteazoro, and Jose Gabriel Caceres Diaz. Nesting beaches at Nicaraguas
Pacific coast.
IX. PHYSIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR.
78 Mark Hamann, Tim S. Jessop and , Matt Forest, Colin J. Limpus, and Joan M. Whittier. Seasonal changes
in plasma steroid and triglyceride concentrations in adult female green sea turtles from Southern Queensland.
78 Tim S. Jessop, Colin J. Limpus, and Joan M. Whittier. Rewards for the big, dumb and socially inept: Hhormonal
evidence for life-history trade-offs in the green turtle, Chelonia mydas.
79 Roger L. Mellgren and Martha A. Mann. What can a green sea turtle learn?.
viii Table of Contents
80 Soraya Moein Bartol. Measurements of visual acuity of the juvenile loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta): a
behavioral approach.
81 Kathleen Moran, Karen A. Bjorndal, and Alan B. Bolten. Effect of the thermal environment on the temporal
pattern of emergence of hatchling loggerheads.
81 Leigh Slater, Colin Limpus, and Joan Vmittyer. A seasonal profile of plasma triglyceride levels in nesting
flatback (Natator depressus) turtles on Curtis Island, Queensland, Australia.
82 Roldn A. Valverde, David W. Owens, Duncan S. MacKenzie, and Rhonda M. Patterson. Evidence for the
lack of hyperglycemic activity of corticosterone in the olive ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea).
X. PUBLIC EDUCATION AND PARTICIPATION.
83 Angeles Cruz Morelos. Permanent education support for protection and conservation of the sea turtles in Mazatlan
Sinaloa, Mexico.
84 Celia Gutierrez. Diagnostico socioeconomico en las comunidades.
84 Edgar Gonzlez Gaudiano. Sustainability and education for conservation: Five paradigmatic views.
84 Hernndez Valencia, Luis Fernando Gonzlez Guevara, Francisco Valadez Fernndez, Minerva Campos
Snchez, Jos Acua Domnguez, Mario Sandoval Ramos, Alvaro Francisco Castillo Ceja, and Daniel Daz
Rodrguez. Environmental education: A strategy for sea turtles conservation.
85 Michael C. James and Chris Harvey-Clark. Conservation of the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) in
Nova Scotia, Canada.
85 Anna Kremezi-Margaritouli. Creation of talented animators for environmental education.
87 Roger H. C. Poland, Linda Baggott, and Lily Venizelos. Telematics for teacher training - science and educa-
tion: Euroturtle - a mediterranean sea turtle biology and conservation web site for science and education.
89 Niels P. Valkering and Tom J.W. van Eijck. The Sea Turtle Club Bonaire: Ideas for creating awareness.
91 Luc H. G. van Tienen, Willem E. J. Hoekert, Paul van Nughteren, and Sacha Denz.
The sea turtles of Suriname, 1997: Awareness.
92 Ecociencia A.C. Salvemos a las tortugas marinas: Una propuesta educativa para su conservacion.
XI. TELEMETRY AND MIGRATION.
95 Ian P. Bell, Jeffrey D. Miller, Kirstin A. Dobbs, and Colin J. Limpus. Hawksbill turtle movements in the
Coral Sea.
95 Flegra Bentivegna and Angela Paglialonga. Identification of the Gulf of Naples as a feeding ground and
migratory path for Caretta caretta in the Mediterranean Sea.
97 J. Frazier. Chelo-telemetry: More on great chelonian taboos.
99 Sandra Hochscheid, Brendan J. Godley, Annette C. Broderick, and Rory P. Wilson. Green turtle (Chelonia
mydas) inter-nesting behaviour in the Eastern Mediterranean determined using data-logging devices.
101 Bojan Lazar, Dimitris Margaritoulis, and Nikola Tvrtkovic. Migrations of the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta
Table of Contents ix
caretta) into the Adriatic Sea.
102 Wallace J. Nichols, Jeffrey A. Seminoff, Antonio Resendiz, Peter Dutton, and F. Alberto Abreu-Grobois.
Using molecular genetics and biotelemetry to study life history and long distance movement: A tale of two turtles.
103 Edward A. Standora, Stephen J. Morreale, James R. Spotila, and Frank V. Paladino.
Where do turtles swim when they swim?.
XII. THREATS AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES.
104 Randall Arauz. Implementation of the turtle excluder device (ted) by the shrimp fleet of Pacific Central America.
105 Deborah Crouse. After teds: Whats next??.
107 Luis A. Marcano and Jos J. Ali M. Incidental capture of sea turtles by the industrial shrimping fleet off
Northeastern Venezuela.
107 Luis A. Marcano., J. J. Ali, and M. R. Lozada. Impact on captures by the use of the Turtle Excluder Device
(TED) in the industrial shrimp fishery in Venezuela.
108 Felix Moncada Gaviln. Impact of regulatory measures on Cuban marine turtle fisheries.
109 Wilber Seidel, Charles Oravetz, and John Mitchell. TED technology transfer Public Law 101-162.
110 Pedro A. Ulloa Ramrez and Luis Vicente Gonzlez Ania. Incidence of marine turtles in the Mexican long-
line tuna fishery in the Gulf of Mexico.
XIII. VETERINARY MEDICINE AND DISEASE.
111 A. Alonso Aguirre, Terry R. Spraker, Anny Chaves, Leslie du Toit, Whitney Eure, and George H. Balazs.
Fibropapillomatosis in olive ridley turtles in Costa Rica.
111 A. Alonso Aguirre. Rescue, rehabilitation and release of marine turtles with fibropapillomatosis: An epidemio-
logic perspective.
112 George H. Balazs, Shawn K. K. Murakawa, Denise M. Ellis, and A. Alonso Aguirre.
Manifestation of fibropapillomatosis and rates of growth of green turtles at Kaneohe Bay in the Hawaiian Islands.
114 Anny Chaves Quiros, Leslie A. du Toit, and Guillermo Marin Whitney Eure. Fibropapilloma in the Ostional
olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) population.
114 Harfush, Martha, Carlos Antonio Martinez-Palacios, Elpidio Lpez Reyes, and Carlos Rojas, Advances in
the determination of dietary protein requirements for ad libitum fed Lepidochelys olivacea hatchlings.
117 Carlos R. Hasbn, Jaime H. Samour, Saif Al-Ghais, and Andrew J. Lawrence. Volvulus in the duodenum
from free living green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) as a probable consequence of herbivory.
117 Bruce L. Homer, Allen Foley, Kristin J. Fick, Matilde C. Lores, Anthony E. Redlow, and Elliott R. Jacobson.
Lesions, pathogens and toxins identified in 13 stranded marine turtles in Florida.
118 J. Arturo Jurez Cern, Ana R. Barragn Rocha, and Humberto Gmez Ruiz. Contamination by phthalate
ester plasticizers in two marine turtle species.
120 Stephanie M. Presti, Andre M. Landry, and Albert E. Sollod. Mercury concentration in scute scrapings of sea
turtles in the Gulf of Mexico.
x Table of Contents
120 Thierry M. Work, Rose E. Raskin, George H. Balazs, and Scott Whittaker. Morphologic and cytochemical
characteristics of blood cells from the green turtle, Chelonia mydas, in the Hawaiian Islands.
PART II. POSTER PRESENTATIONS.
I. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
121 Joanne Braun-McNeill, Sheryan P. Epperly, David W. Owens, and Rhonda W. Patterson. Sex ratios of
foraging sea turtles in the Pamlico-Albemarle estuarine complex, North Carolina, U.S.A.
123 Anny Chaves, Margarita Arana, and Leslie du Toit. Primary evidence of sperm storage in the ovaries of the
olive ridley marine turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea).
123 Leticia Gmez, Cristina Ordez, and Miriam Benabib. Comparison of techniques used to sex leatherback
hatchlings.
126 C. Mendoza, Ma. Abaurrea, and L. Gllego. Corneal structures and dentigenous lamina in the mouth of the
marine turtle, Caretta caretta (Linnaeus,1758).
126 Randall Mora, Carlos Herrera, and Anny Chaves. Composicion quimica del huevo de la tortuga lora (Lepido-
chelys olivacea).
126 Ofelia Margarita Silva Pea, Adriana Laura Sarti Martnez, and Concepcin Rugerio Vargas. Porcentual
counts of blood cells in leatherback hatchlings.
127 George R. Zug and George H. Balazs. Estimating age in hawaiian green sea turtles by skeletochronology.
II. CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT.
129 Refugio G. Castro M., Alma S. Leo P., Enrique Conde G, and Rolando Orta N.
Tracking of the tags (T and J) applied on Kemps ridley in Rancho Nuevo, Tamaulipas.
129 A. L.Cruz Flores, R. Snchez Trejo, R. Mrquez-Millan, and R. Castro Melendez.

Emergence period of transplanted nestings and the effect of air and sand surface temperature on the hatchlings of
the turtle, Lepidochelys kempi in Rrancho Nuevo Tamaulipas, Mexico.
130 Celina Dueas, Mauricio Vsquez, and Carlos Hasbn. Conservacion de las tortugas marinas en El Salvador
Sinopsis y perspectivas.
133 Angela Formia, Carlos Roberto Hasbun, Mauricio Vasquez, and Emilio Leon.
The sea turtle conservation project in Barra de Santiago, El Salvador evaluated from a policy perspective: Impli-
cations for conservation and management.
135 Angel Gmez Bonive. A multimedia project on the environmental education of the population about the sea
turtles of the Island of Margarita, Venezuela, and an integration of data base for hatching control.
135 Hedelvy J. Guada, Vicente J. Vera, and Marco Garca. Sea turtles in the central coast of Venezuela.
136 JoAnne Hanson, Thane Wibbels, and R. Erik Martin. Use of miniature temperature data loggers to estimate
sex ratios of hatchling loggerhead sea turtles.
138 Julia A. Horrocks, Steve Hertzlieb, and Vickie Copeman. Mortality rates of nesting hawksbill turtles in
Barbados: A positive impact of tourism on sea turtles.
Table of Contents xi
139 Patricia Huerta Rodrguez and Laura Sarti Martnez. Estimation of leatherback nesting females in Mexiquillo
beach during 1995-1996 and 1996-1997 nesting season using pit tags and photoidentification.
141 Carla Isabel Lopez Fernandez. Design of the center for interpretation, research and protection in the wildlife
refuge Chococente, Santa Teresa, Carazo, Nicaragua.
142 Jos Antonio Martnez Narvaez. Role of the municipality of Santa Teresa, Nicaragua in the conservation of sea
turtles in Chococente.
142 Benito Prezas Hernndez, Roberto Herrera, and Julio C. Zurita. Xcacel: Proposal for the establishment and
management of a protected area.
145 Antonio Resendiz S. Hidalgo,, Beatris J. Resendiz, Jeffrey A. Seminoff, and Wallace J. Nichols. Research
and management of loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, at the CRIP sea turtle research station, Bahia de los
Angeles, Baja California, Mexico.
147 G. Vzquez Luna, R. Sanchez Trejo, R. Mrquez Millan, and R. Castro Melendez. Temporal and spatial
variation of the hatching temperature in transplanted Lepidochelys kempi nestings and their influence on the sex
ratio, egg survival, and mortality.
148 Rafael Vela Nuila and Juan Carlos Snchez. Marine Turtle Project, Toluca Beach-CESTA.
III. DEVELOPMENTAL HABITS AND HABITATS.
149 Tito Barros, Lenin Parra, Mayra Matos, and Lizbeth Caceres. Sea turtles in the gulf of Venezuela: A
preliminary diagnosis.
149 Kerin A. Berry, Marie E. Peixoto, and Samuel S. Sadove. Occurrence, distribution and abundance of green
turtles, Chelonia mydas, in Long Island, New York: 1986-1997.
150 Emma Hickerson and David Owens. Tracking a subadult Caretta caretta through puberty.
150 Maria ngela Marcovaldi, Augusto C. C. D. da Silva, Berenice M. G. Gallo, Ceclia Baptistotte, Claudia F.
Vieitas, Claudio Bellini, Eduardo H. S. M. Lima, Jaqueline C. de Castilhos, Joo C. A. Thom, and Taisi M.
Sanches. Sea turtle feeding grounds of Brazil.
152 David P. Reynolds and Samuel S. Sadove. Size class of sea turtles in New York from 1986 to 1996.
IV. GENETICS AND EVOLUTION.
154 Ana R. Barragn and Peter Dutton. Genetic population structure of the leatherback turtle in the Eastern
Pacific: Conservation implications.
154 Omar Chassin Noria, Daniel Piero D., Peter Dutton, Javier Alvarado, and F. Alberto Abreu Grobois.
Genetics of Mexican black turtle rookeries based on mtDNA d-loop sequences- Preliminary results.
155 Caitlin Curtis, Charlene J. Williams, and James R. Spotila. Mating system of Caribbean leatherback turtles as
indicated by analysis of microsatellite dna from hatchlings and adult females.
156 Peter H. Dutton, Elyse Bixby, and Scott K. Davis. Tendency toward single paternity in leatherbacks detected
with microsatellites.
156 Naoki Kamezaki and Masafumi Matsui. Morphological comparisons in skulls of loggerhead turtle, Caretta
caretta, among three rookeries of Australia, Florida and Japan.
xii Table of Contents
V. METHODS IN CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT.
158 Carlos Roberto Hasbn, Mauricio Vsquez, Emilio A. Len, and Carlos Thomas. The use of shade over olive
ridley, Lepidochelys olivacea, hatcheries.
VI. MODELING AND POPULATION BIOLOGY.
159 Javier Alvarado Diaz, Carlos Delgado Trejo, and Alfredo Figueroa Lopez. Reproductive biology of the black
turtle in Michoacan, Mexico.
159 Alejandro Arenas, Rodolfo Raigoza, and Roberto Snchez. Comparison of growth curves for sea turtles of
two nest in captivity, and the follow of evolution of living tag technique in green turtles Chelonia mydas, at
Xcaret Eco-Archeological park.
161 Denise M. Barnes, Heather Miller Woodson, Wm. David Webster, Erin Redfearn, and Gilbert S. Grant.
Sea turtles of the Cape Fear river basin (North Carolina, U.S.A.): An important nursery area?.
163 Debora Garca M. and Laura Sarti. Reproductive cycles of leatherback turtles.
164 Mauricio Garduo Andrade. Results from the tagging program on juvenile hawksbill turtles off Rio Lagartos,
Yucatn, Mexico.
164 Mauricio Garduo Andrade. Fecundity of the hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata, in Las Coloradas,
Yucatan.
165 Mark J. Provancha, Jane A. Provancha, Joao Ribeiro da Costa, and Henrique Bentes de Jesus. Time series
framework (TSF): A tool for resource management of marine turtles Merritt Island, Florida, U.S.A.
VII. NESTING AND FORAGING.
166 Martha L. Maglothin, Margaret M. Lamont, and Raymond R. Carthy. A double-chambered egg chamber in
a loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) nest from Northwest Florida, U.S.A.
166 Jeffrey A. Seminoff , Wallace J. Nichols, Antonio Resendiz, and Anthony Galvan.
Diet composition of the black sea turtle, Chelonia mydas agassizii, near Baja California, Mexico.
168 Robert P. van Dam and Carlos E. Diez. Remote video cameras as tools for studying turtle behavior.
170 Kimberly K. Woody, Julia A. Horrocks, and Lotus A. Vermeer. Factors influencing within-beach nest distri-
bution in hawksbill turtles.
VIII. NESTING BEACHES.
172 Alejandro Arenas, Rogelio Villavicencio, Adriana DAmiano, Leonel Gomez, and Rodolfo Raigoza. The sea
turtle pogram of Xcaret: 97 nesting season, results.
175 Dean A. Bagley, Linh T. Uong, Allie B. Danner, Shigatomo Hirama Laura A. Wick, and Llewellyn M.
Ehrhart. Marine turtle nesting at the Archie Carr National Wildlife Refuge in 1997.
177 Noem Barajas Campuzano, Armando Hernndez Corona, and Germn Reyes Ortega. Retrospective analy-
sis of eleven years of work on turtle nesting on the coast of Colima, Mexico.
Table of Contents xiii

178 Stephen M. Blair, David Nelson, Rebecca Cheeks, Joe Hibler, Timothy Gross, Peter Lutz, and Jim Hoover.
Evaluation of quartz, aragonite and carbonate beach compatible sand on nest temperature and success parameters
of Caretta caretta nests in Southeastern Florida, U.S.A.
181 Annette C. Broderick and Brendan J. Godley. Temperature and the temporal spread of marine turtle nesting
and hatching in Cyprus, Eastern Mediterranean.
183 Eduardo Campos Bravo and Felipe Be Estrealla. Marine turtles nesting monitoring in El Cuyo, Yucatn,
Mxico
183 Evaristo Caraballo, Lenin Parra, Samuel Narciso, Yovanni Aponte, and Guillermo Snchez. Reproductive
success of hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) in isla de Aves Wildlife Refuge.
184 Rosa Estela Carretero Montes and Jos Antonio Trejo Robles. Hatching and emergence of Lepidochelys
olivacea from protected and unprotected nests in La Gloria (Playon de Mismaloya), Jalisco, Mexico: 1991 -
1994.
184 Elvira Adelaida Carrillo Crdenas. Characterization of hawksbill turtles nesting beaches in the Doce Leguas
Keys.
184 Refugio G. Castro M., Leo P., Alma S., Enrique Conde G., Rolando Orta N., Juan Daz, and Manuel
Snchez P. Results of the protection and management of the Kemps ridley turtle (L. kempi) in Tamaulipas,
1995-1997.
185 Didiher Chacn. Marine turtle nesting and conservation at Gandoca Beach 1990-1997 (Talamanca, Costa Rica).
185 Jorge Alberto Crdoba, Sigfried Milklin, and Diego Amorocho. Estado actual de conservacion de las tortugas
marinas en los departamentos del Magdalena y la Guajira, Caribe Colombiano.1997.
186 Francisco Ral Cruz Martnez. Investigation about the quantification of sea turtles at the natural reserve Juan
Venado Island, Leon, Nicaragua.
186 Fernando Enciso Saracho, Marco A. Barraza Ortega, Ignmar Sosa Cornejo, and Jess Prez Mrquez.
Protormar-UAS: 21 years of reserch and conservation of sea turtles.
186 Ma Teresa Espino Chvez and Gustavo Casas Andreu. Caracterizacin del sitio de anidacin en la playa de
Lagunas de Chacahua, Oax. para la especie Lepidochelys olivacea (tortuga golfina).
189 Jerris J. Foote, Jennifer L. Floyd, Tracey L. Mueller, Michael Salmon, and Jay M. Sprinkel. Changes in
loggerhead nest predation patterns on West Central Florida beaches.
191 Luz Daniela Gallardo and J. Eugenio Zeferino. Trabajos realizados en la temporada 93-97 en el campamento
tortuguero zona de reserva Playa Piedra Tlalcoyunque, Mpio. de Tecpan de Galeana, Guerrero, Mexico.
191 Guido Gerosa, Monica Aureggi, and Sedat V. Yerli. Preliminary study on predator clues to discover a nest:
Marks of camouflaging as an attraction to predators.
192 Luis Fernando Gonzlez Guevara, Francisco Valadez Fernndez, Jos Luis Acua Domnguez, and Felipe
Javier Lpez Chvez. Resultados de proteccion del campamento La Gloria en la zona de reserva natural El
Playon de Mismaloya, Jalisco, Mexico.
192 Willem E. J. Hoekert, Luc H. G. van Tienen, Paul van Nugteren, and Sacha Dench. The Sea Turtles of
Suriname 1997 Project. Comparing relocated nests to undisturbed nests.
194 Linda E. Iocco. Effects of beach nourishment on hatchling size and performance in the loggerhead sea turtle
(Caretta caretta).
xiv Table of Contents

194 Ma. del Carmen Jimnez Quiroz , Olivia Salmern, and No Andrs Villanueva.
Climatic and oceanic database fron the Kemps ridley nesting area.
196 Yakup Kaska, Robert W. Furness, and Ibrahim Baran. Beach erosion reduces the hatching success at Patara
Beach, Turkey .
198 Yakup Kaska, Robert W. Furness, and Ibrahim Baran. Temperature determined pattern of hatching and
emergence of sea turtles in the Eastern Mediterranean.
200 Alison L. Loughran, Annette C. Broderick, Brendan J. Godley, and Robert W. Furness. Factors affecting
size of loggerhead and green turtle hatchlings in Northern Cyprus, Eastern Mediterranean.
202 Michael J. Mc Dermott, Brendan J. Godley, Annette C. Broderick, Vedat Ediger, and Robert W. Furness.
An investigation into the possible effects of physical features of nesting beaches on the nest site selection of C.
mydas and C. caretta in Northern Cyprus, Eastern Mediterranean.
204 Andrew McGowan, Annette C. Broderick, Brendan J. Godley, E. Geoffrey Hancock, and David C. Hous-
ton. Infestation of marine turtle nests by dipteran larvae in Northern Cyprus, Eastern Mediterranean, 1997.
206 Jos Luis Miranda. Sea turtles in Southern Veracruz, Mexico: A proposal.
206 Emma Miranda Ruelas. Marine turtles nesting monitoring in Celestn, Yucatn 1997 season.
207 Luis Manuel Ortiz Mejia, Jess Rosiles Nieto, and Viridiana Sarabia Miranda.
Temporal and spatial distribution of the nesting activity of Caretta caretta and Chelonia mydas in Akumal,
Quintana Roo.
207 Martha Leticia Osuna Madrigal. Permanent protection program for the marine turtle that arrive on the beaches
of Mazatlan.
208 Randall W. Parkinson, Llewellyn M. Ehrhart, Christopher Cornelisen, and Jean-Philippe Magron. Why
do marine turtles nest in sub-optimal or unstable beaches adjacent to tidal inlets?.
209 Alan Rees, Michalis Michalopoulos, and Dimitris Margaritoulis. Monitoring and nest protection of the log-
gerhead colony nesting in Kyparissia Bay, Greece, during 1997.
209 Marelisa Rivera. The Culebra leatherback project: A conservation and recovery program for turtles.
209 K. Rusenko, C. Pfistner, D. Fowler, and A. Barker. Mammalian predation on Boca Ratons beaches: A year
without cages.
211 Susana Snchez Gonzlez, Sherman Hernndez Ventura, Jos Juan Gonzlez Ruz, Rodrigo Moncayo
Estrada, and Pablo Del Monte Luna. La tortuga marina en Baha de Banderas.
211 Laura Sarti, Juan Daz, Manuel Garduo, Javier Vasconcelos, Ernesto Albavera, Cuauhtemoc Peaflores,
and Ren Mrquez M. Effect of hurricane Pauline on the nesting of olive ridley turtle in Escobilla Beach,
Oaxaca, Mexico.
214 Laura Sarti, Ninel Garca, Carlos Lpez, Ana Barragn, Francisco Vargas, Cristina Ordoez, Leticia
Gmez, Patricia Huerta, Arturo Jurez, Debora Garca, and Miguel Herrera. 15 years of conservation
efforts by the Sea Turtle Laboratory in Mexiquillo beach.
214 Raja Sekhar, P.S. Status of olive ridleys (Lepidochelys olivacea) nesting activity at sporadic habitats of North-
ern Andhra Pradesh coastline, India.
215 Teresa L. Tallevast and Rosarito Morales. Hawksbill sea turtle nesting activity census and related conservation
activities in Culebra, Puerto Rico.
Table of Contents xv
215. J.A. Trejo-Robles, R.E. Carretero-Montes , F.J. Jacobo-Prez , and J.C. Rodrguez-Salgado. An analisis of
protection to the sea turtle at Campamajahuas, Jalisco, Mexico.
217 Robbin N. Trindell, David Arnold, Karen Moody, and Beth Morford. Nourished beaches and marine turtle
nesting in Florida: An evaluation of recent projects.
219 A. Trujillo, G. Hernndez, E. Ruiz, and J. Daz. Report on the killing of Dermochelys coriacea in Laguna de
la Restinga National Park, Margarita Island, Venezuela.
219 Andrs Vallejo E and Felipe Campos Y. Sea turtle nesting and hatching success at Machalilla National Park,
Ecuador.
220 Jos Alfredo Villegas Barrutieta. Monitoring of marine turtle nesting in Isla Holbox, Quintana Roo, Mexico,
1997 season.
IX. PHYSIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR.
222 Eileen Gerle, Robert DiGiovanni, and Robert P. Pisciotta, D.V.M. a Fifteen year review of cold-stunned sea
turtles in New York waters.
224 Fiona Glen, Brendan J. Godley, Annette C. Broderick, and Robert W. Furness. Patterns of emergence of
hatchling loggerhead and green Turtles in Northern Cyprus, Eastern Mediterranean.
227 Tim S. Jessop and Colin J. Limpus. Endocrinal insights into the male mating system of the green turtle,
Chelonia mydas.
227 Martha Mann, Roger Mellgren, Alejandro Arenas, and Adriana DAmiano. Growth and behavior during
the first year of life in two species of sea turtles.
229 Marc R. Rice, George H. Balazs, Leon Hallacher, Walter Dudley, George Watson, Kimberly Krusell, and
Brent Larson. Diving, basking, and foraging patterns of a sub-adult green turtle at Punaluu, Hawaii.
232 Kathryn Stephenson, Patricia Vargas, David Wm. Owens. Diurnal cycling of corticosterone in a captive
population of Kemps ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelyes kempi).
233 J. Yonat Swimmer and George H. Balazs. The biology of basking in the green turtle (Chelonia mydas).
234 Heather Miller Woodson. Loggerhead turtle responses to aquatic predation off Southeast North Carolina, U.S.A.
235 Jill P. Zamzow. Cleaning symbioses between Hawaiian reef fishes and green sea turtles, Chelonia mydas.
X. PUBLIC EDUCATION AND PARTICIPATION.
238 Randall M. Arauz and Isabel Naranjo. Conservation and research of sea turtles, using coastal community
organizations as the cornerstone of support - Punta Banco and the indigenous Guaymi community of Conte
Burica, Costa Rica.
240 Oscar Vidal Barragan Cuencas and Juana Adelfa Delgado Quintana. Programa modelo de participacin
intersectorial para la proteccin de la tortuga marina en Puerto Vallarta, Jalisco, Mxico.
241 Renato D. Cruz. Information education campaign of marine turtle conservation in the Philippines.
242 Carmen Elizalde and Florencio Nataren. Comunidad, tortugas marinas y la reserva de Escobilla, Oaxaca,
Mexico.
xvi Table of Contents
243 J. Frazier and Duccio Bonavia. Prehispanic marine turtles in Peru: Where were they?.
245 Hedelvy J. Guada, Ana Trujillo, Laura Sarti, Hctor Horta, Vicente Vera, Tito Barros, Lenin Parra,
Alexander Acua, and Diego Amorocho. 1996 and 1997 courses on sea turtle biology and conservation in
Venezuela.
246 Melania C. Lpez Castro. Establecimiento de un rancho tortuguero en la regin de Cabo San Lucas, B.C.S.,
Mexico.
247 Raul Miranda Velasco. The puppet theatre as a tool forenvironmental education.
247 Anthony Poponi, Lotus A. Vermeer, Julia A. Horrocks, and Patrick McConney. The Barbados Sea Turtle
Project: Implementing the WIDECAST Recovery Action Plan for Barbados.
249 Austin Richardson, Lawrence H. Herbst, Peter A. Bennett, and Ursula Keuper Bennett. Photo-identifica-
tion of Hawaiian green sea turtles.
250 Tammy M. Summers, Teresa J. Calleson, George O. Bailey, and H. Lee Edmiston. Hatchling disorientations
on St. George Island, FL: Past, present, and future.
XI. TELEMETRY AND MIGRATIONS.
252 Denise M. Ellis, George H. Balazs, William G. Gilmartin, Shawn K. K. Murakawa, and Lawrence K.
Katahira. Short-range reproductive migrations of hawksbill turtles in the Hawaiian islands as determined by
satellite telemetry.
254 Sarah V. Mitchell. Use of epoxy in telemeter attachment.
256 Mitchell M. Sisak, Zandy Hillis-Starr, Brendalee Phillips, Roy A. Pemberton Jr., and John W. Crow. Use of
a miniature data storage tag on a juvenile hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) at Buck Island Reef NM,
U.S. Virgin Islands.
XII. THREATS AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES.
261 Federico Achaval, Yamand H. Marn, and Luis C. Barea. Incidental capture of turtles with pelagic longline.
261 Ralf H. Boulon, Jr. Trends in sea turtle strandings, U.S. Virgin Islands: 1982 to 1997.
264 A. Fallabrino, A. Rodrguez, A. Trujillo, and J. Marcano. Green turtle (Chelonia mydas) capture by artesanal
fishermen in la Blanquilla Island, Venezuela.
264 P. Eduardo Gonzlez J., Dionisio Ziga L. , Alejandro Gonzlez C, Aurelio Ramrez V., and Eulalio
Rodrguez A. The turtle excluder device as a tool to optimize the selectivity of shrimp nets and the Mexican
norms created for its obligatory application.
XIII. VETERINARY MEDICINE AND DISEASE.
265 Phillip E. Allman. The phenomenon of cold-stunned sea turtles along the Northeast Atlantic coast.
266 Adriana DAmiano, Alejandro Arenas, and Roberto Snchez. Presence of Pseudomona aeruginosa in a
blepharoconjunctivitis outbreak in captive hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata).
266 Fernando Fernandez-Marthen, Rolando Figueroa-Paz, Favio Figueroa-Paz, Gonzalo Chale-Velazquez, Carlos
Table of Contents xvii
Aguilar-Cardozo, Juan de Dios Martinez-Aguilar, Marco Tito Coba-Ros, Gabriel Felipe Escobedo, and
Buenaventura Delgado-Gomez. Temporal captivity of turtles in reproduction period in marine corrals in Isla
Mujeres Quintana Roo, Mexico.
267 Kimberly E. Goldman, Robert H. George, and W. Mark Swingle. Dietary regulation of plasma calcium and
phosphorus values in Virginia Marine Science Museum sea turtles.
268 Martha Harfush Melndez, Elpidio Marcelino Lpez Reyes, and Porfirio Hernndez Saldaa. A descrip-
tion of the process for the maintenance and adaptation of sea turtles at the National Mexican Turtle Center.
270 Hctor C. Horta, Debra Moore, Robert Matos, Rosaly Ramos, Marelisa Rivera, Jos Rivera, Stephanie
Stielow, Sandra Tripp, and Ernest R. Williams. Olive ridley sea turtle stranded in Puerto Rico. A good
example of our new rehabilitation program.
271 Yakup Kaska, Roger Downie, and Robert W. Furness. Abnormal development in sea turtle embryos.
273 Joel K. Lackovich, Daniel R. Brown, and Paul A. Klein. PCR confirms absence of papillomavirus from sea
turtle fibropapillomas.
273 Joel K. Lackovich, Daniel R. Brown, Bruce L. Homer, Richard L. Garber, Douglas R. Mader, Ritchie H.
Moretti, Amy D. Patterson, Lawrence H. Herbst, Jorge Oros, Elliott R. Jacobson, and Paul A. Klein.
Association of a new chelonid herpesvirus with fibropapillomas of the green turtle, Chelonia mydas, and the
loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta.
274 Gail Schofield, Harikleia Kopsida, Dimitrios Dimopoulos, and Dimitris Margaritoulis.
Necrotic limbs: Amputation and treatment.
276 M. Andrew Stamper, Ellery Foster, Sheryan P. Epperly, Joanne Braun-McNeill, and David W. Owens.
Epibiota and loggerhead health status.
276 Javier Vasconcelos, Ernesto Albavera, Elpidio M. Lpez, Porfirio Hernndez, and Cuauhtmoc Peaflores.
First assessment on tumors incidence in nesting females of olive ridley sea turtle, Lepidochelys olivacea, at la
Escobilla Beach, Oaxaca, Mexico.
PART III. 16th SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGS ADDENDUM
279 George H. Balazs, Lawrence K. Katahira, and Denise M. Ellis. Satellite tracking of hawksbill turtles nesting
in the Hawaiian Islands.
281 George H. Balazs and Denise M. Ellis. Satellite telemetry of migrant male and female green turtles breeding in
the Hawaiian Islands.
283 George H. Balazs, Marc Rice, Shawn K.K. Murakawa, and George Watson. Growth rates and residency of
immature green turtles at Kiholo Bay, Hawaii.
286 Michael S. Coyne and Andr M. Landry, Jr. Plasma testosterone dynamics in the Kemps ridley sea turtle.
286 Ehrhart L.M., D.A. Bagley and L.T. Uong. Fourteen years of nesting at the Archie Carr National Wildlife
Refuge.
287 Matthew H. Godfrey and N.Mrosovsky. Estimating the time between hatching of sea turtles and their emer-
gence from the nest.
287 Matthew H. Godfrey, R. Barreto, and N. Mrosovsky. Do beach umbrellas affect sex ratio?.
xviii Table of Contents

288 Nicolas J. Pilcher and Datuk Lamri Ali. The Malaysia/Philippines Trans-Boundry Marine Park: A monumen-
tal step toward turtle research and conservation.
289 Richard Reina. A model for salt gland secretion in the green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas.
289 Johannes A.G. Rhodin, Anders G.J. Rhodin, James R. Spotila. Electron microscopic analysis of vascular
cartilage canals in the humeral epiphysis of hatchling leatherback sea turtles, Dermochelys coriacea.
290 Barbara A. Schroeder and Andrea E. Mosier. Between a rock and a hard place: Coastal armoring and marine
turtle nesting habitat in Florida.
292 Thane Wibbels and Robert LeBoeuf. Development and evaluation of a sexing technique for hatchling sea
turtles.
Table of Contents xix

COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF RETINAL DESIGN AMONG SEA TURTLES:

HISTOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL CORRELATES OF THE VISUAL STREAK
Lisa DeCarlo, Michael Salmon, and Jeanette Wyneken

Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic Univ, Boca Raton Fl 33431, U.S.A. LDeCarlo19@AOL.com
Sea turtles use vision in a number of important con- (coral reef fishes, fresh-water turtles, some birds and mam-
texts such as habitatat selection, avoiding predators, and mals) living in visual worlds dominated by unobstructed
orienting toward food or mates (Granda and Maxwell, 1978). horizons (i.e., desert, open grassland, the water's surface,
However, our understanding of relationships between eye and a flat ocean bottom). These have in common that the
anatomy and marine turtle ecology is rudimentary. In this majority of important visual stimuli (such as predators, prey,
study, we determine (i) if the retinal (ganglion) cell distri- or mates) appear on a horizon (Hughes 1977). Among the
bution differs among three marine turtles (Caretta caretta, marine turtles, we hypothesize the following relationships
Chelonia mydas, and Dermochelys coriacea), (ii) whether between ganglion cell concentration and ecology. The green
species possess behavioral reflexes consistent with one such turtle may possess the best developed visual streak because
retinal specialization (a "visual streak"), and (iii) whether it feeds in relatively shallow, clear, and brightly illuminated
the results can be related to the ecology of each species. tropical waters with an open horizon (i.e., sea grass "mead-
Retinas were obtained from fresh, natural-mortality ows"). The streak might be less developed among logger-
specimens (usually, hatchlings that died in the nest). heads that feed at greater depths in cloudy, temperate wa-
Isodensity contour maps of ganglion cells were constructed ters. Because leatherbacks feed at low light intensities (of-
from cell counts made from whole-mounted retinas, using ten at night) and a great depths, a visual streak is probably
Nomarski Differential Interference phase contrast micros- of minimal importance. But their circular fovea might en-
copy. able diving turtles to detect jellyfish that are present in the
All species possessed a visual streak: a horizontal band lower and anterior visual field.
of higher ganglion cell density across the retinal meridian.
Such areas are considered regions where visual acuity is LITERATURE CITED
improved. Streak development varied in horizontal extent
Granda, A. M., and Maxwell, J. H. 1978. The behavior of
(greatest in the green turtle, least in the leatherback, and in-
turtles in the sea, in freshwater, and on land. In pp 237-
termediate in the loggerhead), and in relative cell concentra-
280, "The Behavior of Fish and other Aquatic
tion (highest in the green turtle, lowest in the leatherback,
Organisms", (D. I. Mostofsky, ED). Academic Press,
and intermediate in the loggerhead). Leatherbacks uniquely
NY.
possessed a second region of concentrated ganglion cells,
Hughes, A. 1977. The topography of vision in mammals of
located above the streak and in the rear of the retina. This
contrasting lifestyle: comparative optics and retinal
region was circular in outline (a "fovea").
organization. In VII/5, pp. 613-756, "Handbook of
Green turtle and loggerhead hatchlings showed com-
Sensory Physiology: the Visual System in Vertebrates",
pensatory reflexes that kept their head (eye) horizontal over
(F. Crescitelli, ED.) Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
a wide range of body positions (+ 300 from the horizontal).
Peterson, E. H., Ulinski, P.S. 1979. Quantitative studies of
The presence of such a reflex is consistent with the impor-
retinal ganglion cells in a turtle, Pseudemys scripta
tance of a visual streak in perception (Hughes, 1977). No
elegans. J. Comp. Neur. 186, 17-42.
such reflex was shown by leatherback hatchlings.
A prominent visual streak is found among vertebrates
THE FLUID DYNAMIC PROCESSES REGULATING ARTERIAL BLOOD FLOW IN SEA

TURTLES
Luis Gllego1, Claudia Mendoza1, and Francisco de Ass Silva2

1
Zoology Laboratory, Department of Animal Biology, The Balearic Island University, 07071 Mallorca, Spain
dbalgc0@ps.uib.es
2
Centro de Ecologa Costera, Sn. Patricio Melaque, Universidad de Guadalajara, Mxico
Based on the dissection of the heart and the primary superficial and deep immersions, and terrestrial movements
blood vessels from various specimens of Caretta caretta for nesting activities.
and Lepidochelys olivacea we describe two anatomical The first of these structures, to which we give the term
structures that allow these animals to regulate their blood spongy tissue with a tape terminus has not been described
flow in distinct situations of their vital activities such as previously in any of the literature. This structure can be
Oral presentations / Anatomy and Physiology 1
found within the heart and the great vessels, yet is absent in The second structure, which we have named smooth-
the carotids; and permits the maintenance of a slow and border diaphragm, is previously described by Sapsford
constant bloodflow throughout the body even when the heart (1978); although we have added some descriptive informa-
is slowly beating. In contrast, with this structure lacking in tion. We have also discussed the functional role of this struc-
the carotid vessels, bloodflow is fast and constant, so that ture, from a point of view strictly focusing on the effects on
the encephalous receives a greater portion of oxygen in any the fluid dynamics.
situation.
REPRODUCTIVE PROBLEMS IN CAPTIVE AND WILD SEA TURTLES
David Wm. Owens

Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-3258, U.S.A.
Considerable progress has been realized in the past

that the mating system of sea turtles requires an excess of
quarter century in developing an understanding of the physi-
reproductively competent males and that male-male compe-
ology and behavior of reproduction in marine turtles. De-
tition is essential for maximal fertility. If global warming
spite some populations being heavily explioited, and most
continues, it is proposed that several resulting and interre-
being considered endangered, fertility is high (90% or higher)
lated problems may become more evident in the next cen-
in most natural populations and the sex ratios of offspring
tury. These problems are sex ratios skewed towards female,
fall within what we call the 2/3rds rule. In addition, natural
loss of male producing higher latitude (cooler) nesting
intersex individuals have been rarely observed in the wild.
beaches, inadequate numbers of wild male breeders and in-
Recently however there have been reports of low fertility in
creased infertile intersex individuals. In a worst case sce-
clutches and some strongly skewed population sex ratios have
nario, this Reproductive Dysfunction Syndrome (RDS), now
been noted. As Spotila and Gibbons have independently
common in captive animals, could result in the eventual ex-
suggested for chelonians, with temperature dependent sex
tinction of all sea turtles.
determination, we have the potential for strongly skewed sex
ratios, particularly if global warming proceeds as predicted
to an increase of several degrees in the next few decades. In
contrast to the wild, captive studies at Cayman Turtle Farm
and elsewhere over the past 25 years have shown very low
fertility with a maximum in the 20% range in the best indi-
viduals. This is despite record high fecundity (egg produc-
tion) and surprisingly early maturation ages. It is theorized
DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A SEXING TECHNIQUE FOR HATCHLING SEA

TURTLES
Thane Wibbels and Robert LeBoeuf

Department of Biology, Department of Physiology and Biophysics University of Alabama at Birmingham
biof009@uabdpo.dpo.uab.edu
A variety of past studies have shown that sea turtles recently developed an assay for MIH in turtles.
possess temperature- dependent sex determination. As such, To generate this assay, we cloned a full length cDNA
the resulting sex ratios are of conservational, evolutionary for turtle MIH. The turtle MIH clone was then inserted in
and ecological interest. Unfortunately, sexing hatchling an expression vector system to produce turtle MIH protein.
turtles is not a simple task. The purpose of the current study This protein was then used to identify MIH antisera.
was to develop a sexing technique based on the presence of The antisera and MIH protein were used to develop
a sex-specific hormone, mullerian inhibiting hormone an ELISA assay for turtle MIH. We are now utilizing hun-
(MIH). In vertebrates, both male and female embryos de- dreds of blood samples collected over the past two years to
velop mullerian ducts which form the oviducts in females. validate this system for sexing hatchlings.
Male vertebrates produce MIH and this hormone
stimulates the degeneration of the mullerian ducts. We have
2 Anatomy and Physiology / Oral presentations

SEA TURTLE LOCOMOTION
Jeanette Wyneken
Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, 777 Glades Road, Boca Raton, FL U.S.A. 33431 0991
jwyneken@fau.edu
Sea turtles are magnificent swimming machines that during migration (Massare, 1994).
possess design features which allow them to exploit, spa- Pelagic stage cheloniids (post-hatchlings and some
tially, the marine environment. They possess characteris- juveniles) frequently utilize dog-paddling and rear flip-
tics that make them unique among turtles such as flippers, per kicking. These gaits are used at the surface and differ
streamlining, and fore limb propulsion. While there are fundamentally from powerstroking in how thrust in gen-
many aspects to the study of chelonian locomotion, much erated. Drag forces are used in these paddling gaits. Thrust
of my focus is upon the flippers and their use because they is produced during retraction of the limbs and protrac-
define sea turtles structurally and ecologically. tion acts as a recovery stroke.
Structures such as flippers have an evolutionary his- Locomotor activity patterns change during ontog-
tory that constrains design options. The flipper is built on eny and correspond with migratory and ecological shifts.
the basic design of a foot that itself had an earlier function Typically cheloniids change their swimming behavior and
in a particular context (as a typical tetrapod leg). In sea habitats several times in their lives. Dermochelids, which
turtles the foot has been transformed into a flipper that is change little in ecology during ontogeny, appear to show
sandwiched between two shells. The resulting structure that little if any change in their aquatic locomotor patterns
interacts with the environment is a compromise of design (Wyneken, 1996).
requirements, remodeling possibilities, and conflicting func- The flipper design is a very successful one for highly
tions. migratory animals because it allows the use of fore flip-
The flipper as a locomotor adaptation is a highly suc- per propulsion (Massare, 1994). It is because of flippers
cessful design that has arisen, independently, in several sec- that sea turtles were able exploit many oceanic niches.
ondarily aquatic vertebrates. Flipper internal design differs The highly efficient powerstroke which combines both
among secondarily aquatic vertebrates but it is similar within lift- and drag-based thrust, enables efficient migration.
marine turtles. All species have semirigid fore flippers with Yet in spite of the success and importance of the flipper,
hypertrophied, flattened, and elongated phalanges. its design is not ideal. Pure lift-based thrusting might ar-
All marine turtles begin life as terrestrial animals, guably be even more efficient but is not possible with the
become aquatic specialists, then again become terrestrial as limb operating from inside the rib cage. Also, flippers
nesting adults. The terrestrial locomotion of sea turtles is are constrained in design and function by the require-
modified by their body and limb morphology. There are two ments of nesting and crawling on land. Nevertheless, flip-
different crawling gaits used by sea turtles on land: alter- pers enable efficient locomotion in water, opening a va-
nate limb crawling and crutching (Wyneken, 1996). Alter- riety of niches for sea turtle adaptive radiation. Flippers
nate limb crawling is used by hatchlings cheloniids and adult have enabled efficient swimming and have opened the
Caretta, Eretmochelys, Lepidochelys, and sometimes door for these animals to display complex life histories
Natator. It is a gait in which diagonally opposite limbs move with wide-ranging dispersal stages that exploit spatially
together and superficially resembles a primitive tetrapod disjunct feeding areas and breeding areas.
crawling pattern (but in the absence of axial bending).
Crutching is a gait in which the fore and hind limbs LITERATURE CITED
move together. Its a gait used by hatchling and adult
Wyneken J. 1996. Sea Turtle Locomotion: Mechanisms,
Dermochelys, adult Chelonia, and sometimes Natator.
Behavior, and Energetics. pp. 165-198. In: The
Crutching is unlike the primitive tetrapod locomotor form
Biology of Sea Turtles. P. L. Lutz and J. A. Musick,
and as such it represents a novel motor pattern. Crutching
(Eds). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
probably is an example of another locomotor experiment
Massare J. A. 1994. Swimming capabilities of Mesozoic
within the marine turtles, and can neither be described as
marine reptiles: a review. pp: 133-149. In:
better or worse than crawling by the use of alternate limbs
Mechanics and Physiology of Animal Swimming. L.
(Wyneken, 1996).
Maddock, Q. Bone, and J. M. V. Rayner. (Eds).
Once in the water, the flippers serve as wings and oars.
The principal gait used by hatchlings during their offshore
migration, as well as by sublittoral juveniles and subadults,
is the powerstroke. It is a very efficient mode of swimming
that derives thrusts during both protraction (from lift) and
retraction (from drag forces) of the limb. As such, it is ideal
for prolonged swimming journeys, such as those undertaken
Oral presentations / Anatomy and Physiology 3

MANAGEMENT, CONSERVATION, AND SUSTAINED USE OF OLIVE RIDLEY SEA

TURTLE EGGS (LEPIDOCHELYS OLIVACEA) IN THE OSTIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE,
COSTA RICA: AN 11 YEAR REVIEW
Jorge Ballestero1, Randall M. Arauz2, and Ral Rojas3

1
Asociacin de Desarrollo Integral de Ostional, Santa Cruz, Guanacaste. rarauz@cariari.ucr.ac.cr
2
Earth Island Institute, Sea Turtle Restoration Project, Costa Rica Office, Apdo 1203-1100 Tibs, San Jos, Costa Rica.
3
Estacin Biolgica Las Cruces, San Vito. Organization for Tropical Studies, Costa Rica.
INTRODUCTION ing population. This review was submitted to the authorities

One of the most outstanding events in nature is the of INCOPESCA and the Ministry of the Environment in De-
massive nesting of olive ridley sea turtles in the Ostional cember of 1997.
Wildlife Refuge, where tens of thousands, and even hundreds
of thousands of nesting females, congregate and nest in a RESULTS
massive and synchronous fashion, known as the arribada. Because existing data is fragmented, we decided to
The community of Ostional is allowed to harvest a certain study the total number of females that nested during the dry
portion of the sea turtle eggs under a Management Plan ap- season arribadas (January to May), the rainy season arribadas
proved by the competent authorities. This Management Plan (June to December) and yearly total, separately (Figure 1).
was designed and based upon the best scientific evidence
available at the time (Cornelius et al., 1992), which suggested
that the harvesting of a certain portion of eggs would not Jan-May
1200000
impact hatching success rates nor net neonate production, Jun-Dec
while it does improve the economic situation of the commu- 1000000 Total
nity of Ostional, a strong incentive to the responsible man- 800000

agement of the resource. The project is also considered a 600000
contribution to the struggle against the illegal harvest of sea 400000
turtles eggs from other beaches and that are sold in the
200000
cantinas of the Capital. The social economic success of this
0
project is a well accepted fact by the local community, the 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1996 1997
authorities and sea turtle conservationist community in gen-
eral. In fact, this unique project is considered a world model,
Figure 1. Total number of olive ridley sea turtle nests laid from January
and currently our neighbors from Nicaragua and Panama are to May, June to December, and yearly total, in the Ostional Wildlife
interested in carrying out community exchange programs in Refuge, Costa Rica
order to foster and implement similar programs.
However, after 11 years of controlled harvest, a gen- It becomes obvious that the dimensions of the arribada
eral concern exists among local authorities and the interna- are quite greater during the rainy season than during the dry.
tional scientific community regarding the biological impli- Also, as may be observed from the yearly total counts, fluc-
cations of this legal egg harvest and the impact on the nest- tuations occur from one year to the next, even by a factor of
ing population, especially considering the lack of technical 4X. In an effort to determine if the population in Ostional
reports and scientific publications since the legal harvest was has a tendency to increase or decrease, we applied a linear
approved in 1987. It is generally accepted that the harvest of regression to the yearly totals, resulting in the following equa-
olive ridley sea turtle eggs is permissible if the adult population:
tion is stable and enough eggs are protected to ensure a Y = -40467.833(X) + 0.813455*108
healthy production of hatchlings (Heppel, 1997; Pritchard, estimated standard error = 351692.961
1997). However, and after 11 years of records, we still dont The slope is negative, however, the correlation coeffi-
have records to definitely determine if the adult population cient r2 = 0.095 indicates that the variations in the data are
is stable or not, nor if current harvest rates impact healthy too great, and thus we cannot affirm that the population is
neonate production. decreasing (p = 0.499, t = 0.729, gl = 6).
According to an ANOVA analysis, F-ratio = 0.522, p =
METHODOLOGY 0.502, gl = 5, because of which it is also concluded that there
The present document is the first attempt to compile is no regression relation between time and the number of
existing data regarding the size and frequency of the arribadas, nesting turtles.
hatching success, the percentage of egg extraction carried Table 1 is a compilation of data regarding the yearly
out by the Ostional Development Association since 1987, number of nests laid, of arribadas, and the estimated extrac-
and determine if the harvest of eggs has impacted the nest- tion rates. In general, arribadas occur on a monthly basis.
4 Conservation and Management / Oral presentations

Table 1. Olive ridley sea turtle nests laid per # of

year, # of arribadas, average standard January - May # of nests Average harvest SD Max Min
arribadas
deviation, and maximun and minimun harvest 1990 31704 5 36% 2.52 39.2 32.1
of turtle eggs, during the dry season (January 1991 40798 3 28.16 6.7 37 20.5
to May) and rainy season (June to December) 1992 180637 5 16.92 1.37 18.4 14.9
arribadas, in the Ostional Wildlife Refuge, 1993 180562 4 10.65 4.8 18.8 5.1
1994 224498 4 6.7 3.8 11.25 no data
However, during the dry season, it is not un- 1996 65348 4 20.59 8.92 33.9 11.01
1997 7721 2 38,6 2.14 36.9 3.2
common for the turtles to skip an arribada or June - December
even two or three. On the other hand, during 1988 428368 6 14.78 12.36 31.5 1.8
the rainy season, when nesting turtles are far 1989 555892 8 no data no data no data no data
more abundant, up to two arribadas may occur 1990 367028 9 8 13.7 38.6 6.9
1991 1147969 13 5.4 8.9 37 1.8
per month. Extraction rates also vary greatly,
1993 800685 7 6.3 2.11 11 4.2
depending on the size of the arribada. During 1994 671092 6 8.11 3.04 14.9 6.3
the dry season arribadas the percentage of ex- 1996 232318 5 20.9 12.1 39.4 6.08
traction ranges from 6.7% to 38.6%, whereas 1997 504661 10 12.72 13.85 37 3.8
during the rainy season arribadas extraction
ranges from 5.4% to 20%. hatching success studies are necessary to determine
hatchling production, a requirement to justify the harvest of
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSSION eggs. In any case, the hatching success rates determined by
Arauz (1993) are comparable to the hatching success rates
The Ostional nesting population of olive ridley sea determined earlier to justify the creation of the Management
turtles varies within normal parameters, and there is no sta- Plan eleven years ago.
tistical evidence to suggest that the number of nesting adults Finally, just as Cornelius et al. (1992) suggested, in
is increasing or decreasing. In other words, we could say order to implement a project of rational use of sea turtle eggs,
that current egg harvest levels do not negatively impact efficient interinstitutional coordination among the adminis-
hatchling production. However, certain flaws have been de- trative and operative entities of the Ostional Wildlife Ref-
tected in the counting methodology which tend to underes- uge must exist. Unfortunately, this goal has not been achieved,
timate the nesting population, because of which the data and is determined to be the greatest threat to the current pro-
presented here is not absolutely reliable. gram.
For instance, in order to count turtles during an arribada
we have used the Cornelius Robinson Formula of 1985. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Counts are carried out every two hours in three quadrants
along the 880 meters of the main nesting beach. This formula We must thank Todd Steiner, of the Sea Turtle Restora-
works fine as long as the turtles nest within these 880 meters. tion Project of Earth Island Institute, and Dr. Peter Pritchard
However, sometimes the focal point of the arribada may shift of the Chelonia Institute, whose support have made this
a couple hundred meters, either to the north or to the south, project possible. Furthermore, a very special thanks to the
in spite of which the counts are still done in only the 800 community of Ostional and their Communal Development
meters where the turtles are supposed to nest, causing an Association.
obvious underestimation.
Furthermore, the Ostional Wildlife Refuge includes more LITERATURE CITED
than 8 kilometers of available nesting habitat, and sometimes Arauz, M. 1993. Tasa de xito de eclosin en nidos marcados
the focal point of the arribada may shift north or south up to de Lepidochelys olivacea en Playa Ostional, Costa Rica.
3 or 4 kilometers. For instance, in November of 1997 the turtles Tesis de Maestra en Vida Silvestre. Universidad
nested as far south as the mouth of the Nosara River. In Nacional, Costa Rica. 80 pp.
other occasions, the focal point of the arribada is known to Cornelius, S.E., M.A. Alvarado, J.C. Castro, M. Mata, and
have shifted to the north, in a locality called El Rayo. This D.C. Robinson. 1992. Management of olive ridley sea
behavior has been recorded since 1989, and when this oc- turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) at Playas Nancite and
curs, the turtles simply have not been counted. As a result, Ostional, Costa Rica. Pages 111-1 In: J.G. Robinson,
certain years (such as 1997), do not have one or even two and K.H. Redford. (Eds). Neotropical wildlife
arribadas included in the total yearly count. Thus, it is nec- conservation and use. University of Chicago Press.
essary to improve the counting methodology in order to ef- Chicago, Ill.
fectively estimate the nesting population when the focal point Heppel, S.S. 1997. Sobre la importancia de los huevos.
of the arribada shifts. Noticiero Tougas Marinas. 76: 5-7.
Except for one hatching success study performed by Pritchard, P.C. 1997. Una nueva interpretacin de las
Marta Arauz of the National University of Costa Rica (UNA) tendencias poblacionales de las tortugas golfinas y loras
in 1992, no studies of this type have been carried out in en Mxico. Noticiero de Tortugas Marinas. 76: 12-14.
Ostional since the project was officially initiated in 1987. Yearly
Oral presentations / Conservation and Management 5

CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF SEA TURTLES IN MEXICO
Pablo Arenas Fuentes, Laura Sarti, and Pedro Ulloa

Direccin General de Investigacin, Evaluacin y Manejo de los Recursos Pesqueros. Instituto Nacional de la Pesca,
Pitgoras 1320. Col. Sta. Cruz Atoyac, Mxico D.F. 03310
Mexico is committed to the conservation of the sea tion status, migration and remigration patterns, reproductive
turtles, since seven out of eight sea turtle species can be biology and ecology, effects of environment on incubation
found in its oceans. For the conservation of these species, and sex determination, nesting behavior.
the Mexican Federal Government has acted in several ways.
Among these, the development and reinforcement of protec- 4.- Legal aspects:
tion activities, research of diverse aspects of their biology Various should be mentioned: a) Laws have been imple-
and ecology, which allow better management of the popula- mented concerning management and rational use. A legal
tions, training in protection techniques of field technicians fishery of olive ridleys existed until 1990. It was regulated by
and researchers from different agencies, research on fishing capture quotas exclusively for fishermen cooperatives, which
gears and turtle excluder devices, and law enforcement met some requirements as minimum size of capture, sex ratio,
around management. areas and seasons of capture and establishment of bans. In
Both coasts present nesting and foraging areas impor- 1990 a total a permanent ban was established. Currently the
tant due to the abundance and high density of the popula- exploitation of sea turtles in Mexico is forbidden. Also, the
tions. These areas are also considered important worldwide. use of turtle excluder devices on shrimp trawlers is manda-
Among those areas are the Tamaulipas beaches, where the tory in both coasts; b) Signature of international agreements
kemps ridley has its only nesting site in the world and the as the Interamerican Convention for Protection and Conser-
beaches of Oaxaca, where hundreds of thousands of olive vation of Sea Turtles. The goal of this convention is to pro-
ridleys nest in arribadas. Along the Pacific coast we have mote the protection, conservation and recovery of sea turtle
important nesting areas for leatherbacks. Other beaches in populations and the habitats on which they depend, based
Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo states have impor- on the best available scientific evidence and recognizing the
tant nesting areas for hawksbill, green and loggerhead turtles. environmental, socioeconomic and cultural characteristics
Finally we can find foraging areas along the coast for spe- of the parties. Mexico signs the convention and adopts the
cies as the loggerhead and others. commitments, strengthening the scientific research and con-
servation of sea turtles, noting the possibility for future ex-
CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES ploitation.
1.-Protection of clutches, females and hatchlings in nest-
Mexico promoted an effective instrument for the pro-
ing beaches. tection and conservation of sea turtles in the Ameri-
A number of field stations were established in key can Continent.
beaches for all the sea turtle species. The activities in these Rights and obligations are acknowledged in relation
stations are: a) Relocation of clutches to protected areas; b) to the conservation and management of the living
Tagging and collection of biological data from nesting fe- marine resources.
males; c) Nesting surveys; d) Evaluation of hatchling suc-
cess; e) Recruitment of hatchlings to the wild population 5.- Involvement of the local communities in the protection
Currently, more than 110 field stations for protection activities.
activities exist in Mexico, and cover around 815 Km of coast Its impossible to think of a conservation program with-
in both shores. out considering the socioeconomic conditions of the com-
munities adjacent to the nesting beaches. Therefore, educa-
2.- Training of field technicians. tion programs have been established in some areas, as well
The technicians are constantly trained in protection as employment of local people for protection of eggs and
activities: a) Training courses on field methods for protec- hatchlings.
tion; b) Courses for updating of different items on sea turtle
biology; c) Planning and development of workshops for stan- CONSERVATION RESULTS
dardization of methods, terms and definitions. For more than 30 years, the Mexican Government
through Instituto Nacional de la Pesca, and more recently
3.- Research. Instituto Nacional de Ecologa, has carried out conservation
Several research projects are focused on: a) biology of and protection activities in 23 major nesting beaches, and
sea turtles; b) incidental capture; c) fishing gears and TEDs supervised the protection activities developed for other in-
efficiency stitutions. The results show recovery signs in some sea turtle
populations. One of the best examples is the Kemps ridley
Some of the main subjects are: Evaluation of popula- (Lepidochelys kempii) population. A sustained increase on

7000
6000 6500
5000 5500
4500
Number of Nestings
Nestings
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000 1500
1000 500
-500
0
-85
-86
-87
-88
-89
-90
-91
-92
-93
-94
-95
-96
-97
-98
1967
1969
1971
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
nesting season
Years
Figure 1. Kemps ridley, Lepidochelys kempii, nests in Tamaulipas

beaches Figure 5. Decline in leatherback nesting in Mexiquillo, Michoacan
900 the number of nests has been reflected for the last five nest-
T 800 ing seasons. This is the result of all conservation activities
h
o n
700 like protection of clutches and use of TEDs, among others.
u e 600 Other important case is the olive ridley (Lepidochelys
s s
a t 500 olivacea) population. Their main nesting beach is La
n i
d n
400
Escobilla in Oaxaca State. Since the total and permanent
s g 300
s
ban in 1990, the number of nestings per season in this beach
200
o has increased from 150,000 to 835,000 during the last nesting
f 100
season 1996. It is considered as a recovered population.
0
The number of green turtle (Chelonia mydas) nestings
1966
1968
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
Year in Yucatan Peninsula has increased since 1979 with a peak of

800 nests in the 1995 nesting season. The hawksbill turtle
Figure 2. Olive ridley nests in La Escobilla, Oaxaca (Eretmochelys imbricata) shows signs of recovery. The num-
ber of nests increased from 689 in 1992 to 2,590 in 1996 in
900
Yucatan
Yucatan Peninsula.
800 Campeche For the leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea),
700 in spite of the conservation efforts, the total nestings and
600 the number of females show a drastic decline. Possible major
causes for this dramatic fall in nestings include the heavy
Nestings
500
400
egg poaching before the protection activities were imple-
300
mented and the bycatch in the swordfish fishery in different
200
areas of the Pacific Ocean. The Mexican Government, wor-
ried by this situation, has improved and reinforced the pro-
100
gram in order to maintain a monitoring capacity and strength-
0
1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 ening recruitment by increasing hatchling production in all
Year nesting areas.
Given the importance of Mexico as a sea turtle country,
Figure 3. Green turtle nests in the Yucatan peninsula
the main commitment is to accomplish the recovery of the
3000 Yucatan
most depleted sea turtle populations, and maintain in good
Campeche conditions those that show signs of recovery at present.
2500 For this, the priority activities are:
2000
To continue the protection of sea turtle eggs in key
beaches.
Nestings
1500 To strengthen environmental education mainly in ar-

1000
eas adjacent to nesting beaches with high nesting
density.
500 To prevent urban growth in areas surrounding major
0
rookeries.
Assessment and regulation of sea turtle bycatch
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
Year
To increase research on the pelagic stages of sea
turtles.
Figure 4. Hawksbill turtle nests in the Yucatan peninsula

MANAGEMENT PROGRAM AND TRADITIONAL CATCH PROCEDURES IN WILD
Elvira Adelaida Carillo Crdenas

Centro de Investigaciones pesqueras, 5ta ave y 248, Santa F, C. de la Habana, Cuba
cubacip@ceniai.inf.cu
The hawksbill turtle management program is composed capture plan, wich take into consideration the different oce-
of a group of scientific and technical and organizing actions anic conditions, fishing traditions in both zones and the an-
whichwarrantee the sustainable use of this source. This man- nual abundance fluctuations. The management program in-
agement is done in two main ways. Wild catch and ranching cludes from the proccesing of the capture until packing of
program. Wild catch give definitive data about the thrend of the shell and meat distribution. To obtain such information
the population and allow the to quantify the real impact of monitoring program has been carried out wich collect the
the captures. Hawksbill turtle is in permanent close season information of the size structure, ege and sex of captured
in in all the Cuban Shelf, with the exception of two sites of population in the landing poits, and also collect information
traditional catch: in Crocodile Town and Nuevitas. on nesting magnitude (tath is, to determine the number of
The mamagement program state that total traditional nesting females, the number of nest and the size of the nest-
catch do not exceed 500 individuals of Eretmochelys ing females, among others), in a way thatwith all this infor-
imbricata in a year during nine month of the open season. mation we can know how the population react on the decre-
Within this limit, both captures sites operate according to a ment of the capture.
THE STATUS OF SEA TURTLES AND REGIONAL COORDINATION ALONG AFRICA'S

ATLANTIC LITTORAL
Jacques Fretey
Fdration franaise des Socits de Sciences naturelles, Musum national d'Histoire naturel, 57 rue Cuvier, 75231 Paris
cedex 05, France. fretey@ccr.jussieu.fr
Scattered publications and reports lead us to think mi- in the Western Atlantic have been spotted several times in
gratory corridors, feeding areas and excellent nesting sites the East. It would be absurd to closely monitor breeding
for a least 5 species of sea turtles exist all along the entire groups on one side of the ocean while remaining unaware of
Atlantic front of Africa. Leatherback nesting beaches in what's happening on the other, including massacres.
Gabon, for example, are probably second only to those in A document drawn up with the Convention of Migra-
French Guiana. There appear to be remarkable sites for Ol- tion Species (CMS) surveys our current knowledge of sea
ive Ridley (of which only small numbers still nest at their turtles in West Africa. The IUCN's French Committee and
former sites in Surinam and French Guiana) in the Bijagos the CMS are sitting up the bases for Regional Coordination
Archipelago (Paris and Agardy, 1993). An interesting nest- of sea turtles from Morocco to Namibia, along the lines of
ing zone for Green Turtles exists on the island of Bioko in WIDECAST in the Caribbean. A first workshop was held in
Equatorial Guinea (Castroviego et al., 1994). The list goes Gabon with representatives from 5 of the countries of the
on. Gulf of Guinea. Further workshops are being planned for
Turtles (Caretta caretta, Dermochelys coriacea) tagged other subregions.
INE'S PROGRAM FOR SEA TURTLE CONSERVATION AND COASTAL

DEVELOPMENT
Cristina Garca
Instituto Nacional de Ecologa, SEMARNAP. Mxico. jjperez@chajul.ine.gob.mx
The Conservation of Sea Turtles Program of the Na- OBJECTIVES

tional Institute of Ecology has carried out actions of protec-
-To protect the breeding populations of sea turtles in
tion, the effort has not been enough, because the local popu-
13 camps and foment their self-financing.
lation has not covered their basic requirements.
-To develop outlines of local participation in activities
The legal frame of protection and conservation of the
of protection.
natural resources have been reinforced and the current poli-
- To foment outlines of productive diversification based
tics in matter of wildlife, contemplates as basic principle for
on the use of wildlife.
the conservation a social integrated component.
- To promote the regularization of activities of protec-

tion and conservation of the sea turtles. edge of the flora and fauna of the place, in order to determine
the possibilities of the technically planned and regulated
FRAMEWORK uses. The development and the instrumentation depends on
The efforts of the Program are guided toward the de- the same community.
velopment of actions coordinated at state level in the matter The activities regulations outline of the Protection and
of conservation of the wildlife. Conservation of Sea Turtles are carried out through the in-
The actions of productive diversification will be car- terest that have the diverse sectors of the society in the pro-
ried out through the presentation of proposals to the com- tection of this resource and until date they work without a
munity, as an alternative of production and with the knowl- normative established.
CHANGES IN THE NESTING LEVELS OF ERETMOCHELYS IMBRICATA IN

CAMPECHE, MEXICO AFTER TWO DECADES OF PROTECTION
Vicente Guzmn-Hernndez1 and Mauricio Garduo Andrade2

1
INP CRIP Carmen. Av. Hroes del 21 de Abril s/n Playa Norte. Campeche, Mxico. cripc@internetc.net.mx
2
INP CRIP Yucalpetn. A. P. 73 Progreso, Yucatn, Mxico. C. P. 97320.
INTRODUCTION nesters to other nesting zones

II Displacement to other zones because of feeding
Declines of several species of marine turtles have been preferences.
extensively documented: Eretmochelys imbricata in III Mortality of recruits (due to historical capture), as
Seychelles Islands (Mortimer, 1984); Chelonia mydas in described by Mortimer (1995), whereby the changes in the
Southeastern Asia (Mortimer 1991a,b); Dermochelys recruitment will only be detected after a period of time equiva-
coriacea in Asia and America (Spotila et al., 1995), and in lent to the time to maturity- certainly a number of decades for
Pacific Mexico (Sarti et al., 1996); and Lepidochelys kempii many of the sea turtle species.
in Tamaulipas (Mrquez, 1994). Major common factors for IV A combination of the above but which could in-
the decline are the excessive captures of adults at sea and clude environmental variations affecting the reproductive
nesting beaches, egg poaching; with th eaddition of the con- conduct with consequential recurrent changes in the repro-
tamination of key habitats due to pesticides and other an- ductive behavior of the population.
thropogenic residuals, and critical habitat damage or loss.
The hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) in RESULTS AND DISCUSION
the Greater Caribbean is no exception; Meylan (1997) con-
cluded that of the populations found in 35 geopolitical units Former exploitation
in the Caribbean, 23 have declined. In contrast however, a The populations of marine turtles in the Campeche coast
population that has registered important increments is the were subject to exploitation since Mayan times. Hoever, as
one nesting the Peninsula of Yucatan, where some of the most for other species, in the period between the 50s and 60s the
important nesting sites for Eretmochelys imbricata in the Car- harvests exploited the resource beyond their capacity to re-
ibbean (Garduo et al., 1997) are found. Over the last two cuperate (see Table 1; Solorzano, 1963, Ramos Padilla, 1974,
decades extensive protection and monitoring has been tak- Mrquez, 1976). Groombridge and Luxmoore (1989) men-
ing place on the beaches in Campeche, Mexico (Guzmn, tion that after the 60s most of the tortoiseshell production in
1997). Over this period, the fluctuations in the nestings in- the Caribbean came from the coasts of the Yucatan Penin-
dicate at least 3 modal points with subsecuent declines in sula.
periods of 11 years ocurring over a number of hawksbill nest- Conservation
ing beaches in the Yucatan Peninsula (Garduo et al., 1997). In order to counteract the overexploitation, the Federal
In this work we discuss the apparent recovery and analyze Government implemented the first bans and, in addtion the
some of the hypothesis that could explain the phenomenon Instituto Nacional de la Pesca (Fisheries Ministry) established
involved. protection and research programs for marine turtles in Isla
Aguada, Campeche in 1977. In 1986, the Ecology Ministry
PROBABLE CAUSES (INE) established a second concservation camp in Chenkan,
Campeche; later, in 1992 with the support from various Gov-
Mrquez (1994) mentions that the changes in the abun- ernment agenciesand ONGs, 6 camps became operational.
dance and density in some particular life stages of species By 1993 eight protection camps operated along the Campeche
could be explained by phenomena like emigration, immigra- coast, covering an area of approximately 150 km. of beach,
tion, mortality, recruitment, reproductive and feeding behav- that represents the 95% of the nesting zones. On July 1990
ior . The fluctuations observed in numbers of nestings (Fig- the total ban on the taking of sea turtles or their products
ure 1) could be explained by the following hypotheses: was established in Mexico; together in 1992 with the obliga-
I Effects of migration, with a net displecement of the tory use of the TEDs in all the fishing shrimps trawlers of the

Table 1. Capture and protection levels 1950s to 1990s in Campeche
HISTORICAL INTENSITY OF CAPTURE LEVEL OF PROTECTION tagged and free in Veracruz, 2 of them in
PERIOD MATURE FEMALES EGGS EFFORT COVERAGE Tabasco and other 2 in Campeche (Gonzalez-
50's moderate moderate? NONE NONE
60's commercial exploitation excessive NONE NONE Diaz Mirn, pers. com.).
70-76 over explotation over explotation Ban entered in 1971 NONE
77-86 Illegal exploitation 60-40% 60% 50%
Currently we conclude that if migrations
87-91 < 5% < 30% 70% 70% are not the cause of the observed increases in
92-97 < 1% < 95% 95% 95%
nestings in the Campeche beaches, then the
major explanation is an increased recruitment
Gulf of Mexico.
into the mature population, possibly augmented by signifi-
Current Tendencies
cant decreases in the mortality of juveniles in the area. This
According to Guzmn et al. (1993), if the changes in the
is supported by the following observations:
nesting behavior were due to migratory net displacement
between nesting beaches, we could track the displacements The tortoiseshell trade has diminished in the region
through the tagging of mature females. In Isla Aguada, partly due to it being substituted by synthetic
Campeche only about 4% of females leave their main nesting materials.
beach. However, all of thesee have been recaptured within a Surveillance and law-enforcement have increased
40 km radius of the initial tagging site (Guzmn, 1997b). during the last years.
From the several hundred turtles tagged in Campeche,
we recover between 30% and 60% every year. However, al-
The generations born after the 70s dont have the
though we cannot be sure if some of our tagged turtles are habit of turtle eggs consumption.
recovered in other parts of the Peninsula, there is no evi- Many of the local fishermen have become involved
dence that Campeche females nest in other distant or in the conservation programs.
inaccesible beaches inside the Peninsula. Furthermore, if these The protection programs in the beaches have signifi-
occurred, the variations which would be provoked would be cantly incresed the recrutiment of hatchlings into the popu-
massive and would influence the amounts of nests regis- lation. It could be that, prior to 1977 there were enough local
tered annually. poachers that most of the nests of the already depressed
Far-ranging movements within the reproductive sea- populations were probably overharvested, while afterwards
son, have been documented by Byles and Swimmer (1994), the effects of the uninterrupted protection of nests and turtles
who tagged mature females with satellite transmitters in during 21 years reversed the trend. Under this scenario we
Chenkan, Campeche and in El Cuyo, Yucatn. Their re- would be observing the incoropration of those cohorts into
sults indicate a limited displacement inside Bank of Campeche the nestinig population, assuming an age of maturity
from at least for the first months. occcurring between the 16 and 22 years.
Based on direct observations of the foraging grounds
in the Campeche Bank that it is capable of providing enough ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
feed for the local population, and this is why they remain
To all the people that work and worked in the turtles
inside these limits, most of the time.
camps from the beginning of the protection program, as well
As for juveniles; we recently recaptured a juvenile
as to the institutions that have supported this regional pro-
turtle in Campeche that had been tagged in Rio Lagartos,
gram. The success in the recovery of the populations is due
Yucatn after travelling approximately 250 kms Garduo,
to the opportune gathering of nests and to the night staying
(pers. com.) There have been other recaptures- 4 juvenile
of the personnel of camps in the beach, that
discourages to the fishermen of carrying out
1200 illicit with the turtles and their eggs.
III
A special recognition to the Instituto
number of individuals
1000 ? Nacional de la Pesca; to the Instituto Nacional

Nesting females de Ecologia, Federal Offices of SEMARNAP
800
Captures (number of indiv .) in Sabancuy, Champotn, Seybaplaya and Isla
600 II Arenas; to the SEMARNyD, Quelonios A. C.,
Marea Azul A. C., and to the H. Ayuntamiento
400 I of Champotn. M.S. Ma. Concepcin Rosano
200 Hernndez helped with the English transla-
? tion. Finally, we thank the Red
0 Latinoamericana de Biologia (RELAB) for pro-
51 55 59 63 67 71 75 79 83 87 91 95 99 viding travel funds for the first author and
year DIF for accomodation and subsistence dur-
ing the Symposium.
Figure 1.- Fluctuation in nestings for Eretmochelys imbricata in Campeche, Mexico
1950-1997

LITERATURE CITED Specialist Group, Washington, D.C. U.S.A. pp. 9-17

Mortimer, J.A. 1984. Marine turtles in the Republics of
Byles, R.A. and Y.B. Swimmer. 1994. Post-nesting migration
Seychelles: status and management. International
of Eretmochelys imbricata in the Yucatn Pennsula. pp.
Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural
202. In: Proceedings of the fourteenth Annual
Resources (IUCN) Publication Services, Gland,
Symposium on the Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation.
Switzerland. vii-80 pp., 4pls. ISBN 2-88032-901-9.
NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-SEFSC-351.
Mortimer, J.A. 1991a. Recommendations for management
Garduo, M., V. Guzmn, Miranda E., F.A. Abreu, and R.
of the marine turtles populations of Pulau Sipadan,
Briseo. 1997. Registro de playas, temporalidad y
Sabah. Report to World Wildlife Fund-Malasya (WWF
densidad de anidacin de la tortuga de carey
Project No. 3868). 36 pp.
Eretmochelys imbricata en la Pennsula de Yucatn,
Mortimer, J.A. 1991b. Marine turtle populations of Pulau
Mxico. (1977-1996). Comit Nal. para la Proteccin y
Redang: their status and recommendations for their
Conservacin de las Tortugas Marinas. (unpublished
management. A report submitted to the turtle Sanctuary
manuscript).
Advisory Council of Terengganu, Malasya. Producer
Guzmn, H.V., J.M. Snchez P., R. Gmez G., J.C. Rejn P.,
under WWF Project No. 3868. September 1991. 31 pp.
and J. Silva S. 1993. Informe final del programa tortugas
Mortimer, J.A. 1995. Enseanza de conceptos crticos para
marinas, temporada 1992. Una perspectiva regional.
la conservacin de las tortugas marinas. Noticiero de
Secretara de Pesca, CRIP Carmen. (unpublished
Tortugas Marinas, No. 71: 1-4
manuscript).
Ramos P., Ral. 1974. Generalidades sobre la pesquera de
Guzmn, V. 1997a. Dos dcadas de conservacin de las
tortugas marinas en Isla Mujeres, Q. Roo. Instituto
tortugas marinas en Campeche. Gaceta de Seguridad
Nacional de la Pesca, INP/SD:7. Mxico, D.F.
Industrial y Proteccin Ambiental. IMP-PEMEX PEP. 2
Sarti, L., A.R. Barragn, and N. Garca. 1996. Censos areos
pp.
en la costa del Pacfico Mexicano para el monitoreo de la
Guzmn, V. 1997b. Informe tcnico del programa de
tortuga lad. In: Memoria de resmenes del XIII
investigacin y proteccin de tortugas marinas en Isla
Encuentro Interuniversitario y III Internacional para
Aguada, Campeche. Temporada 1997. Doc. Tc. del
la Conservacin de las tortugas marinas. Universidad
Centro Reg. de Invest. Pesq. de Cd. del Carmen, INP,
Veracruzana, Xalapa, Ver.
N 5, 9 pp.
Solorzano, Aurelio. 1963. Prospeccin acerca de las tortugas
Mrquez, Ren 1994. Sinpsis de datos biolgicos sobre la
marinas de Mxico. SIC/DGPIC Depto. Estudios
tortuga lora, Lepidochelys kempii (Garman, 1880). FAO
Biologico-Pesqueros. 1er Congreso nacional de
Sinopsis sobre la Pesca, No. 152 INP/S152. Secretara
Oceanografa. Trab. de Divulg. No 54 VI. Mxico.
de Pesca, Instituto Nacional de la Pesca, Mxico, D.F.
Spotila J.R., A.J. Leslie, and F.V. Paladino. 1995. Population
Meylan, Anne et al., 1997. Biology and Status of the
cycles or population decline: are Leatherback turtles
Hawksbill in the Caribbean. IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle
going extinct? Chelonian Conservation and Biology. 2(2)
October.
BUCK ISLAND REEF NATIONAL MONUMENT HAWKSBILL NESTING BEACH STUDY-

COULD CONSERVATION BE WORKING ?
Zandy Hillis-Starr1 and Brendalee Phillips2

1
National Park Service, Resource Management, Buck Island Reef National Monument, Danish Customs House, Kings
Wharf #100, Christiansted, Virgin Islands 00820-4611, U.S.A. CHRI.Interpretation@nps.gov
2
U. S. G. S, Biological Resource Division, Buck Island Reef National Monument, Danish Customs House, Kings Wharf
#100, Christiansted, Virgin Islands 00820-4611, U.S.A.
Sea turtle conservation at Buck Island Reef National tinue providing a safe area for sea turtles to nest and from
Monument (BUIS), which is administered by the National which hatchlings can leave the beaches to join the rest of the
Park Service (NPS), encompasses the protection and man- Caribbean population of hawksbill turtles to maintain the
agement of the nesting habitat, adult female sea turtles nest- diversity necessary for the species to survive.
ing at Buck Island, their eggs, and resulting hatchlings. Two
federal mandates have guided the conservation of sea turtles LITERATURE CITED
at Buck Island. The Endangered Species Act in 1973, which
Fortuna, J.L. and Hillis-Starr, Z. 1997. Hurricanes, Habitat Loss,
stated that federal agencies shall seek to conserve endangered
and High Temperatures: Implications for Hawksbill
species (USFWS 1989), and the National Marine Fisheries
(Eretmochelys imbricata) Hatch Success at Buck Island
Service/US Fish and Wildlife Service Hawksbill Recovery Plan
Reef National Monument. Proceedings of the
which stated the need for long-term protection of important

cess of hawksbill nests at BUIS (Zullo, 1986); after 1986, the

emergence success increased more than 100 % to 67.4%,
even when the impacts of several hurricanes are included
(Figure 2). BUIS is not predator free yet, beginning in the
1990s the exotic tree rat, Rattus rattus, became a new threat
to sea turtle nests and hatchlings. This threat has been tem-
porarily mitigated by nest relocation and trapping conducted
during the nightly sea turtle research program, nevertheless,
the rat problem is escalating and BUIS is initiating a rat con-
trol program.
In 1980, in conjunction with conservation regulations,
predator control, and public education, BUIS rangers were
trained to conduct sea turtle monitoring and began weekly
nesting beach patrols. Rangers collected nesting data, re-
corded poaching and predation events, and monitored hatch
Figure 1.- BUIS Hawksbill nests per study success. In 1987, BUIS expanded its sea turtle conservation
year program and began nightly monitoring of the sea turtle nest-
ing beaches during peak hawksbill nesting season. The pri-
nesting beaches, the need to minimize threats from illegal mary objectives of the expanded sea turtle program were to
exploitation, and the need to increase hatch and emergence monitor the population status of nesting females through
success of nests. Buck Island Reef National Monument was saturation tagging, protect nests and eggs, and record hatch
identified in that document as an index beach to be moni- success. By 1993 saturation tagging of the existing nesting
tored for the recovery status of hawksbill sea turtles, Eret- population had been reached and an increased number of
mochelys imbricata (NMF, S 1993). When BUIS initiated first time nesting turtles or new recruits to the population
conservation efforts for sea turtles, the three main objec- were observed (Figure 3). Its been 22 years since poaching
tives were to: 1) balance preservation, conservation, and rec- of nesting adults and nests was stopped and 13 years since
reation, 2) eliminate poaching of both adult females and their mongoose predation took nearly 100 % of the nests. If hawks-
nests, and 3) control predation on nests and hatchlings. bill sea turtles do reach maturity sometime between 15 - 25
In the 1980s, NPS instituted regulations to safe guard years of age (Limpus 1992), then Buck Island Reef NM may
sea turtle nesting yet not significantly limit or restrict visitor be seeing an increase in the number of new recruits to the
activities. These regulations included beach closure from nesting population as a direct result of these conservation
sunset to sunrise, minimization of light and noise levels from efforts.
vessels anchored offshore, no on shore anchoring, beach Weve eliminated poaching, reduced predation, edu-
umbrellas, poles, or digging above high water mark, and no cated visitors, monitored the beaches and protected the nest-
dogs are ever allowed on the beach. These regulations have ing adults, but sometimes, no matter how hard you try, some-
been presented to the public through multi-media commu- thing comes along and complicates things. On September
nity outreach programs and are usually well received. 17-18, 1989, Hurricane Hugo hit St. Croix and Buck Island
Outcomes of sea turtle nesting activities during the Reef National Monument. The storm stripped all vegetative
70s and 80s indicated that nearly 100% of all nests were lost cover from the beach forest nesting habitat, left tons of
to the combination of predation and\or poaching (Figure 1).
BUIS established law enforcement patrols in 1975 to provide
both visitor and natural resource protection. Early morning
ranger patrols were significant deterrents to many illegal ac-
tivities and drastically reduced poaching on adult female sea
turtles and their nests. The elimination of poaching was the
first step, the next step was control of the exotic predator, the
mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus), which had effectively
reduced sea turtle hatch success to zero. In the 1960s, NPS
conducted an aerial dispersal of poison bait; the results were
difficult to detect. In 1982 and 83 NPS, along with the Virgin
Islands Fish and Wildlife Service, undertook an island wide
trapping program which resulted in eliminating 90 % of the
mongoose population by 1986. Since 1988 only one live mon-
goose has been sighted on BUIS, and in 1994, the skeleton
of a mongoose was found lying over a hawksbill nest. The
trapping program significantly reduced the impacts from mon-
Figure 2.- % Emergence success of Hawksbill nests at BUIS
goose. Prior to 1986 there was less than 31% emergence suc-
1980-1997

success (only nests already being relocated were included).

The findings were significant; hatch success in unshaded
nests was 55%, and 71% in artificially shaded nests (Fortuna
and Hillis, 1996). The study was repeated in 1997 and nests
that had to be relocated were moved to sites with more natu-
ral shade or they were artificially shaded. Again, the hatch
success of unshaded nests was lower, 53%, than the natu-
rally and artificially shaded nests which was significantly
better, 70%. Over all, the results are encouraging and BUIS
will continue following these nest relocation protocols until
the beach forest vegetation recovers.
As a direct result of the nesting beach protection
through ranger patrols, enforcement of the conservation
laws, education, and research/monitoring, there has been an
increase in the number of nests hatching from Buck Island
Figure 3.- BUIS Hawksbill New Recruits vs. Remigrants over the last 10 years. Before 1985, BUIS had almost zero
emergence success, due to poaching or predation. Between
downed trees and debris blocking the nesting beaches, and 1986 and 1997, even with hurricane impacts, BUIS produced
created one meter high berms preventing access to major an average of 8000 hatchlings per nesting season (Figure 4).
nesting areas. BUIS lost 19 nests to Hurricane Hugo (Hillis, Between 1990 and 1997, when nest relocation protocols were
1990) and 27 nests to the combination of Hurricanes Luis and in practice, a total of 115 nests were relocated. The average
Marilyn in 1995 (Hillis and Phillips, 1996). To prevent these emergence success for those years was 55%, resulting in a
kinds of losses from happening again, hurricane beach pro- total of more than 9000 hatchlings produced from those relo-
tocols were instituted. To reduce nest loss, all nests laid dur- cated nests alone, which otherwise could have been lost to
ing the nocturnal research program that are threatened by erosion, predation, or inadvertent visitor impacts.
predation, visitor impacts, or erosion, are relocated to a safer Hawksbill sea turtle recovery cannot be accomplished
section of the beach. The following protocols were estab- by one act alone, nor can it succeed in the isolation of one
lished: a nest is relocated if it is laid in 1) an area in which nesting beach. Just as sea turtle conservation at Buck Island
seasonal erosion is known to occur within 60 days from the has been multilayered, finding ways to improve the survival
time the nest is laid (the average incubation period for BUIS of the sea turtles within its boundaries, so must the effort be
hawksbill nests); 2) a known hurricane erosion zone (ar- multi-year. BUIS made the commitment to sea turtle conser-
eas that were eroded during hurricanes Hugo, Luis, and vation knowing it was a long-term venture all of which
Marilyn; 3) a high visitor use area (picnic areas with high has lead to a secure nesting beach, an increased number of
density foot traffic and exotic fire ant populations; 4) high nests surviving to term, improved hatch success, and many
density rat areas (rats learn where a nest is, and will raid the more hatchlings leaving the beach that will hopefully return
nest until all eggs are consumed; 5) an unshaded, dark soil to Buck Island Reef NM someday as adults to nest. We also
area, where full exposure to the sun may raise nest tempera- know we must go beyond the park boundaries and coordi-
tures to lethal levels. To increase hatch success some heroic nate with all agencies responsible for sea turtle conserva-
measures have been taken including, clearing large rafts of tion. Hawksbill turtles are migratory animals and must have
fallen trees and root tangles some blocking over 30 feet of protection during all phases of their life and in all places they
shoreline; reduction of meter high storm berms to allow turtles may journey. Buck Island Reef National Monument will con-
access to major nesting areas; relocation of nests out of storm
erosion zones to either natural or artificially shaded areas.
Beginning in 1994, it was apparent that the loss of veg-
etation due to Hurricane Hugo in 1989 was reducing hawks-
bill emergence success (Figure 2). An alarming number of
nests laid in areas of the beach forest in dark soil had high
numbers of full-term unpipped embryos. We suspected these
nests were reaching lethal temperatures during the latter part
of incubation. In 1994, in cooperation with Dr. Thane Wibbels,
University of Alabama at Birmingham, BUIS began monitor-
ing nesting beach temperature on all four nesting beaches,
both in the ground (ambient) and in incubating nests. We
found that the temperatures in the unshaded nests with dark
soil were warmer than shaded nests by 2.1 degrees Celsius.
In 1996, BUIS conducted a paired nest temperature study to
Figure 4.- Number of Hawksbill Hachlings per year at
determine if artificially shading the nests might increase hatch BUIS

Seventeenth Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology imbricata, in Queensland: Population Structure within a
and Conservation. NOAA Technical Memorandum. (In Southern Great Barrier Reef Feeding Ground. Wildlife
Press). Research 19: pp 489-506.
Hillis, Z. 1990. Buck Island Reef National Monument Sea National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Turtle Research Program: 1989- The Year of Hawksbills Service. 1993. Recovery Plan for Hawksbill Turtles in
and Hurricanes. Proceedings of the 10th Annual the U. S. Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean, and Gulf of
Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. Mexico. National Marine Fisheries Service, St.
NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFC-278M: pp Petersburg, Florida.
15-17 (In press). USFWS. 1989. Endangered and threatened wildlife and
Hillis, Z. and Phillips, B. 1996. 1995- The Hurricane Season of plants. 50 CFR 17. 11 and17. 12. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
the Century, Buck Island Reef National Monument, St. Service, Department of the Interior, Washington, DC. 34
Croix, Virgin Islands. Proceedings of the 16th Annual pp.
Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. Zullo, E.S. 1986. Sea Turtle Nesting at Virgin Islands National
NOAA Technical Memorandum. (In Press). Park and Buck Island Reef National Monument 1980-
Limpus, C.J. 1992. The Hawksbill Turtle, Eretmochelys 1985. Virgin Islands National Park Report.
THE SEA TURTLES OF KEFALONIA- A STEP TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY
Jonathan D. R. Houghton and Kim T. Hudson

Kefalonian Marine Turtle Project. Heronfield, Main Road, Shorwell, Isle of Wight, PO30 3JL, U.K.
deerhud@enterprise.net
Kefalonia is the largest of the Ionian Islands situated of marine turtles as a valuable natural asset. This was
to the west of mainland Greece, just north of Zakynthos. complimented by a turtle evening held for the local commu-
Each year, between the months of June and August, Logger- nity and members of the local administration, which focused
head turtles (Caretta caretta) nest along the islands south- predominantly upon the idea of sustainable development.
ern and western shores. Nesting activity has been recorded Strong links have also been established with tour op-
on thirteen beaches, the most important of which is Mounda erators around the island. Our fortnightly publication, Turtle
Beach on the southeastern tip with 139 females tagged to Update enabled tour representatives to keep their clients up
date. to date with turtle related matters. Additionally, Turtle talks
It is undeniable that when compared to major Mediter- are given on a weekly basis in a number of resorts around the
ranean rookeries (e.g., Laganas Bay on Zakynthos with an island, covering sea turtle biology and conservation strate-
average of 1000 nests per year) that the population associ- gies, thus directly imparting information to tourists on how
ated with Kefalonia is modest. However, in terms of biol- they can help. This year the talks were held on a bilingual
ogy, the rookery itself displays a number of important char- basis, which served to generate a lot of interest amongst
acteristics that may help to increase our knowledge of the visiting Greek tourists.
Mediterranean loggerhead population as a whole. These are Continuing on the theme of awareness, the Katelios
listed below: environmental information kiosk opened in 1997. This served
(1) Long Term Population Monitoring - The fourteen to disseminate information in a multitude of languages on
year data set collected on Kefalonia, combined with the mod- environmental matters in general, and sea turtles in particu-
est size of the population, makes it one of the longest studies lar. This proved highly effective and complimented the se-
in the Mediterranean and suitable for use as a pilot programme. ries of public information talks.
(2) Intermittent Emergence - The pattern of emergence Various contacts have been made with a number of
by hatchlings has been shown to be highly intermittent with conservation organisations based on the island with the aim
observations this season of up to twenty days sporadic ac- of increasing cooperation in matters of marine conservation.
tivity from a single nest. Additionally, the KMTP and Katelios Group were invited by
(3) Low Predation - Between the years of 1994-1997 the Natural History Museum of Kefalonia and Ithaca to as-
there have been no accounts of either nest depredation, or sist with the development of their marine turtle display.
hatchling predation on Mounda Beach. This ensures that Significant progress has also been made in the political
virtually every nest laid develops to completion, and all suc- arena. Since 1996, the KMTP and the Katelios Group have
cessfully emerged hatchlings reach the sea allowing good established good communication links with a number of
potential recruitment into future nesting populations. heads of community, local government and other officials.
(4) Beach Infidelity - One of the most interesting find- This set up has proved extremely fruitful as it has allowed us
ings over the past couple of years has been the discovery to receive constructive feedback from communities whilst
that turtles tagged elsewhere in the Mediterranean, predomi- allowing us to bring matters relating to sea turtles onto the
nantly Zakynthos and the Peloponese coast, have been seen local political agenda. This work has culminated in the sub-
to nest on Mounda beach. This opens up some interesting mission of an application to the Prefectorate of Kefalonia

questions regarding the genetic isolation of the Kefalonian a constructive manner. It is hoped to achieve this via contin-
population and nesting beach infidelity. More importantly, ued co-operation with the local communities, developers,
in the event that other sites around the Mediterranean be- research projects, NGOs, Greek Tourist Board, international
come unsuitable for nesting, Mounda Beach may serve as a tour operators and respective Governmental bodies.
refuge for turtles displaced from these areas. To put this plan into action, the KMTP and Katelios
(5) Foraging Grounds - Two foraging grounds have group have taken various steps at local, tourist and Govern-
been identified in the vicinity of Mounda Beach. Of most mental levels emphasising the need to reconsile the conflict-
interest, with respect to these, is the observation of sea turtles ing interests of turtles and tourism. The results of these ac-
tagged outside Greece e.g., Malta. This finding has broad tivities are beginning to show, particularly at a local level.
ranging conservational implications both for Kefalonia, and One of the best examples of this is the education programme.
the Mediterranean in general. Over the past few years preliminary visits to local schools
Over the past decade, tourism on Kefalonia has in- around Kefalonia have been met with a warm response. As
creased steadily leading to the impingement into many areas such, during 1997 a more extensive series of activities was
critical for the survival of Caretta caretta. To date, the dis- set up to approach children between the ages of seven and
turbance to the nesting population has been minimal, but as eighteen in schools in the vicinity of important nesting sites.
development increases it is only a matter of time before its Additionally a series of beach games, based upon various
effects become evident. Despite a denial by the Greek Del- stages of the sea turtle life cycle and the associated food
egate to the BERN Convention in Strasbourg, development web, were held for local and visiting children in nearby re-
has commenced on Mounda Beach posing a number of dis- sorts. Finally, the KMTP and Katelios Group are designing
turbance related problems. As a result of this, the local coman educational pack based on the life cycle of the logger-
munities, under the initiative of The Katelios Group for the head turtle (Caretta caretta), which will hopefully be piloted
Research and Protection of Marine and terrestrial life have in both English and Greek schools in 1998. A lot of interest
formed a partnership with The Kefalonian Marine Turtle has been generated in the local community to assist in the
Project (KMTP), to promote the concept of sustainable de- scientific program run by the project. It is hoped that school
velopment in environmentally sensitive areas. parties will also join in the work next year to gain a greater
Figure 1 outlines how a sustainable management plan insight in to the problems faced by the turtles.
for the sea turtles of Kefalonia and their environment might Further work with the local communities resulted in the
be developed. A framework for discussion needs to be es- devotion of the Katelios festival to local marine life with spe-
tablished to allow all those with an inherent interest in cial attention to Caretta caretta. This was a significant step
Mounda beach, and other important sites to air their views in forward and served to demonstrate the greater acceptance
Figure 1: Outline of how a sustainable development plan might be developed for the sea turtles of Kefalonia and their environment. It is
based upon an holistic approach and incorporates parties ranging from school children to universities, holiday companies to the Council of
Europe.

requesting the introduction of additional environmental regu- SUSTAINABILITY

lations with respect to future and present developments in
Far too often we see the effects of excluding local opin-
the vicinity of sea turtle nesting grounds. This concentrated
ion when Governmental intervention is put into action. For
on the issues of artificial lighting, waste disposal, noise re-
sustainability to become a reality it is important that firm
duction and direct human disturbance. This application was
foundations are laid in the local communities. After all, they
approved by the Anti Normarchise (Deputy Head of the is-
are the owners of the land and it is their needs that must be
land) who then further submitted the application the Build-
acknowledged if any plan is to be successful. Through the
ing Planning Office of Kefalonia and subsequently to the
continuation of the work outlined in this document, it is hoped
Greek Ministry of Planning, Environmental and Public Works.
that a balance may eventually be found that allows healthy
In the event that this document is passed at this level, then
economic development, without the degradation of impor-
the island of Kefalonia will have taken a significant step to-
tant natural assets such as the sea turtles and their environ-
wards a sustainable future.
ment.
At a higher level, annual reports are submitted to the
Greek Government and with the help of the Mediterranean ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Society to Save the Sea Turtles (MEDASSET), it has been
possible to submit documents to the Council of Europe, 15th, The KMTP would like to extend their thanks to the
16th and 17th Convention on the Conservation of European Overseas Student Travel Fund for their assistance with trav-
Wildlife and Natural Habitats [BERN Convention]. elling expenses from the U.K.; participation of JH was made
possible by support of funds donated the Symposium by the
FINAL COMMENT - A STEP TOWARDS David and Lucile Packard Foundation.
THE CONVENTION ON MIGRATORY SPECIES AND MARINE TURTLE

CONSERVATION
Douglas J. Hykle
UNEP/CMS Secretariat, Martin-Luther-King-Str. 8, D-53175 Bonn, GERMANY. dhykle@cms.unep.de
The Convention on Migratory Species (CMS or Bonn are afforded strict protection. A much larger number of spe-
Convention) is a global intergovernmental treaty concerned cies listed in Appendix II warrant the development of spe-
exclusively with the conservation of migratory species and cialized conservation agreement among Range States. Ma-
the habitats on which they depend. Its taxonomic coverage rine turtles benefit from listing in both CMS appendices, and
is diverse, encompassing marine turtles, migratory birds, as are receiving increased attention under the Convention. So
well as marine and terrestrial mammals. Its membership cur- far, this has taken the form of sponsorship of regional work-
rently stands at over 50 contracting Parties worldwide. The shops and strategic planning sessions, and financing of other
Convention's activities are focused on two lists of species. important conservation initiatives.
Animals listed in Appendix I are considered endangered and
UNIVERSITY PROJECT ON STUDY OF CUBAN SEA TURTLES
Mara Elena Ibarra Martn1, Georgina Espinosa Lpez2, Flix Moncada Gaviln3, Jorge Angulo Valds1, Gonzalo Nodarse
Andreu3, Gloria Hernndez Aguilera2, and Johan Pacheco Roberto4
1
Centro de Investigaciones Marinas, Universidad de la Habana, Cuba. anaicr@correo.co.cu
2
Dpto. de Bioqumica, Facultad de Biologa, Universidad de la Habana, Cuba
3
Centro de Investigaciones Pesqueras, Ministerio de la Industria Pesquera, Cuba
4
Delegacin CITMA, Pinar del Ro, Cuba
INTRODUCTION ation has become a key point of discussion for the scientific
Sea turtles are well represented in the diverse Cuban community. As a result, many countries and international
fauna and throughout history have been an important source organizations have enacted regulations and have imple-
of revenues for coastal communities. Currently, this primi- mented new conservationist strategies to protect such a
tive group has gained scientific and economical importance unique living form. At the same time, CITES has included sea
in many countries all over the world. turtles under the appendix 1 of its regulation.
The indiscriminate overexploitation, its poorly under- Four species of sea turtles have been reported for the
stood biology, and other indirect causes, such as habitat Cuban archipelago. They are the hawksbill turtle Eretmo-
destruction, have provoked the depletion of many sea turtle chelys imbricata, the green turtle Chelonia mydas, the log-
populations (Carr, 1952; King, 1995; Ross, 1995). This situ- gerhead turtle Caretta caretta, and the leatherback turtle

Dermochelys coriacea being the last one rarely observed. growing areas for sea turtles.
Before the latest 80s much of the work done in Cuba, The study will be carried out in two well known beaches
regarding sea turtles, was related to harvesting and ranch- from the south coast of Pennsula de Guanahacabibes. They
ing. During the 90s the Ministry of Fishery started a Na- are Playa Antonio and Caleta del Piojo which extend from
tional Research Program on Mark-recapture of E. imbricata. about 150 to 200 m.
Within this national program, topics such as: migrations No turtle camp has ever been implemented in these
(Moncada, 1992, 1994, 1996, 1998) and (Moncada et al., beaches before. Nonetheless, some work on harvesting and
1995), reproductive behavior (Moncada et al., 1987), feed- ranching have been done by local people (Fico Valera y
ing preferences (Anderes and Uchida, 1994), ecological dis- Cardona, personal communications).
tribution (Prez et al., 1994), controlled nursery (Nodarse, Research design and work plan:
1994), sexual maturity (Moncada and Nodarse, 1994 and 1. Preliminary visits: These visits will be carried out
Sanz, personal communication), and population genetic in order to get a general idea about the study area, to deter-
(Espinosa et al., 1996 and in press) have been addressed. mine the beginning of the nesting season, to identify sea turtle
Even though, most of these works have not been published, species, to determine turtle camps sites, and to interview
results have been presented and discussed in several interna- local inhabitants. (3 months)
tional workshops. 2. Seminars: Having known the study areas features
Most of the previous work was carried out within fish- lectures and seminars will be given to university students to
ery areas until 1994 when all but two of the sites were closed let them know the kind of work to do. (36 months)
to fishing becoming authentic areas for scientific studies. 3. Educational activities in rural areas: Lectures will
Among sites the Cayera de las Doce Leguas and Playa el be offered to teachers of rural schools and small student-
Guanal are those from many of the studies have been done. groups will be created to facilitated the understanding and
Having into account that the Western part of the coun- comprehension of protection and sustainable use of marine
try (Pinar del Ro province) has rarely been studied, that it is turtles and other species. A publication, made by students
easy to get there by road, and that C. caretta and C. mydas from the Faculty of Biology of the University of Havana,
have been reported to nest in that area, it is this institutions will be delivered among local population to teach and en-
interest to develop this project. courage them the gathering of scientific data from sea turtles.
(36 months)
OBJECTIVES 4. Sampling visits: Couples of students will do noc-
1. To determine nesting areas, to characterize nests and turnal walks, along the selected beaches, to get morphomet-
nesting animals. ric data and diverse information from nesting turtles. (27
2. To promote conservation and sustainable use of sea months)
turtles in university students and local communities. 5. Getting of morphological and ecological data: The
following data will be collected
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES Morphological:Weight, Caparace length., Tail length.,
Nail length.
1. To determine the main nesting areas in the western Ecological: Beach slope, . Distance from the nest to
part of the Cuban archipelago and to assess the suit- the mean tide line, . Kind of vegetation surrounding the
ability of establish Turtle Camps down there. nest, . Type of sand, Other data of interest. .
2. To gather morphometric data from nesting animals Along morphological and ecological data small samples
and eggs, and to determine abiotic factors, such as of skin and muscle will be also taken, from every turtle, and
temperature and humidity. conserved in alcohol 95 % for DNA analysis. (36 months)
3. To estimate the genetic diversity of sea turtle popula- 6. DNA variation analysis: Amplifications from DNA
tions that nest in the area. extracts will be done using the Polymerase Chain Reaction
4. To improve conservationist and environmental methodology (PCR). This PCR-products will be digested
thoughts in university students. using different restriction endonuclease. It will allow the es-
5. To develop and improve environmental education in timation of haplotype and nucleotide diversity. It will also
local communities. permit to calculate differentiation index among populations,
and the contribution of different nesting colonies to Cuban
METHODOLOGY feeding grounds. All this analysis will contribute to a better
Study area: management of sea turtle populations. (30 months)
In 1987 UNESCO declared the Pennsula de
Guanahacabibes as a Biosphere Reserve. This area is lo- EXPECTED RESULTS
cated at the most western part of the Cuban archipelago and Expected results will be in accordance to the activities
encompass 1, 015 Km2. Its south coast stretches from about carry out by professors and students during the study.
75 to 80 Km and includes rocky shore and sandy beaches 1. To identify all sea turtle species that nest in the area
suitable for nesting. On the marine side occurs coral reefs and to assess the size of their populations.
and seagrass beds being the last ones important feeding and 2. To estimate the size composition of the nesting fe-
males and to get morphometric measurement from Centro de Investigaciones Pesqueras, Ministerio de la
them. Industria Pesquera. Cuba.
3. To assess the nesting succeed through nests and eggs Moncada, F. 1994. Migration of hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys
counting, and elapsed time before egg hatching. imbricata) in the Cuban platform. In: Study of the
4. To determine sex proportion in juveniles. hawksbill turtle in Cuba (I). Ed. Ministry of Fishing
5. Genetic characterization of the populations. Industry, Cuba, pp. 1-8.
6. To improve environmental education work with lo- Moncada, F. 1996. Migration of hawksbill turtle. In:
cal communities. Proceedings of the 16th Annual Sea Turtle Symposium.
7. Results derived from this project will be published Hilton. Head island. South California, U.S.A. .
in Revista de Investigaciones Marinas, might be used Moncada, F. 1998. Migraciones de la tortuga verde (Chelonia
for teaching purposes at the University of Havana, mydas), la caguama (Caretta caretta) y el carey
and would be presented in national and international (Eretmochelys imbricata) en aguas cubanas y reas
workshops. adyacentes. Tsis de Maestra. Defendida en Enero de
1998. Centro de Investigaciones Marinas. Universidad
REFERENCES de la Habana.
Anderes, B.L. and Uchida. 1994. Study of hawksbill turtle Moncada, F. and G. Nodarse 1994. Length composition and
(Eretmochelys imbricata) stomach content in Cuban size of sexual maturation of hawksbill turtle in the Cuban
waters. In: Study of the hawksbill turtle in Cuba (1). platform. In: Study of the hawksbill turtle in Cuba (8).
Ministerio de la Industria Pesquera, La Habana, Cuba. Ed. Ministry of Fishing Industry, Cuba, pp. 19-25.
pp. 27-40. Moncada, F., R. Cardona, and G. Nodarse 1987.
Carr, A. F. 1952. Handbook of turtles, the turtles of United Comportamiento reproductivo de los quelonios marinos
States, Canada, and Baja California, Ithaca, New York: en el archipilago cubano. Resmenes I Congreso de
Comstock Publishers. Ciencias del Mar. La Habana. Cuba.
Espinosa, G., R. Daz, E. Garca, A. Robaina, M. Ramos, S. Moncada, F., E. Carrillo, S. Elizalde, G. Nodarse, B. Anderes,
Elizalde, G. Nodarse, C. Prez; F. Moncada, A. Meneses C. Sacantlebury, A. Alvarez, and A. Rodrguez 1995.
and M. Garduo, (1996): El DNA mitocondrial como Migraciones de las tortugas marinas en la plataforma
marcador en la caracterizacin de poblaciones de la cubana. In: Proceedings of the 16th Annual Sea Turtle
tortuga carey Eretmochelys imbricata. Resumen. Symposium. Hilton. Head island. South California,
Reunin nacional sobre la conservacin y uso sostenible U.S.A.
del carey en Cuba. Doc. RRC/12. Nodarse, G. 1994. Experiencias de la cra en granjas de la
Espinosa, G., G. Hernndez, R. Daz, H. Sasaki and F. tortuga carey en Cuba. The International Workshop on
Moncada. (in press): Estudio del polimorfismo proteco the Management of Marine Turtle. Tokyo.
y del DNA mitocondrial en la tortuga carey Eretmochelys Prez, C. 1994. Caracterizacin de la Cayera de las Doce
imbricata. Revista Investigaciones Marinas. Leguas, Cuba. The International Workshop on the
King, F.W. 1995. Historical review of the decline of the green Management of Marine Turtle. Tokyo.
turtle and the hawksbill turtle. In: Biology and Ross, P.J. 1995: Historical decline of loggerhead, ridley and
Conservation of Sea Turtles. (K.A. Bjorndal Ed.) leatherback sea turtles. In: Biology and Conservation of
Moncada, F. 1992. Migraciones de la tortugas marinas en la Sea Turtles. (K.A. Bjorndal Ed.)
plataforma cubana. Resultados preliminares. Resmenes Sanz, A., F. Moncada, and N. Almaguer (unpublished
1er. Seminario de Ciencia y Tecnologa Pesqueras. manuscript). Estudio de la maduracin sexual en el carey
(E. imbricata) mediante cortes histolgicos.
MIYAPUNU AND TOLNGU: SEA TURTLE CONSERVATION IN NORTH-EAST

ARNHEMLAND, AUSTRALIA
Rod Kennet
Faculty of Science, Northern Territory University, Darwin, Northern Territory Australia. rkennett@banda.ntu.edu.au
The Yolngu people have occupied north-east life Commission of the NT and the Northern Land Council,
Arnhemland in the Northern Territory of Australia for some oversees land and resource management in the region. The
50 000 years. Today they maintain strong cultural, spiritual project combines traditional and contemporary Aboriginal
and economic ties to their country. Miyapunu (sea turtles) knowldedge with non-Aboriginal (balanda) data and research
and their eggs are an important traditional resource and the methods to improve our current poor understanding of sea
sustainable management of sea turtles is a priority. Their turtle distribution and ecology in the region, and to estimate
land management agency, Dhimurru Land Management Ab- the extent and composition of the harvest of sea turtle and
original Corporation, in cooperation with the Parks and Wild- eggs. It explores ways of gaining the support and involve-

ment of Yolngu, who are essential to the data collection pro- including future directions, and some preliminary data on
cess, and ultimately to the successful implementation of any the egg and turtle harvest will be presented.
management recommendations. An overview of the project
THE RIDLEY SEA TURTLE POPULATIONS IN MEXICO
Ren Mrquez Milln

Instituto Nacional de la Pesca, CRIP-Manzanillo, Mxico. rmarquez@bay.net.mx
The sea turtles have some biological characteristics caretta, Chelonia agassizii, Lepidochelys kempii,
that are important for their administration as a resource: their Dermochelys c. schlegeli, Eretmochelys i. imbricata, Eret-
distribution is tropical and subtropical, they have high fe- mochelys i. bissa and Dermochelys c. coriacea, only Caretta
cundity but also high mortality by predation, have slow c. gigas doesn't nest in our beaches, nor does so in the
growth rates and in our latitude, depending on the species, western American coasts.
the age to maturity is reached commonly between one and After decades of beach protection, in Mxico two popu-
two decades. Also some turtles like Chelonia sp. and Eret- lations have shown positive trends, one of them is the "olive
mochelys sp. have the property of being successfully cap- ridley" (L. olivacea), that nests in Oaxaca state and nowa-
tive-reared and one of the most important facts is that they days is the more abundant sea turtle, with over 800,000 nests
can be easily captured direct and indirectly. per year (considering only one beach, "La Escobilla) and the
In Mxico their capture increased rapidly in the 60's, other is the Kemp's ridley (L. kempii) the most endangered
from 2 to 14.5 thousand tons (1963 to 1968), then some popu- species, with a few more than 2,000 nets per year. Each of
lations were considerably depleted and a total ban was pro- our other sea turtles usually have no more than 5,000 nests
claimed in 1972-1973. After the ban, the fishery was reorga- per year, but ortunately, at least other two, C. m. mydas and
nized and the protection of the nesting beaches was increased. E. i. imbricata also show positive trends of abundance.
Since poaching of eggs and adults continued in most According to the diversity and abundance of sea turtles
beaches, more populations were decimated and several of it is possible that at the present Mxico is one of the more
the more important nesting beaches were lost. There are 11 important countries, since both the government and the so-
kinds of sea turtles, 10 can be found in Mexico and 9 of them ciety are compelled to solve in a near future the relationship
nest in our beaches, in the next order of abundance: between turtles and man.
Lepidochelys olivacea, Chelonia m. mydas, Caretta c.
COMMON SENSE CONSERVATION
Rod Mast
R.MAST@conservation.org
In considering the objectives, strategies and methods the directions we take as managers and researchers of ma-
we employ for achieving the goals of marine turtle conser- rine turtle species and populations. The author will propose
vation worldwide, it is useful to look at biodiversity conser- some over-arching principles for effective marine turtle con-
vation in general, what has worked and what has not in re- servation and management.
cent times. An overview of some of the successes and fail-
ures and the lessons they can teach us, can help turtle con-
servationists and managers to better determine what are the
common sense approaches that will lead most rapidly and
efficiently to their goal. Standard biodiversity priority-set-
ting models like those used for tropical forests, when adapted
and applied to marine turtles, can serve as useful guides to
those investing in the conservation of turtles and their habi-
tats. Similarly, a glimpse at some past successes in wildlife
management (in situ and ex situ) can provide answers about

RESEARCH UPDATE ON THE CUBAN HAWKSBILL TURTLE PROGRAM
Charlie Manolis1, Elvira Carrillo C.2, Grahame J. W. Webb1, Hiroko Koike4, Rogelio Diaz F.3, Felix Moncada G.2, Alexis
Meneses P.2, Gonzalo Nodarse A.2, Georgina Espinosa L.3, and Bryan Baker1
1
Wildlife Management International, PO Box 530, Sanderson, N. T. 0812, Australia. cmanolis@wmi.com.au
2
Ministerio de la Industria Pesquera, Cuidad de la Habana, Cuba
3
Facultad de Biologia, Universidad de la Habana, Cuidad de la Habana, Cuba
4
Graduate School of Social and Cultural Studies, Kyushu University, Kukuoka, Japan
INTRODUCTION
Hawksbill Turtle shell has been produced by Cuba General patterns of reproduction of E. imbricata in Cuba
since the 1500s, and until the cessation of international trade were apparent, but more importantly, these data provided
(in 1992), it was one of the main suppliers of Eretmochelys insights into reproduction within the different fisheries zones.
imbricata shell from the Caribbean region. In 1968, Cubas Although proportions of female E. imbricata contain-
sea turtle fishery was organized into a more formal, man- ing follicles were similar in different fishing zones, lower
aged fishery, organized within four defined harvest zones proportions of females caught in Zones B, C and D were
(Zones A-D). In 1983 the Cuban Ministry of Fishing Indus- found to contain shelled eggs (2.9%, 6.3%, 1.6% respec-
tries instigated a more scientific approach to the fishery, and tively), compared with Zone A (10.6%) (Moncada et al.,
more detailed data (size, reproductive status, stomach con- 1997b), the main nesting area in Cuba. These data suggest
tents, etc.) were collected on E. imbricata taken within each that a significant proportion of females with enlarged fol-
of the fishing zones. In 1990, the fishery was voluntarily licles in Zones B, C and D move out of their capture zone to
phased down, so that fishing effort could be diverted to nest. This was not the case with females in Zone A, where
other export fisheries, and in 1994 the taking of E. imbricata the data were consistent with turtles caught there actually
was restricted to two traditional harvest sites [Isle of Pines nesting there.
(Zone B; southwest); Nuevitas (Zone D; northeast)] (ROC The main period of reproductive activity (August-De-
1997a; Carrillo et al., 1997a). cember) is also the time when fewer turtles containing eggs
In 1997, Cuba submitted a proposal to the 10th Con- are caught in Zone D, consistent with movement of turtles to
ference of Parties to CITES to transfer E. imbricata in Cu- Zone A. Based on these reproductive data, it was estimated
ban waters from Appendix I to Appendix II (ROC 1997a). that some 65% of reproductively active E. imbricata were in
The proposal presented a variety of detailed data to support Zone A. Zone-specific harvest data between 1983 and 1990
Cubas case. Additional data collected after submission of (before harvests were scaled down) indicated that Zones A
the proposal were distributed at the CITES meeting in June and D accounted for 64% of the total Cuban harvest (Carrillo
1997 (ROC, 1997b), and this Symposium provides an op- et al., 1997b).
portunity to provide a further update on key research pro-
grams currently underway in Cuba. TAGGING STUDIES
One of the key concerns raised about Cubas proposal Eretmochelys imbricata have been tagged in a number
to CITES was the extent to which harvests in Cuba may af- of countries in the Caribbean (e.g. Antigua, Costa Rica,
fect the status of E. imbricata elsewhere, and vice versa. As Mexico, Virgin Islands, Bahamas, Puerto Rico), and until
definitive data on rates of immigration and emigration for sea recently only two (both from Mexico) had been recovered in
turtles are not available, this issue was, and remains, difficult Cuba, in the western part of the country. Tags from an E.
to resolve. There was a misconception that a closed popu- imbricata marked in the Bahamas is reported to have been
lation was being advocated by Cuba. There is no closed recovered in Cuba (Zone D) in August 1997 (Bjorndal and
population of sea turtles anywhere, and Cuba has maintained Bolten, 1998). There are no records of tags from E. imbricata
that it does not have a closed population of E. imbricata marked in Cuba being recovered in any other country - all
(ROC, 1997a, b). Rather, Cuba has consistently rejected the have been recovered in Cuban waters.
notion that all E. imbricata move randomly throughout the In contrast, harvesting in Nicaragua has led to the re-
Caribbean region, and that to accept such a theory on the covery of tags from E. imbricata originally tagged in Costa
basis of speculation would be irresponsible based on the Rica, the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico. Chelonia mydas
evidence to date. and Caretta caretta tagged in Cuba have been recovered in
various countries throughout the Caribbean, and vice versa
REPRODUCTIVE DATA
(Moncada et al., 1997a). Notwithstanding the lower num-
Examination of over 8700 E. imbricata taken during the bers of E. imbricata tagged, the results for E. imbricata are
harvest period (1983-1995; Carrillo et al., 1997b) yielded ex- different from other species, and are more consistent with
tensive data on reproduction (Moncada et al,. 1997b). (Data spheres of movement rather than random movement.
collection has been maintained at the traditional harvest sites). Tag recoveries from E. imbricata tagged on the north-

ern coast (Zone D) suggested movement in an easterly di- the eastern Caribbean (area near Monsterrat, Guadeloupe,
rection, with some animals rounding the eastern tip of Cuba Antigua). The second turtle headed in a southerly direction,
(Moncada et al., 1997a). In contrast, tag recoveries in Doce passing to the east of the Cayman Islands, and proceeding to
Leguas (Zone A; southeast) were indicative of a higher de- shallow waters off the coast of Honduras and Nicaragua; it
gree of residency. As a tagging program was only recently later changed direction, moving east to Colombia. Trans-
initiated at the Isle of Pines (Zone B), no comparable data missions subsequently ceased for both of these animals. The
are available from there. third individual moved in a northwesterly direction before
moving south to shallow waters off Campeche Bank, Yucatan,
MITOCHONDRIAL DNA Mexico. Readings are still being recorded for this turtle.
To date, the Cuban study has resulted in the analysis of The lack of readings when animals reach shallow wa-
529 samples (nesting and foraging) from Mexico (126), ters remains a concern, and damage to the transmitter aerials
Puerto Rico (74) and Cuba (279), and additional samples as animals swim in coral reefs may be the cause of sudden
are currently being analyzed. However, although mt-DNA cessation of readings from some of the transmitters. Previ-
studies are a very powerful tool, caution must be exercised ous studies with E. imbricata have demonstrated this prob-
when interpreting the results from such studies (e.g. lem. Nonetheless, the study will continue, and the next stage
Mrosovsky, 1997). That foraging populations contain a wider will involve transmitters being placed on E. imbricata in
range of haplotypes than those hatched in nearby beaches is nesting and foraging zones in Cuba, and perhaps in collabo-
true, but the degree to which mt-DNA results can be used to ration with other countries in the Caribbean, with E. imbricata
establish current rates of immigration and emigration for in their waters.
marine turtles is unclear (Bowen and Bass, 1997). The ap-
CONCLUSIONS
proach taken by Cuba is to treat such results cautiously, and
to continue to expand their database. Cuba has long been a major supplier of E. imbricata
Notwithstanding that sampling biases can be signifi- shell and Japan the main buyer, until trade ceased in 1992.
cant (ROC, 1997b), data from Cuba indicate that a high pro- Anecdotal evidence from Japanese artisans with a long his-
portion of E. imbricata in 3 foraging zones (Zones A, B, D) tory of working with E. imbricata shell (bekko) suggests
shared nesting haplotypes from one zone (Zone A). Some differences between shell from different areas. For example,
86% of turtles foraging in Zone A shared the same haplotypes they have been able to distinguish Cuban shell from that
as nesting samples from that zone. High proportions of for- derived in other parts of the Caribbean, and have long val-
aging animals in the two other zones (65% and 66% in Zones ued it above that from countries such as Panama, Nicaragua
B and D respectively) also shared the same nesting and Mexico. Color, pattern and the workability of the shell
haplotypes. Likewise, using data from Mexico and Puerto have been identified as key differences.
Rico, 71% and 76% of turtles in foraging areas shared Through studies with tagging, mitochondrial DNA and
haplotypes in nearby nesting areas (ROC, 1997b). satellite tracking, Cuba continues to address the question of
the extent to which E. imbricata move in and out of Cuban
SATELLITE TRACKING waters. Satellite tracking has provided some valuable data,
but no definitive rates of immigration or emigration can be
Satellite tracking of E. imbricata was recently initiated
quantified from the limited data collected so far. The cost of
at the two traditional harvest sites in Cuba (see ROC, 1997a,
carrying out satellite telemetry means that this aspect of the
b). Initial results from Nuevitas, on the northern coast indi-
program will proceed cautiously, steadily providing new data.
cated movement of 4 E. imbricata in an easterly direction, in
inshore waters along the coast. These data were consistent
LITERATURE CITED
with the pattern of tag recoveries from E. imbricata tagged
at this site (Moncada, 1994; Moncada et al., 1997a). Turtle Bjorndal, K.A. and Bolten, A.B (1998). Hawksbill tagged in
fishermen with over 25 years of experience in this area have the Bahamas recaptured in Cuba. Marine Turtle
consistently stated that turtles are always caught on the west- Newsletter 79: 18-19.
ern side of their nets, and when released on the other (east- Bowen, B.W. and Bass, A.L. 1997. Movement of Hawksbill
ern) side, are never recaught in the nets. Turtles: What scale is relevant to conservation and what
Results from the second traditional harvest site at scale is resolvable with mtDNA data. Chelonian
Cocodrilos, on the southern coast of the Isle of Pines, in early Conservation and Biology 2(3): 440-442.
1997, consisted on one E. imbricata which stayed in the area Carrillo, E.C., A. Marchado, and P. Sanchez, 1997a. Regulation
of release for 75 days before transmissions ceased. Another of E. imbricata use in Cuba. Annex 3 In: An Annotated
turtle swam from the Isle of Pines to Cayman Brac (Cayman Transfer of the Cuban Population of Hawksbill Turtles
Islands), and soon after returned to Cuban waters (ROC (Eretmochelys imbricata) from Appendix I to Appendix
1997b) before transmissions ceased. Further work in late II. Proposal submitted to CITES by the Republic of Cuba.
1997, with 3 E. imbricata at the Isle of Pines, resulted in Carrillo, E.C., F.G. Moncada, S.R. Elizalde, G.A. Nodarse, C.P.
greater movement. One individual swam into Jamaican wa- Perez, and A.M. Rodriguez, 1997b. Historical Harvest,
ters, before proceeding in an easterly direction until it reached Trade and Sampling Data. Annex 4 In: An Annotated

Transfer of the Cuban Population of Hawksbill Turtles Nesting of E. imbricata in Cuba. Annex 6 In: An
(Eretmochelys imbricata) from Appendix I to Appendix Annotated Transfer of the Cuban Population of
II. Proposal submitted to CITES by the Republic of Cuba. Hawksbill Turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) from
Moncada, F.G. 1994a. Migration of Hawksbill Turtle Appendix I to Appendix II. Proposal submitted to CITES
(Eretmochelys imbricata) in the Cuban platform. pp. 1- by the Republic of Cuba.
8 In: Study of the Hawksbill Turtle in Cuba (I). Mrosovsky, N. 1997. Movement of Hawksbill Turtles- a
Ministry of Fishing Industry, Cuba: Havana. different perspective on the DNA data. Chelonian
Moncada, F.G., Koike, H., Espinosa, G., Manolis, S.C., Perez, Conservation and Biology 2(3): 438-439.
C., Nodarse, G.A., Tanabe, S., Sakai, H., Webb, G.J. ROC (Republic of Cuba) 1997a. An Annotated Transfer of
W., Carrillo, E.C., Diaz, R. and Tsubouchi, T. (1997a). the Cuban Population of Hawksbill Turtles
Movement and Population Integrity. Annex 8 In: An (Eretmochelys imbricata) from Appendix I to Appendix
Annotated Transfer of the Cuban Population of II. Proposal submitted to CITES, January 1997.
Hawksbill Turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) from ROC (Republic of Cuba) 1997b. Clarification and Update:
Appendix I to Appendix II. Proposal submitted to CITES Cubas Proposal on Hawksbill Turtles (Eretmochelys
by the Republic of Cuba. imbricata). Supporting data to Cuban Hawksbill Turtle
Moncada, F.G., C.P. Perez, G.A.Nodarse, S.R. Elizalde, A.M. Proposal. Harare, Zimbabwe, June 1997.
Rodriguez, and A. Meneses, 1997b. Reproduction and
SEA TURTLE RECOVERY ACTION PLAN FOR KENYA
Jane R. Mbendo1, George M. Wamukoya2, and Felix P. Kaloki3

1
Fisheries Department, P. O. Box 90423, Mombasa, Kenya. 104721.3234@compuserve.com
2
Kipini Community Conservation Centre, P. O. Box 1209, Mombasa, Kenya
3
Kindemothilfe Africa, P. O. Box 39531, Nairobi, Kenya
INTRODUCTION
diction overlap. There is also lack of capacity in the form of
Sea turtles continue to play an important role in the personnel and equipment. Most of the turtle nesting areas
cultural and socio-economic development of the coastal com- are remote therefore encouraging the illegal transactions of
munities of Kenya. The historic cultural act of capturing sea turtle products to continue unnoticed since surveillance is
turtles by use of the sucker fish (remora) links these people, also wanting. Local community participation seems to be the
society, environment and biota. It is a means through which only plausible way to control illegal exploitation and conser-
knowledge of the sea and marine life is passed on, techno- vation of sea turtles and their habitats.
logical patterns maintained and, sea and resource procure- The Kenya sea turtle conservation committee has main-
ment skills socially rewarded. tained education and awareness. Under the same committee,
The green turtle (Chelonia mydas) is an important funds are being generated to support the community reward
source of protein and is significant as an item of social ex- scheme for local fishermen who participate in turtle nest pro-
change. The hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) protection and also for compensation of nets destroyed in the
vides tortoiseshell and scutes sold for commercial gain. Turtle event of incidental capture. Through grassroots actions,
oil, considered medicinal is used in the treatment of asthma, multimedia campaigns, hands-on conservation projects, en-
ear infections and paralysis. Once obtained turtle meat is vironmental education and prosecution KESCOM has per-
shared among kinsmen and villagers at different levels in- sisted with efforts towards recovery of sea turtle stocks.
creasing in symbolic value at every level. Evidence of declin- There is need for monitoring programs to establish popu-
ing harvests of sea turtles can be attributed to depleted stocks lation trends and also evaluate the success of conservation
and presence of legislation. The most significant threat to efforts, thus necessitating the selection of index beaches for
sea turtle survival in Kenya, however, is incidental capture in comprehensive studies. The area between Kipini and Ras
set gill nets and trawfl nets. Emphasis has to be laid upon Biongwe within the Tana River delta is the most important
both protection of turtles and their eggs, protection of im- nesting beach for turtles in Kenya.
portant feeding and nesting habitats and enforcement mecha- The migratory nature of sea turtles calls for regional
nisms. co-operation. For any effective management to be achieved
Current local legislation in the form of the Fisheries there must be National, Regional and international initiatives.
Act, Cap 378 and the Wildlife Conservation and Manage- The Kenya sea turtle recovery action plan seeks to provide
ment Act, Cap 376, has proved inadequate in providing for policy makers and the public with detailed information nec-
the recovery of sea turtles. This legislation does not provide essary to make informed decisions regarding the conserva-
for the recovery of habitats critical to sea turtles and enforce- tion and recovery of depleted sea turtle populations in Kenya.
ment efforts are hampered as several enforcement agencies Specific objectives include: to provide, the most current and
are charged with this responsibility, creating obvious juris- comprehensive information on the distribution and status of

sea turtles in Kenya, to indicate gaps in present knowledge, sold in the remote areas of Mtondani and Tenewi.
to review the national and international legal responsibilities
of the government toward sea turtles, to discuss contempo- MITIGATION MEASURES
rary threats to continued survival of sea turtles in Kenya and For an effective recovery programme, protection of
to make recommendations for their sustainable conservation marine and terrestrial habitats is critical. The integrity of
and management. sandy beaches is also essential. Protection and sustainable
use of these habitats requires conscious planning. It is rec-
STATUS, DISTRIBUTION AND THREATS
ommended that proper land use planning for the coastal zone
The sea turtle species occurring in Kenyas waters in- and development mechanisms to foster successful implemen-
clude: the green turtle (Chelonia mydas), loggerhead (Caretta tation of the same, at local level be put in place. Environ-
caretta), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), leatherback ment impact assessments need to be made mandatory for all
(Dermochelys coriacea), and hawksbill (Eretmochelys coastal projects. This should be a holistic, interdisciplinary
imbricata). Of these, the green turtle and hawksbill which approach that considers impacts from both natural and an-
appear to be evenly distributed, nest along the entire coast- thropogenic effects.
line, the green turtle being most common. Nothing is known Surveillance and enforcement capabilities by the de-
of the pelagic distribution or extent and abundance of the partments concerned need to be strengthened. There is need
olive ridley, loggerhead and leatherback turtles, although ol- to determine incidental catch and promote the use of turtle
ive ridley have been reported to be localised in Ungwana excluder devices. The technology transfer has been done and
Bay (Frazier, 1975). There is also inadequate indigenous the experimental phase of implementation is in progress on
knowledge of the loggerhead and leatherback turtles making three shrimp trawlers in Ungwana Bay. Also regulation of
it difficult to determine their distribution. Hughes (1971) re- set nets and drift nets is essential coupled with the use of
ported that loggerheads nesting in Natal, South Africa and closed seasons. Sewage disposal systems have to be put in
marked with metal tags have been captured in Malindi at the place. Annual beach clean-up exercises are carried out to
Kenya coast, thus confirming their use of Kenyas waters. clear the beaches of marine debris especially plastics usu-
An obvious decline in the number of nesting females ally ingested by leatherback turtles. An oil spill contingency
has been documented (Olendo, 1993). The older fishermen plan with appropriate equipment and capability to handle up
further reveal that most of the sea turtles presently encoun- to tier 2 spills is in place.
tered during fishing expeditions are smaller in size. They also Supplementing reduced populations through manage-
indicate that there has been a rapid and drastic decline in ment techniques has involved: protection of eggs by trans-
turtle numbers and nests along the Kenyan coast in the past planting nests and relocating to safer identical areas. Com-
two decades, although a large number of pelagic turtles is munity participation has been fostered for the success of
reported. This implies that there are two different popula- collaborative management. The success of co-management
tions along the coast consisting of a migratory population depends on whether these areas can provide benefits suffi-
and the resident population. It is not known, however whether cient for the local communities to participate in conserva-
the sea turtle population along the coast is stable or declin- tion. Their cultural and economic interests must be seen to
ing, though there is evidence that some nesting populations be served. Suitable mechanisms for conflict resolution are
have been virtually exterminated (Wamukoya et al., 1995). necessary. An approach of facilitating and supporting income
Noticeable is the sporadic nesting pattern typical today along generating activities for the local people is also being em-
the coast. ployed. Long term data for monitoring programmes has to
The threats faced by sea turtles in Kenya include: debe accrued and techniques standardised so that scientific
struction and modification of habitat, trawling activities and understanding of the trends in sea turtle populations can be
sedimentation in Ungwana bay which cause a change in the achieved. Public education and awareness need to be car-
structure of the sea bed and characteristics of the outlying ried out so that the recommendations in the action plan are
waters and elimination of species habitats, thereby affecting articulated effectively with a view of enlisting public sup-
the functioning of the entire ecosystem. Sea grass beds are port. Gaps in legislation ought to be identified and augmented
known to be showing signs of stress in some areas due to whilst new regulations are proposed. Networking and infor-
sedimentation, sewage and other effluents. Dynamite fish- mation exchange are to be co-ordinated within the Western
ing, use of spear guns, beach seining and use of poisons/ Indian Ocean marine turtle strategy.
chemicals results in damage of benthic communities. Sand
mining affects turtle nesting beaches. Coastal development KIPINI COMMUNITY CONSERVATION CENTRE
triggered by the tourism industry is a critical threat as eco-
The area which is situated at the Tana River delta is a
nomic benefits precede conservation. Over-exploitation from
unique ecosystem encompassing a large number of habitats.
traditional practice both for subsistence and commercial
The most critical, however, are: coastal ecosystems such as
purposes is exacerbated by the recent political unrest in
estuaries, wetlands and mangrove forests; Mtondani and
neighbouring Somalia as a spill-over of refugees (Kayamas)
Tenewi marine turtle nesting beaches; Ziwayuu/Tenewi ma-
increase the pressure on turtles. Ineffective law enforcement
rine turtle and dugong feeding habitats; sand dune ecosys-
has led to poaching of eggs, turtle meat and oil which are
tem; and marine and fresh water fisheries resources. The tably all stakeholders are required to participate so as to
need for proactive intervention against the resulting anthro- provide an opportunity for local communities and develop-
pogenic environmental degradation in Kipini led to the for- ers to synchronise their activities.
mation of the community conservation group in 1996, whose
aims broadly address sustainable development and natural ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
resource management, while enhancing local community par-
JM wishes to thank The David and Lucile Packard Foun-
ticipation through capacity building and incentives. The cen-
dation for travel funds, British Airways for providing an air
tre has a main focus on conservation of ecological processes
ticket to Mexico City and The Biological Sciences depart-
and threatened species particularly marine turtles and dug-
ment of the University of Warwick (United Kingdom) for
ongs and their habitats by managing human activities. Sec-
their encouragement, support and understanding.
ondly, determining levels of resource use that are sustain-
able and to encourage all user groups to keep within those
LITERATURE CITED
limits. Finally, to encourage fair and equitable sharing of the
benefits of effective management and conservation. Frazier, J. 1975. Marine turtles of the Western Indian Ocean.
Oryx 23:164-175.
CONCLUSIONS Hughes, G.R. 1971. Sea turtle research and conservation in
Southeast Africa. IUCN Publication New Series 31:57-
In a bid to manage the most important habitats for the
67.
continued sustainability of the sea turtle population in Kenya,
Mbendo, J.R. and F.H. Mbwana 1995. Survey of sea turtle
it is important to recognise the need to manage the Tana River
nesting beaches and foraging habitats in Kenya. 15pp.
delta as a whole ecosystem in its entirety, rather than focus-
Olendo, D. 1993. The status of sea turtles and dugongs in
ing on a single resource, as the dynamism of the whole eco-
Kenya. A report to Kenya Wildlife Service. 15pp.
system is significant to the survival of sea turtles. The con-
Wamukoya G.M. and R.D. Haller, 1995. Sea turtle
ceptual framework has to include ecosystem functions, hu-
conservation in Kenya: community participation
man uses, and the interplay of the two. Traditional conserva-
approach. pp. 121-122. In: proceedings of International
tion methods should be blended well with modern scientific
Congress of Chelonian Consevation (SOPTOM, ed)
approaches in planning for sustainable development. Inevi-
Gonfaron, France.
SEA TURTLES IN THE REPUBLIC OF SEYCHELLES: AN EMERGING

CONSERVATION SUCCESS STORY
Jeanne A. Mortimer1 and 2

1
Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611 U.S.A. jmort@compuserve.com
2
Division of Conservation, Ministry of Environment, Victoria, Mahe, Republic of Seychelles
The Seychelles Islands, located in the Indian Ocean On the inhabited islands, most female hawksbills emerging
north east of Madagascar, were uninhabited when they were onto the nesting beach were killed for their shell which was
discovered by Europeans in 1609. From the time the islands either exported to Japan or used in the local tourist curio
were settled in 1770, marine turtles featured prominently in trade. Both fresh and salted green turtle meat was readily
the economy of the Seychelles. Historically, raw shell from available, and although the law protected nesting female green
hawksbills (Eretmochelys imbricata) and dried calipee from turtles, in fact, its enforcement was difficult. But even in that
green turtles (Chelonia mydas) (used by Europeans for turtle society, and even among poor illiterate people, there were
soup) were exported, and green turtle meat formed a staple in special individuals who could appreciate turtles for their in-
the local diet. This led to a serious decline in the turtle popu- trinsic value as beautiful, living animals.
lations. Over time, the attitudes of both the Government and Unfortunately, in virtually all societies, people have
the general public towards turtles have changed significantly. viewed marine turtles as valuable primarily because they
Following is a description of some of the events that led to could be cut into pieces and their parts utilized directly or
these changes as seen from the perspective of the author sold to generate income. This attitude in itself is not prob-
who has done sea turtle conservation work in Seychelles for lematic except where such utilization becomes unsustain-
more than six yearsincluding three years during 1981-1984, able in the long term (as is often the case). As conservation-
several shorter visits in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and ists, we need to find ways for people to generate income
2.5 years from 1995-1998. from sea turtles in a manner that will not destroy the popula-
In the early 1980s (and before) Seychelles had prima- tions. In recent years, in some parts of the world, sea turtles
rily a rural economy. Most Seychellois were oriented toward have taken on new value as a tourist attraction.
the direct utilization of natural resources. Because of the his-
toric economic and cultural importance of turtles, Seychellois RECENT EVENTS
took particular pride in their tradition of turtle exploitation. In Seychelles, the patterns of overharvest documented
between 1981 and 1984 (Mortimer, 1984) continued relatively sensitize school children; and 8) awareness campaigns di-
unchanged until about 1989 when Seychelles developed a rected at the general public. This paper will describe some
National Environmental Management Plan (EMPS) and put of the strategies we used to enhance public awareness about
in a bid for a multimillion dollar grant from the Global Envi- the endangered status of sea turtles in the Seychelles.
ronment Facility (GEF) to fund implementation of the plan.
Critics both inside and outside the country questioned the STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE PUBLIC
commitment of Seychelles to environmental protection, given AWARENESS
the unsustainably high levels of sea turtle exploitation tak- The population of Seychelles comprises some 70, 000
ing place. After discussion and debate the Seychelles Gov- people, primarily of African origin, whose first language is
ernment determined to make policy changes. Seychellois Kreol. All the Seychelles media (including local
In 1993, the Government implemented the Hawksbill TV, radio, and the press) respond positively to requests by
Artisan Compensation and Retraining Programme through the Ministry of Environment to cover almost any newswor-
which the artisans reached a consensus between themselves thy event relating to turtles. But, our most powerful public
and the Government to: 1) give up their businesses as turtle awareness tool has probably been television. Almost every
shell artisans in exchange for financial compensation; and Seychellois family has a color TV, despite the fact that televi-
2) sell their stocks of raw shell to the Government. These sion has been a feature of Seychelles only since the mid-
stocks of raw shell have been maintained by the Govern- 1980s, and until very recently had but a single station (SBC).
ment in a sealed container. The program, which cost US$ The management of the Seychelles Broadcasting Company
250, 000 (50% paid by the Global Environment Facility and (SBC) strongly promotes environmental awareness. SBC regu-
50% by the Government of Seychelles), has been highly suc- larly imports nature programs in both French and English
cessful. All the artisans are now employed in alternative oc- from overseas sources. Perhaps more important, however,
cupations, and domestic trade in hawksbill shell products is SBC produces their own shows in the local language
no longer apparent. In 1994, having protected the curio arti- (Seychellois Kreol) to highlight local environmental prob-
sans from economic hardship, the Government passed a law lems.
offering complete legal protection for sea turtles. During the past two years SBC has featured sea turtle
Sea turtle conservation in Seychelles also got a boost issues in the following programs in the Kreol language: 1) an
from the fact that during much of the past decade the hour-long documentary about sea turtles in Seychelles; 2)
Seychelles economy has been strong, and become largely a several Magazine Shows that incorporated 10-15 minute
service economy based on tourismtourism being the pri- features about local turtle issues; 3) an hour long round table
mary source of foreign exchange for the country. The discussion about turtle issues; and 4) on the very popular
Seychelles Government has come to appreciate that foreign nightly news program in Kreol, on more than a dozen occa-
tourists are attracted to Seychelles because of her beautiful sions over the past two years. The news has reported on:
environment, and that steps must be taken to preserve this the discovery of carcasses of illegally slaughtered turtles;
beauty. Seychellois have also come to the (perhaps surpris- stranded turtles that drowned in gill nets; workshops or
ing) realization that Europeans love to see live sea turtles. In seminars highlighting turtle biology or conservation; the in-
Seychelles, tourists can encounter sea turtles on the nesting tention of law enforcement officers to aggressively pros-
beaches and also while snorkeling on the coral reefs in the ecute offences involving turtles; and actual arrests or pros-
vicinity of the tourist centers. ecution of such cases.
In mid-1997, both the Division of Conservation and In the presentation of information through the media
the Ministry of Tourism and Transport expressed concern we try to appeal to the sensibilities of the local culture through
that dormant gill nets (a recently introduced fishing tech- the following strategies:
nique) were killing too many sea turtles and other forms of 1) Language. Although most Seychellois speak English,
marine life. The Government responded by banning the use we usually present information in the local language,
of such nets in near shore waters. Seychellois Kreol.
To be truly effective, such favorable national policies 2) Economic justification. We explain that live turtles in
and Government commitment needed to be accompanied by their natural state make a good tourist attraction that
a change in public attitudes at the grass roots level. This need can be used to generate income for the Seychelles.
was addressed by the EMPS Project J1: Seychelles Turtle We feature the turtle tourism pilot project at Bird Is-
and Tortoise Conservation, coordinated by the author be- land as an example of a successful program in which
tween 1995 and 1998. The J1 Project implemented a wide tourists assist the island management to monitor the
range of activities relating to sea turtles, including: 1) insti- nesting population. Interviews with tourists demon-
tutional strengthening; 2) training of conservation person- strate how much they enjoy the experience.
nel; 3) monitoring of the status and biology of nesting and 3) Appeal to national pride. We try to create an aware-
foraging turtle populations; 4) identification of critical nest- ness of how the turtle resources of Seychelles are
ing and foraging habitats; 5) assessment of human impacts; unique:
6) review of national legislation and policies pertaining to a) Seychelles hosts some of the largest popula-
turtles; 7) collaboration with the Ministry of Education to

tions of hawksbills remaining in the world.

Although these populations are vastly de- (a)
pleted from previous levels, many hawksbill
populations in other countries are on the verge
of complete extinction.
b) Only in Seychelles do hawksbills nest prima-
rily in the daytime in significant numbers (an-
other reason why they make a good tourist
attraction).
4) Explain clearly why turtles need protection. Without
(b)
an understanding of how the long age to maturity
(which may be 30-40 years in some turtle populations)
complicates successful management of a population,
the casual observer may find it hard to believe that
sea turtles are really in need of protection. Two ap-
proaches have proved successful:
a) The use of diagrams (Figure 1) to illustrate
how damage caused by overharvest is masked
by the long age to maturity. And to show that
the damage may only become apparent after
it is already too late to save the population.
Mortimer (1995) explains the use of these dia-
grams.
b) Ensure that people understand the difference
between the life cycles of sea turtles and those
of the domestic animals with which they are
more familiar. A good approach is to ask people
to compare turtles to domestic pigs. After as-
certaining that pigs usually take 6-8 months
to reach maturity, the next step is to ask people
to imagine how they would manage a pig farm
if the pigs took 30 to 40 years to reach sexual
maturity and if in the process most of the pig-
lets did not survive to reach adulthood.
5) Maintain a dialogue with the turtle hunters. Since 1981,
Figure 1. Diagrams illustrating how:
the author has cultivated the friendship and coopera- a) Slaughtering nesting females on the nesting beach can destroy
tion of men who made their living hunting turtles. a turtle population, even before a decline in the numbers of nesting
These men often possess a great knowledge of turtle females becomes apparent on the breeding beach; and
natural history and can also offer insights about the b) Overharvest of eggs will destroy a turtle population from the bottom
up, even before the numbers of nesting females decline significantly
importance of the resource to the society as well as at the breeding beach. For further explanation of diagrams see
about the methodologies of exploitation. One such Mortimer (1995).
individual, who had been a close friend of the author
since 1981, was employed on a full time basis as Project poetry competitions and general classroom discussion. We
Assistant for the EMPS Project J1. He is one of the have seen in Seychelles that a strong public awareness cam-
best turtle hunters in the country having literally killed paign is critical to the implementation of any good sea turtle
thousands of turtles during his lifetime, and is highly management plan. Some of the strategies we have used in
respected by his peers. He now genuinely believes Seychelles can be and should be part of sea turtle manage-
that the turtle populations have declined and are in ment programs elsewhere in the world.
need of protection, and he is willing to appear on TV
and say so. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
As a result of all the publicity, we have noticed height- The EMPS Project J1: Seychelles Turtle and Tortoise
ened public awareness and participation. Coastal inhabit- Conservation was conducted with funding from both the
ants regularly report sightings of nesting turtles to the Divi- GEF (administered by the World Bank) and the Government
sion of Conservation. They also call the police to report inci- of Seychelles. The success of the public awareness cam-
dents of poaching. In the past year, some half dozen cases paign would not have been possible without the hard work,
have been prosecuted as a result. Young people are enthusi- collaboration and support of individuals from the Ministry
astic about live sea turtles as can be seen in art exhibitions, of Environment (and especially the Division of Conserva-

tion and the Environmental Education section), Seychelles Seychelles: Status and Management. Publication of the
Broadcasting Company, and the local newspapers. I thank IUCN Conservation Library: Gland, Switzerland. 80 pp.
David Godfrey (CCC) for his helpful suggestions regarding + 4pl.
this presentation. Mortimer, J.A. 1995. Teaching Critical Concepts for the
Conservation of Sea Turtles. Marine Turtle Newsletter
LITERATURE CITED 71: 1-4.
Mortimer, J.A. 1984. Marine Turtles in the Republic of
TWENTY FIVE YEARS NESTING OF OLIVE RIDLEY SEA TURTLE LEPIDOCHELYS

OLIVACEA IN ESCOBILLA BEACH, OAXACA, MEXICO
Cuauhtmoc Peaflores Salazar1, Javier Vasconcelos Prez1, Ernesto Albavera Padilla1, and Ren Mrquez Milln2
1
Instituto Nacional de la Pesca, Centro Mexicano de la Tortuga. P. O. Box 16, Puerto Angel 70902, Oaxaca, Mxico
cmtpenaf@angel.umar.mx
2
Instituto Nacional de la Pesca, Centro Regional de Investigaciones Pesqueras. Playa Ventanas s/n, P. O. Box 591, Manzanillo
28200, Colima, Mxico
INTRODUCTION covered with cringing vegetation and grasses (Warring et al.,

The olive ridley turtle in Mexico has a singular impor- 1992).
tance since it has constituted the historical support to the
OBJECTIVE
use of the turtle as resource. In the coast of Oaxaca, where
their nesting is massive in two main beaches, La Escobilla To do a retrospective analysis of the nesting of turtle
and Morro Ayuta, their capture reached so high levels that olive ridley in La Escobilla Beach, Oaxaca, during the period
it came to consider like an over-exploited population 1973 to 1997.
(Mrquez et. al,. 1990). The above-mentioned was one of
the circumstances that moved the Mexican Government to METHOD
promote the decree of total ban for all species and subspe-
In order to esteem the number of nesting during the
cies of sea turtles in Mexican waters (Official Newspaper
arribazones it was applied the proposed method by Mrquez
May 31st 1990) together with other actions in the search for
and Van Dissel (1982), which is based in the number of fe-
recovery their populations.
males in beach every hour, differentiating them for activity in
Several authors have given definitions for arribazn
sampling areas previously established, it is obtained the nest-
and, with words more or words less, all give the idea of a
ing females esteemed of which sampling area, and the results
natural phenomenon consistent in the massive arrival of
are extrapolated for the whole arribazn zone.
marine turtles to the beach in order to deposit their eggs.
With data obtained in the period 1973 to 1997 (Peaflores
They mentioned that it is a form of highly organized as
et al, 1988) we made the pursuit of the number of arribazones
evolutive result and not like a fortuitous phenomenon, that
and their annual frequency; it was defined the olive ridley
helps them in order to protect of predators (Pritchard, 1965),
turtle reproductive season. In accordance with bibliographi-
or like the typical form of massive, synchronized and day
cal references was agreed to consider an average of 100 eggs
aggregation in order to could nest (Hildebrand, 1963 and
by nest. During the periods when the hatchlings goal the
Casas, 1978). Mrquez in 1990 describes the arribazn like
surface was considered the amount produced in each
the emergency of nesting females to a small fringe of sandy
arribazn using traps placement in sampling zones (10
beach and that it could last several hours or days. There
meters); the breeding captured in the traps were counted and
might be more definitions, but the phenomenon continues
released immediately and this number was extrapolated
reserving us big incognito on the factor or factors that dis-
(Guerrero et al., 1992); this value is named released hatchlings.
charge it and it makes possible that it happens.
For several factors we consider around the 30 percent of the
eggs deposited produce breeding that reach the sea (Mrquez,
WORK AREA
1992). It is considered that the sexual maturation happens
La Escobilla beach is in the Western end of a long between 8 to 10 years of age and that 3 percent of the number
beach of approximately 22 kilometers. The nesting zone has of hatchlings recruit to the reproductive population (Mrquez,
a longitude of 8 km. Traversal there are three fringes: the 1982), also each female nests on
first is the zone that is narrow with an inclination approached the average 1.6 times by season (Mrquez, internal report
of 30 degrees and it stays humid; the second is a platform of 1983). Based on this we calculated the number of nesting
superficial dry sand with a width of up to 40 m. This is the females for each season. During commercial capture between
area that most of the turtles use in order to deposit their 1980 and 1990 in San Agustinillo, Oaxaca, the sexual ratio was
eggs and the third zone, the most distant of the sea, it is obtained.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION MALES

N = 288,479
14.50%
The number of arribazones for season fluctuate from 2
to 13 with average of 5, but if we differentiated the period of
14
12
88.50% FEMALES
10
Mass Nestings
(number)
8 Figure 3. - Sex ratio of olive ridley in commercial catch in San

Agustinillo, Oax.
6
4 ley sea turtle has permitted recruitment and perma-

2 nence to the reproductive population from hatchlings
0 born in previous years.
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
The trend to the increment in number of nesting
Y E A R
fe1males permit to suppose the existence of several
Figure 1. - Arribazones of olive ridley Lepidochelys olivacea in reproductive groups.
Escobilla beach during 1973 to 1997 In the current conditions it is very probable that the
study in two stages: a) with legal capture (1973-1989) and b) value of 1.6 times of nesting by season has modified
without legal capture (1990- 1997). The averages show a re- having an increment.
markable difference one to another, for the first one is 3.6 Due the overlapping for the increment in the number
while for the second is 8.6 arribazones by season (Figure 1). of nesting, as well as of arribazones, between them,
A change in the average period between arribazones also is with the rising destruction of eggs, which gives the
observed, because in the first stage the average was 28 days phenomenon an aspect of waste of organic matter, is
(Mrquez, 1976), and the second show a 17.4 days average; important to consider the possibility of the sustain-
at the same time the increasing of reproductive season is able use of that protein. At the present time vultures,
observed from 6 months before the ban (June to December) dogs and crabs take advantage of this protein.
to 11 months at the present time (May to March); the nesting
top stays between August and October. LITERATURE CITED
With the nesting data we calculated have been released
Casas G., 1978. Anlisis de la anidacin de las tortugas
169 million hatchlings of olive ridley approximately in the
marinas del gnero Lepidochelys en Mxico. Anales de
period of this work. The year with lowest hatchling produc-
Ciencias del Mar y Limnologa. Universidad Nacional
tion was 1975, while 1997-1998 is that of highest number of
Autnoma de Mxico, 5 (1): 141- 158
hatchlings produced. The annual average was about 7 mil-
Guerrero, H.L., C. Levet, T. Roman, and G. Hernndez. 1992.
Evaluacin de la Poblacin anidadora en la Playa de
30,000
la Escobilla y su relacin con la produccin de cras.
25,000 Reporte Tcnico Temporada 1991-1992. PRONATURA
(thousands)
A.C. Mxico.
hatchlings
20,000
15,000 Mrquez, R. 1976. Estado actual de la pesquera de tortugas

10,000 marinas en Mxico, 1974. Serie: Informacin Instituto
5,000 Nacional de la Pesca. Secretara de Industria y
0 Comercio. 46 :1- 27. Mxico.
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
Mrquez R., 1982. Situacin actual y recomendaciones para

year el manejo de las tortugas marinas de la costa occidental
mexicana, en especial de la tortuga golfina Lepidochelys
Figure 2. - Estimated number of hatchlings produced in Escobilla
olivacea. Ciencia Pesquera. Inst. Nal. Pesca, Sra de
beach, Oaxaca Mxico in the period 1973 to1997
Pesca, (3): 83-92. Mxico.
Mrquez, R., 1983. Reporte de resultados de investigacin
lion (Figure 2). In a sampling of 288.479 adult individuals
de la tortuga golfina Lepidochelys olivacea.
(done during the period between 1980 and 1990), 85.5% were
(unpublished manuscript) Instituto Nacional de la pesca
females and 14.5% males, with a ratio of 6:1 was obtained
Mrquez, R. and H.G. Van Dissel 1982. A method for evaluating
(Figure 3).
the number of massed nesting olive ridley sea turtles
Lepidochelys olivacea, during an arribazn with
CONCLUSIONS
comments on arribazn behaviour. Netherlands Journal
For the number of nesting females, La Escobilla beach of Zoology. 32(3):419-425
is one of the most important in all the world. Mrquez, R., J. Vasconcelos, M. Snchez, S. Snchez, J. Daz,
The forbidden in the commercial capture for olive rid- C. Peaflores, D. Ros, and A. Villanueva. 1990.

Campamentos tortugueros. Manual de operacin. Peaflores, S.C and E Natarn. 1988. Resultados de acciones
Instituto Nacional de la Pesca, Secretara de Pesca, proteccionistas para las tortugas marinas en el Estado
Mxico. 67 pp. de Oaxaca. Los Recursos Pesqueros del pas. Instituto
Mrquez, R., 1990. FAO Species catalogue. Sea turtles of the Nacional de la Pesca. Sra. de Pesca. pp: 339 -350. Mxico.
world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of sea Pritchard, P.C.H. and R. Mrquez, 1973 Kemps ridley or the
turtle species known to date. FAO Fisheries Synopsis Atlantic ridley, Lepidochelys kempii IUCN Monogr.
N 125 vol 11. Rome, FAO, 81 pp. (Marine Turtle Ser.) 2: 30.
CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE OLIVE RIDLEY ON THE MADRAS

COAST IN SOUTH INDIA
Kartik Shanker
Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India. kartik@ces.iisc.ernet.in
The Olive Ridleys that nest on the Madras coast ap- the hatchery was overcome by lowering nest density from 2
pear to be on the decline, as do other populations on Indian to 1 nest/m2 in 1991-92, so that hatchling survival increased
coasts. While Whitaker estimated 100 nests/km/season in from 48 % in 1990-91 to 84 % in 1991-92.
1973, estimates ranged from 5-20 nests/km/season from Urbanization and fishing communities both continue
1988-1996. Nesting declined to 2-3 nests/km in 1997 and to pose threats to nesting turtles, and coastal residents need
1998. The main causes for the decline are the direct and in- to be mobilized to provide protection for the turtles. Earlier
direct effects of urbanization. While poaching may have been traditions can be revived in the fishing communities; this can
prevalent prior to urbanization, it seems to have increased be reinforced in various ways by the adjoining urban com-
dramatically since. Public beaches and residential areas munity which has the requisite financial resources. In this
(which have expanded south along the coast about 1 km per manner, those immediately in contact with the turtles can
year) are brightly lit. Habitat degradation has occurred due ensure their sustained protection on this and other inhab-
to sand mining and encroachment. Further, due to the de- ited coasts.
cline in traditional fishing as a livelihood, because of pollu-
tion and competition from motorized trawlers, turtles have ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
lost a protector (traditional fisherfolk worship turtles) and
Members of the SSTCN over the past ten years are
gained an enemy (opportunistic poaching by younger fisher-
commended for their conservation efforts on the Madras
men).
coast. I thank the Ministry of Environment and Forests and
Various groups have been involved in sea turtle con-
the Tamil Nadu Forest Department, Government of India,
servation on the Madras coast since 1973. The Students Sea
for supporting our work and the organizers of the Sympo-
Turtle Conservation Network (SSTCN) designed a
sium and The David and Lucile Packard Foundation for travel
cost-effective hatchery in 1988 (study area and methods are
assistance.
described in Shanker, 1994). Between 1988 and 1997, we
collected 700 nests and released about 55, 000 hatchlings.
LITERATURE CITED
The mortality of hatchlings (largely dead in pipped eggs)
was high (20 to 30%) during 1988-91. Survival of hatchlings Shanker, K. 1994. Conservation of sea turtles on the Madras
was inversely correlated with clutch size from 1989-1991 and coast. Marine Turtle Newsletter. 64, 3-6.
with environmental temperatures in 1989-90. Low Survival in
AGREEMENT FOR THE CONSERVATION OF SEA TURTLES ON THE CARIBBEAN

COAST OF PANAMA, COSTA RICA AND NICARAGUA
Lucinda K. Taft1, Chris Wold2, Thomas T. Ankersen3, Lizbeth Espinoza4, Mario Boza1 and 5, Anne Meylan6, and Peter Meylan7
1
Caribbean Conservation Corporation
2
Center for International Environmental Law, Northwestern School of Law of Lewis Clark Law College
3
Center for Governmental Responsibility, University of Florida College of Law
4
Centro de Derecho Ambiental y Recursos Naturales, San Jose, Costa Rica
5
Wildlife Conservation Society
6
State of Florida Department of Environmental Protection, St. Petersburg, FL, U.S.A.
7
Eckerd College, St. Petersburg, FL, U.S.A. ccc@cccturtle.org
A draft "Agreement for the Conservation of Sea Turtles gua" has been prepared to provide a framework for a coordi-
on the Caribbean Coast of Panama, Costa Rica and Nicara- nated and systematic multinational approach to the conser-

vation of sea turtles. It is based on the premise that these ber committee of governmental officials, non-governmental
nations share the responsibility for certain sea turtle popula- organizations, representatives of the private sector, local
tions that cannot be managed independently. Trilateral ne- people, and scientists. The Agreement prohibits many ac-
gotiations for the adoption of this unique agreement com- tivities until the Parties demonstrate that they are sustain-
menced in December 1997 in San Jos, Costa Rica. The Agree- able or do not harm sea turtles. In order to maintain its focus
ment calls for the Parties to establish a regional system of on regional habitat protection and management, the agree-
protected habitats based upon the biological requirements ment defers to the Inter-American Convention and CITES
of sea turtles specific to these three countries, including nest- with respect to issues concerning turtle excluder devices
ing beaches and marine habitats. Parties together decide on (TEDs) and international trade. Additionally, the Agreement
a regional basis which marine and terrestrial habitats to pro- is expected to serve as a sub-regional mechanism for imple-
tect. Implementation and enforcement duties are assigned to mentation of the recently concluded Inter-American Con-
a Sea Turtle Conservation Advisory Committee, a nine-mem- vention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles.
ILLEGAL HARVEST OF NESTING GREEN TURTLES CHELONIA MYDAS IN

TORTUGUERO NATIONAL PARK, COSTA RICA
Sebastian Trong and Thomas A. Rankin Gonzlez

Caribbean Conservation Corporation, Apartado Postal 246-2050, San Pedro, Costa Rica. basse@hotmail.com
INTRODUCTION METHODOLOGY
Tortuguero National Park (TNP), situated on the Carib- The study period extended from 6 July to 26 September
bean coast of Costa Rica, hosts the largest green turtle rook- 1997. Track surveys were conducted weekly to determine
ery in western Caribbean (Carr et al., 1978). Tagging and the level of nesting and the number of turtles illegally har-
monitoring of the nesting population was initiated in 1955 vested from the beach. The study area includes three beach
by the late Dr. Archie Carr and has since been conducted sections. A total of twelve track surveys were conducted from
every green turtle nesting season (Carr 1956). A major issue Tortuguero rivermouth to 8 km south of the rivermouth
in the early days of the green turtle monitoring program was (=beach section A). Eleven track surveys were conducted
the harvest of green turtle females from the beach (Carr 1969). from 8 km south of Tortuguero rivermouth to Jalova lagoon
Nesting turtles were turned and slaughtered mainly for their (=beach section B=22 km), the most inaccessible beach sec-
calipee which was exported to Europe and U.S.A. to be used tion. Also, three track surveys were conducted from Parismina
as the main ingredient in turtle soup (Parsons 1962). Better rivermouth to 8 km south of the rivermouth (=beach section
protection for nesting females was provided in 1970 when C), outside of TNP. Green turtles nest only sparsely on this
18 miles of the Tortuguero nesting beach became part of stretch of beach (<4 nests/night) but reports of extensive
Costa Ricas first national park. Park rangers and Caribbean illegal harvest in this area rendered surveys necessary.
Conservation Corporation researchers and volunteers patrol- Track surveys were conducted in the early morning and
ling the nesting beach have since contributed to limit the only tracks from the previous night were recorded. The num-
illegal take of females from the nesting beach. ber of illegally harvested green turtles was determined by
However, Costa Rican authorities currently allow a recording the drag marks from flipped-over turtles. Drag
green turtle fishery. Permits are issued to fishermen in Limn, marks often covered each other. In such cases, the track sur-
55 km south of TNP, allowing a total annual catch of 1, 800 veyor would estimate the total number of turtles taken by
green turtles. The permits only allow fishermen to catch poachers.
turtles in the sea and not within protected areas. Green turtles
are caught entirely for the domestic Costa Rican meat mar- RESULTS
ket and consumption is mainly limited to Limn. The legal Ample evidence of illegal harvest was found during
quota system is not strictly enforced which makes it easy for the course of the study (Figure 1). Relatively low levels of
opportunistic fishermen to exceed their quota and sell green illegal harvest (0-3 females/night) occurred in beach sections
turtles caught on nesting beaches and in protected areas. In- A and C, throughout the study period. A large part of this
adequate beach patrols by park rangers caused by lack of harvest is likely to be for local consumption in Tortuguero
funding for Tortuguero Conservation Area (ACTo) have also and Parismina villages. However, turtles found flipped-over
contributed to an increase in illegal harvest of female turtles but alive in the morning indicate that part of this harvest was
from the nesting beach in TNP. for commercial purposes.
A study was carried out during Caribbean Conserva- Only live turtles are bought for slaughter in Limn, to
tion Corporations 1997 Green Turtle Program with the objec- ensure that the turtles are freshly caught. No illegal harvest
tive to quantify the illegal harvest of green turtles from the was observed in beach section B during the first part of the
nesting beach in Tortuguero. study period. However, extensive illegal harvest began in
beach section B in late August. Large-scale illegal harvest
was first observed on the night of 27 August when Carib-
Beach Sectio n A late October 1997). Illegal harvest was observed before 6
5 July and after 26 September in conjunction with other moni-
Illegally Harvested toring activities.
Green Turtles
4
3 3 3
2 2
The full effects of the illegal harvest on the nesting
2
1 1 1 1 population are not known. However, consequences may be
0 0 0 0 0
0
6-Jul-97 1 6-Jul-97 2 6-Jul-97 5 -A ug-97 15 -A ug-97 25 -A ug-97 4-Sep-97 1 4-Sep-97 2 4-Sep-97
serious given the long time green turtles take to become
Date sexually mature and the sensitivity of sea turtle populations
to exploitation of adult females. It should be added that the
Beach Sectio n B population of green turtles that nest at Tortuguero is also
heavily exploited in the main feeding pastures in Nicaragua.
120
Lagueux (1998) estimates that at least 10, 166 green turtles
Illegally Harvested
100 100
Green Turtles
80 75 were harvested in Nicaragua in 1996.

60
40
40 The illegal harvest in Costa Rica is made possible by
30
20 lack of enforcement of the legal quota system and lack of
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6-Jul-97 1 6-Jul-97 2 6-Jul-97 5 -A ug-97 15 -A ug-97 25 -A ug-97 4-Sep-97 1 4-Sep-97 2 4-Sep-97 enforcement of protected area legislation. Caribbean Con-
Date servation Corporation and other Costa Rican conservation
organizations therefore urge the newly elected Government
Beach Section C
of Costa Rica to address the problem by:
5
Illegally Harvested
A) increasing the number of beach patrols by Tortuguero

Green Turtles
4
3 3 Conservation Area (ACTo) staff;
2
1
and either:
1
0
0 B) enforcing the legislation that controls the sale of turtle
6-J ul -97 1 6- J ul -97 2 6-J ul -97 5 -Aug-97 15 -Aug-97 25 -Aug-97 4-Sep-97 1 4-Sep-97 2 4-Sep-97
products, particularly in Limn;
Date
or:
Figure 1. Illegal harvest of green turtles in: a) Beach Section A, b) C) ending the legal harvest since the quota system ren-
Beach Section B, and c) Beach Section C.
ders the enforcement of legislation controlling turtle
bean Conservation Corporation staff encountered poachers trade difficult.
and flipped-over turtles in a remote part of beach section B.
The start of the intense illegal harvest coincided with the ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
onset of calm seas that allowed boats from Limn to ap-
This study was entirely funded and conducted by Car-
proach the beach at night.
ibbean Conservation Corporation as part of the 1997 Green
The limiting factor for the illegal harvest in beach sec-
Turtle Program.
tion B during the second part of the study period was the
capacity of the poachers boats to carry turtles. This was LITERATURE CITED
confirmed one morning when the track surveyor encoun-
tered 15 turtles still flipped-over on the beach. The turtles Carr, A.F. 1956. The Windward Road. New York.
were most likely left by poachers who had filled their boat to Carr, A.F. 1969. Survival outlook of the West-Caribbean
the brim and would return to collect the turtles after they had green turtle colony. IUCN Publications New Series
off-loaded their first shipment Supplementary Paper No. 31: 13-16.
To estimate the total illegal harvest, we assume a con- Carr, A.F., M.H. Carr, and A.B. Meylan. 1978. The ecology
stant harvest regime in beach section A and C, and two har- and migrations of sea turtles, 7. The Western Caribbean
vest regimes, 6 July-26 August and 27 August-26 Septem- green turtle colony. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 162: 1-46.
ber, in beach section B. Lagueux, C.J. 1998. Marine turtle fishery of Caribbean
A total of 1, 720 (90% C. I. =601-2, 939) green turtles Nicaragua: Human use patterns and harvest trends.
were illegally harvested from the nesting beach (sections A, Doctoral dissertation. University of Florida. Gainesville,
B, and C) during the study period (Table 1). Florida.
Parsons, J. 1962. The Green Turtle and Man. University of
DISCUSSION Florida Press. Gainesville, Florida. 126pp.
The estimate of the illegal harvest pre- Table 1. Illegal harvest of green turtles in Tortuguero, Costa Rica, 6 July-26
September 1997.
sented here should be considered conservative
for two reasons. Firstly, only drag marks visible Extrapolated to entire study period
Section Period Nightly harvest Total Harvest C.I.
on the beach in the morning were recorded. Drag C.L.
marks from turtles turned over close to the waters A 6 July-26 Sept 1.080.60 89.9 48-133
B 6 July-26 Aug 0 0 0
edge had by then already been erased by waves. B 27 Aug-26 Sept 4937.3 1519 549-2,489
Secondly, the study period did not encompass C 6 July-26 Sept 1.332.58 110.7 4-317
TOTAL 6 July-26 Sept N/A 1,720 601-2,939
the entire green turtle nesting season (late June-
ROLES OF SEA TURTLES IN MARINE ECOSYSTEMS: NUTRITIONAL ECOLOGY AND

PRODUCTIVITY
Karen A. Bjorndal
Archie Carr Center for Sea Turtle Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, U.S.A. kab@zoo.ufl.edu
The roles of sea turtles in the structure and function of whose passing would have little effect on ecosystem
ecosystems have been largely unstudied. An understanding function? To address this question, many studies must be
of their capacity to affect ecosystem structure and function conducted, most of which have a nutritional basis: the roles
can be viewed as the ultimate integration of our knowledge of sea turtles as predators and prey, as competitors with
of sea turtle biology. In addition, such studies have important other species, and as conduits for substantial nutrient and
implications for the management and conservation of sea energy flows within and between ecosystems. Another
turtles. Under the pressure of increased demand, priority critical area for research is the mechanisms that regulate
for access to conservation resources is shifting to those productivity (growth and reproduction) of sea turtle
species that have critical roles in the functioning of populations. Many of these mechanisms have a nutritional
ecosystems. Are sea turtle species central to and essential basis as well.
for healthy ecosystem processes, or are they relict species
GREEN TURTLES IN THREE DEVELOPMENTAL HABITATS OF THE FLORIDA

ATLANTIC COAST: POPULATION STRUCTURE, FIBROPAPILLOMATOSIS AND POST-
JUVENILE MIGRATORY DESTINATIONS
Llewellyn M. Ehrhart, William E. Redfoot, and Dean A. Bagley

Department of Biology University of Central Florida P.O. Box 162368Orlando, FL 32816-2368, U.S.A.
lehrhart@pegasus.cc.ucf.edu
Green turtle populations are under study in three de- (GTFP). Trident Basin turtles are significantly smaller (SCL)
velopmental habitats, each with distinctive biotic and abi- than those of the lagoon and reef, and free of GTFP. A lim-
otic characteristics, on Florida's Atlantic coast. These include ited number of international tag recoveries now suggests the
the Indian River Lagoon (a shallow estuary), nearshore worm- western Caribbean coast, and possibly Cuba, as the post-
rock reefs and a Trident submarine turning basin. The la- juvenile migratory destination of Indian River green turtles.
goon and reef populations are morphometrically similar but
strikingly different in the prevalence of fibropapillomatosis
ECOLOGY AND POPULATION BIOLOGY OF HAWKSBILL TURTLES AT A

CARIBBEAN FEEDING GROUND
Yolanda M. Len1 and Carlos E. Diez2

1
Grupo Jaragua, Inc., Santo Domingo, Repblica Dominicana. cediez@caribe.net
2
Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales, San Juan, Puerto Rico
INTRODUCTION
Beginning in the summer of 1996 and throughout 1997 van Dam (unpublished) at depths of 15 m or less. A benthic
an intensive tagging program of hawksbill turtles and in- classification of the study area was performed using natural
the-water surveys were conducted on the South-west coast color aerial photographs (vuelo INFRATUR, 1993). Stom-
of the Dominican Republic, specifically in the area of ach lavage was conducted as described in Balazs (1980).
Jaragua National Park. The objective was to study on a long- The latitude and longitude of all captured turtles were ob-
term basis certain aspects of the ecology and population tained using a GPS receiver. Straight carapace measurements,
biology of this endangered species in a feeding area. from notch to tip (SCL N-T) were taken for all captured turtles
using tree calipers. The sex of the animals was determined
METHODS by testosterone level analysis in blood serum at Dr. David
Owens Laboratory (Texas A&M University).
In-the-water surveys were conducted to find and hand-
capture turtles following methods developed by Diez and
32 Developmental Habitats and Habits / Oral presentations

F. A. Abreu-Grobois, R. Briseo, R. Mrquez, and L. Sarti (Compilers)
RESULTS the people that helped us in the field. YML would like to
acknowledge travel assistance for a grant made to the Sym-
All hawksbills captured (n = 234) were found in low-
posium by The David and Lucile Packard Foundation.
relief, sparse hard bottom and coral reef habitats of eastern
Jaragua National Park and Cabo Rojo. Diet preferences dif-
LITERATURE CITED
fered from other studies in the Caribbean (Meylan, 1988;
van Dam and Diez, 1996; Anderes and Uchida, 1994), the Anderes Alvarez, B. L. and I. Uchida. 1994. Study of
preferred food item being Ricordea florida (Cnidaria: hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) stomach
Corallimorpha). Captured turtles had a size range (SCL N- content in cuban waters. In: Study of the Hawksbill
T) of 19.7-69.7cm. The majority of the turtles (87%) were Turtle in Cuba (I). Ministry of Fishing Industry, Cuba.
juveniles between 20 and 40 cm SCL N-T. Sex ratio was 27-39
biased towards females (68 %, n = 146). Recaptured turtles Balazs, G. A. 1980. Field methods for sampling the dietary
(n = 25; time interval between captures = 45-571/days, av- components of green turtles Chelonia mydas. Herp.
erage 182 days, S. D. = 146.17) showed limited displace- Review 11(1): 5-6.
ment from the first capture site (range = 10.0-870.0 m, av- Diez, C. E. and R. van Dam. (unpublished manuscript).
erage = 276.25, S. D. 242.16) during the study period. An- Ecological and populational aspects of hawksbills
nualized growth rates were very variable among individu- inhabiting the nearshore areas of Mona and Monito
als and localities (range 0.52-9.52 cm year-1, average = 5.58, islands, Puerto Rico. 1996 Research report. 36 pp. + 4
S. D. = 2.93). appendices.
Meylan, A. 1988. Spongivory in hawksbill turtles: A diet
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS of glass. Science (2): 393-395.
Van Dam, R. and C. E. Diez. 1996. Predation by hawksbill
We thank the Japan Bekko Association, Grupo Jaragua,
turtles on sponges at Mona island, Puerto Rico.
Ideal Dominicana Mining Company, Rhonda Patterson/ Dr.
Proceedings of the 8th International Coral Reef
David Owens (Texas A&M University), Marine Biodiversity
Symposium. Panama. June 24-29, 1996.
Project-DR (GEF-UNEP /ONAPLAN), Archie Carr Sea
Turtle Research Center, UNPHU University GIS lab and all
THE FEEDING ECOLOGY OF JUVENILE GREEN TURTLES UTILIZING THE TRIDENT

BASIN, PORT CANAVERAL, FLORIDA AS DEVELOPMENTAL HABITAT
William E. Redfoot and Llewellyn M. Ehrhart

Department of Biology, University of Central Florida,Orlando, Florida 32816, U.S.A. bredfoot@gdi.net
The Trident Basin, a man-made embayment lined with limited biomass of the algal mat might explain the unusual
rock rip-rap, supports an unusual population of juvenile population structure. Only two other reported populations
green turtles-none of the captured individuals have exceeded of juvenile green turtles in the southeastern U.S. have a
50 cm SCL. The combined results of the analysis of 136 similar population structure; both utilize rock rip-rap habi-
samples of food items obtained from these animals revealed tats.
that 87.3 % of the food items were algae species found in
the algal mat growing on the rip-rap. Animal tissue made
up 4.4 % of the food items, unidentifiable materials 4.0 %,
angiosperm stems and leaves 3.6 %, and plastic 0.7%. The
HAWKSBILL TURTLES IN THE CARIBBEAN: THE MONA PERSPECTIVE
Robert P. van Dam and Carlos E. Diez

Negociado de Pesca y Vida Silvestre Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales San Juan, Puerto Rico
rvandam@compuserve.com
Since 1992 we have been conducting intensive stud- ment, abundance, genetic makeup, diet, growth rate, be-
ies (both in the water and on the nesting beach) with hawks- haviors, and reproduction. The implications and limitations
bill turtles at Mona Island, Puerto Rico. This work is yield- of these findings for other hawksbill turtle populations are
ing new insight into basic turtle biology, such as recruit- discussed.
Oral presentations / Developmental Habitats and Habits 33

HABITATS AND BAD HABITS OF YOUNG LOGGERHEAD TURTLES IN THE OPEN

OCEAN
Blair E. Witherington
Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Marine Research Institute, 9700 South A1A, Melbourne Beach, Florida
32951 U.S.A. spinnaker@prodigy.net
This study seeks to provide additional information on mocline waves and are evident as lines of foam and debris
the pelagic ecology of neonate sea turtles found in the At- adjacent to or within an area of calm surface water. A third
lantic Ocean near the western Florida Current off Florida. habitat type included windrows, which are produced by
Post-hatchling loggerheads (Caretta caretta), at sizes of 41- wind-generated Langmuir circulation cells and are evident
78 mm straight carapace-length, are commonly found in as closely aligned rows of debris that are oriented parallel
this area and have been reported on elsewhere with wind direction. These habitat types were not mutually
(Witherington, 1994). Elements of this study include a de- exclusive. For instance, fronts and slicks that contained
scription of the oceanographic features where post-hatchling turtles commonly broke up into windrows when the wind
loggerhead turtles are found, an analysis of post-hatchling became greater than 10-15 knots.
catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE), a comparison of items recently
eaten by post-hatchling loggerhead turtles to items collected CATCH-PER-UNIT-EFFORT
from the surrounding water, and a description of the preva-
Timed searches for neonate turtles were made as the
lence of plastics and tar in the mouths, esophagi, and stom-
research vessel moved at idle speed (approximately 2.5
achs of captured post-hatchling loggerheads.
knots) through the center of a debris line. After turtles were
observed, an attempt was made to capture them using a dip
STUDY AREA/PERIOD
net or similar device. Some turtles were observed and iden-
Eighteen trips were made to a region of the Atlantic, tified to species and size class but not captured.
east of Cape Canaveral, Florida, near the 40 fathom con- A total of 293 post-hatchling loggerhads were observed
tour at approximately 28.5 N and 80.0 W. The region is during timed searches (n=24.0 search-hours). No neonate
approximately 25-40 nautical miles east of the Florida coast green turtles (Chelonia mydas) were observed, which is
near the western wall of the Florida Current. Trips were surprising given that 1-5% of all hatchlings leaving east-
made during the period of hatchling emergence activity on coast Florida beaches are green turtles. Mean CPUE divided
nearby nesting beaches and spanned the period of 22 July among six bi-weekly periods between 15 July and 15 Octo-
through 1 October 1997. ber ranged from 31.4 turtles/hour (in early August) to 0.0
turtles/hour (in early October). The mean CPUE for the study
HABITAT period was 12.4 turtles/hour.
Habitat was surveyed on board the R/V Excellent Fishe
FORAGING HABITS
II, a 6.5 m cuddy cabin with a 150 hp outboard motor. Within
the study area, lines of debris were targeted that indicated Sixty-six post-hatchling loggerheads were captured in
regions of surface-water downwelling. These areas of po- a way that allowed the simultaneous collection of the float-
tential neonate sea turtle habitat were characterized by taking material surrounding them (referred to as outside
ing measurements of position (latitude and longitude), wa- samples). The device used for this was a funnel net which
ter-surface temperature, conductivity, and current speed and consisted of a funnel of 500 micron stainless steel mesh
direction at points located 0. 1 nautical mile on either side connected to a 300 micron mesh removable sample bag.
of the debris line. Temperature and conductivity were mea- The net sampled an approximately 30 cm radius around the
sured with a YSI model 30 meter and current measurements captured turtle. Each turtle captured in this way received a
were made by tracking a current drogue with a Garman gastric lavage in order to flush a sample of recently eaten
global positioning receiver. Additional notes were made items from its stomach and esophagus (referred to as in-
describing density of Sargassum and other debris, width of side samples). The material collected from around each
the debris line, orientation of the debris line relative to wind turtle and the sample of flushed items from the lavage were
direction, and weather and sea conditions. bagged and iced for later identifications on shore.
Three types of debris lines were surveyed and were The mean wet-weight of the surrounding material from
found to contain neonate turtles. The first habitat type in- 66 post-hatchling captures was 79. 6 g (0.0-490. 1 g,
cluded oceanic fronts which were evident as shear bound- SD=117.7 g). All but one of the 66 turtles had measurable
aries between water masses having different temperature, amounts of material nearby and measurable lavage samples
conductivity, and current characteristics. A second habitat were obtained from all but one turtle.
type included slicks, which are produced by the downwelling After weighing, large samples (such as most of the
above and behind the crests of large, slow-moving, ther- outside samples) were first reduced in size by randomly di-

viding them and discarding portions selected by coin toss. cipally Portunus), and shrimps (principally Latreutes). A third
Samples were cut until they fit easily onto a 8.4 cm2 grid (6 x category included flying insects. A fourth included pelagic
6) of filter paper. After samples were drained on the filter animals not closely associated with the Sargassum commu-
paper, a clear acrylic plate with a 6 x 6 grid etched into it, nity such as Janthina and Creseis (planktonic shelled-gas-
was placed over the sample on the filter paper. One centime- tropods), Porpita (a siphonophore), Halobates (a pelagic
ter posts supporting the acrylic plate kept the plate from crush- hemipteran), and Pelagia (a medusa). A fifth category in-
ing the sample. The sample was then placed on the stage of a cluded less common items, anthropogenic debris, and uni-
binocular dissecting microscope with a 10 x 10 square grati- dentified material. A t-test for dependent samples run on
cule in one eyepiece. The sample was surveyed by matching transformed proportions (yt=arcsiny) revealed that inside
the outer margin of the graticule grid to each of the 36 squares samples were different from outside samples for each of the
of an etched acrylic plate overlying the sample. Descriptions item groups in Table 1 (alpha=0.05).
of items to the lowest possible taxon were made for four The comparison of inside and outside samples indicated
graticule intercept-points at each of the 36 overlying grid that post-hatchling loggerheads have a preference for ani-
squares. In smaller samples (such as in all of the inside mal material over plant material. Some animal food items
samples) the entire contents of the sample was surveyed and apparently preferred and/or easily obtainable by post-
all graticule intercept points were examined. hatchlings included hydroids, copepods, and pelagic animals
not commonly associated with the Sargassum community.
Table 1. Availability of items recovered from the water surrounding 66 Animals apparently not preferred and/or not easily obtain-
post-hatchling loggerhead turtles (outside samples) and from gastric able included Sprorbis, Membranipora, and the group com-
lavage samples from the same group of turtles (inside samples).
Availability is represented as the proportion of identifications made at prising fishes, crabs, and shrimp.
surveyed grid-intercept-points (see text).
PREVALENCE OF PLASTIC AND TAR
% of Intercept Points
Outside Samples Inside Samples Turtles from which gastric lavage samples were taken
(N=3479) (N=1006)
were also examined for the presence of tar in the oral cav-
Plants
Sea Grasses 15.4 4.9 ity. Tar-like material adhering to the jaws of sampled turtles
Sargassum 35.7 8.1 was removed with a wooden toothpick and tested for solu-
Other Algae 8.8 7.4 bility in dichloromethane (DCM). Dark, tacky, and DCM-
soluble material was categorized as tar. Data on the preva-
Sargassum Community Endemics
Hydroids 21.7 26.3 lence of tar and plastic in the 66 post-hatchling loggerheads
Copepods 0.1 5.3 were grouped with data obtained from post-hatchling log-
Spirorbis 2.1 0.4 gerheads captured in 1993. Of the 168 turtles in the two-
Membranipora 8.5 2.1
year sample, 46% had tar present in lavage samples and/or
Fishes, Crabs, Shrimp 1.4 0.5
in oral-cavity samples and 15% had plastic present in these
Flying Insects 0.7 1.0 samples.
Pelagic Animals 0.0 18.1 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Other Material 5.7 25.8 Funding for this project was provided by the National
Marine Fisheries Service and by the Florida Game and
Identifications at 3479 intercept points were recorded
Freshwater Fish Commissions Nongame Wildlife Program.
for outside samples and identifications at 1006 intercept
Tar samples were analyzed with the aid of Ted VanVleet
points were recorded for inside samples. Plant material was
and Dana Wetzel of the University of South Florida. Assis-
more frequent in outside samples (60.3%) than it was in the
tance with laboratory work and with captures at sea came
inside samples (22.5%) and animal material was more fre-
from David Arnold, Dean Bagley, Layne Bolen, Kristin Fick,
quent in the inside samples (70.9%) than in the outside
Shigitomo Hirama, Matilde Lores, Sandy Macpherson, Beth
samples (35.5%). Much of the remaining material was an-
Morford, Andrea Mosier, Dawn Russell, Bob Stoll, and
thropogenic in origin (plastics and tar; 4.1% in outside
Robbin Trindell.
samples and 5.1% in inside samples).
Most of the material collected in the outside and inside LITERATURE CITED
samples could be placed into five principal categories (Table
1). Plants included sea grasses (mostly Syringodium), Sar- Witherington, B. E. 1994. Flotsam, jetsam, post-hatchling
gassum (mostly Sargassum fluitans), and algae other than loggerheads, and the advecting surface smorgasbord.
Sargassum (principally the blue green alga, Rivularia). A In: Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Symposium
second category included animals endemic to the Sargas- on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. Bjorndal. K.
sum community such as hydroids (principally thecate hy- A., A. B. Bolten, D. A. Johnson, and P. J. Eliazar,
droids), copepods (principally harpacticoid), Sprorbis (a tube (Comps.) NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-
polychaete), Membranipora (a bryozoan), fishes, crabs (prin- SEFSC-351, 166.
Oral presentations / Developmental Habitats and Habits 35

SKELETOCHRONOLOGICAL AGE ESTIMATES OF GREEN SEA TURTLES LIVING IN

A FLORIDA DEVELOPMENTAL HABITAT
George R. Zug1 and Richard E. Glor2

1
Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC,
20560, U.S.A. zug.gorge@nmnh.si.edu
2
Department of Zoology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, U.S.A.
Juvenile Caretta caretta (44-92 cm SCL) and Chelo-

nia mydas (30-75 cm SCL) occur year around in the Indian
River Lagoon system of eastern Florida. An extraordinary
cold snap in December 1989 cause a major cold-stunning
event in the lagoon. Over 150 seaturtles were rescued and
their rehabilitation attempted. About one third of the C.
mydas did not survive the cold-shock; these turtles offered
an opportunity to use skeletochronology to estimate their
ages and examine the age structure of C. mydas in this de-
velopmental habitat. The sample contains individuals rang-
ing from 28-74 cm SCL with estimated ages of 3-14 yr. The
age estimates suggest the following hypothetical life cycle
for Florida-Atlantic Chelonia mydas. The pelagic phase lasts
a minimum of 3 years, although 5 to 7 years is the most
likely common duration. The juveniles then return to coastal
water (nearshore and estuarine habitats) and join foraging
assemblages in developmental habitats. Individuals remain
in these developmental habitats for 6-10 years, although
likely not at the same locality, and depart these habitats for
subadult-adult feeding grounds somewhere in the Carib-
bean at ages of 12-14 yr and at 60-75 cm SCL.

ORIGINS OF JUVENILE GREEN TURTLES FROM AN EAST CENTRAL FLORIDA

DEVELOPMENTAL HABITAT AS DETERMINED BY mtDNA ANALYSIS
Dean A. Bagley1, Anna L. Bass2, Steven A. Johnson3, Llewellyn M. Ehrhart1, and Brian W. Bowen2 and 4
1
Dept. of Biology, University of Central Florida, P. O. Box 162368, Orlando, FL 32816. dab15782@pegasus.cc.ucf.edu
2
Dept. of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, University of Florida, 7922 NW 71st Street, Gainesville, FL 32653
3
Dept. of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, 303 Newins-Ziegler Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611
4
Archie Carr Center for Sea Turtle Research, 223 Bartram Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
The developmental habitats of the east central coast of we are to fully understand green turtle life history and move-
Florida are utilized year round by juvenile green turtles and ments, it is of the utmost importance that we continue sam-
have been under intensive study by the U. C. F. Marine Turtle pling nesting beaches in order to identify these unknown
Research group since the mid 1970s. Netting work began on haplotypes. It is equally important that we continue sam-
the Sabellariid worm-rock reefs in Indian River County in pling developmental habitats/foraging grounds for addi-
1989 and initial results were presented at the 10th Annual tional data. This endeavor will require the full support and
Workshop (Guseman and Ehrhart, 1990). The Recovery Plan cooperation of all agencies involved with permitting and
for the U. S. Population of Atlantic Green Turtles, Chelonia funding as well as researchers with access to the animals.
mydas (1991) states that the foremost problem in manage-
ment and conservation of sea turtles is the lack of basic bio- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
logical information. Among other things, it requires that
Thanks to Doc for letting me pursue what I wanted to
we determine the origin of juvenile/sub-adult turtles forag-
do most and to Brian and Anna for making it possible; to
ing in U. S. territorial waters.
Steve and Dale Johnson for making their home my home;
To assess the population genetic structure in this
to Drs. Ehrhart, Vickers, and Morgan for travel assistance;
developmental habitat, blood samples were collected from
to Dr. John Weishampel and Dr. Marty Ball for their in-
94 juvenile green turtles (Owens and Ruiz, 1980). Whole
valuable assistance; to Kathy Fitzpatrick for aerial photos,
genomic isolations were conducted using standard phenol/
and to Rhonda Patterson for working so hard to provide me
chloroform methodology (Hillis et al., 1996). A 510bp
with data that could not be included at this time.
fragment of the control region located in the mitochondrial
DNA genome was amplified using primers HDCM1 and
LITERATURE CITED
LTCM1 (Allard et al., 1994). Control region fragments were
sequenced using an automated sequencer in the DNA Allard, M. W., M. M. Miyamoto, K. A. Bjorndal, A. B.
Sequencing Core at the University of Florida. Results were Bolten, and B. W. Bowen. 1994. Support for natal
then compared with haplotypes from previously sampled homing in green turtles from mitochondrial DNA
green turtle rookeries (Encalada et al., 1996). sequences. Copeia 1994:34-41.
In terms of haplotypes alone, this study has revealed Encalada, S. E., P. N. Lahanas, K. A. Bjorndal, A. B. Bolten,
the most diverse developmental habitat of juvenile green M. M. Miyamoto, and B. W. Bowen 1996.
turtles yet, with a total of 12 haplotypes. Nine matched Phylogeography and population structure of the Atlantic
haplotypes known from specific nesting colonies. The and Mediterranean green turtle (Chelonia mydas): a
remaining 3 haplotypes have not been identified previously. mitochondrial DNA control region sequence
Results of the maximum likelihood analysis UCON (Masuda assessment. Mol. Ecol. 5: 473-483.
et al., 1991) indicate that although the two main Guseman, J. L. and L. M. Ehrhart. 1990. Green turtles on
contributors, the Florida/Mexico and Costa Rican Sabellariid worm reefs: Initial results from studies on
populations, make up 95% of the estimated contribution, the Florida Atlantic coast. pp. 125-127. In: Richardson,
the remaining five percent consist of contributions from T. H., J. I. Richardson and M. Donnelly (Compilers).
several source populations as distant as the Mediterranean. 1990. Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Workshop on
These data suggest that the population of reef-dwelling Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. NOAA Technical
juvenile green turtles in Indian River County is made up Memorandum NMFS-SEFC-278,
primarily of juvenile greens from Florida and Mexico Hillis, D. M., A. Larson, S. K. Davis and E. A. Zimmer.
beaches. The results of the ML are significantly different 1990. Nucleic Acids IV: sequencing and cloning, p.
than what would be expected in a random mixture, 321-381. In: Molecular Systematics. Hillis, D. M., C.
indicating that Florida and Mexican juvenile green turtles Moritz, and B. K. Mable (Eds.). 2nd edition. Sinauer
may be recruiting non-randomly to Florida developmental Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Mass.
habitats. Masuda, M., S. Nelson, and J. Pella. 1991. Users Manual
Each green turtle developmental habitat study to date for GIRLSEM, GIRLSYM, and CONSQRT. U.S.A. -
has revealed new haplotypesthat is, haplotypes for which DOC-NOAA-NMFS. US-Canada Salmon Program,
we have not yet discovered the corresponding rookery. If 11305 Glacier Hwy., Juneau, Alaska 99801.
Oral presentations / Genetics and Evolution 37

National Marine Fisheries Service and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Owens, D. W. and G. J. Ruiz. 1980. New methods of
Service. 1991. Recovery plan for U. S. population of obtaining blood and cerebrospinal fluid from marine
Atlantic green turtle. National Marine Fisheries Service, turtles. Herpetologica 36(1):17-20.
Washington, D. C., pp. 24-25.
MIXED STOCK ANALYSIS OF JUVENILE HAWKSBILL FORAGING GROUNDS IN THE

CARIBBEAN
Anna L. Bass
Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, University of Florida Gainesville, FL 32653, U.S.A. abass@icbr.ifas.ufl.edu
Mitochondrial DNA has proven useful for the elucida- ing grounds may provide insight into migration and behav-
tion of population structure and questions concerning the ior in hawksbills in the Caribbean. Are there differences in
behavior of adult female hawksbills (Eretmochelys the genetic composition of different foraging locations? This
imbricata). In addition, a previous analysis of a juvenile for- paper will discuss the findings from the previous studies. In
aging population at Mona Island, Puerto Rico, has provided additon, multiple foraging locations in the eastern Caribbean
information that more than one nesting location contributes have been sampled and the genetic composition of these sites
individuals to a particular foraging site. What can the analy- has been determined. The potential causes (e.g. management
sis of multiple disjunct foraging sites tell us about hawks- practices or biotic factors) of differneces in foraging ground
bills? Investigations into the composition of juvenile forag- composition at these locations are discussed.
POPULATION STRUCTURE, PHYLOGEOGRAPHY, AND MOLECULAR EVOLUTION
Brian Bowen1 and Stephen Karl2

1
Dept. of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, University of Florida, 7922 NW 71st St., Gainesville, FL 32653, U.S.A.
2
Dept. of Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave., Tampa, FL 33620, U.S.A. bowen@gnv.ifas.ufl.edu
Molecular genetic techniques have been applied to sea agassizi. The application of rookery-specific genetic mark-
turtle biology for ten years, and substantial progress has ers for tracing the migrations of marine turtles shows much
been made on aspects of behavior, natural history, and evo- promise. It is this approach that will most effectively serve
lution. Genetic results support the natal homing theory as a the future needs wildlife management programs, as they be-
general paradigm for marine turtles, and have demonstrated gin to address the aquatic components of marine turtle natu-
the importance of continental barriers in shaping the in- ral history and conservation. However, government-spon-
traspecific phylogeography of these species. Comparisons sored management programs have a history of overutilization
of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA illuminate aspects of scientific tools (such as mechanical tags) and this would be
reproductive biology, most especially the possibility of male- very costly in the context of molecular assays. Studies which
mediated gene flow between some nesting populations. DNA employ genetic markers must have a clearly-defined goal
sequence comparisons in a phylogenetic context demon- and end-point, and should not be used for ongoing moni-
strate an evolutionary separation of the ridley species, but toring except under special circumstances.
do not support a species-level designation for Chelonia
GENETIC STOCK IDENTIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF LEATHERBACKS IN THE
PACIFIC: POTENTIAL EFFECTS ON DECLINING POPULATIONS
Peter Dutton1, George Balazs2, Andrew Dizon1, and Ana Barragn3

1
National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, La Jolla Laboratory, P.O.Box 271, La Jolla, CA
92038, U.S.A. 2National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, Honolulu Laboratory, 2570 Dole
St., Honolulu, I-H 96822-2396, U.S.A. 3Laboratorio de Tortugas Marinas, Departamento de Biologia, Facultad de Ciencias,
UNAM, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico D.F. 04510, MEXICO e-mail: peterd@caliban.ucsd.edu
Analyses of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control re- erbacks caught in the Hawaii-based pelagic longline fishery.
gion sequence variation in combination with nuclear Four had haplotypes only found in the western/Indo-Pacific
(NucDNA) data from 6 microsatellite loci indicate that east- populations,while two had haplotypes only found in the east-
ern and western/Indo-Pacific nesting populations are geneti- ern Pacific populations, indicating that both regional stocks
cally distinct and suggests these regional nesting assemblages are affected by this fishery in the north Pacific.
represent independent demographic units for management Additional samples obtained from strandings off the
purposes. To date, samples have been obtained from six leath- coasts of North America and South America confirm trans-
38 Genetics and Evolution / Oral presentations
oceanic migrations by leatherbacks in the Pacific, and ex- the growing longline and coastal gillnet fisheries around the
amination of the distribution of samples allows hypotheses Pacific, and this study suggests that animals from eastern
to be drawn on the migratory patterns. The sudden and dras- Pacific stocks migrate through areas both in the north Pa-
tic decline of nesting populations in Mexico coincides with cific and Southeast Pacific where these fisheries operate.
TENDENCY TOWARD SINGLE PATERNITY IN LEATHERBACKS DETECTED WITH
MICROSATELLITES
Peter H. Dutton1, Elyse Bixby1, and Scott K. Davis2

1
National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, La Jolla Laboratory, P. O. Box 271, La Jolla, CA
92038, U.S.A. peterd@caliban.ucsd.edu 2Dept. Animal Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843,
U.S.A.
Molecular techniques provide new tools for peeking in this way. Mutation rates were highest in DC2-95, one of
into the sex life of sea turtles. Observations on courtship the most polymorphic loci. The lack of multiple paternity in
and mating in leatherbacks are almost non-existent, al- this study corroborates previous findings with microsatellites
though sea turtles are generally presumed to be promiscuous for green turtles in Australia (FitzSimmons, 1996), and sug-
based on extensive studies of green turtles (Alvarado and gests either that female leatherbacks rarely mate with mul-
Figueroa, 1991). FitzSimmons (1996) surprisingly found that tiple males (perhaps as a result of behavioral factors, like
multiple paternity was rare in Australian greens. Leather- competition, or because they rarely encounter them), or that
back paternity studies to date have been invalid due to an sperm competition occurs. Either scenario would require the
insufficient number of reliable polymorphic loci. We have ability to store sperm. The detection of mutation within one
identified informative new microsatellite loci, and have generation turnover emphasizes the importance of using
sampled successive clutches laid by the same females over a multiple loci when attempting to detect multiple paternity
three month period in St. Croix, U. S. Virgin Islands. A total with microsatellites. Samples from additional females are
of 6 loci were used to construct the genotypes of nesting presently being analyzed.
females and their offspring. Loci were amplified by PCR
using fluorescent dye-labelled primers analyzed on a 377A ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABI automated sequencer with GENESCAN. Paternal geno-
We thank Danielle Beatty and Trina Guerra for assis-
types were inferred by comparing the known offspring and
tance with laboratory work. Funding was provided in part
known maternal genotypes. Using allele frequencies for the
by the U. S. Virgin Islands Dept. Planning and Natural Re-
St. Croix nesting population, the probability of detecting
sources, Earthwatch Institute and NMFS.
multiple paternal alleles (d) was determined for each locus
and across all loci (D) (see FitzSimmons, 1996). The prob-
LITERATURE CITED
ability of detecting multiple paternity was relatively low for
some individual loci (DC99 and N32 in particular), com- Alvarado, J., and A. Figueroa. 1991. Comportamiento
bined D for all 6 loci was 99%. Analysis of data from a total reproductivo de la tortuga negra Chelonia agassizii.
of 178 hatchlings from series of 3 to 5 clutches (n=17 total) Ciencia y Desarrollo 17(98):43-49.
laid by each of 4 females, did not reveal any evidence of FitzSimmons, N. N. 1996. Use of microsatellite loci to
multiple paternity. Unexpected paternal alleles were detected investigate multiple paternity in marine turtles, pp. 69-
in four cases; however, since in each case these alleles were 78 In: Bowen, B. W. and W. N. Witzell (Editors),
only present at one locus, they were considered to be muta- Proceedings of the International Symposium on Sea
tions rather than contributions by a second male. Two in- Turtle Conservation Genetics. NOAA Technical
stances of mutation of the maternal allele were also detected Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-396. 173pp.
CONTRIBUTION OF A NESTING COLONY OF HAWKSBILL TURTLE ERETMOCHELYS

IMBRICATA TO SOME FEEDING GROUNDS IN CUBAN PLATFORM
G. Espinosa1, A. Robainas2, G. Bordn1, E. Garcia2, M. Ramos1, G. Hernndez1, and M. Rodrguez1

1
Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Cuba. anaicr@correo.co.cu 2Marine Research Center, University of Havana,
Cuba
INTRODUCTION
typically exhibiting low rate of molecular evolution relative
Mitochondrial (mt) DNA genealogies have figured to many other organism groups (Bowen and Avise, 1995).
prominently in genetic studies of marine turtle, in spite of Hawksbill turtles mt DNA have been useful in the definition

of the distribution pattern in different geographic regions RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

(Broderick et al., 1994; Bass et al., 1996 and Bowen et al.,
The polymorphism of the three enzymes is produced
1996). In this study we used mt DNA polymorphisms to
by the lost of restriction site for each one of them coincident
characterize Cuban hawksbill populations and to determine
with sites 13: Msp I, 78: Dra I, and 309: Taq I. from Bass et
the contribution of different hawksbill populations in Carib-
al. (1996) haplotypes. These haplotypes can be compared to
bean regions to Cuban feeding grounds.
those of Bass et al.(1996). (Table 1).
The six haplotypes are distributed in the population as
MATERIALS AND METHODS
it is showed in Table 2. Haplotype 1 is observed in all samples
We sampled 83 E. imbricata from three regions of the included those from Puerto Rico and Belice (Bass et al.,
Cuban platform (Isla de Pinos and Nuevitas) all from feed- 1996), anyway this haplotype can be further separated in ten
Table 1. Three polymorphic sites, which define 6 identified PCR-
different ones, after sequencing of the same fragment as dem-
RFLP mt DNA haplotypes. (A=no site, B= 1 site and C= 2 site, all onstrated by these authors.
according to the sequence order of polymorphic sites for haplotype The haplotype frequencies from all populations showed
A (Bass et al., 1996) . no differences according to G test, for this reason we con-
clude that there is a large genetic similarity among Carib-
Haplotypes Nucleotide in position of Haplotypes bean colonies. Bass et al., 1996. Also found similar results
(this paper) sequence using Bass et al. from Bass et al., 1996.
(1996) numbering in this area.
13 78 309 Haplotype diversity estimates (h) for Doce Leguas Nest-
1. BCB G A C B,C,D,F,I,J,K,L,N y Q
2. ABA A G G or T R,S,T y U ing population (Table 2) is the same order of magnitude to
3. ACA A A G or T A,E,G,H y O haplotype diversity estimates for hawksbill turtle colonies in
4. BBA G G GT
5. BBB G G C P
the Atlantic (overall estimates h= 0.849, Bass et al., 1996).
6. BCA G A G or T M But this value is higher that the overall estimates (h=0.69)
for Cuban feeding grounds. On the other hand Yucatan shows
the lowest value of haplotype diversity and Puerto Rico Re-
ing grounds and Cayeria de Las Doce Leguas, with 13 indi- sults the most similar area to Doce Leguas.
viduals from nesting area and 16 from feeding ones) and one We demonstrated that nesting area is similar to each
from Las Coloradas, Yucatn (21 individuals from nesting feeding ground of Cuban shelf, although, we use the
colony). The sample consisted of muscle pieces fixed in 70% unconditional Monte Carlo algorithm as a qualitative
ethanol. Total DNA extraction was carried out according to indicator of the contribution of some nesting colonies to the
three Cuban feeding grounds. The highest contribution to
Table 2. Haplotype diversity (h) and frequencies at assayed hawksbill Isla de Pinos and Doce Leguas feeding grounds comes from
turtle colony and feeding grounds.
Doce Leguas nesting colony On the other hand, Belices
Location
Haplotype contributes with a 61% to Nuevitas while Doce Leguas with
h 1 2 3 4 5 6
Nesting colonies only 39%. It is possible that in the South shelf of Cuba
D. Leguas .765 4(.30) 5(.40) 2(.15) 2(.15)
Yucatn .308 19(.83) 2(.10) 2(.10) specifically in Doce Leguas region, where waters are shallow
Feeding grounds
I. de Pinos .680 6(.50) 3(.25) 3(.25) and warm, the animals show a highest degree of site fidelity.
D.Leguas .860 4(.27) 3(.20) 1(.07) 4(.27) 1(.07) 2(.13)
Nuevitas .590 13(.65) 2(.10) 1(.05) 4(.20) Similar results have been stated by Koike (1996) for Cuban
Nesting colonies
P. Rico1 11(.73) 2(.13) 2(.13) and Puerto Rico populations, but Bowen et al. (1996) found
Belice1 12(.86) 2(.14)
1
Bass et al., 1996 a very low contribution of Puerto Rico nesting area to Mona
Isle a Puerto Ricon feeding grounds. The fact that Belice
Kocher et al. (1989). An approximately 400 base pair frag- and Yucatan, being neighbor population, have a different the
ment located in non-coding region of mt DNA was ampli- contribution to distint areas is according with to Bass et al
fied with PCR methodology (Mullis and Faloona, 1987) us- (1994), which conclude that there is no strong correlation
ing TCR-5 and TCR-6 primers (Norman et al., 1994). PCR between geographical distance among nesting colonies and
products were digested with three restriction endonucleases: migration rate estimates. The existence of mixed stock in the
Dra I, Msp I and Taq I, which present polymorphic sites in three Cuban feeding ground is according with the results of
the fragment. The digested products were separated in 7% Broderick et al. (1994) in Australian hawksbill populations,
polyacrilamide gel electrophoresis using TBE 1 X buffer and
Table 3. Contribution of nesting colony to three feeding grounds of
visualised with silver staining protocol of Ceatano-Anolls Cuban shelf as indicated by unconditional analysis (Xu et al., 1994).
and Greshoff (1993), using Pharmacia 50 Bp estandar size. Puerto Rico and Belice data from 1Bass et al., 1996.
The different haplotypes detected were used to calculate the
haplotype diversity (Nei, 1987). The frequencies were ana-
Feeding grounds
lyzed by a G test (Sokal and Rohlf, 1981). To estimate the
Nesting colonies Isla de Pinos Doce Leguas Nuevitas
contribution of each nesting area to each Cuban feeding Doce Leguas 0.60 0.81 0.39
grounds we used the unconditional Monte Carlo algorithms Yucatn 0.41 0.00 0.00
1
in the program Shadracq (Xu et al., 1994). Puerto Rico
1
0.01 0.19 0.00
Blice 0.00 0.00 0.61

and of Bowen et al., 1996 and Koike 1996, in Caribbean R. J. and Limpus, C. J. 1994. Genetic studies of the
hawksbill populations. hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata): evidence for
Nevertheless the relatively small sample sizes of nest- multiple stocks in Australian waters. Pacific
ing populations examined to date, these results indicate: The Conservation Biology 1:123-131.
high genetic variability of Doce Leguas nesting colony, the Caetano-Anolles, G., Bassam, B. J. and Greshoff, P. M. 1993.
high stay of Doce Leguas nesting colony in Cuban feeding Staining nucleic acids with silver. Promega Notes 42:
grounds and the presence of other nesting colonies from 10.
Caribbean area in Cuban feeding grounds Kocher, T. D., Thomas, W. K., Meyer, A., Edwards, S. V.,
Paabo, S, Villablanca, F. X. and Wilson, A. C. 1989.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Dynamics of mitochondrial DNA evolution in animals:
Amplification and sequencing with conserved primers.
This project was made possible by the outstanding con-
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 86: 6196-6200.
tributions of Ministry of Fishering Industry from Cuba and
Koike, H., Okayama, T., Baba Y., Daz, R. Diez, C. E.,
the Japan Bekko Association from Japan. Felix Moncada,
Marquez R. M. and Espinosa, G. 1996. Conservation
Gonzalo Nodarse and Mauricio Garduo contributed in
genetics for the cites animals mitochondrial DNA
sample collection and Anna Bass provide us with the pro-
analysis using the scute of the hawksbill turtle.
gram to mathematical procedure.
International Symposium on Network and Evolution of
LITERATURE CITED Molecular Information. Mishima, Japan.
Mullis, K. B. and Faloona, F. 1987. Specific synthesis of
Bass, A. L., D. A. Good, K. A. Bjorndal, Richardson, J. I., DNA in vitro via polymerase-catalyzed chain reaction.
Hillis, Z. M., J. A. Horrocks, and B. W. Bowen, 1996. Methods in Enzymology 155: 335-350.
Testing models of female reproductive migratory Nei, M. 1987. Molecular Evolutionary genetics. Columbia
behavior and Population structure in the Caribbean University Press, New York, New York, U.S.A.
hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata, with mtDNA Norman, J. A., Moritz, C. and Limpus, C. J. 1994.
Sequences. Molecular Ecology, 5: 321-328. Mitochondrial DNA control region poly-morphisms:
Bowen, B. W. and Avise, J. C. 1995. Conservation genetics genetics markers for ecological studies of marine turtles.
of Marine Turtles. In: Conservation Genetics: Case Molecular Ecology 3: 363-373.
histories from nature, Eds. Avis, J. C. and Hammock, J. Sokal, R. R., and Rohlf, F. J. 1981. Biometry. Second edition.
L. Chapman and Hall, New York. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, California, U.S.A.
Bowen, B. W., Bass, A. L., Garca-Rodrguez, A., Diez, C:E:, Xu, S., Kobak, C. J. and Smouse, P. E. 1994. Constrained
van Dam, R., Bolten, A., Bjorndal, K. A., Miyamoto, least squares estimation of mixed population stock
M. M., Ferl, R. J. 1996. Origin of hawksbill turtles in a composition from mtDNA haplotype frequency data.
Caribbean feeding area as indicated by genetic markers. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
Ecological Applications, 6(2): 566-572. 51: 417-425.
Broderick, D., Moritz, C., Miller, J. D., Guinea, M., Prince,
A COMPUTER PROGRAM THAT USES GENETIC DATA TO INFER THE MAXIMUM

LIKELIHOOD ESTIMATES OF SPERM COMPETITION AND MULTIPLE PATERNITY
Kristina L. Kichler and Mark T. Holder

The University of Texas, Department of Zoology, Austin, TX 78712 U.S.A. kichler@mail.utexas.edu
Recently developed genetic techniques have allowed rameter maximum likelihood framework. The first param-
researchers to examine the reproductive biology of animals eter, m, measures average female promiscuity in the popu-
in new ways. Classic paternity analysis requires genetic in- lation. We assumed that females can mate with either one
formation about the mother, all possible fathers, and the or two males (with probabilities of 1-m or m respectively).
offspring. In sea turtle biology the possible fathers are gen- The second parameter, r, measures the level of sperm com-
erally not sampled; so we must rely on population genetics petition. This parameter is the proportion of the eggs fertil-
to give us their likely genetic composition. In many cases ized by one of the two males (r=0.5 indicates no sperm com-
the implications of genetic data are clear (for example petition, an r of 1 or 0 is complete sperm competition). The
FitzSimmons et al., little evidence of multiple paternity de- program also considers the possibility of mutation with a
spite extensive sampling of hatchlings and very polymor- parameter for the mutation rate (mu, which can be between
phic markers). When sampling of hatchlings is limited the 0 and 1). The first step is to infer the genotypes of the pater-
pattern can be difficult to infer and the level of certainty is nal gametes using Mendelian genetics and information from
hard to measure. We have written a computer program in the offspring and the mother. The program calculates the
the language C, that analyzes genetic data in a three pa- probability of diploid genotypes for the two males under

the assumption of Hardy Weinberg equilibrium. The prob- likelihood surface over the possible parameter space. This
ability that one would see the observed offspring data for a method is computationally intensive, but powerful. Using
clutch is the probability of two males having particular dip- this method and the likelihood ratio test we are able to re-
loid genotypes multiplied by the probability of a females ject the hypothesis of no sperm competition and the hypoth-
offspring getting the observed gametes given the males esis of no multiple mating for a data set from the Kemps
genotypes and a pair of values for the sperm competition ridley sea turtle. The model and the program could be ex-
and multiple paternity parameters. This probability must panded to encompass the possibility of more than two fa-
be summed over all possible male genotypes. The likeli- thers for a clutch, linkage disequilibrium between marker
hood of any pair of parameter values is proportional to this alleles.
probability. The programs output is a function that gives a
THE INCIDENCE OF MULTIPLE PATERNITY IN LOGGERHEAD TURTLE NESTS ON

MELBOURNE BEACH, FLORIDA U.S.A.
M. Katherine Moore1 and 2 and R. Martin Ball2

1
Grice Marine Biological Laboratory, University of Charleston, 205 Fort Johnson Road, Charleston, SC 29412 U.S.A.
Kathy.Moore@noaa.gov
2
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, Office of Science, 219 Fort Johnson Road,
Charleston, SC 29412, U.S.A.
Missing from estimates of adult population size and confirmed by the mother-offspring genotype data.
health of sea turtle populations are the numbers of males Given the allele frequency distributions in this popula-
contributing to the next generation. Peare (1994) used ge- tion, the probability of detecting the second father in any
netic analysis (multi-locus minisatellite probes) to demon- hatchling that is the result of an extra-pair fertilization is
strate multiple paternity in green turtle clutches at 0.91 (Westneat et al., 1987). Ten or more hatchlings from
Tortuguero. Mixed reports at subsequent turtle symposia each clutch were analyzed to estimate the level of multiple
have indicated that the incidence of multiple paternity var- paternity. What appear to be more than two paternal alleles
ies from species to species and perhaps location to location. were observed in eight of the 38 clutches analyzed. How-
This study uses microsatellites to examine the paternal con- ever, the contribution of a second father is rarely reflected
tribution to loggerhead clutches laid on Melbourne Beach, at both loci, leading to the speculation that some of the ex-
FL in the summer of 1996 . Blood was collected from 150 tra alleles that were attributed to a second father may in fact
mothers, and scute biopsies were taken from 1341 offspring be due to mutation of alleles from either parent. Offspring of
from 89 clutches. Samples were collected at two locations questionable parentage are being analyzed at additional loci
which are approximately eight kilometers apart, one within to confirm these results.
and one just north of the Archie Carr National Wildlife
Refuge. The genotypes of the mothers were ascertained at REFERENCES CITED
four polymorphic microsatellite loci: Cc141, Ei8 FitzSimmons, N. N. 1997. Male marine turtles: Gene flow,
(FitzSimmons et al. 1995), Cc7, and Cc117 (FitzSimmons, philopatry, and mating systems of the green turtle,
1997). The two most polymorphic of these loci (Cc7 and Chelonia mydas. Ph. D. thesis, University of
Cc141) were then selected to estimate the levels of multiple Queensland.
paternity in 38 clutches. FitzSimmons, N. N., C. Moritz, and S. S. Moore. 1995.
The maternal genotype frequencies were compared Conservation and dynamics of microsatellite loci over
between collection locations and were found not to be sig- 300 million years of marine turtle evolution. Mol. Biol.
nificantly different at either locus Cc7 (p=0.63, s. e. =0.007) Evol. 12: 432-440.
or Cc141 (p=0.08, s. e. =0.004). Pooled maternal allele fre- Peare, T., P. G. Parker, and T. A. Waite. 1994. Multiple
quencies were also found not to significantly differ from paternity in green turtles (Chelonia mydas):
inferred paternal allele frequencies at either Cc7 (p=0.75, conservation implications. pp. 115-118 In: Bjorndal,
s. e. =0.04) or Cc141 (p=0.42, s. e. =0.006). Maternal fre- K. A., A. B. Bolten, D. A. Johnson, and P. J. Eliazar
quencies were found to be within Hardy-Weinberg expecta- (Compilers). Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual
tions for locus Cc141, with heterozygotes neither in excess Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation.
(p=0.54, s. e. =0.023) nor deficient (p=0.44, s. e. =0.025). NOAA Tech. Mem. NMFS-SEFSC-351. 323 pp.
At locus Cc7, heterozygotes were not found to be in excess Westneat, D. F., P. C. Fredrick, and R. Haven Wiley. 1987.
(p=0.99, s. e. =0.004), but heterozygotes were found to be The use of genetic markers to estimate the frequency of
deficient (p=0.01, s. e. =0.004). We postulate that the defi- successful alternative reproductive tactics. Behav. Ecol.
ciency in heterozygotes at this locus is due to the presence and Sociobiol. 21: 35-45.
of null alleles. The existence of null alleles at this locus is

EFFECT OF PARTIAL SHADOW IN THE INCUBATION TEMPERATURE IN KEMPS

RIDLEY (Lepidochelys kempiI) NEST, IN THE BEACH HATCHERIES, AT RANCHO
NUEVO, TAMAULIPAS, MEXICO.
Miguel Angel Carrasco1, Ren Mrquez1, Juan Daz2, Vernica Benitez3, No Villanueva1, and Mara del Carmen
Jimnez1
1
CRIP-Manzanillo, Playa Ventanas s/n, Manzanillo, Colima, Mxico C. P. 28200, AP. 591.tomar@bay.net.mx
2
INP-Oficinas Centrales. Pitgoras 1320, 4to piso. Cruz Atoyac, Mxico D. F. C. P. 03310
3
PROFEPA. Crucero Las Brisas, s/n. Manzanillo, Colima, Mxico, C. P. 28210
INTRODUCTION RESULTS
The temperature during the incubation process has an Survival
effect over the sexual differentiation of sea turtles (Morreale The results are presented in Table I. The survival aver-
et al., 1982). Between 30-33C, females are produced at a age in both groups was higher than 1997 season (68.5%)
100% rate, while for temperatures between 26-28C 100% (Burchfield et al., 1997). A Kruskal-Wallis test was applied,
males are produced (Mrosovsky et al., 1980). the result F = 4.33 (P<0.05) was significantly different
(1, 105)
Conservation techniques have been discussed, because between the groups.
the removal of the nests from their natural conditions into
the incubation boxes and yards may have effect over the sex Temperature
ratio (Mrosovsky et al., 1980). With the covariance analysis done to learn if the tem-
Studies about temperature and humidity have shown perature fluctuation was the same along all the incubation
that both parameters are very important to obtain a high yard, results show that the temperature was similar in both
survival rate, and knowing the optimal incubation param- groups. As a conclusion the fluctuations affected in the same
eters, it can help us to improve the survival rates and to know way the nests in each group.
the sex ratio. A regression analysis was done with temperature aver-
This paper presents the temperature effect over the age in groups A and B and the following equation was ob-
nests in the incubation yards under several sun radiation contained.
ditions and the objective is to evaluate its effect on the sur- Y= (0.047)X + 28.34
vival of the nests and over the sex ratio. That equation was applied in each group and their
square sum of differences (SSD) was compared. As a result,
METHODOLOGY in group B (Figure 2) the temperature variation was higher
During the 1997 nesting season of the Kemps ridley than in group A (Figure 1), and the SSD 121.6 in group A
(Lepidochelys kempii) in the Rancho Nuevo, Tamaulipas, and 201. 1 in group B.
Mexico beach, there were six arribazones that occurred The temperature difference between groups A and B
with more than one hundred nests. The nests were collected was 0.8C average and the incubation time difference was 3
in an extension of 30 km and removed to the central area, it days, delayed in group A because of the difference in tem-
was considered that all the nests were removed in the same perature.
safety conditions. Temperature average in each group was 30C and 31C
One of these arribazones was chosen to do the study and we can expect to obtain a high females number in both
with 120 nests, which were separated in two groups, the groups, but the group A, during the last third of incubation
first group (A) 40 nests were shadowed with a plastic mesh, period had temperatures lower than 30 C and maybe the
the tipe used at winter quarters for plants, while the second sex rate was affected.
group (B) consisted in 67 nests and were exposed to total During this work, the temperature average in both
solar radiation. groups was optimal, and we obtained a high survival rate.
In each group (with shadow (A) and total radiation However, during the last third of the incubation time, a tem-
(B)) three thermocouples selected at random were installed perature shock happened, the temperature fell to 25.5C
(one in each extreme of the fence and another in the center, in group A and to26.7C in group B and the embryonic
to have a daily record temperature maximum and minimum). development could be affected.
Survival Temperature Incubation Time

Table I. - Survival of nest incubation
Average S.E. Average S.E. Average S.E.
during 1997 with different intensity of Group A 78.8 15.9 30.2 1.31 52.4 0.7
sun radiation, determined with the Group B 84.3 12.1 31.1 1.47 48.8 0.8
temperature
Oral presentations / Methods in Conservation and Management 43

CONCLUSIONS LITERATURE CITED

The use of shadow in incubation yards may help to Burchfield, P., R. Marquez, R. Byles, L. Dierauf, and R.
maintain free of drastic temperature changes, however if Castro. 1997. Report on the Mexico/United States of
environment temperature fall down, the dark mesh must be America population restoration project for the kemps
removed because it could decrease the temperature below ridley sea turtle, Lepidochelys kempii, on the coast of
the survival limit. Tamaulipas and Veracruz, Mexico. 1997. Fish and
Maintaining temperature in spite of drastic environ- Wildlife Service. United States Department of the
mental changes, can increase the probability of high survival Interior. December 1997.
rate. Morreale, S.J., G. Ruiz, J. Spotila, and E.A. Standora, 1982.
It is necessary to consider that survival rate can be af- Temperature dependent sex determination : current
fected with extreme high and low temperatures. practices threaten conservation of sea turtles. Science,
Wash. 216 : 1245-1247.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Mrosovsky, N. and N. Yntema, 1980. Temperature
Mr. Patrick Burchfield del Gladys Porter Zoo, dependence of sexual differentiation in sea turtles:
Coordinador del Programa de Recuperacin de la Tortuga implications for conservation practices Biol. Conserv.,
Lora del Gobierno de U.S.A., Dr. David Owens de la 18: 271-280.
Universidad de Texas A&M, Dr. Refugio Castro and T. P.
Eduardo Jara del CRIP-Tampico and all the working group
of Rancho Nuevo, Tamps., in the season of 1997.
MORE ON ERROR TABOOS: COUNTING EGGS AND EGG SHELLS
Brenda J. Cruz and J. Frazier

Centro de Investigacin y de Estudios Avanzados del I. P. N. Unidad Mrida, Carretera Antigua a Progreso km 6, A. P. 73
Cordemex, Mrida C. P. 97310, Yucatn, Mxico. bcruz@kin.cieamer.conacyt.mx
INTRODUCTION
An enormous amount of information is generated from them, and the contents were categorized and counted, as is
beach protection programs, and as a rule, numerous people normal practice. Egg shells and unhatched eggs were counted
help collect basic data at each field site. Two simple direct for each clutch: yielding a total nest contents. Compari-
counts are standard for most beach studies: right after ovipo- sons were done between counts of deposition and nest con-
sition, eggs are counted; and after hatching, nest contents tents, made for the same clutch, by the same individual.
are counted. Numbers derived from these counts are used
for the calculation of life history parameters such as: clutch 35
size, hatching success, fecundity and reproductive success.
30
Unfortunately, many common research protocols and man-
agement techniques have not been evaluated. It is essential 25
to assess the magnitude of error for basic counts, to be able

No. of nests
20
to separate variance related to different observers and han- 15

dling techniques from biological variability.
10
MATERIALS AND METHODS 5
The present study was carried out during the 1996 nest- 0
- 1 3 - 1 2 - 1 1 - 1 0 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
ing season at XCacel, Quintana Roo, Mexico, a regionally Number of eggs
important nesting beach for Caretta caretta and Chelonia

mydas. Seven people participated in the field work. Clutches Figure 1. Distribution of differences between egg counts at extraction
of freshly laid eggs were counted twice: on removing them and deposition for the same clutch, done by Individual 1; Caretta
from a recently made, natural egg chamber (extraction) caretta, XCacel, Quintana Roo, Mexico, 1996
and as they were deposited in an artificial egg chamber
RESULTS
(deposition), either in the beach or in a hatchery. Both
counts were made over a period of no more than one hour. Error in counting eggs
Comparisons were done between extraction and deposition The difference between extraction and deposition for
counts made for the same clutch, by the same individual. most individuals was between zero and three eggs. There
Nests were excavated once hatchlings had emerged from were cases of much larger errors, and in one case the differ-
44 Methods in Conservation and Management / Oral presentations

ence was as much as 33. The general tendency was for the though this difference in counts occurred in all people
extraction count to be greater than for deposition (Figure 1). throughout the season, there was a tendency for it to decrease
This tendency was shown by all seven individuals, but the in some individuals with time (Figure 5). In all individuals,
amount of error was not homogenous between people. Al- the difference between deposition and nest contents increased
though all people had differences between extraction and with larger clutch sizes (Figure 6).
deposition counts during the entire nesting season, there was
a tendency in several individuals for this difference to de- 11
crease over time (Figure 2). Furthermore, there was a gen- 10
eral tendency in all seven individuals for larger differences 9

8
to occur in larger clutches (Figure 3).
7
No. of nests
6
7 5
4
6
3
5 2
Abs. Dif. Ext. - Dep.
4 1
0
3 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of eggs
2
1
Figure 4. Distribution of differences between deposition egg counts
0 and counts of nest contents for the same clutch, done by Individual
-1 1; Chelonia mydas, XCacel, Quintana Roo, Mexico, 1996.
90 100 110 120 130 140
Julian date of laying
12
Figure 2. Relation of absolute difference between extraction and 10

deposition counts (Abs. Dif. Ext. - Dep.) and Julian date of laying,
8
done by Individual 2; Chelonia mydas, XCacel, Quintana Roo,
Abs. Dif. Dep. - N.C.
Mexico, 1996 (y = 0.0581x + 7.8279; r = -0.3343; d. f. = 17; p = 6

0.162; dotted lines are 95% confidence limits).
4
2
7
0
6
-2
5 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Julian date of emergence / revision
Abs. Dif. Ext. - Dep.
3
Figure 5. Relation of absolute difference between deposition count
2 and nest contents count (Abs. Dif. Dep. - N. C.) and Julian date of
1
emergence/revision, done by Individual 3; Caretta caretta, XCacel,
Quintana Roo, Mexico, 1996 (y = - 0.0929x + 15.379; r = 0.6811; d.
0 f. = 10; p = 0.015; dotted lines are 95% confidence limits).
-1
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Extraction count
9
Figure 3. Relation of absolute difference between extraction and 7

deposition counts (Abs. Dif. Ext. - Dep.) and clutch size (Extraction
Abs. Dif. Dep. - N.C.
count), done by Individual 1; Caretta caretta, XCacel, Quintana Roo,

5
Mexico, 1996 (y = 0.01537x - 0.3694; r = 0.2570; d. f. = 96; p =
0.010; dotted lines are 95% confidence limits).
3
Error in counting nest contents.

In general, the difference between deposition and nest 1
contents was no more than one or two eggs, although much

-1
larger differences did occur. Counts of nest contents were 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
usually less than for deposition (Figure 4), although there Nest contents count
were differences in the amount of error between individuals.

Because there were generally relatively few unhatched eggs, Figure 6. Relation of absolute difference between deposition count
and egg shells are difficult to count because of their frag- and nest contents count (Abs. Dif. Dep. - N. C.) and estimated nest
contents, done by Individual 1; Chelonia mydas, XCacel, Quintana
mented condition, it was assumed that most of the difference Roo, Mexico, 1996 (y = 0.07402x - 7.212; r = 0.4758; d. f. = 15; p =
was due to underestimating the numbers of egg shells. Al- 0.054; dotted lines are 95% confidence limits).

CONCLUSIONS of data, and even more so when their levels of experience are
not comparable and change over the period of a single sea-
All seven individuals involved in the study had errors
son. When field personnel are not constant from year to year,
in counts of both eggs and egg shells. In several people, there
the complications are even greater, and this is precisely the
was a significant reduction in differences between types of
situation when volunteers do the bulk of data gathering. Er-
counts as the season progressed: this suggests an effect of
rors in simple counts of eggs and egg shells may affect the
learning. There was also a clear relationship between magni-
calculation of basic life history parameters such as clutch
tude of error and clutch size: the more there is to count, the
size, hatching success, fecundity, reproductive effort,
greater the chance of a an error in counting. It is important to
hatchling recruitment and reproductive success. Without re-
emphasize that there were a number of differences between
solving these problems, large and costly field efforts may
the people working at XCacel in 1996. The level of error
yield spurious information; and even worse biological theory
between different types of counts, as well as the relationship
and management practices could be based on equivocal data.
between counting errors and date as well as clutch size var-
ied between people, making it difficult to derive one stan-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
dard correction for everyone.
BJC conducted field work while employed by
DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS SEMARNAP, Quintana Roo; personnel of Xcaret turtle camp,
Ana Erosa and Pedro Gngora provided valuable help; BJC
Error must be evaluated in different methodologies used
has been supported by Fundacin Yucatn, The David and
in field studies, and especially to calibrate error attributable
Lucile Packard Foundation, and Symposium organizers.
to personal differences. This is especially important when
there are various people involved in gathering the same sort
METALLIC OR INTERNAL TAGS- CAN WE OMIT ANY IN RANCHO NUEVO, MEXICO?
Ma. del Carmen Jimnez Quiroz1, Ren Mrquez Milln1, No A. Villanueva1, Manuel Snchez2, Juan Daz2, Alma
Leo Peredo3, M. A. Carrasco1, and Jaime Pea4
1
Centro Regional de Investigacin Pesquera (CRIP)Manzanillo Playa Ventanas s/n, Apdo. Postal 591, Manzanillo, Colima.
Mxico. C. P. 28200. cjimenez@bay. net. mx; tormar@bay. net. mx
2
Instituto Nacional de la Pesca. Pitgoras 1320 Col. Sta Cruz Atoyac. el Benito Jurez, Mxico, D. F. C. P. 03310
3
CRIP-Tampico. Prolongacin de Altamira s/n. Isleta Perez, Tampico, Tams. Mxico
4
Gladys Porter Zoo, 500 Ringled Street, Brownsville, Tx. U.S.A.
INTRODUCTION
The mark-recapture method has been used to estimate phyte or re-emigrant, the tags were compared with the
the population abundance and survival of many species (Sa- general database that include registers from 1966.
ber, 1982). In Rancho Nuevo, Tamaulipas (Mexico), the most The information was organized following the number
important nesting beach of Kemps ridley (Lepidochelys of times that each female was registered inside each season.
kempii), this technique has been applied since 1966 using The number of marks and recaptures were accounted with
metallic tags, afterwards, starting from 1988 internal tags one and/or both tags. The females were classified like neo-
(pit-tags) has been used too. In the other hand, in 1992 the phytes or re-emigrant (recaptures) in function of their char-
camp of Barra del Tordo/Playa Dos and Tepehuajes/ acteristics of the first time when they were observed. In other
Ostionales was installed and consequently, the protection hand the 1992s neophyte females were followed between
activities extended from 30 to 120 km approximately. 1993-1996 and the number of recaptures and remarks that
The objective of this work is to compare the recovery they had in these years were estimated.
of metallic and internal tags in the nesting season between The mistakes were accounted to estimate the confidence
1992 and 1996 using the registers of the three camps to evalu- of the mark-recapture registers. The database was reviewed
ate the efficiency of both tags and to determinate the possi- to account the females with damaged flippers and to obtain
bility to discard any tag. an indicator of the impact of the external tag.
METHODS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The information was sorted and classified following 1. -Mark and recapture inside each nesting season. The
the field notes, the presence of scars, the old tags when the observed females were between the 50 and 67% of the total
turtle was remarked and comparing the consecutive marks registers in each season and almost all were included in the
when the female was observed many times inside each nest- mark-recapture program. The remaining percent were nest
ing season. When there was doubts about their rank like neo- obtained after the female laid there. The external tags were
Year metallic (%) pit tag (%)

Table 1 Characteristics of the first observation Re Rec Re Rec
(capture) of each season. Keys: Re: re-tag of 1992 28.40 25.14 11.90 33.78
females that loss the tag; Rec: recapture of females
1993 28.97 23.31 9.80 32.89
with tag. Units :% of the total of the females observed.
1994 24.39 25.61 5.64 33.07
1995 26.38 22.50 2.13 5.03
1996 25.28 19.65 6.75 33.16
applied to approximately 100 % of the females observed in- more or less number of alphanumeric characters and when
side each season, whereas the pit tag were applied to a per- the interval between two consecutive laid close. In general,
centage variable between 60 and 90%, except in 1995 when these mistakes were the 1.3% of the total registers, however
the use of this tags was severely limited (168 registers of pit in some years it was greater, like 1996 when the number reg-
tags). isters were higher.
Although a high proportion of the females was observed
Table 2. Results of the following of 92s neophyte females in the
once inside each season, several turtles were registered more
lapse 1992-1996. A) External tags (N=47), B) Pit tags (N=63). Units:
times. The probability to detect these consecutive arrivals %
was grater with the use of metallic tag than with the pit tag,
however, the internal tag allows to detect the mistakes in the (A)
alphanumeric strings of metallic tags. Recaptures 0 1 2 3 4
In the first observation the percent of females with me- with pit tag 34.04 10.63 2.12
tallic tag was between 19 and 25% (Table 1), whereas be- re-tag of pit tag 19.14 2.12
Mistakes 4.2 0
tween 23 and 30 % were losses and they had to be remarked. Without pit tag 12.76 42.6 0 2.12
In contrast, it was more frequent to detect the internal tag Total 100 12.8 2.12 2.12
(32-39%) and it was not possible to put an elevated number
(B)
of pit tags because there were not enough scanning devices.
The re-emigrant females were identified because they Recaptures 1 2
carried external tags or remaining scars. The neophyte fe- with metallic tag 30.16 12.7
males can be easily recognized because they lack of these re-tag of metallic tag 690.84 15.9
characteristics. The pit tags are not useful to discern the neo- total 100 28
phytes, because it is necessary to have numerous readers de-
vices and sometimes the observant can not find it in the flip- 4. -Damages in the flippers. In the database 24 turtles
per. Is necessary to point out that only 17 turtles of the 5138 with some damage in the flippers were found. Most frequent
registers of the database were marked only with pit tags. By injury were predator bites in the left back flipper and most
this and the female fecundity rate, it was estimate in 1.5 nest females were neophytes. If suppose that the probability of
by nesting season (Mrquez et al., 1989; Pritchard, 1990; survival to predator attacks is similar with independence of
Rostal et al., 1992) is possible to suppose that most of fe- the flipper injured, is possible to suppose that the turtles are
males are observed and tagged at least once in each nesting attacked more frequently in the back flippers and this means
season and then the use of the metallic tags allow to recog- that the presence of tags does not increase the probability of
nize the neophyte females with a little margin of error. attack. On top of this, the loss rate of this tag was high and
2. -Recaptures between seasons. It was possible to fol- that approximately half of the females of each season were
low 47 tagged turtles with metallic tag and 63 with internal re-emigrant and were tagged in some previous season, is pos-
tag (Table 2). They are 20.3 and 27.3 % of the total 92s sible to suppose that the injuries originated by the external
neophytes females. There were 20 common tags between tag are negligible.
these two groups. The females tagged with metallic tag were
observed up to 4 nesting seasons (Table 2A) more, although CONCLUSIONS
most were seen only in 1994 and 1995. The turtles with pit
The metallic tag simplifies the register of the consecu-
tag were observed in one or two season more, specially in
tive arrivals of the females inside each season, the identifica-
1994 and 1996, however the few data obtained about this tag
tion of the neophyte turtles and in some cases the re-tag with
in 1995 must influence these results.
pit tag, however the loss of this tag between seasons is high.
The 86% of the females followed with the pit tag were
The damages provoked by this devices are not deeply inves-
re-tagged with metallic tags in the next recaptures, since the
tigated but the registers of the females with injured flippers
70% of the metallic tags were lost since 1992, when they
are few in the National Institute of Fisheries (INP) database.
were placed and the following season (Table 2B), while the
The recapture of internal tags between seasons was
turtles re-tagged with pit tag followed by metallic tag were
greater than the metallic, but the posterior recognition de-
21% in the two seasons, however approximately in 59% of
pended of the availability of readers devices and the ability
them the internal tag can not be possible to detect.
of the observer. In 1995 when the readers malfunctioned at
3. -Errors. The most common errors were the change
the beginning of the season the registers of these tags were
of some characters (T by J, or 0 by D, per example), the

scarce, however when the conditions are adequate it is pos- LITERATURE CITED
sible to recognize a high number of pits and this makes easy
Mrquez, R., M. Snchez, J. Daz, I. Argello and A.M.
to detect the errors in the registers of the metallic tags and
Zaballa. 1989. Memoria anual de las actividades
follow a bigger number of turtles in the next seasons.
realizadas en el campamento tortuguero de Rancho
The use of both of these marks makes the identification
Nuevo, Tamaulipas, 1988. Tortuga lora (Lepidochelys
of the females easy and gives two different kinds of informa-
kempii). Informe Interno. CRIP-Manzanillo. Manzanillo,
tion, so it is not adequate to omit anyone.
Col.46 pp
Pritchard, P.C.H. 1990. Kemps ridley are rarer than we
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
thought. Marine Turtle Newsletter, 49:1-3
The database used in this work was collected in the Rostal, D.J., J. Grumbles, and D. Owens. 1992. Physiological
Cooperation Program Mexico-E.U.A. under the sponsorship evidence of higher fecundity in wild Kemps ridley:
of the US Fish and Wildlife Service, the National Marine implication to population estimates. In (Comps.): M.
Fisheries Service and the Secretara del Medio Ambiente, Salmon and J. Wyneken. Proc. of the Eleventh Annual
Recursos Naturales y Pesca trough the Instituto Nacional de Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation.
la Pesca. The coordinators of this Program were: Ph. D. Leslie NOAA. Tech. Mem. NMFS-SEFSC-302:80.
Dierauf, Mr. Patrick Burchfield (Gladys Porter Zoo), Dr. Saber, 1980. The estimation of animal abundance and related
Refugio Castro (CRIP-Tampico) and Dr. Ren Mrquez parameters. Charles Griffin and Company LTD. London
(Coordinador del Programa Nacional de Investigacin de
Tortugas Marinas/ INP).
AN ESTIMATION OF THE OVERALL NESTING ACTIVITY OF THE LOGGERHEAD

TURTLE IN GREECE
Dimitris Margaritoulis
The Sea Turtle Protection Society of Greece, P. O. Box 51154, GR-14510 Kifissia, Greece. stps@compulink.gr
INTRODUCTION METHODS
Genetic studies have shown that loggerhead turtles The Sea Turtle Protection Society of Greece (STPS),
Caretta caretta originating, most probably, from Florida colo- in the context of various projects, monitors systematically
nized the Mediterranean Sea about 12, 000 years ago (Bowen loggerhead nesting areas in Greece, some of them since 1984.
et al., 1993). Furthermore, a major investigation, with the aim to discover
There is evidence that loggerhead stocks in the Medi- new nesting areas, was conducted by the STPS from 1989
terranean have been depleted due to human exploitation, re- until 1992. About 7, 500 km of coastline were visited, all
striction and degradation of nesting areas, and incidental beaches of soft substrate were recorded and surveys were
catch. Today, loggerheads in the Mediterranean nest mainly conducted, during the nesting season, on the most promising
in the eastern oceanographic basin and particularly in Greece, of them. During this work, some important nesting areas were
Turkey, Cyprus and Libya. However no overall data for each found on the island of Crete and the extent of diffuse nest-
country are available in order to assess the total nesting po- ing was estimated (Margaritoulis et al., 1995).
tential in the Mediterranean. Monitored nesting areas are precisely delimited and
The loggerhead in the Mediterranean is considered a surveyed daily during the nesting season (from the end of
threatened species under various international and national May until the middle of October) with the aim to record all
listings. In Greece, the loggerhead turtle is protected by in- nests. Depending on local threats, clutches are protected, ei-
ternational conventions, European Commission directives ther in situ or by relocation to safe sites. After the emergence
(e.g. the Habitats Directive where Caretta caretta features as of hatchlings, a large number of nests are excavated in order
a priority species) and national legislation. The obligation to determine hatching success. All data are entered, locally
of the States to protect Caretta caretta habitats and espe- in most cases, in computer data bases and thereafter are pro-
cially nesting areas (by means of land use planning, manage- cessed and evaluated.
ment measures, etc.) requires adequate substantiation of the In order to assess the relative significance of a nesting
nesting activity not only at the area in question but also in area and thereby co-ordinate accordingly conservation ef-
relation to the overall nesting potential at national and Medi- forts, nesting beaches in Greece have been divided in three
terranean scale. categories: areas of major nesting, areas of moderate
The present paper is an attempt to produce an estimate nesting and areas of diffuse nesting. The selection criteria
of the overall nesting activity of the loggerhead turtle in were arbitrarily set as follows: a major area should have an
Greece. average number of nests per season (recorded over several

Beach Maximum Minimum Average Number of

Nesting area length number of nests number of nests nesting monitoring
(km) per season per season density seasons
(nests/km)
Table 1. The major nesting areas
Laganas Bay,Zakynthos 5.5 2,018 857 235.6 14
of the loggerhead turtle in Greece
and their nesting potential Kyparissia Bay* 44.0 927 286 12.8 13
Rethymnon, Crete 10.8 516 316 36.6 8
Lakonikos Bay 23.5 220 107 7.3 6
Chania Bay, Crete 13.1 192 77 8.9 6
TOTAL 96.9 3,873 1,643
* More than 83% of nests concentrate at the southernmost 10 km of Kyparissia Bay, where average nesting density reaches
47.2 nests/km/season.
seasons) of more than 100 and an average nesting density of tematically monitored by the Kefalonian Marine Turtle
more than 6 nests/km/season. Areas of moderate nesting Project and hopefully will receive some protection by local
should have an average number of nests per season between land use planning. On the other hand, some rather extensive
20 and 100, irrespective of nesting density. Areas hosting areas with moderate nesting (and subsequently with low
less than 20 nests/season or featuring irregular nesting pat- nesting densities) are not watched over as closely as the oth-
terns are characterized as areas of diffuse nesting. ers (e.g. Ipirus, Kos).
RESULTS Table 2 Nesting areas in Greece with moderate loggerhead

nesting (20<x<100 nests/season on the average)
Considering the existing data for all nesting areas in
Greece, five major nesting areas are recognized (Table 1). Area Number of nests per season
From the same table it is seen that nesting fluctuations be- Kerkyra island (including nearby islets) 20
tween good and bad seasons may reach 61% (Rethymnon Ipirus coast (Preveza-Albanian border) 40
area). Table 2 shows areas of moderate nesting. Some of Lefkas island 50
these areas are rather extensive (e.g. Ipirus coast) and more Kefalonia island 21 - 83
surveys are needed in order to locate possible nesting con- Kotychi lagoon (NW Peloponnesus) 32 - 80
Yanitsena, Bouka, etc. (W Peloponnesus) 30 - 60
centrations. Finally, taking into account the diffuse nesting Romanos (SW Peloponnesus) 17 - 30
(estimated at 15% on total nesting) that takes place along the Koroni, Foinikous, etc. (S Peloponnesus) 45 - 80
15, 000-km Greek shoreline, the overall number of logger- Astros, Kythira, etc. (SE Peloponnesus) 20
head nests in Greece ranges from 5, 287 to 2, 355 (Table 3). Bay of Messara, Crete 15 - 77
Kos island 60
Rhodes island 9 - 21
DISCUSSION
TOTAL 359 - 621
Existing data, most of them collected over several sea- 1. Areas in geographical order from NW to the SE.
sons, permit a more or less adequate estimation of the over- 2. Two numbers per area refer to maximum and minimum numbers
all nesting activity of the loggerhead turtle in Greece. As most recorded over different seasons.
3. One number per area refers to estimation during one season.
part of the Greek shoreline has been already investigated, it 4. Data for Kefalonia from Houghton et al., 1997.
is unlikely that new nesting areas, with a substantial influ-
ence on the existing overall situation, will be found. In total, 76.5%-81% of the overall loggerhead nesting
The five major nesting areas in Greece, totaling about activity in Greece is, more or less, overseen very closely and
97 km in length, account for 69.8%-73.3% of the total log- efficiently, and specific legislation and management measures
gerhead nesting activity (Table 3). Conservation programs are in effect or soon to be effected. However, adequate en-
are conducted by the STPS on all major areas, including forcement of regulations and local participation have still a
monitoring of the turtle populations, protection of nests, pub- long way to go until they become fully operational.
lic awareness activities as well as preparation and implemen-
tation of management plans. All five major areas have been Table 3 Estimation of total loggerhead nesting activity in Greece
proposed by the authorities for inclusion in the European (nests per season)
Unions network of protected areas, known as Natura 2000,
under the Habitats Directive. Especially the Bay of Laganas Category of nesting Maximum Minimum number
in Zakynthos, with its tremendous nesting potential, will soon number
be declared a National Marine Park. In major areas (>100 nests/season) 3,873 1,643
Areas with moderate nesting activity account for

In areas with moderate nesting (20<x<100 621 359
11.7%-15.2% of the total nesting activity in Greece (Table nests/season)
3). Some of these areas (e.g. Kotychi lagoon, Bay of Messara) Diffuse nesting (15% of total) 793 353
are monitored by the STPS and have also been proposed for
TOTAL 5,287 2,355
the Natura 2000 network as they feature other important char-
acteristics. The nesting area on the island of Kefalonia is sys-

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Structure of Loggerhead Turtles (Caretta caretta) in the

Northwestern Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea.
Data were collected and processed by the STPS in the
Conservation Biology 7(4): 834-844.
course of various projects that were funded mostly by the
Houghton, J., D. Suggett and K. Hudson. 1997. Expedition
European Commission, WWF and the Ministry of the Envi-
Report. The Kefalonian Marine Turtle Project.
ronment. Permits were granted by the Ministry of Agricul-
Unpublished Report. 19pp.
ture. Thousands of volunteers, from many countries, assisted
Margaritoulis, D., M. Dretakis, and A. Kotitsas. 1995.
in data collection.
Discovering New Nesting Areas of Caretta caretta in
LITERATURE CITED Greece. Pp. 214-217 In: J. I. Richardson and T. H.
Richardson (Comps.). Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual
Bowen, B.W., J.I. Richardson, A.B. Meylan, D. Margaritoulis, Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation.
S.R. Hopkins-Murphy, and J.C. Avise. 1993. Population NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-361.
GREEN TURTLE HATCHLING SWIMMING PERFORMANCE AND THE EFFECTS OF

PROLONGED CAPTIVITY
N. J. Pilcher and S. Enderby

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, University Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak,
Malaysia. nick@tualang.unimas.my
INTRODUCTION
Turtle management around the globe targets primarily 0.751msec-1 (x = 0.586msec-1 n = 609) with distances cov-
the life history stages that are accessible on land due to the ered ranging from 1980msec-1 to 2249msec-1 (x = 2110m,
relative ease of dealing with nesting adults, eggs and new- +/- 112m) during the first six hours after hatching. In addi-
born hatchlings as opposed to free swimming individuals. tion, swimming style was found to vary with prolonged cap-
Many conservation sites include hatcheries in which eggs tivity which, coupled with decreased swimming distances,
are incubated and from which hatchlings are subsequently could have negative effects on overall hatchling dispersion
released. Unfortunately, what is known about the short- and patterns and survival rates.
especially long-term effects of hatchery activities on turtles
is severely lacking and it is possible that well-intentioned METHODS
practices have negative effects on survival.
The actual performance of the hatchlings after they en- Swimming trials were carried out on Pulau Selingan,
ter the sea is poorly studied due to their speed and the logis- off Sabah, Malaysia from November 1997 to February 1998.
tics of tracking a large number of individuals that rapidly Swimming behavior and performance were monitored in a
disperse. Most of these studies have been on hatchling orien- custom-designed recirculating raceway system that catered
tation and the dynamics of near-shore movements and pre- 2300
dation.
2250
This study details the swimming performance of
hatchlings over time after entering the water through con- 2200
trolled laboratory experiments. In particular, it is concerned

h0
Distance (m)
with the performance of hatchlings after prolonged captivity 2150

h1
such as when they hatch and are prevented from reaching the 2100
h2
h3
sea by hatchery enclosures. Hatchlings were taken from a h4
h5
hatchery up to six hours after emergence at one-hour inter- 2050
h6
vals. Swimming speed and style were monitored in a pur-

2000
pose-designed raceway system (affectionately dubbed The
Swimerator) that catered to the known swimming charac- 1950
teristics of the hatchlings, and were then correlated with flow-

through water speeds. 1900
0 10 20 30 40 50
In general it was found that swimming performance de- Hourly intervals

creased with prolonged captivity, with swimming distances
Figure 1. Estimated total swim distance at different release times
dropping by over 11% with six hours of detention. Average
(Hx) for green turtle hatchlings during their first hour in the water;
swim rates during the tests ranged from 0.463msec-1 to mean distances are represented by the filled boxes.

to known hatchling swimming requirements. Hatchlings were and tank orientation was used to keep the turtles swimming
not tethered in the raceway, rather, they were allowed to swim straight into the recirculating water and away from the sides
into an artificial current regulated to exactly match their swim- of the unit. All other design features were intended to de-
ming speed. The raceway, constructed of marine plywood, prive the hatchlings of environmental cues, so that they would
measured 220 cm X 38 cm with a depth of 40 cm and had an not be aware that they were not moving forward (relatively)
adjustable-height (0-4 cm) outflow area. A similar-sized tank upon swimming. Water depth averaged 15-20 cm, and flow
under the raceway system acted as a reservoir for the recir- speeds could be varied from 1 to 2.5 msec-1 with adjustable
culating water. The interior was painted matte black, and a channel boards that narrowed or widened the water inflow
single 100W light source on a dimmer was attached to the cross-section. Under normal operations, the rear end of the
front edge, slightly above water line and behind a cloth screen, raceway was open (rear gate height of 0 cm). When hatchling
towards which the hatchlings faced. The leading half of the swimming speed decreased below the minimum at this set-
tank was topped with black cover to reduce outside visual ting, the gate was raised by 2 or 4 cm to create a higher water
stimuli. The unit was situated within a darkened shed 30m volume in the raceway (reducing overall flow-through speed
from the water line and oriented in direct line with the beach while pumped volume remained equal).
so the hatchlings would be swimming directly offshore (255
magnetic compass). The combination of point-source light RESULTS
Swimming speeds were determined from the matching
opposing water speeds. Fastest speeds attained reached
0.751msec-1, the lowest were 0.463 msec-1 (Figure 1), while
the average across all trials was 0.561msec-1 (0.001,
P>99%). Average swimming speed was found to decrease
steadily with increased retention times (r = -0.806), suggest-
ing either a forced change in natural behaviour or utilisation
of limited energy stores, or a combination of both. The trend
in swimming speeds is displayed in Figures 1 and 2.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance
of Sabah Parks directors and personnel for logistics support
during the project. This work was partially supported by
MacArthur Foundation Grant No. 44416-0 and UNIMAS
Grant No. 90/96(9). Travel assistance to attend the 18th Sea
Turtle Symposium was provided to NP by The David and
Figure 2 Average swim distances at ten-minute intervals for different
green turtle hatchlings at relasetime Hx
Lucile Packard Foundation.
NESTING BEACH SURVEYS: THE IMPORTANCE OF COMPLETE DATA REPORTING
Barbara A. Schroeder
National Marine Fisheries Service, Office of Protected Resources, 1315 East West Highway, Silver Spring, MD, 20910,
U.S.A. barbara.schroeder@noaa.gov
Nesting beach surveys are the most widely implemented ity to make meaningful assessments of the status of nesting
monitoring tool in use by the global sea turtle community populations. Problems may occur when attempting to assess
and are an important component of a comprehensive pro- the status of nesting populations within nesting seasons but
gram to assess and monitor the status of sea turtle popula- between survey areas, between and among nesting seasons
tions. These assessments are necessary to evaluate the ef- at a particular nesting site, and/or across some nesting range
fects of recovery and conservation activities which are being of a particular population or stock (e.g. within country or
implemented at all life history stages. Monitoring techniques state). With these problems in mind, the principal purpose of
employed on nesting beaches range from highly structured this paper is to emphasize the importance of reporting com-
standardized sampling to 'snapshots' of nesting activity within plete information when presenting nesting beach survey data,
a nesting season. While nesting surveys are currently wide- in order that those data may be used appropiately for both
spread, the variability in techniques often hampers our abil- management and research purposes.

GREEN TURTLE GROWTH RATES: EVIDENCE FOR A DENSITY-DEPENDENT

EFFECT AND CARIBBEAN-PACIFIC DIFFERENCES
Karen A. Bjorndal1, Alan B. Bolten1, and Milani Y. Chaloupka2

1
2
Queensland Department of Environment, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
Growth rates of immature green turtles were evaluated

with nonparametric regression models for data collected dur-
ing an 18 year study in Union Creek, a wildlife preserve in
the southern Bahamas. We addressed three questions: (1)
do growth rates change with population density; (2) are move-
ments of green turtles from a low quality area to a high qual-
ity area associated with decreased growth rates; and (3) are
there differences in the growth functions for green turtle popu-
lations in the Greater Caribbean and in the Pacific Ocean?
GREEN TURTLE NESTING AT TORTUGUERO, COSTA RICA: AN ENCOURAGING

TREND
Karen A. Bjorndal1, Jerry A. Wetherall2, Alan B. Bolten1, and Jeanne A. Mortimer3

1
2
National Marine Fisheries Service, Honolulu, HI 96822, U.S.A.
3
Caribbean Conservation Corporation, Gainesville, FL 32609, U.S.A.
The green turtle population that nests at Tortuguero, season. The cubic spline procedure was also used to smooth
Costa Rica, is the largest in the Atlantic. Twenty-six years the 26-year time series of annual nesting emergences. Trends
of survey data are analyzed from 1971-1996. Annual esti- reported in this study are discussed in the context of the shift-
mates of nesting emergences were derived by fitting a cubic ing baseline syndrome and must be evaluated with caution.
smoothing spline to survey track counts using the General-
ized Additive Model function and integrating over the entire
MODELLING THE SUSTAINABILITY OF SEA TURTLE EGG HARVESTS IN A

STOCHASTIC ENVIRONMENT
Milani Chaloupka
Queensland Department of Environment, PO Box 155, Brisbane Albert Street, Queensland, 4002. Australia
m.chaloupka@mailbox.uq.edu.au
I have developed a stochastic simulation model for log- structured demography comprising both age-based and re-
gerheads (Caretta caretta) comprising the southern Great productive status-based stages (see Chaloupka and Limpus,
Barrier Reef stock. The model was designed to support risk- 1996 for concept). Mortality rates were derived from (1)
based evaluation of (1) trawl fishery impacts on stock vi- known hatching rates (Limpus et al., 1994), (2) proxy
ability given competing mortality risks (Chaloupka and hatchling mortality estimates for green sea turtles from the
Limpus, 1998a) and (2) egg harvesting policies given envi- same sGBR location (see Chaloupka and Limpus, 1998a)
ronmental stochasticity and management uncertainty. and (3) multinomial CJS statistical modelling of immature
and adult sGBR loggerhead sex-specific survival rates (see
METHODS Chaloupka and Limpus, 1998b). Demographic stochasticity
was included with stage-specific logistic pdfs reflecting 95%
The model used finite difference equations linked with confidence interval estimates of survival rates. Environmen-
dynamic vital rates characterised by nonlinear, time variant, tal stochasticity was included by a 2-state stochastic breed-
distributed lag and stochastic properties. It comprised a stage- ing likelihood function derived from empirical breeding rates
52 Modeling and Population Biology / Oral presentations

(see Limpus et al., 1994). Stage-transition rates were based hatching is useful but over-estimates the potential harvest
on Erlangian functions to ensure distributed maturation (see take for this stock. Figure 2 shows a several threshold-based
Chaloupka and Musick, 1997). The simulation period was harvest scenarios (adult threshold=75 or 50% and annual
200 years after a 50 year no harvest period. harvest rate=20%) compared to a constant harvest rate=20%.
Imposing a threshold of 75% (assuming no error in stock
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION assessment) results in a viable stock ca. 50 years after har-
The strategies evaluated were (1) constant number of vesting started in simulation year 1950. A stable stock oc-
eggs removed each year, (2) constant annual harvest rate and curs for a 50% threshold around 125 years after harvesting
(3) threshold-based harvesting, where egg harvesting oc- started. The stock subject to no threshold and the constant
curred at a constant annual rate while the adult substock re- annual egg harvest = 20% shows a stock also declining (Fig-
mained above a threshold level. See Lande et al, (1997) for ure 2). Clearly, given the same harvest rate, imposing thresh-
a discussion of threshold strategies. Performance criteria were olds into the strategy would lead to a sustainable stock under
(1) population size at simulation period end, (2) cumulative exploitation (especially if the threshold is high such ca. 75%).
egg yield at simulation period end and (3) proportion of simu- Figure 3 shows the cumulative yield from the scenarios shown
lation period with no yield. Adult stock thresholds were set in Figure 2.
at 90%, 75%, 50%, 25% and 10% of pre-harvest period stock
size and subject to constant annual egg harvest rates (10%,
20%, 30%,40%). Threshold levels are risk levels where a
decison-maker is willing to allow the adult stock to fall to
say 75% of virgin adult stock but no further. Harvesting ceases
until the stock recovers above the threshold.
Figure 2: Total loggerhead stock given threshold harvest levels
While a threshold=75% resulted in a viable stock it

does not provide a reasonable yield compared to a thresh-
old=50% or a threshold=25% (equivalent to no threshold
and an annual 20% harvest rate). The trade-off is between
high stable stock and high yield.
Figure 1: Post-1950 constant annual egg harvest rate scenarios
A harvest strategy with constant number of eggs re-

moved each year leads to a declining stock unless the annual
take is less than 20,000 eggs (ca. 160 clutches) or ca. 5-10%
of the annual egg production for the pre-harvest stock. Limpus
(1993) proposed that a strategy would be to ensure that at Figure 3: Cumulative egg yield from threshold models
least 70% of the annual egg production of a sea turtle stock
yields hatchlings to escapement to the pelagic phase. This is Threshold harvesting strategies seem a means for man-
equivalent to ca. a 20-25% constant egg harvest rate for this aging the sustainability of turtle stocks compared to fixed
stock. A range of constant rate scenarios is shown in Figure number of fixed rate strategies. The disadvantage of thresh-
1. old-based harvesting is that it results in high yield variability
Clearly any of these rates leads to a declining total stock and a proportion of years where there is no harvest at all.
(Figure 1a) or adult component (Figure 1b). The simple rule- Figure 4 shows this outcome for a threshold=90% and two
of-thumb of 70% escapement of annual egg production to stock assessment error rates (management under uncertainty).
Oral presentations / Modeling and Population Biology 53

LITERATURE CITED
Chaloupka, M.Y. and C.J. Limpus. 1996. Heuristic modelling
of Chelonia mydas population dynamics - sGBR. In:
Keinath, J.A. et al, (Comps.) Proc. 15th Annual
Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation.
NOAA Tech Memo NMFS-SEFSC-387: 66-69.
Chaloupka, M.Y. and C.J. Limpus. 1998a. Heuristic
modelling of trawl fishery impacts on sGBR loggerhead
population dynamics. In: Epperly, S.P., and J. Braun
(Comps.) Proc. 17th Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle
Biology and Conservation. NOAA Tech Memo NMFS,
Miami
Chaloupka, M.Y. and C.J. Limpus. 1998b. Modelling green
sea turtle survivorship rates. In: Epperly, S.P., and J.
Braun (Comps.) Proc. 17th Annual Symposium on Sea
Turtle Biology and Conservation. NOAA Tech Memo
NMFS, Miami.
Chaloupka, M.Y., and J.A. Musick. 1997. Age, growth and
population dynamics. Chapter 9, pp. 233 -276. In: Lutz
Figure 4: Egg yield given thresholds and uncertainly in adult stock P.J., and J.A. Musick (Eds). The biology of sea turtles.
assessment CRC Marine Science Series, CRC Press Inc, Boca Raton.
Lande, R., Saether, B-E., and S. Engen 1997. Threshold
Figure 4 (top panel) shows that the harvest ceases after 50 harvesting for sustainability of fluctuating resources.
years because the stock has declined below 90% virgin stock Ecology 78: 1341-1350.
and has not recovered. Figure 4 (bottom panel) shows the Limpus, C. 1993. SPREP marine turtle conservation -
harvest outcome given 25% error in annual assessment of strategic plan. pp. 32-35. In: S. Gerzmans and A. Farago
the adult stock size used to set the threshold. The assessment (eds). Report of the 3rd Meeting of the Regional Marine
uncertainty leads to a higher cumulative yield and fewer years Turtle Conservation Program. South Pacific Regional
without zero harvest. Decreasing the threshold decreases the Environment Program. Apia.
proportion of zero harvest years (Figure 5) and so increasing Limpus, C.J., Couper, P.J., and M.A. Read. 1994. The
the cumulative yield (Figure 3) but decreasing stock size (Fig- loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta, in Queensland:
ure 2). A suitable harvest strategy for this stock maximising population structure in a warm temperate feeding area.
stock viability but ensuring some harvest would be a scheme Mem. Qld Mus. 37: 195-204.
comprising a stock threshold ca. 50% coupled with an egg
harvest rate=20%. Harvest management involves complex
trade-offs that can only be evaluated given clear risk-based
management objectives. Harvesting eggs is also a risky busi-
ness for green turtle stocks (Chaloupka and Limpus, 1996),
a finding consistent with empirical estimates of declining
Figure 5: Egg yield plots showing probability of no yield given

thresholds an uncertainty in adult stock assesssment
green turtle stocks in the SE Asian region where extensive

egg harvesting has occurred for many years.

SEA TURTLE GROWTH DYNAMICS: A REVIEW
Milani Chaloupka
Queensland Department of Environment PO Box 155, Brisbane Albert Street, Queensland, 4002. Australia
m.chaloupka@mailbox.uq.edu.au
A thorough knowledge of the somatic growth dynam- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ics of a species is essential to support the development of
Special thanks to the following for extensive support
life history theories and the modelling of population dynam-
and collaboration: Karen Bjorndal, Alan Bolten, Charles
ics for species subject to harvesting. Sea turtles are subject
Caillouet, Colin Limpus, Jeff Miller, Jack Musick and George
to a wide range of anthropogenic impacts including com-
Zug.
mercial and subsistence harvesting. Yet the growth dynam-
ics of sea turtle species has not been well understood as dis-
LITERATURE CITED
cussed in a recent review published in the Biology of Sea
Turtles (see Chaloupka and Musick, 1997). Since that re- Bjorndal, K.A., A.B. Bolten, and M.Y. Chaloupka
view a number of studies have been completed that will make (submitted). Green turtle somatic growth model: density
important contributions to improving our understanding of dependence, regulation of developmental migrations and
sea turtle somatic growth. For instances, recent studies on regional differences. Ecological Applications.
hawksbill, green, loggerhead and Kemp's ridley sea turtles Chaloupka, M 1998. Polyphasic growth in pelagic loggerhead
have revealed a complex range of age- and size-specific sea turtles. Copeia 1998: 246-248.
growth responses including the following: Chaloupka, M.Y. and C.J. Limpus 1996. Robust statistical
(1) size-and sex-specific growth rate functions for green sea modelling of Chelonia mydas growth rates - southern
turtles (Chaloupka and Limpus 1996, Chaloupka and Great Barrier Reef. In: Keinath, J.A., Barnard, D.E.,
Limpus 1997, Limpus and Chaloupka 1997) Musick, J.A., and B.A. Bell (Comps.) Proceedings of
(2) spatial (Chaloupka, Limpus, Miller in prep) and tempo- the Fifteenth Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology
ral growth variability (Chaloupka and Limpus 1996, and Conservation. NOAA Tech Memo NMFS-SEFSC-
Limpus and Chaloupka 1997, Chaloupka, Limpus, Miller 387: 62-65.
in prep) for green sea turtles between foraging grounds Chaloupka, M.Y. and C.J. Limpus 1997. Robust statistical
within the same genetic stock modelling of hawksbill sea turtle growth rates (southern
(3) density dependent growth in immature greens (Bjorndal, Great Barrier Reef). Mar Ecol Prog Ser 146:1-8.
Bolten and Chaloupka submitted) and the complex de- Chaloupka, M.Y. and C.J. Limpus 1998. Modelling green
layed response between immature survivorship and sea turtle survivorship rates. In: Epperly, S.P., and J.
growth rates (Chaloupka and Limpus 1998, Chaloupka Braun (Comps.) Proceedings of the Seventheenth Annual
and Limpus in prep) Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation.
(4) age-specific growth of greens for green sea turtles from NOAA Tech Memo NMFS, Miami Florida, U.S.A.
multiple foraging grounds within the same genetic stock Chaloupka, M.Y. and J.A. Musick 1997. Age, growth and
(Chaloupka and Limpus 1996, Limpus and Chaloupka population dynamics. Chapter 9, pp 233 -276. In: Lutz
1997, Chaloupka, Limpus, Miller in prep) P.J., and J.A. Musick (Eds). The biology of sea turtles.
(5) inter-regional somatic growth rate differences between CRC Marine Science Series, CRC Press Inc, Boca Raton.
Caribbean and sGBR green stocks (Bjorndal, Bolten and Chaloupka, M. and G.R. Zug 1997. A polyphasic growth
Chaloupka submitted) function for the endangered Kemp's ridley sea turtle,
(6) polyphasic growth inferring ontogenetic shifts in growth Lepidochelys kempii. Fish Bull 95: 849-856.
rates for Kemp's ridleys and pelagic loggerheads Limpus, C. and M. Chaloupka 1997. Nonparametric
(Chaloupka and Zug 1997, Chaloupka 1998, Chaloupka, regression modelling of green sea turtle growth rates
Caillouet and Zug in prep) southern Great Barrier Reef. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 149:
(7) age-specific growth comparisons between headstarted and 23-34.
wild stock Kemp's ridleys (Chaloupka, Caillouet and Zug
in prep)
I discuss these 7 new developments in sea turtle growth

studies and emphasise the importance for growth studies to
be designed within a spatially-explicit and sex-specific age/
year/cohort modelling framework (see Chaloupka and
Musick 1997) to support robust inference about sea turtle
somatic growth dynamics.

RECENT POPULATION TREND FOR DERMOCHELYS CORIACEA IN FRENCH GUIANA
Johan Chevalier1 and 2 and Marc Girondot1

1
URA 1137, Case 7077 - Universit Paris VII - 2 place Jussieu- 75251 Paris Cedex 05- France chevali@ccr.jussieu.fr
2
WWF France - 151 boulevard de la Reine- 78000 Versailles, France. mgi@ccr.jussieu.fr
French Guiana is located at 400 km north-west of the the use of direct correlations between nesting beaches. Par-
Amazon River estuary. It is the most important Leatherback ticularly, the number of nests increases significantly more
turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) nesting zone of the world rapidly along years in Galibi when compared to Matapica
where 40% of the worlds leatherbacks are nesting (Spotila (comparison of linear regression slope: Nests=Year.a+b;
et al., 1996). During the last decade, all the other known a=217.52 for Galibi and a=105.85 for Matapica, t=1.745,
major nesting beaches for D. coriacea, in Mexico, Irian Java 36 ddl, p<0.05). The linear regression of the angular trans-
or Malaysia have displayed a decline in the total number of formation of the relative number of nests laid in Matapica
nests laid during the nesting season (Spotila et al., 1996). compared to all the nests in Suriname has been established
Within this context, the trend of the nesting Leatherback and it is highly significant statistically (figure 1A). The re-
population in French Guiana has strong implications for the sidual of this equation is not significantly correlated with the
long-term survival status of this species. Within French total number of nests in Suriname (r=-0.234, 16 ddl, p=0,35).
Guiana, 90% of all Leatherbacks nests are laid on Ya:lima:po Therefore, a displacement from West (Matapica) to East
beach near the other nesting beaches of French Guiana at the (Galibi) of the location of the nests is sufficient to explain
border with Suriname (Girondot et al., 1996). Thus the num- the changes in the number of nests on the different nesting
ber of nests for Ya:lima:po beach is close to the global num- beaches in Suriname since 1967. Using the equation 1, we
ber of nests for the country. The yearly number of nests has were able to estimate the number of nests in Galibi and
been established since 1978 in Ya:lima:po beach, except for Matapica for the years 1979-83, in Galibi for 1990-92 and
five years (1980-81, 1984-85, 1990) (Girondot et al., 1996; in Matapica for 1995. We then looked for a correlation be-
Chevalier and Girondot, in press). The missing data from tween the number of nests for beaches within the Maroni
these 5 seasons have impeded analysis of trends in the num- and Mana rivers estuary (Galibi for Suriname and Ya:lima:po
bers of laid on Ya:lima:po beach in the last 30 years. for French Guiana). A linear regression using the method of
least rectangle with null constant term permitted us to obtain
equation 2 which is also highly significant statistically (Fig-
Maroni
river ure 1B). This equation has been used to estimate the number
1 23 4 of nests missing for Ya:lima:po beach or for Galibi beach.
5
{
Mana
river
Estimates of the number of nests in Matapica beach from
6 data-deficient seasons were based on the number of nests in
GUYANA
y p
SURINAME FRENCH beaches.
A E quation 1: x1000 B
Number of nests in Ya:lima:po beach
GUIANA 3 AT (% Mat)=7.367-0,07.Year
60
AT(%Nests in Matapica/100)
-4
r=0.913, 16 DF , p<10
50
2.5
40
BRAZIL 2
30 E quation 2:
[Number of nes ts in
1.5
20 Ya:lima:po beach]
0 50 km
=5.356.[Number of ne
BRAZIL 1 10 in Gali bi beach]
-4
r=0.956, 9 DF , p<10
0.5 0
Map 1: Localizaition of the ensting beaches in French Guiana and 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 5 10 x1000
0
in east Suriname. (1) Matapica, (2) Galibi, (3) Ya: lima: po, (4) Years Number of nests in Galibi beach
Apo: tili, (5) Organabo, (6) Remire- Monjoly
Figure 1: (A) Linear regression of the angular transform

We looked for correlations between the yearly number
[AT(x)=2.Arc.Sin(x1/2)] of the relative proportion of all surinamian
of D. coriacea nests among three nesting zones : Ya:lima:po nests deposited in Matapica beach upon years; (B) Correlaition in
beach in French Guiana, and Galibi and Matapica beaches the number of Dermochelys coriacea nests between Galibi and Ya:
in Suriname (Reichart and Fretey, 1993, Schulz, 1975, and lima: po beaches
Biotopic, pers. comm.). Data for Matapica beaches include
the nest number for all the minor beaches at the West of Galibi Galibi beach using equation 1.
beach. However, a high level of autocorrelation exists in the A strong increase of the number of nests laid each year
data due to the common trend and such phenomenom impeds until around 1992 was observed (Figure 2). Since around

1992, an important decline of the number of nests laid in ing population, and we are working to improve collabora-
Ya:lima:po beach and in Suriname has been observed. In tion among the researchers of Suriname, Guyana and north-
French Guiana, the low incidence of poaching of eggs and
Table 1: Shrimp fishing effort in French Guiana from 1980 to 1992.
females does not explain the recent negative trend of the over- More recent informaition is not available.
all number of nests. Almost no Leatherbacks are eaten and
the only turtles killed by the local Amerindian villagers are 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992
those caught in the fishing nets. Although it is difficult to Number of
80-90 70-80 70
fishing boats
accurately estimate the level of occurrence of this slaughter,
% French boats <5% 30% 60%
% export
60 to France 0% 50% 95%
Ya:lima:po
250 Mean 46.5 m 43 m
fishing depth 41 m
0
Fishing forbiden from Derogation for French
1967 1972 Fishing legislation May to December below fishing boat to fish below 30
30 m m during all the year
0
ern Brazil, where perhaps there may be unmonitored nesting
12.5 beaches used by Leatherbacks.
Galibi
Nests per year (/1000)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Matthew Godfrey for critical reading of the
0 manuscript. Sea turtle conservation program in French Guiana
6 is made possible by the support of DIREN Guyane and WWF-
Matapica France.
LITERATURE CITED
Bn, C. 1996. Effect of market constraints, the renumeration
0 system and resource dynamics on the spatial distribution
1967 1977 1987 1997 of fishing effort. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 53: 563-571.
Chan, E.H., S.A. Eckert, H.C. Liew, and K.L. Eckert. 1991.
Figure 2: Evolution of the number of Dermochelys coriacea nests Locating the internesting habitats of leatherback turtles
on Ya: lima: po beach in French Guiana, and Galibi Matapica beaches (Dermochelys coriacea) in Malaysian waters using radio
in Suriname since 1967. Nests numbers for gray bars are estimated telemetry. 1991. pp. 133-138 In: Proc. of the Eleventh
using equation 1 or 2 (see text and figure1).
International Symposium on Biotelemetry . Uchiyama
it is certainly not widespread enough to responsible for such A, Amlaner C.J., (Eds.) Waseda University Press, Tokyo,
a decline. Japan.
The shrimp fisheries of French Guiana have undergone Chevalier, J. and M. Girondot. (In press.) Dynamique de
important changes during the last decade. Whereas previ- pontes des tortues Luths en Guyane franaise durant la
ously shrimp used to be fished by American and Japanese saison 1997. Bull Soc Herp Fr.
boats for export to U.S.A. and Japan until 1986, now almost Girondot, M. and J. Fretey. 1996. Leatherback turtles,
all the shrimp fishing boats are French (Table 1). Since 1986, Dermochelys coriacea, nesting in French Guiana, 1978-
these French boats can obtained permit to fish closer to the 1995. Chelon. Conserv. Biol. 2: 204-208.
coast to catch smaller-sized shrimp (Bn, 1996). Studies Reichart, H.A. and J. Fretey. 1993. WIDECAST sea turtle
from other nesting beaches have shown that during the recovery action plan for Suriname. UNEP Caribbean
internesting interval within a nesting season Leatherback fe- Environment Programme, CEP Technical Report No. 24,
males tend to remain most of the time close to their nesting Kingston, Jamaica, 1993.
beach (Chan et al., 1991). Therefore, trawling for shrimp Schulz, J.P. 1975 Sea turtles nesting in Surinam. Nederl
nearer to the coast might increase the incidence of capture of Commiss Intern Natuurbes, Sticht Natuurbeh Sur. 23:
female Leatherbacks in fishing net. The shrimp fishing ac- 1-143.
tivity may be an important factor in the decline of the num- Spotila, J.R., A.E. Dunham, A.J. Leslie, A.C. Steyermark,
ber of sea turtles in French Guiana. TEDs are not still used P.T. Plotkin, and F.V. Paladino 1996. Worldwide
in French Guiana. population decline of Dermochelys coriacea: Are
If confirmed, the decline of the number of nests in the leatherback turtles going to extinct ? Chelon. Conserv.
Guianas would be a bad sign for this already endangered Biol. 2: 209-222.
species. Defining more clearly the population dynamics and
uncovering the cause(s) of the actual decline thus will be our
priority. It is very important to work on the level of the nest-

COMPARISON OF THREE METHODS FOR ESTIMATING THE SIZE OF OLIVE RIDLEY

(LEPIDOCHELYS OLIVACEA) ARRIBADAS AT NANCITE BEACH, SANTA ROSA
NATIONAL PARK, COSTA RICA
Susanna Clusella Trulls, Joel Senz, and Mara T. Fernndez

Programa Regional en Manejo y Conservacin de Vida Silvestre, Universidad Nacional de Costa Rica, Apartado 1350-
3000, Heredia, Costa Rica. loras@una.ac.cr
The olive ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) ex- quadrants located on the beach. The following counts are
hibits the most extreme case of the strategy of aggregated made every two hours, in each of the 10x10 m quadrants:
nesting, known as arribadas. This species nests in huge con- T: total number of turtles;
centrations over a period of several days at two beaches in D: number of turtles in the process of digging a nest
Pacific Costa Rica, one in Pacific Nicaragua, two in Pacific cavity;
Mexico and three in India. Depending on the location, there L: number of turtles laying eggs;
may be just two or three, or up to a dozen arribadas per year. C: number of turtles covering nest cavity.
It is likely that the nesting grounds in Pacific Mexico and
Central America support all the Ridley turtles in the entire The calculations are:
Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) (Ross 1995). The total number of turtles nesting during the arribada,
Nancite beach, one of the two arribada beaches of Costa P = Pm (middle zone) + Ph (high zone), where
Rica, is located on the north Pacific coast in Guanacaste
Conservation Area, and it is of worldwide importance for Pm = {{(L + 0.98(D+C) +
olive ridley sea turtles. Arribadas of more than 100,000 turtles 0.52(T-(L+D+C))}1.25*A*H}/ Q*1.13*n
have been recorded in periods of less than a week on this 1.1 Ph = {{(L + 0.98(D+C) +
km long beach. Because of the concentration of nesting 0.52(T-(L+D+C))}0.7*8500*H}/ Q*1.13*n.
turtles, eggs and hatchlings, many ecological processes in 0.98 = Estimate of the percentage of turtles observed either
the Nancite watershed are influenced by this unique phe- digging or covering a nest cavity that actually lay
nomenon. eggs.
In 1980 a systematic study monitoring abundance, dis- 0.52 =Estimate of the percentage of turtles encountered in
tribution and migration of olive ridleys on Nancite was be- pre-nest cavity stage which eventually nest.
gun by Cornelius, and this has been continued by the Re- 1.25 = Extrapolation of the estimate for turtles in the mid-
gional Widlife Management Program of the National Uni- beach zone to include those nesting in low-beach,
versity of Costa Rica. Tag recapture and satellite telemetry below the high tide line.
studies have determined that these turtles nest in groups, but 1.13 = Average time in hours that a turtle spends on the
later disperse independently throughout the ETP (Cornelius beach during a successful nesting emergence.
and Robinson 1986; Plotkin et al., 1995). 0.7 = Maximum estimated nesting density (turtles/m) in
At present, population counts of nesting females are the high-beach zone.
the only tool by which the stability of populations can be 8500 = Size of nesting area under woody vegetation (m).
monitored and dangerous trends detected (Meylan 1995). A = Total available nesting area in mid-beach zone (m).
Traditionally, two methods have been used to estimate the H = Number of hours which arribada lasted.
size of the arribadas at Nancite: the quadrant method devel- Q= Number of quadrants * area of each quadrant.
oped by Cornelius and Robinson in 1982 (Cornelius and N = Number of quadrant counts during the arribada.
Robinson 1982) and the transect method developed by Gates
and colleagues in 1996 (Modified Instantaneous Count Pro- The transect methodology: The transect methodology
cedure, Gates et al., 1996). Since their application, the two consists of a Modified Instantaneous Count Procedure for
methods have given different population estimates (Mo, pers. arribadas (Gates et al., 1996). During arribadas, a total of
com.). In this study we compared the results of these two 20 transects, distributed regularly across the beach, is sampled
estimates as well as the values produced by direct, or total, every two hours. The transect lines are extended perpen-
counts of the number of turtles nesting in an arribada. dicular to the shore, from the high tide line to the farthest
point inland used by nesting turtles. The width of a transect
METHODS is determined by the arm-span of the person doing the count-
ing. Counts include only turtles inside a transect that are
The total count and the two sampling methods were
exhibiting an Unambiguous Egg-laying Activity (UELA)
employed simultaneously during three nights of the August
(e.g., turtles ovipositing and the eggs have actually been ob-
1997 arribada.
served). The calculations allow variance and confidence
The quadrant methodology: The quadrant method
intervals to be determined.
(Cornelius and Robinson 1982) samples turtle activity in 19

The calculations are: We did this experiment during an arribada with certain
Number of laying female turtles = characteristics (relatively small number of turtles, weather,
Total UELA turtles seen / Area and Time expansion tides, turtle behavior, etc.), so this experiment needs to be
factors; repeated in several more arribadas to see if this tendency is
Area expansion factor = common or not.
Sample area / Total available nesting area; Since there are several arribada beaches where people
Time expansion factor = are making efforts to estimate the size of the nesting popula-
(Average time spent in UELA * Number of sampling tions (Nicaragua, Panam, Costa Rica, Mexico and India), it
periods) / Duration of the arribada. is urgent that we develop a standardized and comparable
estimation method for all arribada beaches.
The total count methodology: The beach was divided
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
into eleven contiguous sectors, each 100m wide. In each
sector, two persons counted and marked every turtle during SCT is very grateful to personnel of Santa Rosa Na-
the arribada. All turtles in a sector were marked on the cara- tional Park and the 9th Promotion of the Wildlife Manage-
pace with paint (the paint was tested on a piece of carapace ment Program (National University of Costa Rica) and would
submerged in a sea water to verify that the mark would last like to acknowledge the support of the Symposium organiz-
at least a week). Previously marked turtles were not counted ers who made this incredible event possible, the travel assis-
twice, but were marked with paint a second time. tance from a grant made to the Symposium by The David
The transect and quadrant methods estimate the num- and Lucile Packard Foundation and TACA International
ber of egg laying turtles during the arribada, while the direct Airlines. SCT would especially like to thank Dr. Jack Frazier
count is the estimate of the total number of turtles coming for his support and advice.
ashore during the arribada. Because we wanted to compare
the three methods, a correction to this direct count was ap- LITERATURE CITED
plied, based on the same factors used in the quadrant meth-
Cornelius, S.E. and D.C. Robinson. 1982. Abundance,
odology (0.75) to correct for the number turtles that come
distribution and movements of olive ridley sea turtles in
ashore but do not lay eggs.
Costa Rica, II. Technical Report to the Fish and Wildlife
Service and to World Wildlife Fund-U.S. 93 pp.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Cornelius, S.E. and D.C. Robinson. 1986. Post-nesting
Contrary to what we were expecting, both the transect movements of female olive ridley turtles tagged in Costa
and quadrant methods overestimated the total counts; the Rica. Vida Silvestre Neotropical 1:12-23.
difference was even more notable when the corrected total Gates, C.E., Valverde, R.A., Mo, C.L. 1996. Estimating
counts were used (Table 1). arribada size using a Modified Instantaneous Count
Procedure. Journal of Agricultural, Biological, and
Table 1 Results of three methods of counting olive ridley arribadas
at Nancite, Costa Rica.
Environmental Statistics 1:275-287.
Meylan, A. 1995. Estimation of Population Size in Sea
Date Total Total Counts With
Transects Mean Turtles. pp. 135-138. In: K.A. Bjorndal (Ed.) The
(95 % Confidence Quadrants
Counts Correc tion (0.75)
Limits) Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtles. Smithsonian
02/08/97 1716 1287 3820 (2009; 5631) 1857
03/08/97 1349 1012 1486 (281; 2690) 1418
Institution Press; Washington, D.C. (2nd ed).
04/08/97 594 446 849 (34; 1664) 598 Plotkin, P.T., Byles, R.A., Rostal, D.C. 1995. Independent
TOTAL 3659 2744 6268.5 (3903; 6807) 873
versus socially facilitated oceanic migrations of the Olive
Ridley, Lepidochelys olivacea. Marine Biology 122: 137-
Although the total counts for the 3rd and 4th of August 143.
were lower than the estimates for both transects and quad- Ross, J.P. 1995. Historical Decline of Loggerhead, Ridley,
rants, the values were within the 95% confidence limits for and Leatherback Sea Turtles. pp. 189-195. In: K.A.
the respective transect estimates. The main problem with Bjorndal (Ed.) The Biology and Conservation of Sea
these transect estimates is that the confidence intervals are Turtles. Smithsonian Institution Press; Washington, D.C.
very large. However, the transect estimate for the first night, (2nd ed.).
during which the highest density of nesting occurred, was
significantly greater than the direct count.
The quadrant method consistently overestimated the di-
rect counts, with values averaging almost 140% higher. Quad-
rant estimates have been used since 1980 at Nancite, and it
is fundamental to emphasize that these estimations do not
include any measure of variance, or confidence intervals.
Thus, these estimates do not include sufficient information
with which to make statistically valid comparisons.

KEMPS RIDLEY HABITAT SUITABILITY INDEX MODEL
Michael S. Coyne1 and 2, Mark E. Monaco1, and Andr M.Landry, Jr.2

1
National Ocean Service/NOAA, 1305 East-West Hwy, Rm 9216, Silver Spring, MD 20910, U.S.A.
mcoyne@seamail.nos.noaa.gov
2
Sea Turtle and Fisheries Ecology Laboratory, Texas A&M University, Galveston, TX 77551, U.S.A.
NOAAs Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEA) five quantiles for spatial analysis. Quantiles are defined rela-
Division has developed Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) mod- tively rather than specifically as it is uncertain how HSI val-
els as management tools to: 1) Map living resources in areas ues relate to biological density.
that lack adequate sampling data; 2) refine existing maps; 3) The model displayed a distribution trend for Kemps
evaluate impacts of alternative regulatory scenarios; and 4) ridley of: U.S. Gulf of Mexico - warm period during May
assess effects of environmental change. These HSI model- - October, near-shore habitat characterized as good; cool-
ing methods are based on an approach developed by the U.S. ing period during November - December, near-shore habi-
Fish and Wildlife Service which calculated the value of an tat decreased in quality; cool period during January - Feb-
area by determining what a species needed from its habitat, ruary, near-shore habitat characterized as bad; and warm-
followed by quantification of habitat availability. SEA Di- ing period during March - April, near-shore habitat increased
vision has adapted this approach to address estuarine and in quality; U.S. Atlantic coast - suitable habitat extended
marine issues, adding a spatial component utilizing GIS tech- northward during warm months, reaching New England wa-
nology. This Kemps ridley HSI model represents an ex- ters during July - September, and receded southward to
ploratory analysis of the potential use of HSI in sea turtle Florida during cool months.
management and speculative distribution and density research The utility of HSI modeling as a tool to focus research
using currently available data. and management efforts both spatially and temporally was
Suitability indices were estimated for Kemps ridley discussed, as well as, the need to establish long-term index
sea turtles in the Gulf of Mexico and western Atlantic for sites for monitoring Kemps ridley abundance and biology.
sea surface temperature (SST) and depth. Bathymetric and Follow-up work should include acquiring additional data on
monthly SST map layers were created for the Gulf of Mexico Kemps ridley distribution to improve the model, identify-
and U.S. Atlantic coast. Each layer was reclassified to a ing other habitat variables that may limit Kemps ridley dis-
gridded surface with a suitability index value applied to each tribution, refining the model to include sex and/or life-his-
grid cell. An HSI model was derived for each month by tory stage specific information, and, finally, model valida-
calculating a geometric mean of suitability of SST and tion utilizing telemetric tracking or historical stranding
bathymetry for each grid. Model outputs were classified into records.
BEYOND D-0004: THIRTY-FOUR YEARS OF LOGGERHEAD (CARETTA CARETTA)

RESEARCH ON LITTLE CUMBERLAND ISLAND, GEORGIA, 1964-1997
M. Kirsten Dahlen, Rebecca Bell, James I. Richardson, and Thelma H. Richardson

Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens GA 30602-2202
Little Cumberland Island, Box 13127, Jekyll Island, GA 31527
The on-going saturation tagging program on Little the population with an average 65 nesting females per sea-
Cumberland Island (LCI) started in 1964. The study area is son (Figure 1b). These data show that a ten year period is
a barrier island that falls within the confines of the not sufficient to reveal trends within this population. It is
Cumberland Island National Seashore off the southeast Geor- only during the last decade that a decrease within the popu-
gia coast. In an effort to intercept every nesting female, the lation is observable in so short a time span (Figure 1c). The
beach is covered nightly at hourly intervals, from dusk until long-term trend over 34 years, however, indicates clearly that
dawn, late May through early August each year. D0004 was the continuing viability of this population is questionable.
one of the first nesting loggerheads to visit the beach in 1964. While nesting populations of loggerheads in South
She returned and nested for 20 seasons until her death in Florida are growing, LCD's population continues to decline.
1984. What are the factors affecting this change? Incidental mor-
The population of nesting loggerheads on LCI has de- tality continues from capture in shrimp trawlers and impacts
clined from an initial 120 individuals in 1964 to 17 individu- with recreational boats and dredges, but this alone seems
als nesting in 1997 (Figure 1a). Over the first ten years of the insufficient to account for the loss of individuals on LCI.
project, the LCI population averaged 100 females per sea- Other factors may also play a role. Little Cumberland is a
son. During the second decade, there is a similar stability in dynamic island with nearshore sandbars forming and erod-

ing over time. Currently, the offshore sandbars on the north 40

and ocean facing beaches are growing, preventing turtles form neophyte
Frequency
reaching much of the prime nesting beach. Since surveys on 30
total
the entire Cumberland Island National Seashore began in
20 remigrant
1982, there is evidence of a shift in nesting concentration to
the less heavily patrolled South Cumberland Island study area
10
(Richardson 1992, 1987). Nesting on the three areas of
Cumberland surveyed, including Little Cumberland Island, 0
the north end of Cumberland Island and the south end of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Cumberland, averaged between 50 and 150 nests per study
area per year from 1982 through 1997. Since 1982, observed Observed nests
nesting on LCI has decreased by 7 nests per year. Nesting on
Figure 2a. Observed nests per female on LCI, 1979 and 1980
the north end of Cumberland has decreased by 4 nests a year.
Over the same time period, nesting on the south end of 40
Cumberland has decreased by 4 nests a year. Over the same neophyte
Frequency
time period, nesting on the south end of Cumberland has 30
total
increased by 2.5 nests per year. As there is no tagging effort
continuing on the north end of Cumberland, and there has 20 remigrant
not been a tagging effort on south Cumberland, it is impos-
sible to say if any of this shift represents a true movement of 10
LCI individuals to beaches further south in the study com-
0
plex.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
140
Observed nests
Figure 2b. Predicted nests for LCI females on all nesting beaches,
Num ber of individuals
120
100 1979 and 1980

y = 5509.5 - 2.751x R^2 = 0.731
80
for each year of the study. Over the fist two decades, fecun-
60
dity averaged 1.9 to 2.1 nests per female per year. Over the
40
20
past decade, the average number of nests decreased to 1.5
0
nests per female per season. As loggerheads nest up to seven
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 times in a season (Lenarz et al. 1981), this average is low. To
Nesting season
get a better estimate of fecundity, two years of data (1979
and 1980) representing thorough coverage on LCI and adja-
Figure 1a). Number of nesting females per season, 1964 - 1997
cent beaches is examined. Initially, only observed nests on
80
LCI are counted, resulting in a mean of 1.7 nests per female
Num ber of individuals
per season (Figure 2a). Neophyte (untagged) and remigrant

70
(previously tagged) turtle nesting events are then separated,
with a mean of 1.0 nests for neophytes and 2.1 nests for
60
y = - 258.85 + 0.16364x R^2 = 0.005 remigrants (Figure 2a). In order to realize a more accurate
fecundity estimate, sampling efficiency is increased three-
50 fold in the following manner: 1. Nesting events without an
1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984
Nesting season observed clutch are counted as probable nests, 2. Nesting
events attributed to LCI females on nearby nesting beaches
Figure 1b). Number of nesting females per season, 1974 - 1983 are counted, and 3. An additional nest is assumed for any
female observed on the nesting beach for a 28 days or greater
40
interval. This results in an increase in mean estimated fecun-
N umber of individuals
y = 2645.9 - 1.3152x R ^2 = 0.314 dity to 3.60 nests per female for neophytes, 4.27 for
30
remigrants, and 4.10 for the population (Figure 2b). This
remains a conservative estimate, because no nests are as-
20
sumed before an individual's first observed appearance on a
10
nesting beach or after her last observed visit. The true popu-
1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 lation mean, unmeasurable because of limitations in beach
Nesting season
coverage, is certainly closer to five nests per female per sea-
Figure 1c). Number of nesting females per season, 1988 - 1997 son.
When maximum estimated fecundity for the LCI popu-
In order to estimate the fecundity of the LCI popula- lation is plotted, a bimodal distribution is noted, with a peak
tion, the average number of nests per female is calculated of observed nesting behavior corresponding to a single nest

per female in addition to the 4.5 nests per female mode (Fig- ACKNOLEDGMENTS
ure 2b). As an arbitrary means of defining these two behav-
Since thanks are due to the Little Cumberland Island
iors, individuals appearing for only a single nesting visit are
Association and membership, through whose generosity we
called "alpha" females and those observed on two or more
are able to continue, and to the numerous team members who
nesting visits are identified as "beta" turtles. Beta turtles are
have patrolled LCD's beach, especially our most dedicated
those who exhibit fidelity to the Cumberland Island area.
volunteer, Courtney M. Owens.
Observed alpha behavior may be caused by several different
factors, including the following: 1. Missed nesting events on LITERATURE CITED
Little Cumberland and Cumberland Island, 2. "Cross-over"
turtles nesting on near-by Georgia beaches and turtles nest- Lenarz, Mark S., N.B. Frazer, M.S. Ralston and R.B. Mast.
ing on more distant Georgia and north Florida beaches, both 1981. Seven nest recorded for loggerhead turtle (Caretta
of which are verified by tag records, 3. Turtle mortality due caretta) in one season. Herp. Review 12(1): 9.
to drowning or impacts with recreational boats, supported Richardson, James I. 1992. An investigation of survivorship,
by tag recoveries, 4. Turtles that may only nest once per sea- mortality, and recruitment of adult female loggerhead
son and 5. Cross-over from more distant south Florida sea turtles nesting at Cumberland Island National
beaches, which is supported by over a dozen tag records. Seashore, Georgia 1987-1991 with special reference to
Some of the most interesting beta turtles on LCD's beach the possible effect of the TED program on nesting
are those that return to nest for periods of twenty or more behavior. Final Report. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
nesting seasons, including the individual with tag number Unit Cooperative Agreement No. 14-16-0009-1551.
D0004. Since her appearance on our beach in 1964 (20 sea- Work Order No. 11. 12 June 1992.
sons), three other individuals have nested for greater than Richardson, James I. 1987. Summary of loggerhead sea turtle
twenty seasons: P0003 (25 seasons), P0307 (23 seasons) and research, Cumberland Island National Seashore 1984-
P0450 (24 seasons). There is evidence for continued cara- 1986. Final Report. RF-Rutgers-LST-Cooley. 10-21-
pace growth of approximately 1 millimeter a year through- RR271-175.
out the nesting history of these four individuals.
IN-WATER POPULATION INDEX SURVEYS: NORTH CAROLINA, U.S.A.
Sheryan P. Epperly1, Joanne Braun-McNeill1, Anna L. Bass2, David W. Owens3, and Rhonda M. Patterson3
1
NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Beaufort, NC 28516, U.S.A.
2
Dept. Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, FL 32653, U.S.A.
3
Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 email: sheryan.epperly@noaa.gov
Surveys conducted since 1988 have underscored the pilot index area for sea turtles in 1995, using catch rates in
importance of North Carolina's inshore waters, particularly pound nets as an index of abundance. The feasibility and
the Pamlico-Albemarle Estuarine Complex, to juvenile log- methodology was established and the fishery was sampled
gerhead (Caretta caretta), green (Chelonia mydas), and again during fall 1996 and 1997. The goal of this 3-yr project
Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) sea turtles. Sea turtles was to establish the area as an index abundance area to moni-
are present in the Complex April-December. During their tor, assess, and predict the status of and impacts to sea turtles
emigration in fall and early winter, the turtles are vulnerable and their ecosystems. The cooperation of pound net fisher-
to capture in pound nets set behind the barrier islands. Pound men in the area provides data not only on abundance, but
nets, as set in N.C., are a passive gear that allows turtles to also on movement and demography of these populations. In
feed and to surface to breathe. The Core Sound and eastern additions, blood samples were utilized for analyses of health
Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds area was established as a status, sex, and genetics.
GROWTH OF HAWSKBILL TURTLE ERETMOCHELYS IMBRICATA OFF RO

LAGARTOS, YUCATN, MEXICO
Mauricio Garduo Andrade

INP Centro Regional de Investigacin Pesquera de Yucalpetn. Mxico. mgarduno@minter.cieamer.conacyt.mx
Von Bertalanffy growth model was fits to hawksbill mates from 20 cm smallest turtles in the feeding ground area
turtle Eretmochelys imbricata by capture-recapture measure- between 2 or 3 years age. Also yields estimates of between
ments of wild turtles in Ro Lagartos. Sample was 29 mea- 13 and 23 years to reach the size of the smallest nesting fe-
surements from juveniles (n=20) and adults females (n=9). male (80 cm) and modal carapace measurements of all (1994)
Growth model estimates Lt=93 (1-0.95 e143t). It yields esti- nesting females (90 cm) respectively.

ESTIMATING ANNUAL SURVIVAL OF NESTING HAWKSBILLS (ERETMOCHELYS

IMBRICATA), JUMBY BAY PROJECT, LONG ISLAND, ANTIGUA
Rhema Kerr and James I. Richardson

Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens GA 30602, U.S.A. rhemaker@uga.cc.uga.edu
The rate at which animals die is one of the most critical bias in survival estimates (Figure 1). The enumeration method
population parameters in the management of wildlife popu- is also limited by the lack of the statistics (standard error,
lations (White and Garrott, 1990). Thus estimates of annual confidence intervals) that drive inferences and hypothesis
survival (1-mortality rates) form the cornerstone of demo- testing.
graphic studies. Enumeration was used to calculate the annual survival
Most sea turtles (including hawksbills) are potentially of a Caribbean population of nesting hawksbills. The Jumby
long-lived (in excess of 50 years) with overlapping genera- Bay Project, on Long Island Antigua, is a saturation- tag-
tions. Individuals are iteroparous, with multiple nesting epi- ging project that has recently completed its eleventh year.
sodes per season. Hawksbills are not known to nest annu- The sampling effort is considerable, as the nesting beach is
ally, with re-migration intervals of 2 and 3 years being most covered by hourly patrols between dusk and dawn, from June
common. This life history pattern poses challenges to esti- 15th through to November 15th. Capture probabilities during
mating demographic variables from tagging studies. Most this period are very close to 1.
complications arise from violations of the key assumption of
equal catchability of the main open population models such
as Jolly-Seber and Cormack-Jolly-Seber. More recent mod-
els such as Pollocks Robust Design (Pollock, 1982) com-
bining open and closed models have proven useful in pro-
viding robust survival estimates. However, the staggered re-
turn of females to a nesting beach over an extended period
deprives sea turtle researchers of a comparable closed sea-
son as is available for many other animal populations.
Figure 2. Survivorship courve: 60 individuals followed for 6 years
The results are presented in two ways. Table 1 presents

the annual survival as the kth root of the proportion surviving
k periods (n=73). Figure 2 graphically presents the data of
the proportion known alive fitted to a linear model (n=60).
The estimates are comparable. Tabular estimates range from
0.90 to 0.93. These estimates converge at 0.91, which prob-
ably represents a decrease in the bias created by animals with
particularly long re-migration intervals. The linear model es-
timate of annual survival is 0.94 (an average decline of 0.6%
per annum).
Figure 1
Table 1
One other method remains available. The enumeration
method is similar to Jolly-Seber models in that it is based on k return rate (p) kth root of p (s)
marked animals. Animals caught in sample period i and never 1 61/73 0.84
2 61/73 0.91
seen again are assumed to have died or emigrated between 3 59/73 0.93
and i and i + 1. This results in a minimum known alive 4 50/73 0.91
estimator (Pollock et al., 1990). The non-annual nature of 5 46/73 0.91
6 42/73 0.91
the return rate is transformed in to annual survival estimate
(s) by taking the kth root of the proportion surviving k peri-
ods. This estimator is thus a complicated function that in- Improved models for annual survival estimates for sea
volves every survival and capture probability subsequent to turtle are a distinct possibility. Schwarz and Stobo (1997)
period i (Pollock et al., 1990). This results in a negative used an open-open model design for Grey Seals (Halichoerus

grypus). However their model assumes random temporary LITERATURE CITED

emigration, and requires sampling through either the start or
Pollock, K. H. 1982. A capture-recapture design robust to
end of the breeding season We will be working with demo-
unequal probability of capture. Journal of Wildlife
graphic specialists to formulate models that will be robust to
Management 46: 757-760.
violations of these assumptions.
Pollock, K.H., J.D. Nichols, C. Brownie, and J. E. Hines.
1990. Statistical inference for capture-recapture
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
experiments. Wildlife Monographs 107.
Our thanks to Rebecca Bell (Jumby Bay Project), Schwarz, C.J. and W.T. Stobo. 1997. Estimating temporary
Thelma Richardson (University of Georgia), Dr. William migration using the Robust Design. Biometrics 53; 178-
Kendall (USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center), Karen 194.
Eckert (WIDECAST), Dr. Jack Frazier, and Rod Mast (Con- White, G.C. and R.A. Garrott. 1990. Analysis of wildlife
servation International). We also acknowledge the support radio-tracking data. Academic Press. San Diego 383
provided by The Humane Society and Conservation Inter- pp.
national by way of travel grants.
DEMOGRAPHICS OF THE JUMBY BAY NESTING HAWKSBILLS (ERETMOCHELYS

IMBRICATA) AT PASTURE BAY BEACH, LONG ISLAND, ANTIGUA, WEST INDIES
James I. Richardson1, Rebecca Bell2, and Thelma H. Richardson2

1
Institute of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-2202, U.S.A.
2
Little Cumberland Island, P.O. Box 13127, Jekyll Island, GA 31527, U.S.A. rainforestry@earthlink.net
Eleven years of intensive surveys are scarcely suffi- discussed. A trend in numbers of nesting females over the
cient for a demographic study of sea turtles, but a picture of decade of surveys is not clear, but annual recruitment ap-
the Jumby Bay nesting hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) pears to match annual mortality, suggesting stability in num-
population appears to be taking shape, assisted by strong bers of individuals in the Jumby Bay population. Future goals
beach fidelity by the adult females and the near absence of for the project are discussed, including a unique opportunity
tag loss. Annual survival, mean remigration, and seasonal to monitor possible behavioral changes in the nesting popu-
fecundity are used to estimate lifetime fecundity. Production lation in response to intensive island development currently
of hatchlings by the population and by individual adults is under way.
A COMPARISON OF MORPHOLOGICAL AND REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS

OF NESTING LOGGERHEAD POPULATIONS
Manjula Tiwari and Karen Bjorndal

Archie Carr Center for Sea Turtle Research, University of Florida, P.O. Box 118525, Gainesville, FL 32611
mtiwari@zoo.ufl.edu
Few studies have addressed intraspecific trends within ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

a marine turtle species over a large area. The main objective
I owe many thanks to all the people who helped with
of this study was to quantify whether loggerheads nesting in
various aspects of the study, especially Neca Marcovaldi,
Florida, Brazil, and Greece differ significantly in their mor-
Dimitris Margaritoulis and Dr. Ehrhart. I would also like to
phology and reproductive output. Data on body size, clutch
thank the Chelonia Institute, the David and Lucile Packard
size and egg size were collected from nesting females. To
Foundation, the Archie Carr Center for Sea Turtle Research,
place ideas in a more general perspective, morphological and
and the Department of Zoology and the Graduate Student
reproductive data on other loggerhead populations were com-
Council at the University of Florida for providing funds to
piled from the literature and examined for latitudinal trends
attend the Sea Turtle Symposium.
within the Atlantic and Mediterranean. This study highlights
important differences among populations, broadens the con-
cept of life history variation to a turtle species not confined
to a single geographic location, and emphasizes the need for
conserving genetic and phenotypic variation in marine turtle
populations.

HAWKSBILL TURTLE FEEDING HABITS IN CUBAN WATERS
Blanca Lzara Anderes Alvarez

Centro de Investigaciones Pesqueras, Ministerio de la Industria Pesquera, Habana, Cuba. cubacip@ceniai.inf.cu
INTRODUCTION eggs and follicles. The greater consumption by females with

Studies on hawksbill turtle feeding in the Caribbean follicles is attributed to the physiological needs of animals
report that these animals are mainly sponge eaters, but occa- in this stage.
sionally consume other invertebrates (Carr and Sancyk, 1975; Menges (1972) Index of Diet Superposition showed
Meylan 1984, 1988; Anderes and Uchida, 1994; van Dam that male and female subadults had an 80% overlap in diet.
and Diez, in press; Len and Diez, unpublished). The present In the case of animals classified as adults, the respective In-
study investigated differences in feeding habits between dices indicate at least 59% overlap in diets of the different
adults and subadults, as well as between sexes, and females categories, except in the case of females with follicles and
in different stages of gonadal development. eggs, which are consistently below 30%. This confirms the
differences in diet between females in different stages of
MATERIALS AND METHODS gonadal development (Table 2), a phenomenon pointed out
previously by Meylan (1984, 1988), Anderes and Uchida
The sample consisted of the 74 stomach contents in- (1994) and van Dan and Diez (in press).
cluded in Anderes and Uchidas (1994) preliminary study,
with an additional 72 collected between 1994 and 1996, yield- Table 2. Diet superposition (%): F = females without follicles; W/F =
females with follicles; W/F/E = females with follicles and eggs; M =
ing a total of 146 stomachs sampled. The methodology was males; GF = gravid females (see Anderes and Uchida , 1994)
the same as that previously used by Anderes and Uchida
(1994). Subadults, 34 cm or more in straight carapace length CONCLUSIONS
(SCL) (Witzell 1983), included 22 females (19 full stom-
achs, 3 empty) and 10 males (8 full stomachs, 2 empty). Subadults and adults of both sexes consume more en-
Adults, 60 cm SCL or above (Moncada and Nodarse 1994), crusting sponges than any other food item, with between 74.8
included 62 females with no gonadal development (39 full and 98% occurrence in stomach contents; Chondrilla nucula
stomachs, 22 empty); 19 females with follicles (17 full stom- was the most abundant species of sponge.
achs, 2 empty); 5 females with follicles and eggs (5 full stom- Females with both follicles and eggs differed from other
achs); and 29 males (24 full stomachs, 5 empty). females, and had 60% of sponge, 15% jellyfish and 25% of
vegetation; the alga Halimeda incrassata was 17.7% of stom-
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ach contents.
The Index of Diet Superposition also showed that fe-
Subadult stomachs contained between 78.4 and 92.5% males with both follicles and eggs were distinct from other
sponges, with Chondrilla nucula dominating; the ascidian females, with values consistently below 30%, again confirm-
Polycarpia pomaria and the algae Hypnea musciformis also ing that turtles in this stage have different diets.
occurred with notable frequency in female subadults (Table Females with follicles had greater mean weight of the
1). These results, notable with the females, coincide with stomach contents then either females without follicles or fe-
previous reports by Carr and Stancyk (1975), Anderes and males with both follicles and eggs; this may be related to
Uchida (1994), van Dam and Diez (in press) and Len and greater nutritional needs of animals is this stage of gonadal
Diez (unpublished) in the sense that there is a preference for development.
sponges, even when other invertebrates and vegetation are
included in the diet. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The relative composition of food items in adult females
and males (Table 1, see next page) did not vary in relation to I would like to thank DIF and the local organizers for
Anderes and Uchidas (1994) previous observations. This supporting my stay prior to and during the Symposium, and
coincides with Meylan (1984, 1988) in the high occurrence The David and Lucile Packard Foundation which provided
of Ch. nucula, while van Dam and Diez (in press) reported for my travel costs. Without either of these, my participation
the presence G. neptuni in a male. When females were sepa- in the Symposium would not have been possible.
rated by stage of gonadal development, it was observed that
animals with follicles and eggs showed a distinct composi-
tion (Table 1). They had only 60% sponges (with a different
composition of sponge species, 15% other invertebrates and
25% vegetation; just the green alga Halimeda incrassata was
17.7%.
Mean value for weight of stomach contents was 112 g
in females with follicles, and only 70 g for females with both
Oral presentations / Nesting and Foraging Behavior 65

Table 1. Stomach contents (percent occurrence) of Eretmochelys imbricata in Cuban waters

- = not detected; folls. = follicles.
SUBADULTS ADULTS
Females Males Females Males
No folls. Folls. Folls. & eggs
Sample Size 22 10 61 19 5 29
Sponges
Amphimedon rugosa - - - - - 2.4
Chondrilla nucula 45.3 82.5 28.0 - 12.0 19.9
Chondrosia collectrix 10.95 3.6 43.0 36.0 0.8 17.5
Erylus ministrongylus 2.8 - 2.2 14.0 3.2 13.2
Geodia gibberosa 3.3 2.4 13.0 - 37.0 31.0
Geodia sp. 5.7 - 2.4 30.0 6.8 0.5
Hemaectyon ferox - - 0.3 6.5 - -
Tethya aurantia 0.1 3.1 0.2 - - -
Iotrochota birotulata - - - 8.6
Oxiciella calla 0.3 - - 0.9
Unidentified 10.26 1.0 6.1 4.6 - 4.7
Other Invertebrates
Acropora cervicornis - - 0.1 4.2 - -
Aurelia aurita - - 3.7 - 15 -
Gorgonia flavellum 0.6 0.3 - - - -
Jellyfish, unidentified - - 0.1 - - -
Panulirus argus - - 1.2 - - -
Polycarpia pomaria 8.96 2.6 - - - -
Plants
Acanthophora spicifera 0.1 - - - - -
Anadyomene stellata - - 0.1 0.8 - -
Bryposis sp. - - 0.01 0.2 - -
Caulerpa paspaloides - - 0.7 - - 0.1
Codium sp. - 0.05 - - - -
Colpomenia sinuosa - - 0.05 - - -
Dilophus alternans 0.06 - 0.02 - - -
Gelidiella acerosa 0.004 - - 0.8 - -
Gracilaria sp. - 2.1 - - - -
Halimeda incrassata - - 0.12 - 17.7 0.07
Hypnea musciformis 11.5 - - - - -
Padina vickersiae - - - 0.4 1.0 0.26
Pterocladia bartlettii - - - - 3.7 -
Pocokiella sp. - - 0.01 - - -
Rodoficeas unidentified 0.004 - - - - -
Thalassia testudinum 0.02 0.05 - - - -
Sargassum spp. - - 0.04 0.01 0.4 0.1
Stypopodium zonale - 2.4 0.03 1.4 1.9 0.1
REFERENCES and survival outlook of the hawksbill turtle. Biological

Conservation 8(3): 161-172.
Anderes, B.L. and I. Uchida. 1994. Study of the hawksbill
Len, Y.M. and C.E. Diez: Proyecto carey, Republica
turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) stomach content in
Dominicana. Reporte de Investigacin, Febrero,
Cuban waters. In: Study of the Hawksbill Turtle in Cuba
1997(unpublished manuscript).
(I). Ministry of Fishing Industry, Cuba. 27-40 pp.
Menge, B.A. 1972. Competition for food between two
Carr, A. and S. Stancyk. 1975. Observations on the ecology
intertidal starfish species and its effect on body size and
feeding. Ecology 53(4): 635-644.
66 Nesting and Foraging Behavior / Oral presentations

Meylan, A. 1984. The ecology and conservation of the Van Dam, R.P. and C.E. Diez. In press. Predation by hawksbill
Caribbean hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata). Final turtles on sponges at Mona Island, Puerto Rico. Proc.
report. NWF Project, No.1499: 48 pp. 8th Int. Coral Reef Symposium. June 26-29, 1997
Meylan, A. 1988. Spongivory in hawksbill turtles: A diet of Witzell, W.N. 1983 : Synopsis of biological data on the
glass. Science 239 (4836): 393-395. hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus,
Moncada, F. and G. Nodarse. 1994. Length composition 1766). FAO, Fisheries Synopsis 137:77pp.
and size of sexual maturation of hawksbill turtle in the
Cuban platform. In: Study of the Hawksbill Turtle in
Cuba (I) Ed: Ministry of Fishing Industry, Cuba. 19-25
pp.
SPATIAL AND SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF HAWSKBILL TURTLE NESTINGS IN

LAS COLORADAS, YUCATAN, MEXICO

INP Centro Regional de Investigacin Pesquera de Yucalpetn.Mxico. mgarduno@minter.cieamer.conacyt.mx
This paper show the spatial and seasonal distribution years. Inside the area of 21.5 km there are places with pref-
of hawksbill nests in Las Coloradas, Ro Lagartos, Yucatn. erence for the turtles that another, year by year. The maxima
The nesting season begins in second half of April to ends of frequencies between distance between nest inside the years
August or principles of September, 5 to 6 months with are 0.0 to2.0 km, with maxima of 20 km. Between years the
maxima in May and June. It was determined a period be- range is wide 0.0 to 5.0 km.
tween nest in the same year between 14 and 16 days and
between years the hight frequency is 2 years followed by 3
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONSECUTIVE NESTING OF KEMP'S RIDLEY (L. KEMPI) AT

RANCHO NUEVO, TAMPS.
Ma. del Carmen Jimnez Quiroz, Ren Mrquez M., No A. Villanueva L., and M.A. Carrasco A.
Centro Regional de Investigacin Pesquera-Manzanillo. Apdo. Postal 591. Manzanillo, Col. Mxico cjimenez@bay.net.mx
The spatial and temporal distribution of each nest placed multimodal and depended on the first lay and on the pres-
at the beach by females in each nesting season was deter- ence of "arribazones". The distance between the nest of the
mined with the information of 1985-1995. The number of same female is less than 6 km apart, fewer females have
nests laid by each female was between 1 and 3, quantified by greater displacements.
the mark - recapture registers. The temporal distribution of
each nest indicated that most of the gravid females arrived at
the beach between April and May, and it is possible that nearly
all the nest deposited in subsequent months are laid by the
same turtles. The period of time between two nest was
LONG-TERM MONITORING OF NESTING OF THE GREEN SEA TURTLE (CHELONIA

MYDAS) IN THE SOUTHWEST PLATFORM OF CUBA
Gonzalo Nodarse, Felix Moncada, Alexis Meneses, and Carlos Rodrguez

Centro de Investigaciones Pesqueras, 5ta Ave y 248 Santa F, Ciudad de la Habana, Ministerio de la Industria Pesquera,
Cuba. Fax: (537) 249827 cuba cip@ceniae.inf.cu
INTRODUCTION
In Cuba, the most important areas for nesting are in the
southern coast of the archipelago. The current work pre- The work was undertake at Playa Larga, situated on
sents the results collected between 1982 and 1996, on the the southern coast of the Isle of Youth. A 4 km long section,
southern coast of the Island of Youth, on the nesting charac- from Punta el Guanal to La Canoa was monitored annually.
teristics of the green sea urtle (Chelonia mydas). It is a high energy beach (Pritchard et al, 1983) in the first
Oral presentations / Nesting and Foraging Behavior 67

1.5 km (western end) and the remainder is low energy beach, Table 2. Numbers and mean size of nesting females tagged. CCL=
with a reef barrier about 100 m from the coast. The domi- curved carapace length.
nant vegetation is Salvia marina (Tournefortia anaphalode),
Year No. of Females Mean CCL
Cuabilla de playa (Suriana maritima) y Boniato de playa Marked (cm)
(Batis maritima). The fauna includes crabs, jutias and wild
pigs, found to be the main predator of eggs.
1989 7 105.3
Observations were made by walking the beach at night 1990 10 105.8
(2100-0400 h), mainly between May and August, for the pe- 1991 2 103.0
riod 1982-96 (Table 1). Females were tagged with monel 1992 40 104.6
1993 2 110.0
tags, and other data relating to tides, moon phase, distance 1994 22 106.5
from the high tide mark were recorded. Eggs were removed 1995 2 109.0
to a protected area, eggs were taken from the nests following 1996 13 106.7
the method of Marquez et al. (1981), and transported to a
protected area. which 73 were observed nesting once, 18 twice, 4 three times,
Table 1. Periods of survey, numbers of nests and hatchlings, and one four times, one six times and one seven times. Nesting
percentage hatch for the monitored area, for the period 1982-96. intervals were found to be 7-14 days, with most between 9
and 11 days.
Year Dates Days Nests Eggs Hatchlings Hatching
(%) REFERENCES
1982 8/7-2/9 57 20 * 1899 ***

Marquez, R., O.A. Villanueva and S.C. Peaflores 1981.
1983 17/7-26/8 41 72 * 7185 1360 18.9 Instructivo para la proteccin de las tortugas marinas.
1984 11/6-10/9 92 21 * 2021 1264 62.5
1985 31/7-18/8 19 8 * 704 375 53.3
INP/SD 2: 45-52.
1986 7/7-5/9 61 39 * 4077 1105 27.1 Pritchard, P., P. Bacon, F. Berry, A. Carr, J. Fletmeyer, R.
1987 20/6-31/8 73 87 * 8624 3881 45.0
1988 22/6-15/8 62 71 * 7375 3227 43.8 Gallagher, S. Hopkins, R. Lankford, R. Marquez, L.
1989 1/6-26/8 87 78 * 8709 3797 43.6 Ogren, W. Pringle Jr., H. Reichart, and R. Witham (1983).
1990 5/6-20/8 71 177 * 20,411 11,267 55.2
1991 13/5-8/8 88 38 * 4272 2481 58.1 Manual sobre tcnicas de investigacin y conservacin
1992 15/5-23/8 100 159 * 18,879 9672 51.2 de las tortugas marinas. (2d Ed.) , K.A. Bjorndal and
1993 25/5-8/8 76 10 * 1376 523 38.0
1994 13/5-14/8 94 108 * 12,632 4118 56.3 G.H. Balazs (Eds.) Center for Enviromental Education,
1994 24 ** 2796 2533 90.6 Washington. D.C.
1995 29/6-19/7 21 18 ** 1998 1834 91.8
1996 24/5-31/8 100 123 ** 13,653 12,588 92.2
* In area of incubation (protected)

** In situ
*** Predated
RESULTS
The period of nesting comprised the last week of May
until the first half of September, with a peak of nesting in
July. These results are similar to those cited by Marquez
(1990) for the general area. Nesting activity does not occur
two hours before and after nocturnal high tide, and the first
nest is associated with a full moon.
Numbers of nests and hatchlings are in Table 1. A maxi-
mum of 177 nests were located in 1990, and there is a pat-
tern of low numbers of nests followed by high numbers of
nests. This pattern is similar to that at Las Coloradas, Yucatan,
Mexico (M. Garduno, pers. comm.). The hatching rates for
relocated nests (up to 1994; 27-63%; Table 1) are consid-
ered to be the result of transportation of the eggs to the pro-
tected area. For the last 3 years, nests were left in situ, and
hatching rates have been much higher (91-92%; Table 1).
This period coincided with a direct hunt to reduce number of
wild pigs, which were the main predator of nests. The mean
clutch size (1982-96) was 110.7.
In Table 2 are data relating to tagging of nesting fe-
males. A total of 98 females have been tagged to date, of
68 Nesting and Foraging Behavior / Oral presentations

CANID PREDATION ON MARINE TURTLE NESTS AT AKYATAN, TURKEY, EASTERN

MEDITERRANEAN
Monica Aureggi1, Guido Gerosa1, and Sedat V.Yerli2

1
CHELON, Marine Turtle Conservation and Research Program, V.le Val Padana, 134/B . 00141 ROMA, Italy. email: chelon@tin.it
2
Department of Biology, Hacettepe University, P.O. Box 40, 06692 Ankara, Turkey
INTRODUCTION Non-parametric statistical tests were used (Siegel and

Akyatan National Park is situated on the South-east Castellan 1988), with a rejection level for the null hypothesis
coast of Turkey, in the Cukurova region (Figure 1). The of P = 0.05.
beach of 19.7 km is the main green turtle (Chelonia mydas)
nesting area in the Mediterranean (Gerosa et al., 1995). The RESULTS
study was conducted from the 12th of June to the 25th of Daily records of both newly laid and predated nests
August, 1995, covering most of the breeding season. The were obtained for the entire eleven-week study period. Egg
aim of the research was to investigate predator species, nest laying activity was high until the 23rd of July, whereas the
predation rates and timing of nest predation. It focused on 4 predation was very low until the beginning of July (Figure 2).
km of the total beach, which in a previous study had been A total of 237 nests were recorded in the survey area.
the zone with the highest density of nests (Gerosa et al.,
1995). Temporal distribution of nests by date laid
and predated nests
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
3 - July
6 - July
9 - July
5 - Aug.
8 - Aug.
12 - July
15 - July
18 - July
21 - July
24 - July
27 - July
30 - July
02 - Aug.
11 - Aug.
14 - Aug.
17 - Aug.
20 - Aug.
12 - June
15 - June
18 - June
21 - June
24 - June
27 - June
30 - June
23
Figure 2. Nightly variation in nesting and predation during the
breeding season 1995
Temporal distribution of predation activity

250 16
14
200 No. av ailable nests
No. predat ed nest s
No. predated nests

12
No. available nests
150 10
8
100 6
4
50
Figure 1 2
0 0
11 Jun e
16 Jun e
21 Jun e
26 Jun e
5 Au gust
10 Au gust
15 Au gust
20 Au gust
25 Au gust
1 1 J uly
1 6 J uly
2 1 J uly
2 6 J uly
3 1 J uly
1 J uly
6 J uly
MATERIALS AND METHODS days
Daily surveys were conducted each morning by at least Figure 3 Temporal distribution of predation activity. Number of nests
two people to identify all fresh turtle nests and predator were grouped in days of five. Available nests: newly laid nests each
night plus the No. of nests before the 12th June, minus the empty
tracks. Turtle and predator species were identified from their nests after a predator attack.
prints in the sand. Nests were mapped within beach sectors
of 250 m and individually marked with numbered sticks; their
location and distance from the sea were recorded. In cases Most of the nests (86.9%) were of green turtles, 5.1% were
of nest predation, date, time and nest number were recorded. loggerhead turtle and 8.0% were not identifiable to species
Table 1. Marine turtle species nesting at Species No. Nests % of nests No.pred nests % of pred nests
Akyatan beach, 1995: ? = unknown; % of Chelonia mydas 206 86.9 49 23.8
pred nests = predation rate calculated on Caretta caretta 12 5.1 4 33.3
the total number of nests for each species. ? 19 8.0 10 52.6
Total 237 100.0 63 26.6
Oral presentations / Nesting Beaches 71

T ime between egg laying and first predation

were seemingly unable to find nests before the fourth week
16
No. nest s preda ted onc e
of incubation. In fact, no nests were predated before the 29th
14
12
No. twic e pr edat ed nest s
of June, although fresh fox tracks were continually observed
No. nests
10
8 on the beach, and fresh nests were available. Nests pre-
6
4
dated twice were mostly recorded at the beginning of the
2 research, when it is believed that predator incentive to find
0
1-7 8 - 14 15 - 21 22 - 28 29 - 35 36 - 42 43 - 49 50 - 56 nests was highest. Nests predated twice (22% of all nests)
Pre -predation time (days)
were always attacked on two subsequent nights, a behaviour
that has also been observed for foxes at Kapirissa Bay,
Figure 4. Interval of time between the date of laying the egg and Greece (Margaritoulis et al., 1996). Egg caching was more
first predation (pre-predation time) common among foxes on other beaches (Macdonald et al.,
(Table 1). 1994), but this has never been observed at Akyatan. Attack-
An increase in predation activity was recorded until ing twice on subsequent nights could be considered as an
the beginning of August, after which it declined, even though alternative behaviour to caching. At Dalyan, Turkey, foxes
a considerable number of available nests was still present on retrieve caches on subsequent nights (Macdonald et al.,
the beach (Fig.3). Available nests are the total of newly laid 1994), whereas foxes raid a nest on subsequent nights at
nests each day plus the number of nests laid before our Akyatan.
arrival (12th of June) minus nests found empty after predator
attack. During the study a total of 63 nests were predated ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
(26.6 % of all nests present) and 14 of the predated nests We thank the Italian and Turkish volunteers for their
were raided twice. The second predation event always help, the Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, U.K.
occured the day after the first.The majority (83%) of nests and DHKD, Turkey for their active collaboration, and the
was taken by predators after the fourth week of develop- Ministry of Environment, Ankara, Forestry District of Adana
ment; the interval between the date of egg laying and first and the Turkish Embassy, Rome, for their assistance. MA
predation (pre-predation time) had a mean value of 35.5 days. and GG received travel support from The David and Lucile
A Mann Whitney U-test showed a significant difference in Packard Foundation.
pre-predation time between twice predated nests and nests
predated once (z = -3.45, P<0.001; Figure 4). LITERATURE CITED
DISCUSSION Baran, I. and M. Kasparek. 1989. Marine Turtle Turkey.

Status survey 1988 and recommendations for
The preponderance, and high density, of green turtle conservation and management. World Wide Fund for
nests found in 1995, were comparable to the 1994 results Nature report.
(Gerosa et al., 1995; Brown and Macdonald, 1995). In ad- Baran, I., S.H. Durmus and M.K. Atatur. 1991. On Chelonia
dition, the 4 km study area had the same high density of mydas (L.) population of Mersin-Kazanli region. Doga
nesting as found in 1994 (Gerosa et al., 1995). Turk Zooloji Dergesi 15(3): 185-194.
Studies from eight Turkish nesting beaches show Brown, L. and D.W. Macdonald. 1995. Predation on Green
that canids are the main egg predators: Goksu Delta (van turtle (Chelonia mydas) nests by wild canids at Akyatan
Piggelen and Strijbosch, 1993); Kazanli (Baran et al., 1991); beach, Turkey. Biological Conservation 71: 55-60.
Dalyan (Macdonald et al., 1994); Belek, Fethiye and Patara Demetropoulos, A. and M. Hadjichristophorou. 1989. Sea
(Baran and Kasparek, 1989); Side, Alanya (Geldiay et al., turtle conservation in Cyprus. Marine Turtle Newsletter
1982). Three species of predators are known: red fox (Vulpes 44: 4-6.
vulpes), golden jackal (Canis aureus) and feral dog. Red Geldiay, R., T. Koray and S. Balik. 1982. Status of sea turtle
fox was the main predator at Akyatan (nests predated = 38), populations (Caretta caretta and Chelonia mydas) in
but golden jackal also occurred (1 nest predated) during the the Northern Mediterranean Sea, Turkey. In: Biology
study period. and Conservation of sea turtles, pp. 425-434. Bjorndal
It is a commonly claimed that nest predation is highest K.A. (Ed). Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution
the first two nights after oviposition because turtle sign, such Press.
as tracks in the sand and liquid secreted from the cloaca Gerosa, G., P. Casale and S.V. Yerli. 1995. Report on sea
during the egg laying process, are still visible on the beach. turtle nesting beach study (Akyatan, Turkey).
Predation has also frequently been observed to occur just Proceedings of International Congress of Chelonian
before the emergence of hatchlings (Demetropoulus and Conservation, pp. 173-180. SOPTOM Ed. France:
Hadijchristophorou 1989; van Piggelen and Strijbosch, Gonfaron. Tortoise Village, July 1995.
1993). At Akyatan during the 1995 nesting season, the first Macdonald, D.W., L. Brown, S. Yerli and A.F. Cambolat. 1994.
case of nest predation was recorded when the season was Behaviour of Red Foxes (Vulpes) caching eggs of
well advanced (29 June). Predators found nests throughout Loggerhead turtles, Caretta. J. Mammology 75(4): 985-
the incubation period, but mainly after the fourth week; they 988.
72 Nesting Beaches / Oral presentations

Margaritoulis, D., G. Hiras, C. Pappa and S. Voutsinas. 1996. sea turtles (Caretta caretta and Chelonia mydas) in the
Protecting loggerhead nests from foxes at the Bay of Goksu Delta, Turkey, June-August 1991. Turkish J. of
Kapirissa, Western Greece. In: Proceedings of the Zoology 17(2): 137-149.
fifteenth annual workshop on sea turtle biology and
conservation. 387:355. NOAA Technical Memorandum
NMFS-SEFSC.
Siegel, S. and N.J. Castellan, Jr. 1988. Nonparametric
statistics for Behavioural Sciences. Second edition.
McGraw-Hill, London, 399 pp.
van Piggelen, D.C.G. and H. Strijbosch. 1993. The nesting of
NUTRIENT TRANSFER AND ENERGY FLOW FROM MARINE TO TERRESTRIAL

ECOSYSTEMS BY LOGGERHEAD SEA TURTLES AT MELBOURNE BEACH, FLORIDA,
U.S.A.
Sarah S. Bouchard and Karen A. Bjorndal

Archie Carr Center for Sea Turtle Research, PO Box 118525, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32611, U.S.A.
bouchard@zoo.ufl.edu
Some species play critical roles in the functioning of ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ecosystems by transporting energy and nutrients from one
I thank the Chelonia Institute, the David and Lucile
ecosystem to another. Sea turtles act as such biological trans-
Packard Foundation, the Archie Carr Center for Sea Turtle
porters when they migrate from feeding grounds to nesting
Research, and the Department of Zoology and the Graduate
beaches where they introduce large nutrient loads in the form
Student Council at the University of Florida for providing
of eggs. The purpose of this study was to quantify the en-
the funding that made my travel to the symposium possible.
ergy and nutrients introduced into the nesting beach at
I also thank Dr. Lew Erhart at the University of Central
Melbourne Beach, Florida, by loggerhead sea turtles. Nu-
Florida for providing data on the number of loggerheads
trient analyses of (1) freshly laid eggs, (2) eggs at various
nesting at Melbourne Beach during this study.
stages of development, (3) hatchlings, and (4) hatching re-
mains were used in conjunction with nest inventories to es-
timate the fate of the introduced nutrients. Conserving sea
turtle populations will ensure that this important ecosystem
function is maintained.
SPATIAL AND TEMPORARY MOVE TO ADJACENT SUITABLE NESTING SITES OF

BLACK TURTLE (Chelonia agassizii) IN MICHOACAN, MEXICO: IMPLICATIONS FOR
CONSERVATION
Mara Luisa Herrera Arroyo, Carlos Delgado Trejo, and Alfredo Figueroa Lopez
Laboratorio Tortuga Marina y Biologa de la Conservacin, Facultad de Biologa UMSNH, Edif. 'R' Ciudad Universitaria,
Col. Felcitas del Ro, Morelia, Mxico. jadiaz@zeus.ccu.umich.mx
Philopatry and Nest Site Fidelity are two characteris- tained during six seasons (1988, 1990, 1991, 1994 and 1996),
tics that form an ancient reproductive strategy in sea turtles. by University of Michoacn on black sea turtle (C. agassizii)
Once it has returned to the region of its birth and selected a population in Michoacn, Mxico, show an spatial and tem-
nesting beach, will tend to renest in relatively close proxim- poral movement in three diferent zones on Colola beach.
ity during subsequent nesting attempts within that nesting The ANOVA and Tukey anlisis was due to know wich zones
season. The genus Chelonia show a high degree of nest fi- shown statistical significance diferences. Zone East show
delity (most renesting attempts within 200 to 600 m of pre- statistical diferences with both Mid and West zones
vious attempt). However, little is know about the disrupt of (F2df013.8; Fo.o5(2,12,d.f.)=3.84
this ancient behavior in sea turtles. The analysis of data ob-

SEX RATIO OF HATCHLINGS IN NESTS CAN BE ESTIMATED FROM THE MEAN

TEMPERATURE DURING THE MIDDLE THIRD OF INCUBATION
Yakup Kaska1, Robert W. Furness2, and Ibrahim Baran3

1
Pamukkale niversitesi, Fen Edebiyat Fakltesi, Biyoloji Blm, Denizli, Turkey. 9406804k@udcf.gla.ac.uk
2
Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, U.K.
3
Dokuz Eyll niversitesi, Buca Egitim Fakltesi, Biyoloji Blm, Buca-Izmir, Turkey.
Laboratory and field experiments have shown that sex was then covered, and protected with wire mesh against dog
in many turtle species is determined by egg incubation tem- and fox predation. These temperature recorders and a sample
perature, usually during the middle third of development of eggs (3-7) were taken a few days before anticipated hatch-
(Yntema and Mrosovsky, 1980; Janzen and Paukstis, 1991; ing time. Temperature data were offloaded to a computer
Mrosovsky, 1994). Few studies have monitored incubation and gonads of the sacrificed hatchlings dissected and pre-
temperatures in the field, but experiments using artificial served in Bouins solution for sex determination. The go-
nests, or incubators with cyclic temperature fluctuations, nads were cut in half transversely and one half was embed-
suggest that sex is determined as though eggs were incu- ded in paraffin wax, sectioned at 8-10 m from the middle
bated constantly at the mean temperature. When eggs are of the gonad, and stained with the Periodic Acid Schiff re-
incubated at constant temperatures, there is a narrow range action (PAS) and Harris hematoxylin. Sex designation was
of temperatures over which around 50% of each sex will be based on development of cortical and medullar regions and
produced (pivotal temperature or threshold temperature), presence and absence of seminiferous tubules (Yntema and
and wider ranges above this temperatures produce females Mrosovsky 1980). The middle third of the incubation pe-
and below this threshold produce males (Bull, 1980). Piv- riod was calculated from the total incubation period, from
otal temperatures for all sea turtle species are reported to lie the night of laying to the day of first hatching.
within a 1 oC range (28.6-29.7 oC).
Estimates of the sex ratio have also been obtained by RESULTS
combining the nesting distribution with the sexing of samples
Temperatures of green turtle nests and loggerhead nests
of hatchlings from different times during the season and
were recorded on six Eastern Mediterranean beaches dur-
termed Seasonal Sex Production Profiles (SSPPs) by
ing the nesting season of 1995 and 1996. The depths of top
Mrosovsky (1994) or from pivotal incubation duration
and bottom level of any green turtle nest was around 70-90
(Marcovaldi et al., 1997). If the temperature of a nest dur-
cm., and 30-50 cm. for loggerhead turtle nests. The clutch
ing the middle third of development is known, then the sex
size varied from 65 to 118. Two of the loggerhead nests did
ratio of hatchlings from that nest can be predicted. If in turn
not hatch. One of these was inundated twice during the
this information is known for all parts of a beach through-
middle third of incubation period and the other was under a
out a nesting season, then the overall primary sex ratio can
vehicle track. The hatching success of these nests varied
be predicted for all hatchlings produced from that beach
between 48% and 94%.
(Standora and Spotila, 1985).
The data on temperature and sex ratio of sea turtles
In this study, we investigated the intra-clutch tempera-
are presented in Table 1. Maximum temperature increase
ture differences of two species of turtles nesting in the Medi-
during the incubation period for loggerhead turtle nests was
terranean, and the sex ratio of these nests by sexing a sample
9.6 oC (min. 24.5 oC , max. 34.1 oC). Temperature of the
of hatchlings from each level where temperatures were re-
middle third of the incubation ranged from 27.4 to 32.5 oC.
corded. The results are presented in detail in Kaska et al.
Mean temperature differences during the middle third of
(1998).
the incubation period between the top and bottom of log-
gerhead turtle nests ranged from 0.3 oC to 1.3 oC. The mean
temperature of the whole incubation period for 5 green turtle
Temperature was measured using Tiny talk tempera- nests ranged from 29.5 to 31.3 oC. Maximum temperature
ture recorders (Orion Components (Chichester) Ltd., U.K.). increase during the incubation period for green turtle nests
The accuracy of the device was tested under laboratory con- was 9.6 oC (min. 24.9 oC , max. 34.5 oC).
ditions against a standard mercury thermometer, and they All the nests during the middle third of the incubation
were found to have a mean resolution of 0.35 oC (min. 0.3 period experienced above the pivotal temperature, except
o
C, max. 0.4 oC) for temperatures between 4 oC and 50 oC. for one nest. The sex ratio of hatchlings for all nests was
We launched the tiny talk by computer for a recording pe- also calculated. 10-18 hatchlings per nest were sexed, and
riod of 60 days with readings taken at 48 min. interval. This the results showed a female biased sex ratio for both spe-
gave 30 readings per day. They were placed at three differ- cies, except for one loggerhead nest which had experienced
ent depths (top, middle and bottom) of the nest, during the below the pivotal temperature during the middle third of the
oviposition or after excavating the nest in the morning of incubation period. There is a positive correlation between
laying (approximately 10 hours after oviposition). The nest the mean temperature of the middle third of the incubation
Table 1. The results of temperature and sex ratio of green and loggerhead turtle nests (*Temperatures are not recorded at those
TOP (T) MIDDLE (M) BOTTOM (B) MEAN OF Inc. Sex

Mean Middle Mean Middle Mean Middle Mean Middle Period (%Female)
Nest no temp.SE thirdSE temp.SE thirdSE temp.SE thirdSE temp. third (day) Mean (T-M-B)
C.mydas 1 29.80.05 30.20.03 29.90.05 30.20.03 29.40.05 29.80.02 29.5 30.1 63 60(60-60-60)
C.mydas 2 30.30.03 30.90.03 30.00.04 30.60.03 29.50.04 30.10.02 30.0 30.5 60 73(100-82-40)
C.mydas 3 31.50.05 32.10.04 31.30.06 31.80.05 31.00.06 31.50.04 31.3 31.8 54 94(100-100-80)
C.mydas 4 30.70.03 31.00.03 30.40.04 30.50.03 30.00.04 30.20.02 30.4 30.6 59 78(100-83-50)
C.mydas 5 31.20.05 31.90.05 30.90.05 31.60.05 30.60.05 31.10.04 30.9 31.5 55 89(100-83-83)
C.caretta 1 29.40.03 29.80.07 28.60.03 29.10.05 28.20.03 28.80.03 28.7 29.2 - ---
C.caretta 2 30.90.04 31.30.05 30.60.04 31.10.04 30.00.04 30.60.04 30.5 31.0 54 83(100-83-67)
C.caretta 3 29.60.03 29.10.04 29.70.03 29.20.03 29.40.02 28.80.04 29.6 29.0 53 53(60-60-40)
C.caretta 4 31.70.03 32.20.03 31.70.02 32.20.01 31.40.02 32.00.01 31.6 32.1 50 100(100-100-100)
C.caretta 5 31.60.03 32.10.03 31.10.03 31.50.02 30.80.03 31.20.02 31.2 31.6 51 89(100-83-83)
C.caretta 6 32.10.03 32.50.02 31.80.03 32.10.02 31.10.04 32.10.01 31.2 32.2 50 100(100-100-100)
C.caretta 7 28.80.01 28.70.02 28.10.01 28.10.01 27.40.02 27.40.01 28.1 28.1 61 44(50-50-33)
C. caretta 8 27.70.01 27.60.01 27.30.01 27.20.01 27.00.01 27.00.01 27.3 27.3 - ---
C.caretta 9 30.90.02 30.20.01 30.40.02 30.20.01 29.80.02 30.10.01 30.4 30.2 55 75(83-80-60)
C.caretta 10 30.50.01 30.80.01 29.90.01 30.20.01 29.30.01 29.80.02 29.9 30.3 52 72(83-83-50)
C.caretta 11 * * * * 29.20.01 29.50.01 29.2 29.5 54 61(67-67-50)
C.caretta 12 31.20.09 31.50.01 * * * * 31.2 31.5 50 83(100-83-67)
C.caretta 13 31.90.01 32.30.01 * * * * 31.9 32.3 48 100(100-100-100)
C.caretta 14 30.90.02 31.30.01 * * 30.50.03 30.60.08 30.7 30.9 52 83(100-83-67)
C.caretta 15 * * 29.60.01 29.90.01 29.20.01 29.50.01 29.4 29.7 54 61(67-67-50)
C.caretta 16 * * 30.70.01 30.70.01 30.30.01 30.30.00 30.5 30.5 54 78(83-83-67)
C.caretta 17 30.00.01 30.10.01 * * 29.60.00 29.70.00 29.8 29.9 53 67(83-67-50)
C.caretta 18 31.60.02 32.10.03 31.00.02 32.00.01 29.50.03 31.10.02 31.0 31.7 52 90(100-83-67)
levels)
period (r2= 0.96) and sex ratio (percent female), but inverse which experience little temperature fluctuation (Bull, 1980;
relation between the mean temperature of a nest and incu- Morreale et al., 1982), but the results of this work show that
bation period. The mean incubation temperatures can be use mean temperatures can be used for predicting the incubation
for estimating the incubation period. In general, we can say period but provide a poor prediction of sex ratio.
that an 1 oC decrease in the mean incubation temperature The variety of relationship between pivotal and beach
means 4 days increase in incubation period. Since the top of temperatures suggested that diversity of sex ratios in differ-
nests was warmer than the bottom during the middle third ent populations should be expected (Mrosovsky, 1994). From
of incubation, we can expect the percentage of females to our results it can be said that the pivotal temperatures for
be higher among eggs at the top of the nest. This was the sea turtles in the Mediterranean is just below 29 oC, and the
case. The percentage of females in eggs sampled from the mean temperature during the middle third of the incubation
top of nests was higher than in samples from the bottom of period was closely correlated with the percent sex ratio.
the same nest in 20 of 23 nests, was 100% at all levels in
two and was 60% in all levels in one. For both species the LITERATURE CITED
overall difference in numbers of males and females between
top and bottom of nests was statistically significant (green Bull, J.J. 1980. Sex determination in reptiles. Q. Rev. Biol.
turtle nests X2 1df =6.86, loggerhead turtle nests X2 1d.f = 55: 3-20.
.
9.82 P< 0.01 in both). Bustard, H.R. 1972. Sea turtles: their natural history and
conservation. Taplinger, New York.
DISCUSSION Carr, A. and Hirth, H. 1961. Social facilitation in green turtle
siblings. Anim. Behav. 9: 68-70.
Bustard (1972) reported the optimal temperature range Hendrickson, J.R. 1958. The green sea turtle, Chelonia
for sea turtle egg incubation as 27-32 oC. Reported tem- mydas (Linn.), in Malaya and Sarawak. Proc. Zool. Soc.,
perature rises in natural nests are between 2 and 7 oC Lond. 130: 455-535.
(Hendrickson, 1958; Carr and Hirth, 1961; Bustard and Janzen, F.J., and Paukstis, G.L. 1991. Environmental sex
Greenham, 1968). Our data generalize that the temperature determination in reptiles: ecology, evolution, and
of marine turtle nests in the Mediterranean is between 24 experimental design. Quart. Rev. Biol. 66(2): 149-179.
and 35 oC and rises by up to 10 oC during incubation. Kaska, Y., Downie, R., Tippett, R., and Furness, R.W. 1998.
Our data also showed that top eggs were warmer and Natural temperature regimes for loggerhead and green
bottom eggs were cooler with the middle ones intermediate turtle nests in the Eastern Mediterranean. Can. J. of
in the first third of incubation; but later in incubation middle Zool., (in press).
temperatures become the same as the temperature of the Marcovaldi, M.A., Godfrey, M.H., and Mrosovsky, N. 1997.
top eggs or even sometimes warmer due to metabolic heat. Estimating sex ratios of loggerhead turtles in Brazil from
There was a female biased sex ratio from these results. pivotal incubation duration. Can. J. Zool., 75;755-770.
Similar results were also reported elsewhere (Mrosovsky, Morreale, S.J., Ruiz, G.J., Spotila, J.R. and Standora, E.A.
1994). Mean incubation temperatures may be adequate to 1982. Temperature dependent sex determination: current
predict sex ratios only in sea turtles that have deep nests

practices threaten conservation of sea turtles. Science, 722.

N.Y., 216: 1245-1247. Yntema, C.L. and Mrosovsky, N. (1980). Sexual differentiation
Mrosovsky, N. 1994. Sex ratios of sea turtles. The J. Exper. in hatchling loggerhead (Caretta caretta) incubated at
Zool., 270; 16-27. different controlled temperatures. Herpetologica. 36: 33-
Standora, E.A., and Spotila, J.R. 1985. Temperature dependent 36.
sex determination in sea turtles. Copeia 1985 (3): 711-
THE IMPACT OF TOURIST DEVELOPMENT ON LOGGERHEAD NESTING ACTIVITY

AT DAPHNI BEACH, ZAKYNTHOS, GREECE
Kostas Katselidis and Dimitrios Dimopoulos

The Sea Turtle Protection Society of Greece, 35 Solomou St, GR-10682 Athens, Greece. stps@compulink.gr
INTRODUCTION
Caretta caretta is the only sea turtle species nesting in mined by surveying the beach early in the morning on foot,
Greece. Extremely important nesting areas were discovered from the end of May until the beginning of September every
in 1977 on the island of Zakynthos (Margaritoulis, 1982). year. The aim is to locate the previous nights adult sea turtle
The most important threat for the loggerhead nesting emergence. Emergences are checked, by visual examination
areas, in Zakynthos, is the uncontrolled development of tour- of the nesting spoor, whether they have resulted in egg lay-
ism (Arianoutsou, 1988). On Zakynthos, all of the areas ad- ing or not and then recorded. The results of the beach sur-
jacent to nesting beaches are privately owned. The Greek veys provide information on the total number of emergences
State, in order to stem the destruction of the sea turtles nest- and nests made during the nesting season. The same meth-
ing areas, has implemented restrictive legal measures since odology is used on the other nesting beaches in the Bay,
1984. However, legislation is poorly enforced and the failure allowing comparisons between the nesting beaches of
of the state to compensate the affected by restrictions land- Laganas Bay.
owners, has led to uncontrolled development adjacent to
nesting beaches (Charalambides, 1990; Dimopoulos, 1991). RESULTS
In this paper we focus on the effects of uncontrolled After 14 years of monitoring it was found that Daphni
development on the nesting beach of Daphni and how this is the second most important beach in terms of nests with
situation was reversed. 12.1% (157 nests per annum) of the total number of nests
SITE DESCRIPTION
The island of Zakynthos is situated in the Ionian Sea
west of the Greek mainland. The nesting beaches of Zakynthos
are found at the southern part of the island, in the Bay of
Laganas. The bay is almost semicircular in shape with an
opening of about 12 km and a total length of coastline ex-
ceeding 20 km. Only 5 km of the 20 km of the coastline of the
Bay are used by the turtles. The six nesting beaches of
Laganas Bay, starting from the western part of the Bay, are
Marathonissi, East Laganas, Kalamaki, Sekania, Daphni, and
Gerakas.
Daphni beach is situated between the beaches of Figure1. Beaches in geographical order from west eastwards.
Sekania and Gerakas at the Northeast part of the bay. It is MAR: Marathonissi, LAG: East Laganas, KAL: Kalamaki, SEK:
Sekania, DAP: Daphni, GER: Gerakas.
about 800 m in length and 20 to 30 m in width. The beach has
generally a large proportion of pebbles and stones but there
are also parts with fine soft sand. Daphni is backed by steep made in the Bay of Laganas (Figure 1).
hills covered with sclerophyllous, evergreen vegetation Daphni is also the second most important nesting beach
(maquis). Two dirt roads lead to a flat area on the western in terms of emergences with 18.4% (913 emergences per an-
part of the beach. num) of the total number of emergences in Laganas Bay (Fig-
ure 2).
METHODOLOGY The annual fluctuation of the percentage of nests on
Daphni, in relation to the total number of nests recorded on
The Sea Turtle Protection Society of Greece (STPS)
Zakynthos nesting beaches, over the last 14 years is shown
has been monitoring Daphni beach since 1984, in order to
in Figure 3.
determine nesting activity. The nesting activity is deter-

holds the second place in terms of nests with 12.1% mean

value. It is also in second place in terms of emergences with
18.4% mean value (Figure 2), in comparison to the nesting
beaches of Zakynthos. In 1993 a drop in nesting activity
brought Daphni beach to the fifth place, in terms of nests,
among the nesting beaches of Zakynthos. The percentage
of Daphnis nests in relation to the total number of nests on
Zakynthos beaches during 1993 nesting season dropped to
Figure 2. Beaches in geographical order from west eastwards.

MAR: Marathonissi, LAG: East Laganas, KAL: Kalamaki, SEK:
Sekania, DAP: Daphni, GER: Gerakas.
DISCUSSION
As described before, Daphni beach is a small beach,
running only for about 800 meters. The west sector is the
main nesting area of the beach, as the east sector is very
narrow (6 m to 15 m in width) and only a very few turtles nest
there. The west sector is about 400 m long.
The most important problem that Daphni beach is fac- Figure 3. Fluctuation of the contribution (in percent) of Daphni's
ing, at present, is that of uncontrolled and unplanned tourist nests to the total number of nests per year.
development. The effects of this kind of development are
various and can be very important for the characteristics of a 8.3% (Figure 3), a decrease of 3.8 points compared to the
beach as a nesting beach. These threats may be the direct average.
influence of human activities, such as light, noise distur- Another drop occurred in 1994 when Daphni beach
bances and the human presence on the beach during the held fourth place, in terms of nests, among the nesting
night, or the loss of the nesting habitat due to the beachfront beaches of Zakynthos. The percentage of the number of
development. nests to the total number of nests dropped to 7.9% in 1994
Prior to 1989, there was only one small tavern at the (Figure 3), a decrease of 4.2 points compared to the average.
back of Daphni beach, which was operated only during the Following national and international pressure the Greek
daytime. A small-unpaved road led to this taverna through government enforced existent legislation, in the beginning
the hills. In 1990, a second tavern was built at the back of the of 1995, and closed down the illegal business and buildings
beach and a new dirt road was opened through the hills, on Daphni beach before the nesting season. This conse-
leading to the new tavern. Another two huts were settled on quently reduced human presence on the beach during the
the hills above the beach. In that year the two taverns oper- night. As a result the nesting activity increased to initial
ated only during the day. In the following two years the levels and the percentage of Daphnis nests, to the total
construction of new buildings and the expansion of the old number of nests, bounced back to 13.2% in 1995, 11.2% in
ones continued. Thus at the end of 1992 there were 13 build- 1996 and 12.5% in 1997 nesting season (Figure 3).
ings at the back of Daphni beach, including the two taverns There are many sea turtle nesting beaches around the
and one bar. In the beginning of the 1993 nesting season, the world with much greater levels of development. However we
two taverns started to operate during the night. All of these believe that the small size of the beaches in Zakynthos and
new buildings were illegally built, with the tolerance of the the very high nest density mean that any development of
local authorities, and without any planning permission. Most them has a significant effect on nesting activity. We believe
of these buildings were used as holiday homes or were rented that the drop in nesting activity on the one single beach of
to tourists. Daphni that has been observed during the nesting seasons
The consequences of these constructions and their of 1993 and 1994 was due to the construction and the opera-
use, for the nesting beach of Daphni were multiple: tion at night of these illegal buildings. The closing down of
The erection of these buildings and the removal of these buildings is a temporary solution, but the final solu-
tion must be the demolition of these buildings that have
the surrounding vegetation caused considerable ero-
been officially declared as illegal.
sion, which degraded the sand quality of the beach.
The operation of these buildings, as holiday homes LITERATURE CITED
or rooms for rent, increased human presence on the
beach, especially at night. Arianoutsou, M. 1988. Assessing the impacts of human
As a result of the above, the nesting activity was seri- activities on nesting of loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta
ously affected in the years, 1993 and 1994 on Daphni beach. caretta) on Zakynthos island, Western Greece. Conserv.
From Figure 1 it can be observed that Daphni beach 15 (4): 327-334.

Charalambides, N. 1990. On the beach with the turtles of

Greece. Earth Island Journal. 24-25.
Dimopoulos, D. 1991. Zakynthos 1990: An update on the
public awareness programme. Marine Turtle Newsletter
54:21-23.
Kemf, E. 1993. Tourism versus turtles. Kemf, E., Hillary, E.
Eds., Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas. The Law
of Mother Earth. Earthscan Publications Ltd., London.
296: 186-193.
Margaritoulis, D. 1990. Successes and failures: conservation
and tourism on the nesting beaches of Laganas Bay,
Zakynthos, Greece, 1989. Marine Turtle Newsletter.
SAND COLOR, TEMPERATURE, AND SEX RATIO OF EMERGING HATCHLINGS ON

LOGGERHEAD' S NESTING BEACHES IN JAPAN
Yoshimasa Matsuzawa1, Wataru Sakamoto1, Katsufumi Sato2, Kiyoshi Gotou3, Kazuyoshi Ohmuta4, Yasuyuki Asai5,
and Hajime Ueda6
1
Laboratory of Fisheries Environmental Oceanography, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-01,
Japan
2
National Institute of Polar Research, 1-9-10 Kaga, Itabashi, Tokyo173, Japan email: caretta@kais.kyoto-u.ac.jp Japan
3
278 Higashiyoshida, Minabe-town, Wakayama 645, Japan
4
1161 Nagata, Kamiyaku-town, Kagoshima 891-42, Japan
5
Minamichita Beachland Aquarium, 428-1 Okuda, Mihama-town, Aichi 470-32, Japan
6
6171-1 Shirahane Omaezaki-town, Shizuoka 421-06, Japan.caretta@kais.kyoto-u.ac.jp
We examined the latitudinal difference of thermal char- temperature often rose to 31.6 or higher in summer and
acter of 18 nesting be aches for loggerhead turtle in Japan. dropped rapidly in fall, hence lower hatchling-emergence
By using data logger, sand temperature of each rookery was success. In order to examine such latitudinal difference, ir-
recorded every one hour throughout the reproductive sea- radiative sand reflectance was measured at each rookery.
sons from 1993 to 1997. During rainy seasons the higher This measurement showed that the reflectance was inversely
latitudinal beach was cooler than the lower one, while after correlated with latitude. Estimated annual sex ratios of
the seasons the higher latitudinal temperature increased over emerging hatchlings at four rookeries will be also reported.
that in the lower one. At the higher latitudinal beaches sand
NESTING BEACHES AT NICARAGUA'S PACIFIC COAST
Carlos Peres Roman, Ivan Ortega Gasteazoro, and Jose Gabriel Caceres Diaz
Direccin de Fauna; Ministerio del Ambiente y los Recursos Naturales (MARENA); Km 12 1/2 Carretera Norte; Managua,
Nicaragua. nicam@ns.sdnnic.org.ni
At the Pacific Coast Nicaraguas are 17 nesting sites of

seaturtles. Two of them have arribadas of Olive Ridley the
rest leg the eggs as solitairs. Where depot from 1 to 37.000
nests and from 1 to over a million hatchlings are common.
The datas are taked from July to January each year.
Four of these nestingbeaches The Environment and Natural
Resources Department (Ministerio del Ambiente y los
Recursos Naturales [MARENA] has Rangers and other gov-
ernmental Institutions.
In one of these sites give colaboration to local popula-
tion and organisations that voluntary work for the
conservationof seaturtles

SEASONAL CHANGES IN PLASMA STEROID AND TRIGLYCERIDE

CONCENTRATIONS IN ADULT FEMALE GREEN SEA TURTLES FROM SOUTHERN
QUEENSLAND
Mark Hamann1, Tim S. Jessop1 and 2, Matt Forest3, Colin J. Limpus4 , and Joan M. Whittier1
1
Department of Anatomical Sciences, University of Queensland, Australia m.hamann@mailbox.uq.edu.au
2
Department of Zoology, University of Queensland, Australia
3
P.O Box 526 Thursday Island, Queensland, Australia
4
Threatened Species and Ecosystems Unit, Queensland Department of Environment, Australia
The reproductive physiology of the green sea turtle, one levels were low throughout non breeding periods and
Chelonia mydas, has been studied in southern Queensland courtship then increased during the early nesting season and
from 1995 to 1997. Non nesting adults and immature turtles declined with the number of clutches laid. These results sug-
were captured using rodeo techniques in Moreton Bay, gest that plasma testosterone and triglycerides are two main
Shoalwater Bay and Heron Lagoon and bled soon after cap- factors involved with regulating the duration of the nesting
ture (<3min). Blood samples were collected from nesting season of the green sea turtle.
turtles post oviposition from the beaches of Heron Island.
Nesting data indicated that green sea turtles sampled on Heron
Island return to lay every 6-7 years; each year females lay
multiple clutches (range 1 -10) of 115 eggs at 12 day inter-
vals. Plasma triglyceride levels peaked during late vitello-
genesis / courtship then declined gradually throughout the
nesting season reaching nadir 6 months following the end of
nesting. Plasma testosterone levels showed a similar pattern,
peaking during courtship and then gradually declining to basal
levels following the last clutch for the season. Corticoster-
REWARDS FOR THE BIG, DUMB AND SOCIALLY INEPT: HORMONAL EVIDENCE
FOR LIFE-HISTORY TRADE-OFFS IN THE GREEN TURTLE, CHELONIA MYDAS
Tim S. Jessop1,3, Colin J. Limpus2, and Joan M. Whittier3

1
Department of Zoology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Q4072, Australia. Tjessop@zoology.uq.edu.au
2
Department of Environment, PO Box 155, Brisbane Q 4002, Australia
3
Department of Anatomical Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Q4072, Australia
The fitness of green turtles is dependent upon the suc- anthropogenic (capture) perturbations. Our results suggest
cess of a very small proportion of the numerous offspring that, compared to non-reproductive adults, reproductively
produced. Presumably, adult green turtles must exhibit life- active green turtles desensitize themselves to disturbance by
history strategies that maximize reproductive success. How- suppression of the adrenocortical corticosterone stress re-
ever, such reproductive strategies can compromise adult sur- sponse. The evolutionary significance of these observations
vivorship, resulting in a classic life-history trade-off. Hor- will be discussed.
mones are capable of forming the mechanistic or physiologi-
cal basis to such life history trade-offs. In this paper we ex-
amine the notion that reproductively active green turtles uti-
lize adrenocortical modulation to suppress the corticoster-
one stress response. This may represent a life-history tactic
to prevent corticosterone inhibition upon reproductive physi-
ology, despite the potential for decreasing survivorship by
temporarily removing this important physiological defense
mechanism. In this study we compared the adrenocortical
response of reproductively active and inactive adult green
turtles to a number of ecological (mass-nesting, inter male
aggression during courtship), environmental (heat stress) and
78 Physiology and Behavior / Oral presentations

WHAT CAN A GREEN SEA TURTLE LEARN?
Roger L. Mellgren1 and 2 and Martha A. Mann1 and 2

1
Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, U.S.A. mellgren@uta.edu
2
Acuario Xcaret, Carretera Chetumal-Pto. Juarez, km 282, Playa del Carmen, Quintana Roo, Mxico
Sea Turtles, like other reptiles, are often characterized The subjects were 18, 4-5 month old captive green sea
as having a limited capability to learn from experience turtles (Chelonia mydas). They were deprived of food for
(Subowski, 1992). However, any conclusion about a sea 48 hours prior to the start of the experiment.
turtles ability to learn is limited by a lack of data. Only A piece of PVC pipe was presented at a 45 angle to
recently have there been attempts to study learning in sea the horizontal with the end of the pipe slightly below the
turtles (Mellgren, Mann and Zurita, 1994; Mellgren, Mann water level in the tank. For the classical conditioning
and Arenas, 1998) and the results of those experiments sug- (autoshaping) group the piece of fish appeared through the
gest that sea turtles are comparable to other reptiles in their end of the pipe after 15 sec. For the instrumental (operant)
capacity to learn (Burghardt, 1977 for a review). Here we conditioning group the piece of fish appeared through the
report an experiment that evaluates the learning ability of end of the pipe immediately following the turtles bite on the
young green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) using the two most pipe. If a turtle failed to bite within 15 sec. the pipe was
commonly used laboratory procedures for studying learned removed and no fish was given for that trial. For the un-
behavior (e.g., Domjan, 1998). paired group the pipe was presented for 15 sec. and removed.
One procedure used to study learning is classical con- The piece of fish was presented 40, 60 or 80 sec. after the
ditioning, first popularized by Ivan Pavlov (1927). A neu- pipe had been removed in the same location where the pipe
tral stimulus such as a noise or visual signal is presented and was presented.
followed by a biologically significant event such as food.
Behavior relevant to the food such as salivation and other RESULTS
appetitive behaviors begin to occur to the signal prior to the
Both the classical (or autoshaping) and instrumental
presentation of the food as the signal-food pairings are re-
(or operant) conditioning procedures resulted in the rapid
peated. Often the subject of the classical conditioning pro-
development of approach and contact (biting) to the pipe
cedure comes to respond to the signal as if it were the food,
while the unpaired group showed a decline in both behav-
approaching and eating to signal, a phenomenon referred
iors to near zero. Figures 1 and 2 (approaches and contacts,
to as autoshaping (Locurto, Terrace and Gibbon, 1981).
respectively) show these results across blocks of trials (5
A second procedure used to study learning is instru-
trials/block). An analysis of variance (mixed model, groups
mental (or operant) conditioning. In this procedure the sub-
X blocks of trials) confirmed the obvious superiority of the
ject of the experiment is required to engage in a designated
classical and instrumental groups over the unpaired group
behavior in order to produce a biologically important event
on both measures. An analysis of just the classical and in-
such as food. The rat that learns to press a bar in a Skinner
strumental groups showed that there was no difference be-
Box to produce a piece of food is a familiar example of this
tween the groups on the approach measure, but for biting
procedure.
(contact), the instrumental group was significantly higher than
In a review and analysis of existing data on the learn-
the classical group. In fact, every subject in the instrumental
ing capacities of reptiles and amphibians, Subowski (1992)
concluded that the data can be adequately understood by as-
suming that these species are capable of learning based on
classical conditioning, but do not show evidence that they
are capable of instrumental conditioning. This conclusion
claims that sea turtles (and other reptiles) are capable of ac-
quiring information about the significance of signals, but are
insensitive to the outcomes their own behaviors produce. We
compared the classical and instrumental procedures in green
sea turtles to evaluate the ability of these turtles to learn us-
ing each procedure. Included is a control condition where
the signal and food are not presented together to insure the
classical and instrumental procedures produce behavioral
change through an associated process.
Figure 1. Approaches
Oral presentations / Physiology and Behavior 79

shows how visual acuity can be measured in sea turtles using

a version of this general procedure.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by a grant from Parque
Xcaret, Center of Sustainable Development of Maya Zone,
Mr. Ing. Marcos Constandse Madrazo, Director. We thank
Martin Sanchez, Alejandro Arenas, Adriana DAmiano and
Rogelio Villavicencio for their advice and help in doing this
research and Susan Sterling and Karen Twohey for prepar-
ing the manuscript and Figures.
LITERATURE CITED
Burghardt, G.M. 1977. Learning processes in reptiles. In:
Figure 2. Contacts Gans, C. and D.W. Tinkle (Eds.). pp. 555-681 Biology
of Reptila: Vol. 7, Ecology and Behavior. New York.
group bit the pipe on every trial over the last 20 trials of the Academic Press.
experiment. The classical conditioning group bit on approxi- Domjan, M. 1998. The Principles of Learning and Behavior
mately 65% of the trials during the same number of trials. 4th ed. Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole.
Locurto, C.M., H.S., Terrace , and J. Gibbon (Eds.) 1981.
DISCUSSION
Autoshaping and Conditioning Theory. New York:
The turtles showed rapid acquisition of the association Academic Press.
between the pipe and food. The unpaired control groups Mellgren, R.L., M.A. Mann, and J.C. Zurita. 1994. Feeding
quickly stopped approach and contact to the pipe when the on novel food in green (Chelonia mydas) and hawksbill
pipe and food were temporally unpaired, showing that the (Eretmochelys imbricata) hatchling sea turtles.
experimental groups were responsive to the association of Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Symposium on
pipe and food and their behavior cannot be interpreted by Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. NOAA Technical
nonlearning processes (e.g., indiscriminate biting of anything Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-341, 105-106.
placed in the tank). Mellgren, R.L., M.A. Mann, and A. Arenas. (in press).
The fact that the instrumental group showed a higher Learning to associate environmental stimuli with food
asymptotic level of response as compared to the classical in young green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas).
group, is consistent with the idea that the sea turtle is sensi- Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Symposium on Sea
tive to the outcome produced by its behavior, and inconsis- Turtle Biology and Conservation. NOAA Technical
tent with the hypothesis that reptiles are limited to learning Memorandum.
only about the relationship between signal and outcome and Subowski, M.D. 1992. Release-induced recognition learning
not about behavior and outcome. of amphibians and reptiles. Animal Learning and
In addition to revealing a mechanism by which sea Behavior. 20: 63-82.
turtles can better adapt to their environment, this experiment Pavlov, I.P. 1927. Conditioned reflexes (G.V. Anrep, trans.).
also provides a methodological basis for evaluating other London. Oxford University Press.
aspects of sea turtle biology. Morley-Bartol in this volume
MEASUREMENTS OF VISUAL ACUITY OF THE JUVENILE LOGGERHEAD SEA

TURTLE (CARETTA CARETTA): A BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
Soraya Moein Bartol

School of Marine Science, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, VA 23062
U.S.A. moein@vims.edu
Research performed on the sea turtle visual system has tween separate elements of an object, was measured from
focused mainly on aerial vision. However, sea turtles spend loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) using a two response
the majority of their lives in the marine and estuarine envi- forced-choice method. Loggerheads were trained, in a 500-
ronments and yet their visual capabilities in water remain gallon tank, to discriminate between a vertically striped panel
unanswered. Visual acuity, the ability to discriminate be- and a 50% gray panel. Test panels were illuminated simulta-

neously and a correct response (contact with PVC pipe be- in the aquatic environment and suggests that vision may play
low the striped panel) was reinforced with presentation of a an integral role in the loggerheads perception of its surround-
food reward. Training continued until the turtle chose the ings.
striped panel greater than 80% of the time. Acuity thresh-
olds were then collected by decreasing the stripe size in blocks ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
of several trials until both striped and gray panels were cho- I would like to thank the 18th Symposium, the Chelonia
sen equally. Thresholds were recorded from three animals Institute, Packard Foundation, and the College of William
and ranged from a minimum resolvable angle of 16 to 32 and Mary for travel aid to this conference.
minutes of arc. This acuity threshold is analogous to others
EFFECT OF THE THERMAL ENVIRONMENT ON THE TEMPORAL PATTERN OF

EMERGENCE OF HATCHLING LOGGERHEADS
Kathleen Moran, Karen A. Bjorndal, and Alan B. Bolten

Archie Carr Center for Sea Turtle Research, PO Box 118525, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32611, U.S.A
kmoran@zoo.ufl.edu
It is critical to the survival of sea turtle hatchlings that during emergence. We also counted the number of hatchlings
they emerge from the nest at night, both to avoid predators in each emergence, and the time and duration of each emer-
and to prevent over-heating that would result in heat torpor gence. We used these data to determine the nature of the
and perhaps death. One way for them to gauge the onset of cues that the hatchlings use and the overall thermal regime
darkness is to respond to decreases in sand temperature. under which emergence can occur.
Various theories exist as to what changes in the thermal re-
gime are actually important to the hatchlings. They may wait ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
for a threshold temperature, below which it is safe to emerge; I would like to thank the PADI Foundation, the Archie
they may wait until the top layers of sand become cooler Carr Center or Sea Turtle Research, the International
than those below them; or they may wait for a particular rate Womens Fishing Association, and the Department of Zool-
of cooling of the sand. ogy at the University of Florida for support in funding this
By marking loggerhead nests and then inserting ther- project. I am also grateful to the Chelonia Institute and the
mocouples at depths of 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 cm in the neck of David and Lucile Packard Foundation for helping to make
each nest prior to emergence, we were able to measure sand my travel to the symposium possible.
temperatures that the hatchlings experienced prior to and
A SEASONAL PROFILE OF PLASMA TRIGLYCERIDE LEVELS IN NESTING

FLATBACK (NATATOR DEPRESSUS) TURTLES ON CURTIS ISLAND, QUEENSLAND,
AUSTRALIA
Leigh Slater1, Colin Limpus2, and Joan Vmittyer1

1
Department of Anatomical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane QLD 4072, Australia
Lslater@zoology.uq.edu.au
2
This investigation examines the relationship among levels during the first nesting episode were observed between
plasma triglyceride (TG) levels, nesting episode and egg pro- females. No correlation was found between curved carapace
duction in nesting flatback turtles, Natator depressus. Plasma length and TG levels, however a weak but significant corre-
was collected from a series of females after each oviposition lation was found between TG level and clutch size. Together
for each of their four successive clutches within a breeding these data suggest that an important biological mechanism
season, Plasma TG levels, measured by spectrophotometry, may be occurring in association with the final clutch of the
had significantly decreased by the final nesting episode. season. Decreases in plasma TG levels may reflect a pos-
Decreases in TG levels corresponded to a significant decrease sible physiological termination of vitellogenesis.
in the number of eggs as well as the weight and diameter of
the eggs within the last clutch. Differences in plasma TG
Oral presentations / Physiology and Behavior 81

EVIDENCE FOR THE LACK OF HYPERGLYCEMIC ACTIVITY OF CORTICOSTERONE

IN THE OLIVE RIDLEY SEA TURTLE (LEPIDOCHELYS OLIVACEA)
Roldn A. Valverde, David W. Owens, Duncan S. MacKenzie, and Rhonda M. Patterson

Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-3258, U.S.A. roldan@biology.lsa.umich.edu
Reproductively active olive ridley sea turtles migrate

hundreds of kilometers from their feeding grounds in the
Eastern Pacific to their nesting beaches in Costa Rica. Dur-
ing their migration and nesting periods animals exhibit a
marked hypophagic behavior. Capture and sampling of adults
in the water at six hr intervals during a 24 hr period indicate
that serum glucose levels are maintained at a mean value of
39.1 + 0.8 mg/dl. After subjecting a group of 30 females and
seven males to stress and inducing an overall 12 fold in-
crease in corticosterone (B), glucose levels remained un-
changed at a mean of 49.2 mg/dl. Adrenocorticotropic hor-
mone (ACTH) injection (0.6 IU/Kg BW) induced a 10 fold
increase in B levels by four hours of injection. These levels
were maintained for up to 23 hrs postinjection. During this
experiment glucose levels exhibited a 2.0 fold decrease by
14 hrs postinjection, maintaining these lower levels during
the remainder of the experiment. These data indicate that
basal glucose levels are lower in reproductively active olive
ridleys than in adult, gonadally quiescent conspecifics and
that B lacks hyperglycemic activity in these reptiles. It is
possible that the lack of a hyperglycemic effect of B is due to
the reduced internal energy stores of reproductively active
animals.

PERMANENT EDUCATION SUPPORT FOR PROTECTION AND CONSERVATION OF

THE SEA TURTLES IN MAZATLAN SINALOA, MEXICO
Angeles Cruz Morelos

Acuario Mazatln, Ecological Department, Mazatln Sinaloa, Mxico. acuario@red2000.com.mx
To share working experience with the proposal of in- The technique subdirection of Acuario since 1991 has
culcate affectivity and respect values for sea turtles conser- the program of recover turtles nesting in 28 kilometers from
vation through teaching knowledges about chelonia biology, Delfin beach to North beach. In the program there are insti-
its marine ecosystem and fundamental aspects about natural tution and groups as hotels, scouts, lifeguards and commu-
resources in problems. The permanent project has three pro- nity that colaborate. Since there are reports of a sea turtle
grams; its a joined effort. The first program started in 1987 nesting, the nest is picked up taking it to the incubation room
with the organization of the Childrens meeting in South of until hatchling and then are taking to the beach. Also there
the State of Sinaloa. Conservation of the Sea Turtles. The are speeches to different people of our community about
second program started in 1991 with the protection for sea were doing.
turtles in the tourist zone from El Delfin beach to North beach.
And the third one started in 1996, its an educational pro- C.- ENVIROMENTAL EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR
gram for supporting nature science in elementary school, with SUPPORTING SEA TURTLE CONSERVATION
the objetive to join actions that will help the biodiversity pro- SCHOOL YEAR 1996 - 1997 3,740 KIDS.
tection through continue educational programs for a variety
of people in our community. In 1996 started this program on sea turtle conservation
for elementary schools in every grades. To design this pro-
A.- THE CHILDRENS MEETING IN SOUTH OF THE gram we analized the nature science subjects of Public Edu-
STATE OF SINALOA. cation in Mexico. The content program for every grade has
Conservation of the Sea Turtles was planning for sup- two subjects: 1.- animals and plants 2.- enviroment and
porting education for kids of elementary schools of sixth grade protection. Each theme will guide kids to understand which
that have an average of 11 and 12 years old. Five counties of factors might protect better. To apply the class plan we use
the southern part of the State are involved ( Elota, San Ignacio, concepts about health, science, tecnology, energy, social and
Mazatlan, Rosario and Escuinapa ). The meeting is a reunion economic factors using proper vocabulary. The class is theory
for 100 kids in a DIF camp, its a complete week living to- and practice using slide projector, over head projector and
gether learning through social, cultural and sport activities. designed material for each part of the theme, also with a note-
The program is design with goals so kids will notice the book that was designed for it and the tour to the exhibition
scencial part of our region, how important are sea turtles and tanks. The participant institution is the National Committee
why were helping these animals. Kids analize chelonia group for protection and conservation of the sea turtles. The pro-
and decide by themselves in what level of participation in gram is accept by local and State authorities of the Public
conservation they want to be. The knowledges and vocabu- Education Secretary and since 1993 there is a commissioned
lary are according with the scholar grade so their understand- teacher from this institution in Acuario Mazatlan. At the
ing level will allow them to know human activities and their begining this program was only for school groups, now we
behavior. Its a week singing, playing, theory classes, work- know that this same program should be adapt for inhabitants
shops so kids are able to get the relation between sea turtles of coastal regions that dont have enough information about
and the other animals and also will able to use these their natural resources and is urgent to involve these com-
knowledges in their daily life. Since 1987 to 1997 Acuario munities.
Mazatlan, DIF camp support, speakers, volunteers and orga- Its not difficult to do educational job and because we
nizers are part of the formation process of 100 kids each year. can not still indifferetn about this situation in the world the
The past year 1997 in September and October we did surveys enviromental education is a strategy; its a process that has
to kids that have been already in these meeting since 1987. conditions and requirements for an educator. Elements such
We were looking for the beginners and these data will allow time, methodology, evaluation, etc., become our limits to
us to actualize, change and correct the activities in the pro- overcome; and is urgent to prepare us to still continue open-
gram. ing more paths as enviromental educators and beign opti-
mist to reach it. Our job is to do it with our preparation and
B.- PROTECTION TO NESTS ON THE TOURIST with the affective part of each educator. When we accept the
BEACHES IN MAZATLAN SINALOA, MEXICO. commitment to be a pionner between pionners we must trust
that even though with minimum human resources we are
1991 - 1997 398 nests
building metaphorically a new Noahs Ark called
37,576 hatching
Eviromental Education
25,499 hatchling
Oral presentations / Public Education and Participation 83

DIAGNOSTICO SOCIOECONOMICO EN LAS COMUNIDADES
Celia Gutierrez
Departamento de Ecologa y Recursos Naturales, Universidad Centroamericana, Nicaragua. cmgaa@ns.uca.edu.ni
The beach called La Flor is one of the two beaches area. The workshops have helped to identify work alterna-
in Nicaragua where every year thousands of sea turtles ar- tives near the area which should minimize the impact on the
rive to lay their ggs. Near this beach there are six communi- turtle population.
ties that are seriously impacting the population through egg Previously to this work we made a diagnostic where
poaching. Based in this social problem we made participa- 10% of the total population surveyed has at some time or
tive theaters-workshops where the people of the communi- another participated in the poaching and/or distributionof sea
ties talked about the different reasons why they participate turtle eggs.
in egg poaching. One of the main reason why they do that is
because the lack of economic opportunities to work near the
SUSTAINABILITY AND EDUCATION FOR CONSERVATION: FIVE PARADIGMATIC

VIEWS
Edgar Gonzlez Gaudiano

Centro de Educacin y Capacitacin para el Desarrollo Sustentable
Some of the main discussions related to available op- used as points of reference to analyze the pedagogic impli-
tions for sustainable development within the current world cations from five different points of reference. The presenta-
frame are analyzed. Some of the more critical points, par- tion proposes a frame of reference for environmental educa-
ticularly those of interest to developing countries are identi- tion, appropriate for the conservation needs of developing
fied and their associations to educational projects are estab- countries.
lished. Lucie Sauve's and Michael Colby's classifications are
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION A STRATEGY FOR SEA TURTLES CONSERVATION
Federico Hernndez Valencia1, Luis Fernando Gonzlez Guevara2, Francisco Valadez Fernndez2, Minerva Campos
Snchez3, Jos Acua Domnguez2, Mario Sandoval Ramos1, Alvaro Francisco Castillo Ceja1, and Daniel Daz
Rodrguez3
1
Laboratorio de Investigacin en Tortuga Marina y Biologa de la Conservacin. Facultad de Biologa, Universidad Michoacana
de San Nicols de Hidalgo. Mxico.
2
Programa Universitario de Conservacin a las Tortugas, Marinas. Centro de Ecologa Costera. Universidad de Guadalajara.
Mxico.
3
Laboratorio de Investigacin en Educacin Ambiental. Facultad de Biologa. Universidad Michoacana de San Nicols de
Hidalgo. Mxico. fhvalen@zeus.ccu.umich.mx
In Mxico, environmental education is an important is- Mxico (University of Michoacan and University of
sue of the strategy for sea turtles conservation. However, ef- Guadalajara). Together, they joined to conduct a training pro-
forts are commonly focused on training of university stu- gram of graduates, teachers and students of elementary
dents and graduates for research activities on sea turtles and schools and local people in order to interchange experiences
sea turtles camps management, but not on environmental on promoting environmental education and to encourage it,
education. as an important tool for sea turtles conservation in Mxico.
Today, people involved in environmental education As a result, a preliminary strategy for sea turtles con-
doesn't have a place to reach an adequate development of servation based on environmental education is presented.
their capabilities, besides domestic workshops or local meet-
ings.
Recently, an interactive workshop was carried out at
Playa la Gloria, Jalisco, Mxico, by two Universities of
84 Public Education and Participation / Oral presentations

CONSERVATION OF THE LEATHERBACK TURTLE (DERMOCHELYS CORIACEA) IN

NOVA SCOTIA, CANADA
Michael C. James1 and Chris Harvey-Clark2

1
North Atlantic Leatherback Turtle Working Group, Centre for Wildlife and Conservation Biology, Acadia University Wolfville,
Nova Scotia, Canada , BOP 1XO. 030136j@acadiau.ca
2
Life Sciences Centre, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, B3H 4H6
030136j@acadiau.ca
Public awareness of the globally endangered leather- cently to assess the abundance and distribution of leather-
back turtle in Nova Scotia, Canada, is poor, and most obser- back turtles seasonally encountered in Maritime waters and
vations of leatherbacks go unreported. At the same time, cir- to facilitate the PIT tagging, photo identification, treatment
cumstantial evidence indicates that coastal Nova Scotia may and release of leatherbacks stranded or entangled in fishing
be experiencing the highest incidence of leatherbacks and gear. A Canadian leatherback turtle database has been estab-
leatherback-fisheries interactions in the Northwest Atlantic lished to catalogue reports of all leatherbacks (free swim-
region, with significant accompanying turtle mortality (due ming, stranded and entangled). Numbers of reports appear
to drowning in nets and deliberate killing of by-catch turtles to vary from year to year. Despite the lack of a formal col-
to facilitate disentanglement). To address these and other is- lection network, over 40 turtles were reported in 1995. In
sues concerning leatherback turtle conservation in Maritime contrast, even though a network was established in the in-
Canada, a North Atlantic Leatherback Turtle Working Group terim, only 8 sightings were reported in 1997. This would
was formed in October 1996. In 1997, a public information indicate significant annual variation in abundance, probably
campaign, focussing on rural fishing communities and com- due to variable surface conditions and current patterns in
mercial fishermen in particular, was initiated to increase coastal waters. With the recent expansion of the leatherback
awareness of leatherback turtle biology and conservation, turtle public education campaign and the return of normal
and encourage the detailed reporting of all sightings. A novel summer inshore movement of the Gulf Stream in 1998, we
fishermen-scientist collaborative program was engaged re- anticipate an increase in leatherback sightings
CREATION OF TALENTED ANIMATORS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
Anna Kremezi-Margaritouli
The Sea Turtle Protection Society of Greece, P.O. Box 51154, GR-14510 Kifissia, Greece. stps@compulink.gr
INTRODUCTION
The concept of youth is equated throughout the world and peaceful.
with the notions of dreams, vision, scepticism and militancy
for freedom, democracy and social justice. IMPLEMENTATION
In those countries where human freedom, democracy Approximately 300 young people from all over the
and social justice may be taken for granted, young people world come to work every year on various projects organised
with restless minds often find their niche in the pursuit of by the Sea Turtle Protection Society of Greece (STPS), mostly
justice among living creatures, within the framework of the in field work. Most of them deal with the turtles themselves,
maxim: we all share the same planet. collecting information that documents the importance of their
I come from the country where democracy was born. A habitats, the state of the populations etc.
country where scepticism and militancy are the natural char- The most outgoing of those young people, who prefer-
acteristics of people and our civilisation. ably speak Greek, are the ones who get in touch with the
A species threatened by extinction through human in- public in order to give information and spread ideology to
difference and egotism, i.e. by the suppression of its rights people, who are, in their vast majority, indifferent to envi-
on the planet, provides a good opportunity to canalise the ronmental concerns.
inherent notion of justice of the young and draw their mili- From this pool of volunteers as well as from those
tancy in order to safeguard the species place on earth. working at the sea-turtles hospital in Glyfada, out of Ath-
Such opportunity becomes unique when the species in ens, we select those people who will become animators in
question is a marine turtle, who reflects life on earth from the STPS Education Programme.
the era of dinosaurs. Whose size is impressive, who moves This Program runs since 1985 and consists of live pre-
slowly and majestically, whose gaze is wise, who is silent sentations at schools, throughout Greece, creation and dis-

tribution of portable traveling kits and other educational to know each other. All new members are given the so far
items. The program is conducted with the approval of the activities of the education programme and documentation
Ministry of Education and the cooperation of the Education on the biology of the turtles and the positions of the Society
Departments at each Prefecture. The last years about 300 as well as a bibliography on general subjects of Natural His-
presentations per year , are conducted, either by the STPS tory and the Environment. Old members review and evaluate
special teams, or by the schoolteachers using STPS portable the work of the past year, set goals for the future and plan a
kits (Kremezi-Margaritouli, 1992). yearly programme.
The selection criteria for prospective animators are During the next seven meetings, members exchange
simple: positive and negative experiences concerning the program.
Ability to communicate with people and exchange Furthermore at each meeting specific activities take place that
ideas. aim to the improvement of the group capabilities. For in-
A strong point of view and militancy. stance:
Sociability. Briefings on exemplary presentations by experienced
and talented lecturers.
Co-operativeness and team spirit.
Completion and discussion of a questionnaire en-
Good diction. titled I define myself as a turtler which asks theo-
retical questions derived from hypothetical events
Availability at least once a week. After the initial se- that often happen in real life.
lection, the future animators go through constant and versa-
tile training aiming to create capabilities of:
Lectures by specialised scientists on environmental
subjects.
Inspiring trust.
Information about the education programmes car-
Having in-depth knowledge on turtles as well as on ried out by other NGO s and exchanges of experi-
environmental issues in general. ences.
Being courteous and conciliatory with opponents. Attendance at lectures and seminars on educational
Being likeable and enthusiastic. programmes at other institutions (museums etc.).
Being able to keep audiences interested and to im- Hands-on exercises and exercises of body language
provise during potential adversities. aiming at liberating ourselves and facilitating com-
Understanding their audience and knowing the munication among the members as well as with chil-
school curricula. dren.
Caring for the good reputation of the Society and New ideas for publications and other activities are
being ready to promote and defend its positions. tested and if they are successful, they are adopted.
The training activities begin at the start of the School The last meeting is a celebration: we meet to eat and
term by bringing together old and new members in a com- drink together, to dance, to joke, to thank one another and to
mon group. We believe that collective activity is superior to look forward to the next school year starting in September.
individual efforts as it ensures continuation, co-operation, Beyond those monthly meetings the group undertakes
and enthusiasm. It is of beneficial importance to establish many other activities that deal with the public (sales stands,
special meetings for the group. publications, fund-raising special events etc.). For example,
Those meetings should take place at least once a month this year we have to organise the activities for the 15th anni-
at pre-arranged times and places. For example, our group versary of STPS.
meets every first Thursday afternoon of each month at the One important part of the educational process consists
sea-turtle hospital which also happens to be the main place of criticism and commentary on every detail of an activity so
of contact with school-children. that we can learn from our mistakes and those of others and
This has been going on since 1993 except for the sum- also to be able to repeat satisfactory activities or avoid those
mer months, during which schools are closed and the mem- with flaws. The co-ordinator encourages the animators to
bers of the group participate in the field work. In the mean- make well meaning comments on people and circumstances.
time the members are trained on site during live presenta- By putting themselves in others place they aim to obtain
tions, were they are asked to undertake a specific role. theoretical knowledge and experience.
We thus have at least nine meetings of the group each
year and as time goes by, the contact between members is DISCUSSION
constantly improved. Naturally the co-ordinator has the main From the educational program throughout the last 13
responsibility for the formation of the group spirit and the years we can deduce the following:
quality of the work produced. He or she, must inspire the It has been carried out continually since 1985 and kept
members, look after their inter-relationships and ensure that ties with old communication methods, while also building
they carry out their responsibilities. new.
Every September, at the first meeting all members get The programme never lacked membership.

We approach about 15,000 children every year in small Furthermore, a chance is given to young people to find
groups, either through direct contact or by the portable kits. a goal in life beyond themselves. To deal with the philosophy
So we have succeeded in rendering the Sea Turtle, most of, so to say, a Democracy of the species and at the well-
popular among threatened species in Greece and also among being of the Planet.
wildlife in general. This has been found by research done at Thus a charismatic species of fauna, unites children and
the University of Thessaloniki. adults, helps bring out selfishness, creates pure friendships
The animators trained in our group are in demand for and finally promotes civilisation and a wider sense of de-
other positions at the Society as well as at other NGOs and mocracy.
Institutions (and Im afraid they are sometimes taken away
from us). LITERATURE CITED
The STPS has claimed and obtained a special space for
educational purposes which is unique among NGOs in Kremezi-Margaritouli, A. 1992. Sea Turtles Stimulate
Greece. Environmental Education in Greece. Marine Turtle
However, the major achievement of the Environmental Newsletter 57:21-22.
Education Group is that it has opened communication be- Pantis, I. Sgardelis, S. Stamou, G. and Korfiatis, K. 1996.
tween children and adults while giving the opportunity to Investigating the views, attitudes and behaviour of
the animators to express their ideologies on justice among young residents in the broader area of Athens, Greece,
wild species, through the example of the marine turtle and to in relation to the environment. Livani Publications.
express a new environmental ethic. Athens.
TELEMATICS FOR TEACHER TRAINING - SCIENCE AND EDUCATION:

EUROTURTLE - A MEDITERRANEAN SEA TURTLE BIOLOGY AND CONSERVATION
WEB SITE FOR SCIENCE AND EDUCATION.
Roger H. C. Poland1, Linda Baggott2, and Lily Venizelos3

1
Biology Department, Kings College, Taunton, Somerset, U.K. TA13DX. roger@kingscol.demon.co.uk
2
School of Education, University of Exeter, Heavitree Road, U.K.
3
Mediterranean Association to Save the Sea Turtles - MEDASSET, c/o 24 Park Towers, 2 Brick Street, London, W1Y 7DF,
U.K.
INTRODUCTION ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND

AWARENESS
The concept of a database for Mediterranean Sea Turtles
arose when the Biology Department at Kings College car- As far back as 1968 at the Biosphere Conference
ried out two large scale conservation expeditions involving (UNESCO, Paris) the basic outlines for Environmental Edu-
pupils aged 17-18 to the Mediterranean (Poland, et al.,1996). cation were formulated using all local, national and interna-
Work carried out during these field trips illuminated the dif- tional experience and expertise available at that time. Since
ficulty of finding and co-ordinating information about turtle then, environmental education has developed significantly but
conservation. The EuroTurtle web site came into exist- has not yet resulted in its expected final goal, which is a gen-
ence in 1996 and is a joint project between the University of eral change of attitude and practice toward the environment
Exeters School of Education, the Biology Department of (Cerovsky 1996).
Kings College, Taunton (Somerset UK) and MEDASSET - Cerovsky has suggested that this partial failure has been
Mediterranean Association to Save the Sea Turtles. The site due to the rather abstract appeal of some educational
resides on the information server of the University of Exeter programmes. The Internet has a major role to play in making
and can be accessed at http://www.exeter.ac.uk/MEDASSET. environmental education less abstract and more exciting and
EuroTurtle has a strong emphasis on Environmental Edu- the EuroTurtle approach aims to achieve awareness through
cation and has been included as part of the EU funded interest, excitement and communication.
Telematics for Teacher Training (T3) project directed by Prof.
Niki Davis. Through the T3 project, teachers across the Eu- Aims
ropean Union will be able to adopt telecommunications and The aims of EuroTurtle are to:
new technologies in schools and universities. It is establish- provide accurate and wide ranging scientific informa-
ing courses for teachers within a growing consortium of uni- tion for serious scientific projects and to educational
versities and commercial services, and these will continue to groups at all levels.
develop beyond the millennium.

promote environmental awareness and education via and the American Community Schools in Athens, Greece.
the Internet.
provide a cheap and effective information site with 1) ADVENTURE GAME: One section of the
the emphasis on easy and exciting information re- EuroTurtle web site contains an exercise in the form of an
trieval. interactive snakes and ladders type game in which partici-
pants take the part of a female Loggerhead turtle chancing all
to keep close links with conservation groups, univer-
the threats and hazards of modern turtle life in the Mediterra-
sities and involved inter-governmental bodies. nean in trying to get to a nesting site to lay her eggs. Use of
to enhance information flow between conservation graphics, sound and animation enhance the overall experi-
groups, individuals, education and other scientific ence of playing the game (Thornton 1996).
bodies.
2) IDENTIFICATION KEY: One section of this major
Design of the EuroTurtle Web Site database contains identification keys which enable students
From the outset, the material was designed for use via and scientists to identify the 8 endangered species of sea turtle.
the Internet and not simply transferred text from traditional The aims of this key exercise are to -
sources of information. Many of the earlier web sites were learn to identify sea turtle species from photographs,
largely composed of text files adapted to run via the web, descriptions and diagrams;
with very little interaction or interest. Sampling the Internet
has been likened to drinking from a high pressure hose - lots
teach the principles of dichotomous keys and biologi-
of water but difficult to swallow! Well designed web sites cal classification in a meaningful way- thus stimulat-
should make good use of the available technology yet ening an interest in Ecology and Conservation;
sure that access to the information is simple and intuitive learn to use the information-gathering opportunities
(DO-IT Brochure Guidelines, 1997; Guide to good practices of the Internet as a teaching, learning and scientific
for the WWW author, 1997). Links between pages should be resource;
comprehensive, allowing for a high degree of cross-linking learn to use the communications opportunities of the
and referencing. Internet (e-mail) and its value as a device for infor-
mation transmission in a rapidly expanding world
Content community.
With these design principles in mind, the aim was to
make the pages of EuroTurtle interactive and dynamic and 3) SPECIES OUTLINES: This section attempts to give
to give the user the feeling that information and feedback are an overview of the worlds sea turtles with an emphasis on
readily communicated. The site therefore presents valuable the three endangered Mediterranean species.
information in a variety of different formats designed for
learning. The Department of Biology at Glasgow Univer- 4) BONE KIT: Here users can see detailed drawings of
sity, monitor the quality of the scientific data and all pages the sea turtle skeleton.
are proof read and corrected accordingly for accuracy and
content. SUMMARY OF AIMS/ACHIEVEMENTS
Information is presented in the form of high quality EuroTurtle has been trialed and evaluated in a num-
graphics, animation, sound clips, photographs, work sheets, ber of schools and Universities. Initial results clearly indi-
diagrams and a keyword search engine. Data has been pro- cate the value of the site in environmental education and
vided by a recent Kings College Expedition to four Medi- awareness (Poland, R., Baggott, L.M.1997, Poland, R., Lee,
terranean nesting sites (July, 1996) and much of the scien- H., Baggott, L.M. 1997). An account of a trial and evalua-
tific information has been provided by MEDASSET, an in- tion of the EuroTurtle Adventure Game and Identification
ternational non-governmental organisation whose ultimate Key can be seen in Poland and Baggott, 1997 and Poland,
goal is to stop and eventually reverse the decline of the Medi- Lee and Baggott, 1997, respectively.
terranean Sea Turtles through research, publicity, political Close links have been developed between EuroTurtle
liaison, public awareness and environmental education. and key conservation groups, Universities, teachers and stu-
Within the web site is a special Education section designed dents from all over Europe and the World with significant
to help teachers use EuroTurtle in the classroom. Work contributions from MEDASSET, Exeter, Glasgow and
continues on a comprehensive scientific reference section and Utrecht Universities, the KMTP (Kefalonian Marine Turtle
plans are in hand to translate the web site into the major Eu- Project) and conservationists in Italy, Greece and the U.S.A..
ropean languages. As a pilot Environmental program for Work will continue on construction and evaluation of
EuroTurtle, the students of The Fourth Alimos High School EuroTurtle well into the next millennium.
in Athens have translated the Adventure game into Greek.
The EuroTurtle web site is being trialed with students from INTERNET REFERENCES
the Old Malthouse School in Dorset, UK., Hale School in
Perth, Australia, School of Education, Exeter University, UK., Cerovsky, J., President, ECOPOINT Foundation, Czech

IUCN(1997), Raising Environmental Awareness through 85068 188X.

Education. http://www.hol.gr (then use keyword turtle Poland, R.H.C., H. Lee, and L.M. Baggott. 1997. EuroTurtle
in search engine). - use with school pupils of an interactive key for
DFE. 1995. Science in the National Curriculum. Department biological identification. CAL97 International
for Education, Welsh Office. Pages 18, 30 and 42. Conference Superhighways, Super CAL, Super
DO-IT Brochures: Universal Design of World Wide Web Learning. Conference Proceedings Abstract No.175a
Pages (1997). http://weber.u.washington.edu/~doit/ p420-421. ISBN 85068 188X. Prize for Best Poster
Brochures/universal.design.html Presentation.
EuroTurtle Web Site. (1996) Educational page for Poland, R., G. Hall, and M. Smith. 1996. Turtles and Tourists:
Adventure Game. http://www.exeter.ac.uk/telematics/ A hands-on Experience of Conservation for 6th Formers
EuroTurtle/eduav.htm from Kings College, Taunton on the Ionian Island of
Glasgow University - Cyprus project. http://www.gla.ac.uk/ Zakynthos. Journal of Biological Education, 30(2) :
Acad/IBLS/DEEB/cyprus/turtle.html 120-128.
Guide to good practices for WWW authors. (1996). http:// Thornton, P. 1996. Technical Considerations for Interactive
www.man.ac.uk/MVC//SIMA/Isaccs/toc.html Web Pages. Available on request to P. Thornton, School
MEDASSET. http://www.exeter.ac.uk/telematics/EuroTurtle/ of Education, Exeter University, Heavitree Road, Exeter.
medas.htm or http://www.hol.gr/greece/medasset EX1 2LU, U.K .e-mail: P.C.Thornton@exeter.ac.uk
Telematics for Teacher Training Project (T3) (1996) Details
on the WWW. http:// www.exeter.ac.uk/telematics/T3/
LITERATURE CITED
Poland, R. and L. M. Baggott. 1997. Use of an Educational
and research Internet database (EuroTurtle) in Initial
Teacher Training. CAL97 International Conference
Superhighways, Super CAL, Super Learning.
Conference Proceedings Abstract No.175a p30-37. ISBN
THE SEA TURTLE CLUB BONAIRE: IDEAS FOR CREATING AWARENESS
Niels P. Valkering and Tom J.W. van Eijck

Sea Turtle Club Bonaire, Madurastraat 126 hs, 1094 GW Amsterdam, The Netherlands. tvaneyck@bio.vu.nl
INTRODUCTION BONAIRE AND SEA TURTLES

The Sea Turtle Club Bonaire (STCB) is a non-profit, Bonaire is part of the Netherlands Antilles; in the Lee-
non-governmental organization, its main goal being the con- ward Islands, it is close to the Venezuelan mainland. The
servation of the sea turtles of Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles. Island has a land area of 288 km2 and a resident population
The STCB has executed several conservation projects from of approximately 14,000, with 6 primary schools and one
1993 onwards, following the recommendations of the secondary school. Each year, about 50,000 tourists visit the
WIDECAST Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plan for The Neth- island, mainly to make use of one of the 12 dive schools.
erlands Antilles (Sybesma 1992). Thorough research sur- The shoreline of Bonaire consists of coral rock, regularly
veys have been undertaken and an awareness program on turtle interrupted by small, sandy beaches. These beaches offer nest-
conservation has been implemented. As a result, the STCB ing habitat for hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) and log-
has presented the first clear overview of both nesting activity gerhead (Caretta caretta) turtles (Van Eijck 1993). Nesting
on Bonaire and sea turtle populations residing in its coastal activity is concentrated on Klein Bonaire, an uninhabited is-
waters (Van Eijck and Eckert 1994). In addition, an increase let off Bonaires west coast. Bonaire is almost completely
in interest, enthusiasm and participation in conservation ac- surrounded by live coral reefs and sea grass beds, in which
tivities has been established among Bonairians, tourists, dive numerous juvenile hawksbill and green turtles (Chelonia
staff and the media (Valkering et al., 1996). This paper dis- mydas) reside (Valkering et al., 1996).
cusses various efforts that have successfully contributed to Although forbidden by law since 1991, the capture of
an increase in public awareness about sea turtle conserva- sea turtles in Bonairian waters still continues, but at a low
tion in Bonaire. rate (Van Eijck and Eckert 1994). A more serious threat,
however, are the human developments along the shore. To-

gether with sand mining activities, large-scale building sites Washington D.C. Second, the STCB cooperates with the
have been developed over the years, most often leaving Bonaire Marine Park in the Turtuganan di Boneiru (Turtles
half-finished ruins. Thus, turtle habitats are under continu- of Bonaire) Project. This childrens snorkel program is de-
ous threat from irresponsible exploitation. signed to teach children more about their coastal environ-
ment at the same time as they participate in snorkeling les-
PUBLIC AWARENESS INITIATIVES sons (Valkering et al., 1996). In the past, certified children
Public awareness activities are essential for the survival (turtles) have been invited for special snorkel trips to Klein
of Bonaires fragile ecosystems. The STCB focuses specifi- Bonaire. In cooperation with the Education Conservation
cally on young people, such as schoolchildren. The STCB Officer on Bonaire, Turtuganan di Boneiru has evolved into
encourages collaboration with other local NGOs, such as a more extended program, where the turtles are offered ad-
the Bonaire Marine Park, STINAPA Bonaire and Amigu di ditional indoor and outdoor educational programs, such as
Tera. There are four main programmatic thrusts. slide presentations and beach assignments.
* Educational materials: the STCB has several ap- *Media attention: locally, the STCB issues regular press
proaches to increase public participation. One method is the releases concerning its activities, as well as radio and televi-
production of educational materials about sea turtles which sion interviews. In past years, international broadcasting
are distributed among schools, youth centers, diving indus- companies have also shown interest in our work, such as
try, other NGOs, governmental institutions, etc. These ma- ABC-network, Discovery and various Dutch broadcasting
terials include: a brochure about sea turtle conservation, sea organizations. Recently, the STCB and its activities have
turtle posters, a booklet written in papiamentu (the local lan- been shown extensively on Dutch television, in a jubilee pro-
guage), annual STCB Newsletters and Turtle Corners. The gram of the World Wildlife Fund - The Netherlands.
last-named consist of a folder rack, attached to a sign, urging
CONCLUSIONS
divers to fill in a sighting sheet. These are placed in all dive
schools and also various hotels (Valkering et al., 1996). Main factors that account for the success of our aware-
ness campaign are:
* Slide presentations: in cooperation with the Depart- an increase in local cooperation and participation;
ment of Education, STCB visits all primary schools in order the ongoing production and distribution of educa-
to present slides and videos, as well as to provide teaching tional materials;
personnel with educational materials (Van Eijck 1993). In
1995, STCB started giving presentations at the local youth
a culturally sensitive approach to matters of social
centers (Valkering et al., 1996), and the success resulted in and economic importance;
an extension of these activities. Recently, the STCB has in- the use of the sea turtle as a flagship species for the
vited local speakers with interest in and knowledge about marine environment.
nature to participate in the presentations (Norde and van
Rossum 1997). In addition to education of residents, foster- One should bear in mind that the STCB is dealing with
ing awareness amongst tourists is also of importance. There- a relatively small human population, with a moderate stan-
fore slide shows are given at two hotels each week. Tourists dard of living. These two characteristics ensure that virtu-
also participate in our sighting-network; they are requested ally all the local target groups are attainable for the STCB.
to fill in a sighting sheet after having encountered a sea turtle. At the same time, the ease with which publicity is created
Consequently, the STCB receives an enormous amount of does not imply instant success. Within a small community,
day-to-day information on the biology of the resident sea rumors are quickly spread and can seriously damage the cause
turtles (the mean number of sheets per year has exceeded that is being work for. Thus, the STCB regards local coop-
1500). eration as one of its main aims. We believe that our methods
and initiatives could work well at similar locations over the
*General education initiatives: two environmental pro- world, and the STCB invites cooperation with other organi-
grams have proved successful in reaching a substantial part zations with an interest in nature conservation, for example
of the local public. First, the STCB cooperates with several by exchange of information and educational materials.
other organizations during the World Clean-up Day, in orga-
nizing a coastal clean up. Each year approximately 200 people ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
participate in cleaning nesting beaches which are subject to We gratefully acknowledge the financial support of The
an accumulation of marine debris. Last year, the number of David and Lucile Packard Foundation and the Sea Turtle Club
trash bags - with identified and quantified debris - totaled Bonaire, which enabled our project coordinator to attend the
809, an increase compared to the previous two years, 1995 Symposium. Thanks also to Jack Frazier for his comments
and 1996, in which 225 and 509 bags were collected, re- on the text.
spectively (Norde and van Rossum 1997). The STCB re-
ports the findings to the Center for Marine Conservation in

LITERATURE CITED Newsletter 62: 10-11.

Norde, D.J. and J. van Rossum. 1997. Sea Turtle Van Eijck, T.J.W. and K.L. Eckert. 1994. Sea Turtles in
Conservation on Bonaire: Sea Turtle Club Bonaire Bonaire: 1993 Survey Results and Conservation
1996 Project Report. (T.J.W. van Eijck, rev.) Verslagen Recommendations. Sea Turtle Club Bonaire, The
en Technische Gegevens. Institute of Systematics and Netherlands. 89 pp.
Population Biology, University of Amsterdam.
Sybesma, J. 1992. WIDECAST Sea Turtle Recovery Action
Plan for the Netherlands Antilles (K.L. Eckert, Editor).
CEP Technical Report No. 11, UNEP Caribbean
Environment Programme, Kingston, Jamaica. 63 pp.
Valkering, N.P., P. Van Nugteren and T.J.W. van Eijck. 1996.
Sea Turtle Conservation on Bonaire: Sea Turtle Club
Bonaire 1995 Project Report and Longterm Proposal.
(K.L. Eckert, rev.) Verslagen en Technische Gegevens No.
68. Institute of Systematics and Population Biology,
University of Amsterdam. 105 pp.
Van Eijck, T.J.W. 1993. Putting Action in the Sea Turtle
Recovery Action Plan for Bonaire. Marine Turtle
THE SEA TURTLES OF SURINAME, 1997- AWARENESS
Luc H. G. van Tienen, Willem E. J. Hoekert, Paul van Nughteren, and Sacha Denz
Biotopic Foundation, Plantage Middenlaan 45, 1018 DE Amsterdam, Netherlands. tienen@biotopic.demon.nl
REACHED GOAL STINASU AND BIOTOPIC

Last year an awareness program has been executed in The Foundation for Nature Preservation in Suriname,
Suriname. This led to a better understanding of the problems STINASU, is responsible for conservation and protection of
concerning sea turtle conservation in Suriname. the sea turtles in Suriname. In the 1970s STINASU executed
an awareness program which was very successful. In 1995
AWARENESS IMPORTANCE the Dutch foundation Biotopic started a research project con-
In Suriname four species of sea turtles make use of the cerning the sea turtles of Suriname. It was found that knowl-
beaches as a nesting habitat. As turtle eggs provide economi- edge about the Suriname sea turtles was scarce among the
cal benefits, many nests are poached. There is no supervision local Amerindians and other Surinam inhabitants. A new
on the fishing of the sea near the nesting beaches and during awareness program was desirable.
the nesting season. Because of this many female sea turtles
RESEARCH, INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION,
get caught even before they get the opportunity to lay their
AWARENESS
eggs. Both factors have a negative influence on the sea turtle
populations of Suriname. Awareness plays an important part In 1997 Biotopic carried out a sea turtle conservation
in finding solutions to these problems. project, which consisted of three separate programs. A pro-
tection and research program, an international collaboration
TRADITION AND ECONOMICAL BENEFIT program, and an awareness program. One of the advantages
of this combination was that information derived from the
The most important nesting beaches of Suriname are in
separate programs could be used in presentations and publi-
the Galibi Natural Reserve. In this area two Amerindian vil-
cations. This way the information exchange was up to date
lages have a history of collecting sea turtle eggs. This tradi-
and therefore more accurate. The awareness program con-
tion is important for the local inhabitants. Since the avail-
sisted of giving presentations, getting local media involved
ability of motorized transport, the sale of collected eggs has
in sea turtle preservation activities, presenting booklets and
increased. On other nesting beaches the total number of
posters, and in getting local and international institutes in-
poached nests has grown because of the economical benefit.
volved.
The enforcement of the laws to preserve sea turtle nests is
not sufficient. A mentality change on a local and national
level is important to stop poachers and buyers.

PRESENTATIONS an exchange of information among the neighboring countries.

Several speakers and a wide variety of guests have been
Several presentations have been held for different
invited. More collaboration between these countries is
groups within the Surinam society. Schoolchildren are a pri-
important to create more awareness on a regional level.
ority group that needs immediate attention. The local
Amerindian villages are important because their history and
RESULTS AND REACTIONS
future are traditionally and economically connected to the
sea turtles. Other presentations have been held on institutes After the project in Suriname ended I went to visit a
and organizations like the University of Paramaribo, the small village in the jungle. Here I found out how effective
STINASU, and to other groups within the Surinam commu- the awareness program had been. Although radios and news-
nity. Two different slide shows were used to give informa- papers were scarce, a local inhabitant started talking to us
tion about research, ecology, conservation, and threats to sea about sea turtle conservation. He had read an article in an old
turtles. newspaper and wondered how the poaching problem could
be solved.
THE OLDEST VISITORS OF SURINAME, OLIVE Many groups and individuals reacted positively to the
THE WARANA, THE SEA TURTLES OF GALIBI information they received. Not only during information ses-
sions but also on the street people stopped us to talk about
One slide show has been accompanied by a photo book
the sea turtles. Even while eating in a restaurant or during
called The oldest visitors of Suriname. Copies of these have
shopping on the market people started asking questions about
been distributed among local nature conservation institutes
sea turtles.
with the intention of stimulating future presentations.
A collaboration with local institutes safeguard future
Two childrens books (Olive the warana and The sea
awareness programs. The local institutes should continue giv-
turtles of Galibi) have been printed to use as teaching aids at
ing information about the sea turtles of Suriname. If more
schools, libraries, and by local nature conservation institutes.
and more people do know, understand, and react, the
The books have been presented officially to the education
Suriname community will be able to realize a healthy future
minister.
for the sea turtles of Suriname.
LOCAL MEDIA
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All presentations were announced in the local newspa-
We would like to thank the Surinam inhabitants for the
pers. These publications were often accompanied by more
welcome feeling they gave us. Special thanks to Henk Reichart
background information. Furthermore the media were used
and his wife Judy, and Harold Sijlbing for supporting us. Also
to present additional information concerning sea turtle ecol-
we would like to thank STINASU for their support and ap-
ogy and conservation.
preciation they showed. Ronnie, Jan, Gerard, Andre and
Saulus are thanked for their help in getting around in the In-
INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION
dian villages. We appreciated the help and friendship of
A mini symposium has been organized aiming to stimulate Arnoud, Michael, Helena, Paul and Iwan.
SALVEMOS A LAS TORTUGAS MARINAS UNA PROPUESTA EDUCATIVA PARA SU

CONSERVACION ECONCIENCIA A. C.
Ecociencia A.C.
ECONCIENCIA A.C. fu ftindada en 1989 en la ciudad La Casa de la Naturaleza cuenta con invaluables
de Felipe Carrillo Puerto, Quintana Roo Mxico; su princi- materiales de apoyo como colecciones zoolgicas de aves y
pal objetivo es disear Programas de Educacin Ecolgica y reptiles disecados, crneos de mamferos terrestres y
para la Salud y aplicarlos directamente a nios jvenes y acuticos, adems de las especies propias del arrecife
adultos que habitan en las comunidades de la selva y costa de caribeo (los ejemplares que conforman esta coleccin han
Quintana Roo. sido encontrados muertos en las carreteras o playas, est
Para desarrollar este Trabajo ECONCIENCIA abri su registrada conforme a las normas del CITES y cuenta con el
Centro de Educacin Ecolgica llamado Casa de la permiso oficial del INE para utilizarse con fines educativos);
Naturaleza, que ha sido apoyado por donaciones altruistas e tambin incluye una biblioteca con informacin regional,
instituciones u organizaciones nacionales e internacionales nacional y mundial, as como artculos especializados y guas
como el Sistema Educativo Quintanarroense, la Secretara de identificacin; proyector de diapositivas, binoculares,
de Salud Estatal, SEMARNAP, el Fondo Mexicano para la equipo de fotografa y video. Para los Programas de Salud
Conservacin de la Naturaleza, Smithsonian Institution, estn a disposicin dos microscopios, coleccin de parsitos,
Manomet Observatory y Fish and Wild Life Service de Alaska. carteles, juegos y otros implementos especializados. Todos

los materiales educativos y actividades se ofrecen de manera en la niez y juventud, una actitud responsable respecto a la
gratuita a los participantes que asisten y colaboran en los proteccin de la tortuga marina y su habitat.
diversos Programas imartidos en la Casa de la Naturaleza, El Programa dura una semana (3 hrs. diarias) y presenta
los cuales incluyen: visitas guiadas a sus instalaciones, un enfoque interdisciplinario; contempla aspectos tericos,
plticas, talleres, sesiones de diapositivas y videos, conciertos importancia del habitat, referencias del pasado, adems de
de Ecomsica, exposiciones, prcticas de campo, reuniones los esfuerzos cientficos que se realizan para lograr su
de dibujo, consulta de informacin en la biblioteca, etc. reproduccin en cautiverio.
Algunas reas de estudio y desarrollo consideradas en A travs de bibliografa bsica y complementaria,
los Programas Educativos son: vivencias personales, muestras biolgicas (crneos,
Biodiversidad caparachos, etc.), reflexiones, msica, compromisos,
Animales en peligro de extincin mensajes de proteccin, dibujos y carteles, se trata de lograr
un cambio de actitud en los participantes.
Aprovechamiento sostenido del bosque tropical
En aos anteriores y con apoyo del Sistema Educativo
Areas protegidas Quintana Roo Quintanarroense se logr presentarlo en 1. Holbox, l.
La Vida en el mar -Los humedales Mujeres, I. Cancn, I.Cozumel y Felipe Carrillo Puerto con
Zoologa y botnica regional resultados muy positivos.
Geografa y manejo de mapas (terrestres y estelares) Para 1997 ECONCIENCIA de manera comprometida
y con recursos propios organiz nuevamente un Taller con
Micribiologa
alumnos de 5to y 6to grado de la escuela "Tiburcio May Uh",
Contaminacin en la ciudad de Felipe Carrillo Puerto, con el objeto de dar a
Manejo de desechos, basura y agua conocer a los nios la belleza e importancia biolgica de estos
Lactancia materna, nutricin y salud reptiles y contribuir al trabajo mundial para la conservacin
Prevencin de enfermedades y accidentes de estas especies.
Para lograr un real inters por el tema es fundamental
Herbolaria
la variedad y el dinamismo en las actividades. En este Taller
Tradiciones milenarias y valores culturales indgenas los nios tienen la oportunidad de ver y tocar los caparachos
Investigacin y crneos de las especies que arriban a Quinatana Roo; a travs
Viajes de campo de dibujos y entretenidos juegos profundizan conocimientos
y aspectos sobre el tema; la cancin "Necesito tu Ayuda para
Las costas de Quintana Roo poseen playas con gran Salvar las Tortugas", despierta la imaginacin y al interpretarla
riqueza biolgica, su vegetacin Antillana de duna es da a da durante el Taller, sensibiliza el espritu de cada uno
exclusiva del Caribe y adems recibe cuatro especies de de ellos. Para reforzar los contenidos tericos se hace uso de
tortugas marinas que anidan en sus litorales. Este inigualable diapositivas, publicaciones generales y reportajes
paisaje, ha atrado proyectos de desarrollo turstico que estn actualizados logrando as tener una visin ms real de la
repercutiendo directamente en el entorno natural, sobre todo problemtica global.
en la zona norte del estado. Considerando que en pocas pasadas la tortuga no estaba
La proliferacin de hoteles, la destruccin de la en peligro de extincin e inclusive era un recurso utilizado
vegetacin de duna, el exceso de basura, el inadecuado para su comercializacin; se pidi que comentaran y
manejo de desechos, el desgaste de las playas por el continuo reflexionaran de manera directa con sus padres o abuelos la
uso turstico , la contaminacin por aceites y combustibles, forma en que la aprovechaban en su totalidad: desde la carne
adems de la presin y destruccin de varias zonas arrecifles, para autoconsumo, aceites con fines medicinales, caparachos
son algunos de los ejemplos de los efectos negativos que se para bateas, etc., todo esto con el fin de ampliar su criterio y
estn presentando en Cancun, Cozumel, 1. Mujeres, Playa dejar claras las circunstancias que en el pasado permitieron
del Carmen, Tulm y otros sitios de la "Riviera Maya". realizar estas prcticas.
Las tortugas marinas son algunas de las especies que La redaccin de mensajes de proteccin donde
estn resintiendo la modificacin y cambios en su habitat. plasmaron sus ideas y alternativas para la conservacin de
Desde hace varios aos, algunas instituciones como el CRIP las tortugas marinas y su habitat, reforzaron su compromiso,
y la UNAM se han preocupado por estudiar la biologa y expresaron sus sentimientos y difundieron a otros los
comportamiento de estas especies; a ltimas fechas, conocimientos adquiridos.
Organizaciones No Gubernamentales nacionales e El\Plan Ordenamiento" el Corredor ' turstico Cancun
internacionales, tambin se han interesado en asumir un papel contempla la preservacin de playas donde anidan las tortugas
ms activo en el proceso de su conservacin, a travs de marinas. Recientemente el gobierno del estado confirm
campaas de difusin impresa y radiofnica, programas de como Area Protegida Estatal, las playas de Xcacel, realizando
liberacin de cras y de Educacin Ambiental. decreto para asegurar el rea desove.
El Taller ":Salvemos Nuestras Tortugas Marinas", fu El trabajo coordinado entre las instituciones y
diseado para poder dar los elementos y despertar o fomentar organizaciones que se dedican al estudio cientfico o a

aspectos educativos, debe ser constante; la legislacin sobre Este curso de tortugas ha sido muy bueno para m, pues
el tema debe continuar para evitar que la presion turstica nos ha enseado muchas cosas. El primer da me gust todo
existente en Quintana Roo y otros estados de la Repblica pues hablamos de los dinosaurios, los dibujamos y hasta
Mexicana, afecte de manera irreversible el ciclo de vida de pudimos jugar encontrando a su mam. El segundo da fu
estos reptiles. un poco diferente, pues hablamos de las tortugas al igual
que los otros das. Vimos que las tortugas salen a ovar en las
MENSAJES Y OPINIONES noches, pues el clima es ms fresco que en el da. Tambin
Nios: a las tortugas protejan. La tortuga es un animal vimos que la tortuga hace un rastro falso en la arena para que
indefenso que no te hace dao. No la mates porque si la sigues los depredadores no se coman sus huevos; su mam no vuelve
matando ya no habrn. Aydanos a cuidar a las tortugas, a ver a sus hijos. Vimos los depredadores de las tortuguitas
compartamos con ellas las playas y mares; aprendamos a vivir como: cangrejos, gaviotas, perros, cochinos, etc. Mi opinin
con ellas y a disfrutarlas. Conozcamos su forma de es que esta clase o Taller ha estado "super" y que he aprendido
reproducirse para conocerlas y quererlas. Cudalas. mas que ayer.
Ass Rahiv Segoviano Reyes 10 Aos Andrs Bayona de Castro 11 Aos
Protege a la Tortuga A m me gust el Taller porque hablamos de muchas

La tortuga marina est en peligro de extincin y por lo especies de tortugas como carey y lad, a parte como se
tanto debemos protegerla. No debes echar basura al mar ya aparean, como ovan y su ciclo de vida y su cancin. Dibujar,
que puedes enfermar a las tortugas. Tampoco debes arrancar escribir y platicar sobre tortugas y sus enemigos; jugar con
las plantas de la arena, ya que alguna tortugas ovan a un lado el juego de la tortuga, el arrecife disecado, el saln y los
de ellas, y si las acabas no ovaran. No uses aceite de caguamo psters, sobre todo los regalos y que me filmen.
para curarte de las enfermedades, ya que puedes hacerlo con Jos L. Urea Argez 11 Aos
medicinas. No compres carne ni huevos de tortuga ya que si
compras una vez, seguirn matando para venderte. Los cursos de tortuga me gustaron, pero tambin fu
Francisco J. Angulo Blanco 11 Aos un poco triste. Fu un poco triste porque v como matan a la
tortuga marina, pero lo ms bonito fu que visitemos el
arrecife disecado, juguemos y que cantemos, eso fu lo ms
bonito.
Fanny L. Yam Pat 10 Aos

F. A. Abreu-Grobois, R. Briseo, R. Mrquez, F. Silva, and L. Sarti (Comps.)
HAWKSBILL TURTLE MOVEMENTS IN THE CORAL SEA
Ian P. Bell1, Jeffrey D. Miller1, Kirstin A. Dobbs1, and Colin J. Limpus2

1
Department of Environment, PO Box 5391, Townsville, Qld. 4810 Australia. ibells@ozemail.com.au
2
Department of Environment, PO Box 155, Brisbane Albert St, Qld 4002 Australia
Recordings of international and regional migrations of seasons (1990/91, 1993/94) and were recaptured during the
hawksbill turtles, Eretmochelys imbricata, between nesting southern hemisphere winter of 1997 while foraging in reef
and foraging areas were presented. Data on localized move- areas 97 km (Clerke Reef), 300 km (Hedge Reef), and 375
ments of E. imbricata between islands within a nesting area km (Combe Reef) south of Milman Island.
and between nesting seasons were also presented. Seventeen E. imbricata originally tagged at Milman
Five E. imbricata originally tagged on reefs of the north- Island were recorded changing nest sites between and within
ern Great Barrier Reef were recaptured outside of Australian nesting seasons. Eight of these turtles nested at islands 6 km
territory. Four of these turtles which were originally tagged (Sinclair Island), 7 km (Crocodile Cay), and 8 km (Douglas
in foraging areas (Clack Reef, Green Island) were killed fol- Island) away, and were not recorded nesting at Milman Is-
lowing long-distance migrations to nesting beaches in the land during the 1996/97 nesting season. The remaining nine
Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu. The fifth turtles, tagged at Milman Island in the 1996/97 season, were
tag recovery was from an E. imbricata originally tagged while also recorded nesting at islands 6 km, 7 km, and 8 km away
nesting on Milman Island, on the northern Great Barrier Reef. within the same season.
The turtle was subsequently found washed up on a beach at A proportion of reproducing E. imbricata migrate
Merauke on the south-west coast of Irian Jaya in Indonesia. across international boundaries and great distances within
Migration distances ranged between 368 km from Milman regions when travelling between foraging and nesting areas.
Island to Merauke, Indonesia, to 2369 km from Clack Reef Further, a proportion of E. imbricata change their nesting
to Ndeni Island in the Solomon Islands. site between and within nesting seasons. These aspects of
Regional movements of three E. imbricata were re- their biology have been poorly documented and have impli-
corded on the Great Barrier Reef. These turtles were origi- cations for species management.
nally tagged at Milman Island during two summer nesting
IDENTIFICATION OF THE GULF OF NAPLES AS A FEEDING GROUND AND

MIGRATORY PATH FOR CARETTA CARETTA IN THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA
Flegra Bentivegna and Angela Paglialonga

Stazione Zoologica A.Dohrn. Villa Comunale. 80121 Napoli. Italy. flegra@alpha.szn.it
INTRODUCTION terranean using satellite telemetry beginning in October 1995

(Bentivegna et al., in press).
Recent data have shown that the Gulf of Naples, lo-
cated on the west coast of Italy and opening directly into the METHODS
Mediterranean Sea, is frequented by the loggerhead sea turtle
(Caretta caretta), especially in the spring and summer. It does The movements of three loggerhead sea turtles, two
not, however, come into the Gulf to reproduce since most of females whose carapaces measured 73.0 cm and 61.5 cm in
the sea turtles we find are juveniles or subadults (Bentivegna length, and one male with a 52.5 cm long carapace, were
et al, 1994 ; 1997). They most likely come in search of good monitored from 1995 to 1998. These turtles were originally
feeding grounds, and they take advantage of the prevailing found by fishermen using a trawl net in the Gulf of Naples.
current patterns off the coast that flow into the Gulf One of the females and the male were released in the lower
(Ovchinnikov, 1966). Data provided by tagging programs Tyrrhenian Sea in the falls of , respectively, 1995 and 1997.
regarding the Caretta in the Mediterranean show that it ac- The other female was released, thanks to the collaboration
tively migrates back and forth between the eastern and west- of MEDASSET, off the island of Cephalonia (Greece) in
ern basins of the Mediterannean Sea (Margaritoulis, 1988; the spring of 1997. A Telonics model ST-6 platform trans-
Argano et al.,1992;). Thus, it is possible that a portion of mitter terminal (PTT) with a salt water switch and repetition
this migratory population, while traveling from east to west, rate of 50 sec was fitted on each of their carapaces. Satellite
disperses into the Tyrrhenian Sea and enters into the Gulf of transmissions were monitored by Argos tracking which uti-
Naples. In order to both verify this hypothesis and to un- lizes NOAA satellites that guarantee complete coverage of
cover the migratory habits of Caretta, especially during the the earths surface. Each satellite was equipped with a data
winter, we began tracking a loggerhead sea turtle in the Medi- collection and location system (DCLS) that received and re-
Oral presentations / Telemetry and Migrations 95

corded signals from the PTT during an overpass. The data 42

ADRIATIC SEA
GREECE
ITALY
we received regarded the location of the loggerhead, the sur- 40 TYRRENIAN SEA
GULF OF
face water temperature, dive times and average dive times. WESTERN
ARTA
TURKEY
The present report considers only the surface water tem- 38
MEDITERRANEAN
PE
LO
SICILY PO
NN
peratures. IONIAN SEA

ES
E
AEGEAN
BO DRUM
36 SEA
CRETE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 34

EASTERN
MEDITERRANEAN
The first female turtle (ID code number 07581) departed ------SEA TURTLE 01151
32 ------SEA TURTLE 07581
from the island of Stromboli (Italy) on October 1, 1995. The LIBYA
first satellite fix was made on Oct 1 and the last one was on 30
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
May 31, 1996. Her voyage took 242 days and comprised a
2487 km migration to the southeast which ended at Bodrum, Figure 1. Correlation between sea turtles 07581 and 01151
Turkey. (Figure 1) western coast of Turkey where there are also known Caretta
The male turtle (ID code number 01151) departed from caretta nesting sites.
the island of Ustica (Italy) on September 17, 1997. The first An attempt to place the results of this study and of our
satellite fix was made on September 17 and the last one was previous studies in a larger context could hypothesize that
on January 3, 1998. His voyage took 108 days and covered many young loggerheads which pass the winter in the eastern
1764 km in a east-southeasterly direction, finally arriving at basin of the Mediterranean move on in the spring to the
the Gulf of Arta (Greece). (Figure 1) western basin in order to feed. During this dispersion, the
The second female turtle (ID code number 03844) de- loggerheads which arrive in the Tyrrhenian stop in the Gulf
parted from the island of Cephalonia (Greece) on April 14, of Naples. This Gulf is a rich feeding ground due to
1997. The first satellite fix was made on April 17 and the geographic and hydrographic reasons: 1) it has an irregular
last one was in Turkey on July 11, 1997. bottom which favors the development of a rich biotic
Her voyage was only followed in part because on May community, and 2) its shallow coastal waters are highly
25 transmission signals ceased just off Cape Tenaro on the eutrophic from the spring to fall (Ranzi, 1930; Hapgood,
Mani Peninsula (Greece). Afterwards, we received only two 1959; Carrada et al., 1980).
reliable fixes; one off the island of Kea (Greece) and the The dispersal and migratory movements of
other off Dikili (Turkey). Mediterranean sea turtles are still very poorly understood.
After leaving Cephalonia, she headed southeast and The identification of the Gulf of Naples as one of the preferred
swam in shallow waters very close to the Peloponnesian coast. habitats of the loggerheads has motivated us to continue out
Thanks to the MEDASSET association, we found out that present tracking studies and to further investigate the feeding
after the transmissions ceased the turtle was caught by a fish- ecology and range of this species.
erman off the island of Kea in the Aegean Sea, 190 km away
from her last known position. The fisherman was located
and he stated that the turtle was released and continued her ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
trip eastward. The last transmission from this turtle was be- We would like to express our thanks and gratitude to
tween the island of Lesbos (Greece-Aegean Sea) and Dikili Dr. Scott Eckert for his generous aid and advice; and to
(Turkey) . Gianfranco Mazza and Mariapia Ciampa for technical
A comparison of the routes taken by the female and support.
male turtles released in Italian waters (ID code 07581 and
01151, respectively, (Figure 1) makes the following points LITERATURE CITED
evident: 1) when surface water temperature goes below 20C,
sea turtles leave the italian coast and travel towards the eastern Argano, R., R. Basso, M. Cocco and G. Gerosa.1992. New
sector of the Mediterranean Sea; 2) the Strait of Messina data on loggerhead (Caretta caretta) movements within
serves as a passage for these migrations; and 3) the turtles Mediterranean. Boll. Mus. Ist.Biol.Univ. Genova 56-
tend to travel towards, and remain in locations near, nesting 57:137-164
sites. Both the male and female showed this tendency even Bentivegna, F., and A. Paglialonga. Status of the sea turtles
during non-reproductive seasons; their reproductive season in the Gulf of Naples and preliminary study of migration.
in the Mediterranean begins in early June (Margaritoulis, Proceedings of the 17th Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle
1988). The first female turtle (ID code 07581), in fact, Biology and Conservation. 4-8 March-Orlando, Florida
remained off the coast of Libya in mid-winter for 80 days U.S.A. (in press)
near a large concentration of Caretta caretta nests recently Bentivegna, F., P. Cirino, and A. Toscano. 1992. Sea turtles
discovered (Laurent et al., 1997). in the Naples Aquarium:conservation policy. E.U.A.C.,
It is interesting to note that the female turtle released in Naples 10-16 October 1992. Mmoires de lInstitut
Greek waters (ID code 03844) also spent time in the waters Ocanographique Paul Ricard, 1993:39-42.
off the southwestern coast of the Peloponnese and off the
96 Telemetry and Migrations / Oral presentations

Bentivegna, F., and P. Cirino, and A. Toscano.1994. Threats Hapgood, W. 1959. Hydrographic observations in the Bay
to Caretta caretta in the Gulf of Naples. (in press) of Naples. Pubbl. Staz.Zool. Nap., 31: 337-371
Proceedings of the 14th Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Lauren, L., M.N. Bradai, D. A. Hadoud, and H.M. El Gomati.
Biology and Conservation. 1-5 March 1994-Hilton 1997. Assessment of sea turtle nesting activity in Libya.
Head, South Carolina U.S.A., NOAA Technical Marine Turtle Newsletter, 76:2-6
Memorandum NMFS 351:188-189 Margaritoulis, D.1988. Nesting of the loggerhead sea turtle,
Bentivegna, F., P. Cirino. 1986. Rintegration de Caretta Caretta caretta on the shores of Kiparissia Bay, Greece,
caretta (Linneo) dans la Mditerrane. Vie Marine 8:126- in 1987. Mesoge, 48:59-65
128 Margaritoulis, D. 1988a. Post nesting movements of
Bentivegna, F., V. Cianciulli, L.M. Davis, and A.Paglialonga. loggerhead Sea Turtles tagged in Greece. Rapp. Comm.
Tracking rehabilitated Sea Turtles in the Mediterranean int. Mer Medit., 31(2):284
Sea. Proceedings of the 16th Annual Symposium on Sea Ovchinnikov, I.M. 1966. Circulation in the surface and
Turtle Biology and Conservation. February 1996. (In intermediate layers of the Mediterranean. Oceanology,
press). 6:48-59
Carrada, G.C., T. Hopkins, G. Bonaduce, A. Ianora, Ranzi, S. 1930. La distribuzione della vita nel Golfo di
D.Marino, M.Modigh, M.Ribera dAlcal, and B. Scotto Napoli. XI Congr.geogr.ital. Atti (2):1-4
di Carlo. 1980. Variability in the hydrographic and
biological features of the Gulf of Naples.
Pubbl.Staz.Zool.Nap. I: Marine Ecology, 1: 65-80.
CHELO-TELEMETRY: MORE ON GREAT CHELONIAN TABOOS
J. Frazier
Centro de Investigacin y de Estudios Avanzados del I.P.N. Unidad Mrida, Carretera Antigua a Progreso km 6, A.P. 73
Cordemex, Mrida C.P. 97310, Yucatn, Mxico. frazier@kin.cieamer.conacyt.mx
INTRODUCTION
Telemetry, biotelemetry when used with animals, al- the subject is normal, in good health, or other such gen-
lows the measurement and observation, from a distance, of eralities, are a long way from proving that there is no effect
variables that would otherwise be impracticable, dangerous of the transmitter on its behavior, physiology or survival
or impossible. Three basic types of telemetry are used with (White and Garrott, 1990; Slatz, 1994).
sea turtles: sonic, radio (VHF), and satellite (UHF). The Three basic methods are used to affix transmitters to
most common use of turtle telemetry (chelo-telemetry) is sea turtles: on a tether, on a harness, or directly onto the
to locate position. Once this is known, interpretations of carapace, using screws, guy wires or fiberglass. Several pa-
other parameters can be made: activity, behavior, habitat type, pers provide advice on how to attach transmitters to turtles
home range, movements, survival, etc. Specific sensors may (e.g., Eckert and Eckert, 1986; Balazs et al., 1996), and de-
also be incorporated in the telemetry package in order to tails such as color, shape and coating (Byles and Keinath,
measure displacement, light intensity, movement and tem- 1990). However, systematic studies on the effects of attach-
perature. ing transmitters (called instrumenting) to sea turtles are
rare.
EFFECT OF THE TRANSMITTER ON THE STUDY Logan and Morreale (1994) reported that one barnacle
ANIMAL on the anterior dorsal of the shell could result in a 30% in-
crease in drag coefficient. As this is the usual site where
Considerable telemetry research on wildfowl has shown
transmitters - much larger than barnacles - are positioned,
many cases of transmitters affecting the study animal, in-
the energetic costs of swimming for an instrumented turtle
volving: time budget, feeding behavior, body mass, skin and
may be greatly increased, resulting in major effects on activ-
external body covering, reproductive success and survival
ity, behavior, metabolism, habitat selection, and other key
(e.g., Paquette et al., 1997). The impact is clearest on small
aspects of the animals life history. Furthermore, a rigid box
birds and mammals, but even large cats and ungulates have
on the top of the shell can interfere with copulation; Murphy
been affected by telemetry packages; research on several
(1979) inferred that because transmitters remained in place
species of birds shows that telemeters can increase drag and
and functioning on adult female Caretta caretta, copulation
reduce the speed of flight (White and Garrot, 1990). In gen-
had not occurred.
eral, however, little attention has been paid to the effect of
One study showed that after 18 days a leatherback with
the telemetry package on the study animal. Comments that
a harness was chaffed, and so the equipment was removed;

in addition, a shark had attacked this turtle, evidently attracted To illustrate the importance of error in chelo-telemetry,
to the transmitter and harness that it was wearing (Keinath error polygons can be calculated for studies that assumed no
and Musick, 1993). In their studies using transmitters at- error, by assigning a 95% error angle of 5 (usual for terres-
tached to the carapace, Renaud and Carpenter (1994) dis- trial studies). One study reported instrumented Dermochelys
carded the first two weeks of data, to allow the instrumented coriacea to average about 19 km offshore, but the calcu-
animals to become accustomed to the equipment. No fur- lated 90% error polygon is 58 km2, and the turtles had a 90%
ther details were given, but it is remarkable that the authors chance of being from 14.1 to 30.0 km offshore. A study of
were so concerned about the effect of transmitters on the Lepidochelys olivacea in Costa Rica indicated that they were
animals that they purposely threw out two weeks of hard- mainly 5.0 km offshore, but the calculated 90% error poly-
earned data. Transmitters, by definition, emit signals, and gon is 14 km2, showing that the turtles had a 90% chance of
chelo-telemetry investigators have implicitly assumed that being 2.8 to 18.6 km offshore. This is not to mention prob-
there are no effects of the telemetry signal on the study ani- lems of sequential bearings, transmitter to receiver distances
mal. It is not clear, however, that sea turtles are completely > 10 km, bearing intersections < 20, or the fact that the time
insensitive to these radiations particularly sonic pulses. In available to fix a position of an instrumented sea turtle is
conclusion, the design and attachment of chelo-telemeters is often < 1 min not comparable to most terrestrial studies, so
as much art as science. the assumption of a 5 error angle is likely to be a gross
underestimate. Hence, many conclusions about the positions,
ERROR IN TRANSMITTER LOCATION DATA and related activities, based on radio chelo-telemetry may
Location is the primary objective of chelo-telemetry. be questionable because they have not taken error into ac-
The equipment can be used to home in on and visually track count.
down a study animal, or it can be used to estimate a position Satellite telemetry does not use triangulation, and is
remotely. Remote estimates are made by triangulation in the based on the calculation of Doppler Shift, but this sophisti-
case of sonic and radio, or by using calculations of Dop- cated technique is still subject to error. Depending on the
pler shift, in the case of satellite. For more than two de- quality of information received by the satellite, the 95% con-
cades there have been detailed studies and descriptions of fidence limits of the position data is a circle with radius of
the problems of error in biotelemety (e.g., White and Garrott, 150, 350 or 1,000 m. If insufficient information is received
1990; Slatz, 1994) but little of this has been applied in chelo- by the satellite, a position may be provided, but without an
telemetry. Three independent variables affect error: distance estimate of precision these are LC0 data. Because sea
from transmitter to receiver, angle of intersection of the bear- turtles spend relatively little time at the surface, the only time
ings used in triangulation, and the error angle of the bearings when transmissions to the satellite can occur, most sea turtle
(Slatz, 1994). data is LC0 without estimates of precision. Nevertheless,
Many studies have used sonic transmitters, but only one many satellite chelo-telemetry studies report not only detailed
team has evaluated position error. Braun et al. (1997) stud- tracks with point localities, but calculations of distances be-
ied errors and biases involved in sonic telemetry, describing tween consecutive positions (to tenths of a km), swimming
the limits of the technique for chelo-telemetry. They found a speeds (to meters per hour), bottom types and other environ-
significant bias in test readings, and calculated 95% error mental variables. Since most of the position data have an
angle to be between 4 and 10, recommending that the trans- unknown level of precision, it is risky at best to present re-
mitter-to-receiver distance be < 326 m to be able to locate a sults and conclusions that are based on levels of precision
position at 95% confidence limits, in an area of < 10 ha. not supported by the data - not to mention effects of oceanic
Radio telemetry has been used in numerous studies currents on turtle displacement. Hays et al. (1991) and Bea-
to determine turtle position, but problems of error have rou- vers and Cassano (1996) provide notable exceptions to this
tinely been ignored. Apparently the only considerations rel- paradigm, giving detailed explanations of issues related to
evant to distance from transmitter to receiver have been sig- satellite chelo-telemetry.
nal range (reported to be as much as 30 km in some cases),
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
not the effect on error. Little attention has been paid to the
angle of intersection of the bearings, which commonly have The issue of error is treated as a taboo in chelo-telem-
been outside the recommended range of 45 to 135 (White etry, for it is rarely mentioned. This results in work being
and Garrott, 1990). Calculations, or even mention, of error less valuable than it could be, or even questionable, depend-
angle are also conspicuously absent, although in a few pa- ing on how the data are used. In some cases, the omission of
pers a fleeting mention of error was included, but without any discussion of error may be more related to editors bi-
clarification of how it might affect the interpretation of the ases than the desires of authors (Plotkin, pers. com.); hence,
data. In some cases intersecting bearings were taken by se- both authors and editors need to be better informed about
quential not simultaneous readings, meaning that the turtle these issues. To reduce the chances of producing spurious
moved an unknown distance between bearings. A few stud- interpretations, it is essential that any telemetry study take
ies have even used single bearings to determine point loca- into account several basic considerations:
tions!

Have clear objectives, and use equipment and meth- Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and
ods which will best meet those goals; Conservation. NOAA Tec. Mem. NMFS-SEFC-278.
Understand and respect the limits of the equipment Eckert, S.A. and K.L. Eckert. 1986. Harnessing leatherbacks.
and methods; Marine Turtle Newsletter 37: 1-3.
Hays, G.C., P.I. Webb, J.P. Hayes, I.G. Priede and J. French.
Take into account possible effects of the equipment
1991. Satellite tracking of a loggerhead turtle (Caretta
and techniques on the study animals; caretta) in the Mediterranean. J. Mar. Biol. Ass.U.K. 71:
Calibrate equipment and methods; 743-746.
Determine sources of bias; Keinath, J.A. and J.A. Musick. 1993. Movements and diving
Determine sources of random error; behavior of a leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea.
Use procedures that produce the most precise esti- Copeia 1993(4): 1010-1017.
mates; Logan P. and S.J. Morreale. 1994. Hydrodynamic drag
characteristics of juvenile L. kempii, C. mydas and C.
Report findings to a level of precision consistent with
caretta. pp. 205-208. In: Proceedings of the Thirteenth
the methods; Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and
Be honest and clear about error and uncertainty in the Conservation. NMFS-SEFSC-341.
results. Murphy, T.M., Jr. 1979. Sonic and radio tracking of
loggerhead turtles. Marine Turtle Newsletter 11: 5.
LITERATURE CITED Paquette, G.A., J.H. Devries, R. B. Emery, D.W. Howerter,
Balazs, G.H., R.K. Miya and S.C. Beavers. 1996. Procedures B. L. Joynt and T. P. Sankowski. 1997. Effects of
to attach a satellite transmitter to the carapace of an adult transmitters on reproduction and survival of wild
green turtle. pp. 21-26. In: Proceedings of the Fifteenth mallards. J. Wildl. Manage. 61(3): 953-961.
Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Renaud, M.L. and J.A. Carpenter. 1994. Movements and
Conservation. NMFS-SEFSC-387. submergence patterns of loggerhead turtles (Caretta
Beavers, S.C. and E.R. Cassano. 1996. Movements and caretta) in the Gulf of Mexico determined through
dive behavior of a male sea turtle (Lepidochelys satellite telemetry. Bull. Mar. Sci.55(1): 1-15.
olivacea) in the eastern tropical Pacific. J. Herpetology Slatz, D. 1994. Reporting error measures in radio location
30(1): 97-104. by triangulation: A review. J. Wildl. Manage. 58(1): 181-
Braun, J., S.P. Epperly and J.A. Collazo. 1997. Evaluation 184.
of a sonic telemetry system in three habitats of an White, G.C. and R.A. Garrott. 1990. Analysis of Wildlife
estuarine environment. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 212 : Radio-Tracking Data. Academic Press, Inc.; Boston.
111-121. xiii + 383.
Byles, R.A. and J.A. Keinath. 1990. Satellite monitoring
sea turtles. pp. 73-75. In: Proceedings of the Tenth
GREEN TURTLE (CHELONIA MYDAS) INTER-NESTING BEHAVIOUR IN THE

EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN DETERMINED USING DATA-LOGGING DEVICES
Sandra Hochscheid1, Brendan J. Godley2, Annette C. Broderick2, and Rory P. Wilson1

1
Abteilung Meereszoologie, Institut fr Meereskunde, Dsternbroker Weg 20, D-24105 Kiel, Germany. shochscheid@ifm.uni-
kiel.de
2
Marine Turtle Research Group, Division of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology, Graham Kerr Building, University of
Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, Scotland, U.K.
INTRODUCTION equipped with data-loggers to elucidate their movements and

activity during the inter-nesting interval.
Conservation related research regarding sea turtles has
largely focused on the nesting beaches. However, success-
ful conservation of these species is likely to depend on man-
agement decisions based upon detailed knowledge of the The study was based on measurements made by the
behaviour of both immatures and adults in the aquatic envi- DK600 data-logger (Driesen and Kern, Am Hasselt 25, 24576
ronment. This is far more difficult, explaining why data re- Bad Bramstedt, Germany). We equipped green turtles at
garding at-sea activity are so scarce. This report details pre- Alagadi, northern Cyprus (3521N, 3330E) during the
liminary results of a study in which adult female green turtles cover-up phase of nesting activity. Velcro glued to both the
(Chelonia mydas) from the eastern Mediterranean were underside of the data-logger and to the carapace held the

device in position during attachment with epoxy resin. The above categories and could be further recognised due to
relatively small (140 mm long x 58 mm wide x 28 mm high), abrupt zig-zags in the profile and between one and several
hydrodynamically shaped devices weighed only 200 g each; dive stops during the descent. The calculated proportions
they recorded and stored data on ambient temperature, light of the different dive types show that the main dive types were
intensity, swim speed and dive depth. Additionally, a com- u-dives (46 %) rather than s- (11 %) or v- (2 %) dives. In
pass, combined with two Hall generators, measured change contrast, the MADs played a major role in turtle diving
in the position of the animal in three-dimensional space, and behaviour constituting 35% of all dives, by time spend un-
data from these compass sensors were used to calculate an der water.
index of activity. The logger had a 2 MB flash memory and We estimated the activity during u-dives with the help
could store up to one million data points. We set the interval of the activity index (Figure 2) and discovered that half of
between measurements at 15 seconds to reduce battery use, all u-dives showed close to zero activity during the bottom
so that the unit could continue logging for a four-week pe- time and therefore conclude that these were resting dives.
riod. This means that the turtles spent one quarter of their inter-
nesting interval resting on the sea floor, generally at night or
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS late afternoon, in relatively inshore habitats (the water be-
Each logger was detached at the end of the study, leav- comes very deep, > 27 m maximum dive depth, within a few
ing no carapace damage, and appearing to have had no del- kilometres of the coast of the island).
eterious effect on the animals. From the four units retrieved, 600 0
we obtained data regarding two inter-nesting periods, from
two different turtles: 23-days (11 and 12 days) for one turtle 500 5
and 15 days (11 and 4 days) for the other. In all cases the
dive depth [m]

activity index 400
speed vane had been damaged during employment, which 10
led to a failure in the measurement of swim speed. Hence, 300
data on swim speed were only reliable for two days from one 15
200
turtle. The mean velocity was between 0.6 and 0.75 m/sec,
with a maximum calculated speed of 5.4 m/sec, this last value 20
100
being interpolated from a calibration regression which was
0 25
conducted between 0 and 2 m/sec. 0:00 0:35 1:10 1:45 2:20 2:55 3:30
The deepest recorded dive was 27 m and the average
time [h:min]
dive duration was 13 min. For a large proportion of the time,
Figure 2. Variation in green turtle activity (high values = high activity)
the turtles dived or swam submerged near the surface, in ac- as a function of depth utilization and dive type (see Figure 1).
tivities we have described as Messing Around Dives
(MADs), which have no definite pattern and are distinct from
the other observed dive types. MADs were never deeper During about half the u-dives the turtles showed some
than 2.5 m. Every dive below this depth limit was assumed activity, which could not be assigned to a particular behaviour,
to be an actual dive and could be distinguished into 3 main we consider it likely to be feeding. There are extensive sea
types: u-dives, v-dives and s-dives. The expressions u and grass beds in the coastal area where the green turtles could
v refer to the shapes of the respective dive profiles (Figure be foraging.
1), whereas s only describes the shape of the ascent. More analysis and fieldwork will be necessary to fully
determine the role of all dive types. The activity during peri-
tim e [m in] ods of MADs was consistently high, so it appears that the
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 turtles were actively swimming rather than just hovering near
0
the surface. To elucidate movements further we need to
2
analyse the compass data which could show whether there
dive depth [m]
4
6
was a change in location or not. This is anticipated in future
8 c work, where a procedure called dead reckoning (vectorial
10 calculations using compass-, speed- and depth data) will pro-
12 vide a three-dimensional swimming route for each animal
14 a b (Wilson et al., 1992).
16
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Figure 1. Depth utilization by a green turtle in the eastern
Mediterranean showing various typical dive profiles: a = u-dives, b
For support of the Glasgow University Turtle Conser-
= s-dives, c = v-dives. vation Expedition (GUTCE) to northern Cyprus 1997: Brit-
ish Association of Tortoise Keepers, British Chelonia Group,
A small proportion (6 %) of dives did not fit the above British High Commission, Carnegie Trust for the Universi-
scheme. These other dives were a mixture of all of the ties of Scotland, European Commission (DG1B/A1),

Glasgow Natural History Society, Glasgow University Court, LITERATURE CITED

Kibris Turkish Airlines. ACB would like to acknowledge
Wilson, R.P., B.M. Culik, R. Bannash, and H.H. Driesen.
the support of the Peoples Trust for Endangered Species.
1992. Monitoring penguins at sea using data loggers.
Travel costs for SH were met by the Institut fr Meereskunde
Biotelemetry XII, Aug 31 - Sep 5, Ancona, Italy. pp.
(special thanks to Mr. Adelung and Mr. Waller for their sup-
205-209.
port), Freunde des Instituts fr Meereskunde e.V. (Cyprus)
and a grant made to the Symposium by The David and Lucile
Packard Foundation. We acknowledge Driesen and Kern
for providing us with the data-loggers and to all the mem-
bers of the GUTCE 1997 for their help during the field sea-
son.
MIGRATIONS OF THE LOGGERHEAD SEA TURTLE (CARETTA CARETTA) INTO THE

ADRIATIC SEA
Bojan Lazar1, Dimitris Margaritoulis2, and Nikola Tvrtkovic1

1
Department of Zoology, Croatian Natural History Museum, Demetrova 1, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia. blazar@hpm.hr
2
Sea Turtle Protection Society of Greece, Solomou 35, GR-108 62 Athens, Greece
Data on migrations of sea turtles in the Adriatic Sea two specimens data on recapture-condition were not avail-
are extremely rare, presented, partially, only by Margaritoulis able, while the mortality rate seems to be even higher than
(1988) and Argano et al. (1992). In first 10 years of the imple- the 60% described by Argano et al. (1992). The highest
mentation of tagging programs in the Mediterranean basin mortality is caused by the gill net, recognized as the most
(1981/82-1992), 13 tagged loggerheads were recaptured in deadly fishing method by Argano et al. (1992), with a death-
the Adriatic Sea (Margaritoulis, 1988: 6 specimens from 34 rate of about 75%.
recaptured; Argano et al., 1992: 7 specimens from 51 recap- All 11 recaptured tagged loggerheads come from nest-
tured). From Croatian waters, only 4 tagged loggerheads have ing beaches on Zakynthos or on Peloponnesus in Greece.
been reported. The longest migration, of about 1,200 km, was recorded for
Our results are based upon recoveries of tagged log- specimens recovered in the Northern Adriatic, along the east-
gerheads along the Croatian coast of the Adriatic Sea, in the ern coast. The shortest period between last record on the
period between 1993 and 1996. The majority of the records nesting beach and recovery in Croatia was 43 days. The speci-
were obtained from local inhabitants and fishermen, through men migrated at least 750 km, which indicates an average
the network of institutions along the Croatian coast, imple- speed of about 17.5 km/day. This speed is in the range of the
mented in the Adriatic Marine Turtle Research and Conser- results of Margaritoulis (1988).The 11 in-transit recoveries
vation Program in Croatia. All data were gathered at the re- of migrants in Croatia presented in this paper, as well as data
search center of the Program (Department of Zoology, on recaptures by Argano et al. (1992) and Margaritoulis
Croatian Natural History Museum), and forwarded to the (1988), show that part of the Greek loggerhead nesting popu-
tagging institution. lation migrates through the Adriatic Sea. Although migra-
During the four year period, 11 tagged loggerhead fe- tory behavior is unknown, it is probable that the Adriatic
males were recovered in Croatian waters, which is almost represents their feeding and developmental area. According
three times more than in the last 10 years. All the recaptured to Lazar and Tvrtkovi (1995), a yearly incidental catch of
specimens were tagged in Greece by STPS. However, it is 2,500 specimens has been estihead nesting population mi-
possible that the number of recaptured specimens in Croatia grates through the Adriatic Sea. Although migratory behav-
was higher in the past, but due to the lack of a data collecting ior is unknown, it is probable that the Adriatic represents
network and of public awareness, the majority of recaptures their feeding and developmental area. According to Lazar
were never reported. From 11 tagged loggerhead recovered and Tvrtkovi (1995), a yearly incidental catch of 2,500 speci-
in Croatia between 1993 and 1996, two turtles were found mens has been estimated for the eastern Adriatic region. The
dead, washed ashore in the northern Adriatic region, while 9 evidence of professional fishermen in Croatia is mostly re-
specimens were caught in fishing nets. Six loggerheads were lated to small, subadult turtles caught in the nets. It is in-
captured in a gill net. Five of them were found dead, while teresting that Lazar and Tvrtkovi_ (1995) have presented
only one specimen was recaptured alive and released. Three data on three schools of mostly subadult marine turtles (prob-
more loggerheads were recovered by trawling: one was found ably Caretta caretta) observed in Croatian waters, while ac-
alive and released, while data on the condition of the other cording to Dood (1988) group migrations are unknown in
two recovered specimens were not available. No tagged speci- Caretta. Furthermore, according to a preliminary analysis of
mens have been recaptured more than once. In total, only incidental catch in Croatian waters (Lazar, 1995), and due to
two loggerheads have been recovered alive and released. For the maximum peak of the incidental catch by bottom trawl-

ers during the winter months, it is not impossible that part of (Caretta caretta) in Mediterraneo. Boll. Mus. Ist. biol.
Greek nesting loggerhead population overwinters in the Univ. Genova, 56/57: 137-164.
Adriatic as well. Dodd, C. Kenneth, Jr. 1988. Synopsis of the biological data
Although we can not precisely reconstruct the migra- on the Loggerhead Sea Turtle Caretta caretta
tory pathway of loggerheads in the Adriatic, it seems that (Linnaeus 1758). U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Biol.Rep. 88
migratory route leads along the eastern Adriatic coast, to- (14). 110pp.
ward the north. This route overlaps with the current that en- Lazar, B. 1995: Analysis of incidental catch of marine turtles
ters the Adriatic along the eastern coast and surely have an (Reptilia, Cheloniidae) in the Eastern part of the
influence on the direction of loggerhead migration. How- Adriatic Sea: Existence of overwintering areas?
ever, migration against the prevailing currents in the Adriatic Symposium in honour of Zdravko Lorkovic, Zagreb: 97.
can not be excluded, so the question about the active pas- Lazar B., and Tvrtkovi_, N. 1995. Marine Turtles in the
sage of loggerheads in the region is still without a proper Eastern Part of the Adriatic Sea: Preliminary Research.
answer. Nat. Croat. 4 (1): 59 - 74.
Margaritoulis, D. 1988. Post-nesting movements of
LITERATURE CITED loggerhead Sea Turtles tagged in Greece. Rapp. Comm.
Argano, R., R. Basso, Cocco M., and G. Gerosa,. 1992 : Int. Mer Mdit., 31(2): 283 - 284.
Nuovi dati sugli spostamenti di tartaruga marina comune
USING MOLECULAR GENETICS AND BIOTELEMETRY TO STUDY LIFE HISTORY

AND LONG DISTANCE MOVEMENT: A TALE OF TWO TURTLES
Wallace J. Nichols1 and 2, Jeffrey A. Seminoff1, Antonio Resendiz3, Peter Dutton4, and F. Alberto Abreu-Grobois2
1
Wildlife Ecology, SRNR, University of Arizona, Tucson AZ 85721, U. S. A jnichols@ag.arizona.edu
2
Estacin Mazatln, Inst. de Ciencias del Mar y Limnologa, UNAM, Apdo. Postal 811, Mazatln, Sinaloa 82000, Mxico
3
Centro Regional de Investigaciones Pesqueras, Ensenada, Baja California, Mxico
4
Southwest Fisheries Science Center, NMFS, La Jolla CA, U.S.A.
Molecular genetics and biotelemetry are powerful tools These results reiterate the need for management and
that have been used to study sea turtle movements and life protection efforts on sea turtle feeding grounds in Baja Cali-
history (Bowen 1995) (Balazs 1994). Together they can pro- fornia, the importance of a species by species approach to
vide empirical evidence for previously stated hypotheses, turtle conservation, and the utility of multi-faceted research
increase our understanding of habitat use, migration routes, programs. These studies have also led to an increase in in-
and suggest further research lines on the interrelationships tra- and inter-regional cooperation.
between nesting and feeding areas.
Loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and black turtles (Che- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
lonia mydas agassizii) are thought to undertake long migra-
Without the participation of hundreds of volunteers, the
tions from nesting beaches in Japan (Villanueva 1991;
guidance of dozens of Baja California's best fishermen, and
Ramirez Cruz et al., 1991) and Michoacan, Mexico
the encouragement and support of many people this research
(Alvarado and Figueroa, 1992), respectively, to distinct feed-
wouldn't have been possible. We appreciate support from
ing grounds along both coasts of Baja California, Mexico.
Richard Byles, USFWS, SWFSC-NMFS, Earthwatch Insti-
Results from analysis of mtDNA control regions, from this
tute, Wallace Genetic Foundation, PADI Foundation, Ameri-
study and presented elsewhere (Bowen et al., 1995), and from
can Museum of Natural History, National Geographic Tele-
our recent satellite telemetry studies confirm these nesting
vision, Seaspace, Turtle Trax, Sycamore Junior High School
beach-feeding ground relationships and suggest vastly dif-
and the E. H. Greene School.
ferent patterns of use of Baja California waters by each spe-
cies.
LITERATURE CITED
We have observed that eastern Pacific loggerheads pri-
marily occupy offshore areas confirming the observations Alvarado, J. and A. Figueroa. 1992. Post-nesting recaptures
of Pitman (1990), make long pelagic forays, and feed pre- of black marine turtles (Chelonia agassizii) tagged in
dominantly on pelagic red crabs (Pleuroncodes planipes). Michoacan, Mexico. Biotropica 24(4): 560-566
In contrast, black turtles utilize primarily nearshore waters, Balazs, G.H. 1994. Homeward bound: satellite tracking of
lagoons and bays, migrate along the coast, and consume sea Hawaiian green turtles from nesting beaches to foraging
grasses and algae. Mortality due to incidental catch is com- pastures. In: Schroeder, B.A., and Witherington, B.E.
mon for both species in this region (pers. obs.). Comps., Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual

Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. Ramirez Cruz, J.C., I. Pena Ramirez, and D. Villanueva
NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-SEFSC-341, 281 pp. Flores. 1991. Distribucion y abundancia de la tortuga
Bowen, B.W. 1995. Tracking marine turtles with genetic perica, Caretta caretta Linnaeus (1758), en la costa
markers: voyages of the ancient mariners. BioScience occidental de Baja California Sur, Mexico. Archelon
45(8): 528-534. 1(2): 1-4.
Bowen, B.W., F.A. Abreu-Grobois, G.H. Balazs, N. Uchida, S. and H. Teruya. 1991. Transpacific migration of a
Kamezaki, C.J. Limpus, and R.J. Ferl. 1995. Trans- tagged loggerhead, Caretta caretta. Uchida, I. (Ed.),
Pacific migrations of the loggerhead sea turtle International Symposium on Sea Turtles in Japan.
demonstrated with mitochondrial DNA markers. Proc. Himeji City Aquarium, Himeji City, Japan. pp. 169-182.
Nat. Acad. Sci. 92:3731-3734. Villanueva Flores, D. 1991. La tortuga perica, Caretta
Felger, R.S. and M.B. Moser. 1985. People of the Desert caretta gigas (Deraniyagala, 1939) en la costa del
and Sea: Ethnobotany of the Seri Indians. University Pacifico de Baja California Sur, Mexico. B. Sc. Thesis
of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona. 438 pp.
Pitman, R. 1990. Pelagic distribution and biology of sea
turtles in the eastern tropical Pacific. In: Richardson,
T.H., J.I. Richardson, and M. Donnelly (Comps.).
Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle
Biology and Conservation. NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-
SEFC-278. 286 pp.
WHERE DO TURTLES SWIM WHEN THEY SWIM?
Edward A. Standora1, Stephen J. Morreale2, James R. Spotila3, and Frank V. Paladino4

1
Department of Biology, State University College, Buffalo, NY 14222, U.S.A.
2
Cooperative Research Unit, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, U.S.A.
3
Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, U.S.A.
4
Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, Fort Wayne, Indiana 46805, U.S.A. standoea@buffalostate.edu
Turtle diving patterns are likely influenced by environ-

mental conditions, such as bathymetry, temperature, and cur-
rents; behavior, such as nesting or migrating; and physiologi-
cal demands, as influenced by factors such as energy acqui-
sition, and depth constraints. Using different combinations
of radio, sonic and satellite transmitters, we have examined
diving patterns of adult female leatherback turtles, and have
outlined some important aspects of submergence and diving
behavior. Diving of the turtles was recorded both during
internesting periods and while turtles were migrating in the
pelagic environment for up to several months after nesting.
Comparisons of behavior patterns during such very different
activities can help us better protect sea turtles, which can be
extremely vulnerable both in nesting areas and while travel-
ing over great distances, sometimes along narrow migration
corridors. Futhermore, such detailed information on diving,
submergence, and surface patterns can be critical for assess-
ing habitat use and estimating population size.

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE TURTLE EXCLUDER DEVICE (TED) BY THE SHRIMP

FLEET OF PACIFIC CENTRAL AMERICA
Randall Arauz
Sea Turtle Restoration Project, Earth Island Institute, Central American Office, Apdo. 1203-1100, Tibas, Costa Rica
rarauz@cariari.ucr.ac.cr
Commercial shrimp fishery activities have been identi- month the first infraction, three months the second infrac-
fied by the world scientific authorities as the human induced tion, and indefinitely the third. Obviously, this law was not
factor that causes the greatest mortality of adult sea turtles. applied. To make matters even worse, one of the vessels was
During the 80s, the Turtle Excluder Device (TED) was de- prosecuted by the Mayors Office in Golfito (the legal juris-
veloped in the United States, which consists of a simple grid diction), but the Regional INCOPESCA office decided to
that is installed in the shrimp trawl net, which guides the turtles apply the Wildlife Conservation Law, and the infracted only
out a trap door, avoiding their capture and eventual death. cancelled a small fine (about U.S.$70). It must be mentioned
Since 1991, the use of TEDs is mandatory in the shrimp fleet that the Wildlife Conservation Law is not applicable at sea,
of the United States. Additionally, and as a measure to avoid where INCOPESCA laws are in effect.
the imminent extinction of these species, the Government of Thus, the embargo is not only irritating to countries
the U.S. imposes an embargo on shrimp imported from coun- that export shrimp to the U.S., it is inefficient. No doubt, the
tries that do not protect sea turtles through the use of TEDs use of TEDs must be implemented with the greatest urgency,
in their shrimp fleets. for the general well being of the marine ecosystem. Never-
As a condition to certify the Central American coun- theless, the embargo must be accompanied by a series of
tries and allow their exports to the U.S. market, as of May 1 elements to guarantee an efficient implementation.
of 1996 they must have laws which mandate the use of TEDs 1. RESEARCH. Each country must have reliable and
in their local shrimp fleets. All Central American countries verifiable data on sea turtle catch rates, as well as research
complied with these measures, and thus they export shrimp on the efficiency of TEDs and modifications designed to
on a regular basis. improved performance. In Costa Rica we have identified the
However: Has the implementation of TEDs been effi- problem areas, the origin of the problem, and we have
cient in Central America after the imposition of the embargo? modified the technology in order to satisfy the requirements
Information from several Central American newspapers of the Costa Rican shrimpers. For instance, in the South Pa-
show a clear debate between conservationists on one side, cific region of the country, up to 38% of the shrimp (by
and shrimpers and fishery sector officials on the other, caused weight) may be lost when using TEDs, mainly due to the
by the stranded turtles that constantly wash up on the Central high amount of logs and organic debris on the ocean floor,
American Pacific coastline. While conservationists blame this which jam the TED and impair fishing efficiency. After this
situation on shrimpers for not using TEDs, they defend them- experience, we proceeded to evaluate the efficiency of dif-
selves claiming that all shrimp vessels comply with current ferent TED models and several modifications. As a result, it
regulations, which according to them and fishery officials was determined that in these problem areas, the use of
alike, happen to be strictly enforced. Seymour TEDs (which are square), with 6 and 8 inch de-
In order to definitely and directly determine if TEDs flector bar spacing, and a 42 inch escape hole rather than an
are being used by the Pacific shrimp fleet of Nicaragua, an official 32 inch, recorded a loss of shrimp by weight of 4%
at dock inspection was carried out in the South Pacific port to 12%. On the other hand, the authorities of the NMFS ex-
of San Juan del Sur, on September 26 of 1997. Of three ves- pressed their concern regarding the wider spacing than the
sels inspected, none passed the inspection. One vessel had official spacing allowed (4 inches), as this may cause smaller
the TEDs improperly installed and without escape holes (how- sized sea turtles (such as juveniles) to be captured. In re-
ever, they did have flaps). Another vessel only had one TED sponse, we submitted reports with data on more than 300
installed, while the other had both TEDs installed, but they turtles captured incidentally by the Costa Rican shrimp fleet,
were is such poor conditions that they can hardly be consid- which concluded that all sea turtles captured in these waters
ered functional at all. are adults. During the juvenile stage, the olive ridley sea
The situation in Costa Rica is even more critical. On turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) in captured incidentally by
October 27 of 1997, the U.S. Embassy carried out an official the pelagic long line fisheries. This information is being used
inspection in the port of Puntarenas, during which 12 vessels to solicit the approval of these modifications (wider bar spac-
were checked. All passed the inspection, and the efforts of ing) for Costa Rica.
the government sector were applauded. However, during this 2. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER. After the most ef-
same month, 5 vessels were captured by the Navy Police of ficient modifications for certain fishing conditions are de-
Golfito fishing without TEDs, and all were released the fol- termined, this information must be transferred to the shrimp
lowing day. The official INCOPESCA TED LAW sanc- fishery sector. It is important to work directly with the fish-
tions violators with the suspension of their license for one
104 Threats and Protective Measures / Oral presentations

ery sector, and submit detailed and periodic reports on the Safe Shrimp. Through campaigns, public consumers around
status and results of the research. the world are being reached and educated to acquire aware-
3. COOPERATION. The efforts of shrimpers who are ness of the problem and of their own responsibility as con-
responsible and who openly want to be part of the solution, sumers of products that jeopardize the marine environment ,
must be acknowledged. This is the case of the Georgia shrimp- as well as the fact that they may actively participate help
ers in the U.S. The Sea Turtle Restoration Project of Earth save an endangered species by demanding the implementa-
Island Institute (STRP) has signed contracts with over 125 tion of the TED. By the way, do you eat shrimp?
Georgia shrimpers, who commit to using TEDs in a respon- 4. Effective implementation of the laws!
sible way, and to allow unannounced inspections by our rep-
resentatives. On the other hand, the STRP seeks to sell this
product in the green market. The program is currently in
the capacity of providing up to 3,000,000 pounds of Turtle
AFTER TEDS: WHATS NEXT??
Deborah Crouse
Center for Marine Conservation, 1725 DeSales St., NW, #600, Washington, DC 20036, U.S.A. d_crouse@cenmarine.com
By the late 1970s, drowning in shrimp trawls had been as the current challenge before the World Trade Organiza-
identified as a significant source of mortality for sea turtles tion of U.S. laws that encourage TED use in countries im-
in many parts of the world. By the early 1980s, the Turtle porting shrimp to the U.S. But there is reason to believe that
Excluder Device (TED) provided a technology by which the worst is over as we hear of increased compliance, a more
shrimp trawling could continue virtually unimpeded while accepting attitude among many shrimpers, and evidence of
protecting most turtles entrained. There followed a protracted, increasing abundance of certain turtle populations.
at times pitched, battle first to achieve voluntary use, and But, though we were right to put such a heaving em-
when that failed, to require TEDs in shrimp trawls in U.S. phasis on reducing trawling mortalities first, even if TEDs
waters. While the Center for Marine Conservation played a are having an effect and some populations are beginning to
key role in this battle (Weber et al., 1995), it enjoined many increase, we cannot declare victory and go home. Popula-
forces from throughout the sea turtle scientific and conser- tion increases may turn out to be fleeting, if we do not start
vation communities, as well as staff in two federal agencies. paying more attention to other problems. There are a whole
Still, it took more than a decade before TEDs were required host of other problems that need attention. Indeed, we may
in most shrimp trawls. Since late 1989, TEDs have been re- have done two of the easiest fights so far. With directed takes
quired in some, since December, 1994, most shrimp trawls for international trade, it was relatively easy to document the
in southeastern U.S. waters. TEDs are now being required in takes, and to rally support against a mostly luxury market.
18 nations around the world and TED requirements are be- With shrimp trawlers there was an obvious culprit, a fair
ing considered in 15-20 more. amount of hard data indicated this was the largest source of
In the early 1990s, concurrent with TED implementa- mortality by far in the U.S. and a problem of global impor-
tion, sea turtle strandings on southeastern U.S. beaches de- tance, we had a technological solution, and there were lots
clined significantly, however stranding numbers began in- of stinking bodies on public beaches to organize campaigns
creasing again beginning in 1994. Use of inefficient or im- around. And still it took most of 20 years, and the war is not
properly installed TEDs and intentional noncompliance were over. But, even as we try to ferret out how many of those
originally identified as the primary sources of the increased increased strandings are due to the ironic good news of in-
strandings. As each of these issues has been addressed in creases in some populations, other threats loom: longline fish-
turn (not to 100% satisfaction, but significantly reduced), eries; coastal gillnet fisheries; habitat destruction as high-
other possible explanations have warranted consideration, lighted by the recent furor over the sale of the beach at
including other compensatory sources of mortality and in- Xcacel, Quintana Roo for a hotel, but we must also be con-
creases in turtle populations resulting in more dead animals cerned about in-water habitat loss as well (alarms have been
even if the rate of mortality is reduced. While little has been raised about global degradation of coral reefs, seagrass beds,
done to reduce multiple recaptures of turtles, at this point it etc.). And, sad to say, these threats may be harder to address.
seems increasingly likely that other mortality sources and For several years now we have heard reports of large
increasing populations are both contributing to the increases numbers of turtles taken in long line fisheries. In 1990,
in strandings. This complicates things, as it is difficult to Nishemura and Nakahigashi an estimated 40,000 sea turtles
separate mortalities due to noncompliance and/or problems of three species were caught (16,000 dead) in the Japanese
with TEDs from these other factors. These will remain con- tuna longline fleet in the Pacific in 1978. We know longlining
tinuing problems that require vigilance and attention, as well fishing effort has increased dramatically since then. Now Sarti
Oral presentations / Threats and Protective Measures 105

et al. (1996) and Spotila et al. (1996) tell us about the col- ready lost (Wilkinson, 1992). Be it coral reef and sea grass
lapse of the primary remaining Pacific leatherback nesting feeding grounds, tar balls and plastic in ocean convergences,
rookeries, in Mexico and Costa Rica. Those declines prob- or nesting beaches, sea turtle habitat degradation is of in-
ably started with other threats, but global longlining fishing creasing concern.
effort is now increasing dramatically, and we know it takes
leatherbacks, as well as loggerheads, greens, olive ridleys, LITERATURE CITED
etc. Longlining may well finish the job for Pacific leather- Aguilar, R., J. Mas and X. Pastor. 1995. Impact of Spanish
backs. swordfish longline fisheries on the loggerhead sea turtle
Aguilar et al. (1992) reported an estimate of >20,000 Caretta caretta populations in the Western
juvenile loggerheads captured (as many as 10,700 killed) Mediterranean. pp. 1-6 In: Proceedings of the Twelfth
annually in the Spanish swordfish longlining fleet in the Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and
Mediterranean alone. We now know from genetic evidence Conservation. 25-29 February 1992. J.I. Richardson and
(Bowen et al., 1993) that about half (57%) of the juvenile T.H. Richardson (Comps.). NOAA Technical
loggerheads in the Mediterranean were hatched on south- Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-361.
eastern U.S. beaches. Bolten et al. (1994) have reported that Bolten, A.B., K.A. Bjorndal, and H.R. Martins. 1994. Life
significant numbers of these same loggerhead juveniles are history model for the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta
being taken in the Azorean longline fleet, and Witzell and caretta) populations in the Atlantic: Potential impacts
Cramer (1995) have compiled data on loggerhead and leath- of a longline fishery. Pages 48-55 in: Balazs, G.H. and
erback captures in the U.S. longline fleet in the Caribbean S.G. Pooley (Comps.). Research Plan to Assess Marine
and northwest Atlantic. In 1987, Crouse et al., pointed to Turtle Hooking Mortality: Results of an Expert Workshop
reducing mortality of benthic juveniles (the most common held in Honolulu, Hawaii, November 16-18, 1993.
turtles drowning in shrimp trawls) as likely most important NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-201.
to effecting recovery of the Atlantic loggerhead model popu- Bowen, B.W. 1995. Tracking marine turtles with genetic
lation. However, the same model also pointed to pelagic ju- markers: Voyages of the ancient mariners. BioScience
venile survival as the next most important stage. It would be 45: 528-534.
a shame to save these loggerheads from shrimp trawlers in Crouse, D.T., L.B. Crowder, and H. Caswell. 1987. A stage-
the U.S., only to have the same populations succumb to based population model for loggerhead sea turtles and
longline takes as they travel around the North Atlantic gyre. implications for conservation. Ecology 68: 1412-1423.
After a brief furor, recently, an FAO consultation to Nishemura, W. and S. Nakahigashi. 1990. Incidental capture
reduce seabird takes in longline fisheries globally was initi- of sea turtles by Japanese research and training vessels:
ated, and tragically sea turtles were not even mentioned in Results of a questionnaire. Marine Turtle Newsletter
the terms of reference. Even worse, some of the solutions 51:1-4.
(fishing at night) that have been proposed to reduce seabird Sarti, L., S.A. Eckert, N. Garcia, and A.R. Barragan. 1996.
bycatch may actually increase turtle takes (turtles may be Decline of the worlds largest nesting assemblage of
attracted to light sticks (Witzell and Cramer, 1995)). leatherback turtles. Marine Turtle Newsletter 74:2-5.
The focus here has been on longlines because CMC Spotila, J.R., A.E. Dunham, A.J. Leslie, A.C. Steyermark, P.
has been working on them for a while and we believe they T. Plotkin, and F. V. Paladino. 1996. Worldwide
are a global-level threat. However, last year and again this population decline of Dermochelys coriacea: are
year, I understand that members at the Latin meeting have leatherback turtles going extinct?
started to compile numbers for coastal gill net fisheries, newer Weber M., D. Crouse, R. Irvin, and S. Iudicello. 1995. Delay
and equally disturbing numbers for Spanish longlines, and and Denial: A Political History of Sea Turtles and Shrimp
for other fisheries. Many of these may appear localized, but Fishing. Center for Marine Conservation. Washington,
as the situation with longlines, loggerheads and the North D. C.
Atlantic gyre illustrates, the cumulative impacts on highly Wilkinson, C.R. 1992. Coral reefs of the world are facing
migratory sea turtle populations may be quite significant. It widespread devastation: Can we prevent this through
would be a shame to have made such headway on shrimp sustainable management practices? Proceedings of the
trawling, just to lose what we gained to longlines, or gill Seventh Annual International Coral Reef Symposium.
nets. Guam 1992. Volume I.
Finally, habitat degradation and destruction, may well Witzell, W.N. and J. Cramer. 1995. Estimates of Sea Turtle
be the most difficult to address hazard sea turtles face. Not Bycatch by the U.S. Pelagic Longline Fleet in the
only does it happen incrementally, there are no body counts Western North Atlantic Ocean. NOAA Technical
for rallying the troops. Loss of nesting beach habitat may be Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-359.
most obvious, and very hard to mitigate, but degradation of
developmental and foraging habitats is of equal concern and
may be harder to arouse interest in. One recent study re-
ported 70% of the worlds coral reefs (critical hawksbill for-
aging grounds) were imminently threatened, critical, or al-

INCIDENTAL CAPTURE OF SEA TURTLES BY THE INDUSTRIAL SHRIMPING FLEET

OFF NORTHEASTERN VENEZUELA
Luis A. Marcano and Jos J. Ali M.

Laboratorio de Pesca Demersal FONAIAP-CIAE/Sucre-Nueva Esparta. Cuman, Sucre 6101, Venezuela
104721.3234@compuserve.com
Incidental capture of sea turtles by industrial shrimp ezuelan coasts are juveniles which most probably use the
trawl fleet in the northeastern region of Venezuela was esti- zone as feeding grounds. Considering that the Venezuelan
mated from Feb.-91 to Dec. 93, performing 155 trips. The trawl fleet performs approximately 1 million h net-1 yr-1, an
data were gathered by observers on board of Florida type estimated general capture would be 1370 turtles per year,
vesseles, from 13,600 trawls (35.118 h. trawl net-1). In total, with an associated mortality of 260 turtles. Until now, the
48 turtles were captured : 11 Eretmochelys imbricata, 16 capture rate estimated in Venezuela is the lowest among the
Chelonia mydas, 15 Caretta caretta and 6 Dermochelys countries where similar evaluations have been performed
coriacea. All species had a wide distribution, between the
central North coast and the Atlantic zone of Venezuela, but
always were caught in areas close to shore and not deeper
than 60 m. Dermochelys coriacea is more concentrated to-
wards the Atlantic zone. The estimated CPUE was 0,00137
turtles h net-1, equivalent to 1 turt./732 h red-1. Mortality
rate, estimated from those turtles that could not be reani-
mated on board, reached 19%. Size structure information
for each species (CCL length of 50% percentile, interval CCL
and % adults) was: 68 cm (46-120) and 13% for C. mydas;
60 cm. (26-150) and 46% for E. imbricata; 64 cm (46-120)
and 13% for C. caretta; and 145 cm (96-200) and 29% for
D. coriacea. It is evident that most individuals found in Ven-
IMPACT ON CAPTURES BY THE USE OF THE TURTLE EXCLUDER DEVICE (TED) IN

THE INDUSTRIAL SHRIMP FISHERY IN VENEZUELA
Luis A. Marcano1, J. J. Ali1, and M. R. Lozada2

1
Min. Agric.-FONAIAP Sucre-Nva. Esparta, Aptdo. 236 Cuman 6101,
2
Min. Agric. - SARPA, Caracas, Venezuela. 104721.3234@compuserve.com
To prevent the retention and demise of sea turtles in significantly affected in the Gulf, but was reduced by 45% in
industrial shrimp trawl nets, the Venezuelan government re- Margarita Island. The use of the TED, with 10 cm separa-
quired that all vessels use the turtle excluder device (TED) tion in the bars, induces severe catch losses, that force a non-
in the nets since 1994. Compliance to this requirement has compliance behavior in the fleet. This losses could be pre-
been a problem. We examine here the measured impact of vented with a wider bar separation.
the Georgia Jumper TED utilization on catches of the fleet.
Using observers on board, 17 trips (950 trawls of 3 h aver-
age duration) were performed in the Gulf of Venezuela and
53 trips (1411 trawls of similar duration) in the northern part
of Margarita Island, between 1994-97. The TED was installed
in one of the nets of the Florida type vessels (indistinctly at
board or starboard). The catch in each net was weighted by
species. Results were consistent in both regions, but the per-
cent losses could change for the the same species or group of
species. In general, shrimp, crabs, octopus, squid and "ro-
bust" fish species were significantly lost through the TED,
in amounts that varied from 9 to 85%. Losses of "slender"
species of fish (e.g. Vomer sp.) were either non significant
or not consistent between regions. The catch of scallops was

IMPACT OF REGULATORY MEASURES ON CUBAN MARINE TURTLE FISHERIES
Felix Moncada Gavilan

Centro de Investigaciones Pesqueras, 5ta Ave y 248 Santa F, Ciudad de la Habana, Ministerio de la Industria Pesquera,
Cuba. Fax: (537) 249827 cubacip@ceniae.inf.cu
INTRODUCTION
Marine turtle fisheries in Cuba have operated in recent The third period is from 1988-94, when the closed sea-
years in with detailed biological and fishery studies. A set of son was modified and protection increased. This closed sea-
regulatory measures have been established for the conserva- son took into account the main reproductive months for each
tion and management of the species, including closed sea- species in every fishery ground, starting from the effective-
sons, minimum sizes and catch quotas. This paper presents ness of the previous closed season (Moncada et al., 1986).The
the evolution of the fisheries in Cuba, and the effect of the new regulation included May to July in zones B (SW), C
closed seasons which have been established. (NW) and D (NE), and September to November in zone A
(SE), further protecting breeding animals. As a result of these
MATERIALS AND METHODS modifications, catches decreased between 150 and 200 t.
Finally, the current period (1995-present) is character-
Data on marine turtle catches within the Cuban Shelf,
ized by a new concept in fishery management, with turtle
for the period 1968-1996, were used. These were analysed
fisheries limited to two traditional sites (Isle of Pines and
on the basis of the total National catch, and for individual
Nuevitas), by means of catch quotas.
fisheries (Zones A-D), for each species.
Seasonal trends
Between 1968 and 1975 the highest catches were ob-
tained from May to July for C. mydas in the whole shelf;
from April to June for C. caretta in the four zones, and from
April to July for E. imbricata in zones C, D and B, and from
September to November in zone A. When the closed season
was established in 1976 those catches were no longer reached
in the above mentioned periods and therefore the seasonal
trends changed; two peak periods were observed for the
three species: one in May and one in September, although in
the case of E. imbricata it extended to October. Analysis of
samplings carried out in commercial catches provided more
Map 1. Cuban fishries zones: A (southeastern); B (southwestern);
C (northwestern); D (northesatern).
detailed data on reproduction for each species in each zone
(Moncada et al., 1986, 1987). These data indicated that for
E. imbricata and C. caretta, some important reproductive
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
months were out of the closed season. The hawksbill turtle
Trends in the national catch reproduces in the Cuban Archipelago practically throughout
The variation in annual catches from 1968 shows four well the whole year, with the main reproductive months varying
differentiated stages, closely related to the established closed between between zones: in zone A it occurs in the last four
seasons (Figure 1). The first, between 1968 and 1975, when months of the year, while in zone B it occurs from April to
there were no practical regulations, and annual catches August, in zone D from April to July, and in zone C from
reached the highest levels with a growing trend, oscillating March to September.
between 800 and 1000 t and reaching 1300 t in 1975. The With C. caretta it was observed that the reproductive
average annual total catch was 1136 t (means of 491 t, 441 t period is mainly from April to June, with a peak in May
and 232 t for C. caretta, C. mydas and E. imbricata throughout the shelf. That is, the 1976 closed season did not
respectively). uniformly protect the main reproductive months for the three
The second period spans 1976-87, when a reproduc- species all over the archipelago. As a result, gravid C. caretta
tive closed season was established for the three species, from and E. imbricata were caught before the closed season and
June to August. This meant that the reproductive period was gravid E. imbricata were caught after the closed season, dem-
avoided, and consequently catches were reduced. The de- onstrating that the reproduction period of these species did
crease in total catches was about 40%, equivalent to 500 t not coincide with the reproductive months of the three spe-
less (decreases of 40% for C. mydas and C. caretta, and 32% cies from April to June. Howwever, in zone A, this did not
for E. imbricata). From 1983 to 1987 on, new fishing gears occur, showing the E. imbricata has its reproductive peak
were generally introduced generalized (bottom nets) and the once that of the other two species has finished.
catches increased again.

1400
zones A, B and D; for C. caretta it was in zone C, and for E.
1200
imbricata zones A and D. For the period 1976-87 the high-
Modifiy closed Totally closed
Season closures
begin
season season est catches were reached in zone C for C. mydas and C.
1000 caretta, and in zones D and A for E. imbricata. From 1988-
94, catches were highest in zones C and D for C. mydas,
Catch (MT)
800
zones A and C for C. caretta, and zone A for E. imbricata.
600
CONCLUSIONS
400
The annual variation in catches from 1968 on shows

200
four well differentiated stages, related to the established regu-
0
lations. Seasonal catches for all species varied with the in-
troduction of closed seasons. Maximum catches, for the whole
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
year
period, were recorded from zones A (SE) and C (NW), and
Total Loggerhead Green Turtle Hawksbill
for species, zones A and D (E. imbricata), C (C. caretta)
Figure 1. National catch records by species.
and C and D (C. mydas).
With the new regulation, in the three first zones (B, C, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
D), the closed season continued to protect C. mydas and in- The author would like to thank RELAB and CTIC
creased the protection of E. imbricata and C. caretta. With (UNAM) for a travel grant as well as DIF and CECADESU
May included in those zones, an annual average decrease of for their support during the conference.
185 t was noted, principally C. caretta. In zone A, when the
closed season was moved to September-November, a de- REFERENCES
crease of 75 t was noted. Therefore, the trends of the sea-
Moncada, F., R. Cardona, and G. Nodarse. 1986. Analisis
sonal catch changed, increasing protection with this modifi-
sobre la efectivitad de la veda de los quelonios marinas
cation in the closed seasons.
en el archipelago cubano. I6n: Resumenes 4ta Forum
Trends in fishery grounds
Cientifico del CIP.
These regulations influenced the catches for each per
Moncada. F., R. Cardona, and G. Nodarse. 1987.
species per fishery ground. From 1968-75, the highest rates
Comportamiento reproductivo de los quelonios marinos
were observed in zones A and B, in the period 1976-87 in
en el archipelago cubano. In: Resumenes de MARCUBA,
zone C, and from 1988-94 in zone A, C and D. For C. mydas,
C. Habana, Cuba, Junio 1987.
in the period 1968-75 the higher catches were recorded in
TED TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER PUBLIC LAW 101-162
Wilber Seidel1, Charles Oravetz2, and John Mitchell3

1
National Marine Fisheries Service, Mississippi Laboratory, 3209 Frederic Street, Pascagoula, Mississippi, 39567 U.S.A.
2
National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Region, 9721 Executive Center Drive, N. St. Petersburg, Florida, 33702
U.S.A.
3
National Marine Fisheries Service, Mississippi Laboratory, 3209 Frederic Street, Pascagoula, Mississippi, 39567 U.S.A.
wseidel@triton.pas.nmfs.gov
Countries with commercial shrimp trawl fisheries are must receive annual certification that their shrimp are har-
subject to Section 609 of Public Law 101-162. This law bans vested without adversely affecting species of sea turtles pro-
imports of wild harvested shrimp unless by May 1 of each tected under U.S. law.
year the U.S. Department of State certifies that a country has Approximately 72 countries have exported shrimp to
(1) a program to reduce incidental capture of sea turtles in the United States. Twenty-five countries are certified because
its commercial shrimp trawl fishery; or (2) its shrimp fishing they harvest shrimp from cold water, deepwater, or use fish-
environment does not pose a risk to sea turtles. ing gear not threatening to sea turtles. Eighteen countries
Implemented in 1989, the law was interpreted to apply have passed a law that requires TEDs be used in their com-
to the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean and western Atlantic Ocean, mercial shrimp fisheries. These countries are Mexico, Gua-
which was challenged by Earth Island Institute. The United temala, Honduras, Belize, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Costa
States Court of International Trade (CIT) ruled on Decem- Rica, Panama, Trinidad Tobago, Venezuela, Ecuador, Co-
ber 29, 1995, that the geographic scope of the law had been lumbia, Guyana, Suriname, Brazil, Thailand, Indonesia, and
improperly limited. Curently, all shrimp-harvesting nations Nigeria.

The Department of Commerce, National Marine Fish-

eries Service provides technical assistance to the Department
of State. Training workshops have been conducted in each
country that adopted a TED program, and to 9 additional
countries considering TEDs. Over 5000 vessels are required
to use TEDs in the 18 countries with a TED program. Effec-
tive use of TEDs, however, depends on enforcement con-
ducted be each country including both at-sea and dockside
inspections.
INCIDENCE OF MARINE TURTLES IN THE MEXICAN LONG-LINE TUNA FISHERY IN

THE GULF OF MEXICO
Pedro A. Ulloa Ramrez and Luis Vicente Gonzlez Ania

Instituto Nacional de la Pesca/SEMARNAP, Pitgoras 1320, Col. Sta. Cruz Atoyac, 03310 Mxico, D.F., Mxico
ulloarpa@servidor.unam.mx
The National Fisheries Institute (INP) monitors the 3.7%), 1 kemp's ridley turtle (Lepidochelys kempii, 1.9%)
longline fishery in the Gulf of Mexico by means of scientific and 4 unidentified turtles (7.4%).
observers on board the fleet. In 1994 and 1995 the INP as- A total of 21 marine turtles were accidentally caught in
signed observers in 435 fishing trips (1994: 38.9%; 1995: 16 trips, most as a consequence of entangling with monofila-
61.1%), achieving a sampling coverage beyond 90%. ment fishing line: 18 leatherbacks (85.7%), 2 hawksbills
As a part of their regular duties, the observers record (9.5%) and 1 loggerhead (4.8%). In 13 trips, 14 turtles were
detailed information about sightings of marine turtles and released alive without any damage: 13 leatherbacks (92.9%)
their possible interactions with the fishing gear. This paper and 1 hawksbill (7.1%), standing for a releasing rate of 66.7%
shows results of 2,398 fishing sets (1994: 37.2%; 1995: in survival conditions.
62.8%) carried out during the 2 year period. The average rate of interaction between marine turtles
There were a total of 51 sightings of marine turtles (54 and fishing gear (entangling and/or hooking) turned out to
animals) in 37 fishing trips (8.5%). Species composition in be of 5 turtles per 100 trips and the rate of incidental mortal-
these sightings was: 43 leatherback turtles (Dermochelys ity (bycatch) is even lower, with 1.6 turtles/100 trips, which
coriacea, 79.6%), 4 hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys probably represents a low impact effect for these popula-
imbricata, 7.4%), 2 loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta, tions.
A DIAGNOSIS OF SEA TURTLES INTERNAL TRADE AND LEGAL EXPORT OF

TORTOISES IN NICARAGUA
Sandra del Socorro Vivas Castro

Sociedad para la Conservacion de la Vida Silvestres en Nicaragua; ONG-Biofaunic; De donde fue el Cine 2 c. al Norte, 1 c.
al Oeste y 1/2 c. al Norte; Casa # 47; Residencial Las Mercedes, Managua, Nicaragua. nicam@sdnnic.org.ni
The main information to know the internal trade of sea The main objective of this diagnostic is to alert the hu-
turtles are the fishermantowns, the main markets of the cities man population of the American continent about the prob-
in the 'departamentos' and the national borders with Costa lems of all Turtles and Tortoises than are being exported
Rica, Honduras and El Salvador. without deeply investigations of their real populations.
The exportation of tortoises is registered by The Cen-
ter for Transaction of Exportation or 'Centro de Tramites de
las Exportaciones' more knew as Unique Window of the Ex-
porter or 'Ventanilla Unica del Exportador' of the Central
Bank Nicaraguas.
The other not less important source of information are
the private Wildlife Exportation Enterprises or Companies
which are register by CITES-Ni.

FIBROPAPILLOMATOSIS IN OLIVE RIDLEY TURTLES IN COSTA RICA
A. Alonso Aguirre1, Terry R. Spraker2, Anny Chaves3, Leslie du Toit3, Whitney Eure4, and George H. Balazs5
1
Joint Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, University of Hawaii, 2570 Dole St., Honolulu HI 96822-2396,
U.S.A. Alonso.Agurirre@noaa.gov
2
State Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, U.S.A.
3
Douglas Robinson Marine Turtle Research Center, Ostional, Costa Rica.
4
220 Pinecrest Drive, Athens, GA 30605-1422, U.S.A.
5
National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, Honolulu Laboratory, 2570 Dole St., Honolulu,
HI 96822-2396, U.S.A.
Fibropapillomatosis (FP) is a neoplastic disease that ciform, raised masses on the integument of the neck and flip-
primarily affects green turtles (Chelonia mydas) in epidemic pers. All 41 masses were 25 mm or less in diameter and
proportions. Although several infectious agents (herpesvi- histologically, 8/41 masses were small foci of chronic active
rus, retrovirus and papillomavirus) have been associated with dermatis and not tumors; and 33/41 were diagnosed as
the condition, the etiologic agent has not been isolated or fibropapillomas. Twelve of 33 tumors were regressing and 9
characterized. FP has been reported worldwide in green turtles of the remaining 21 tumors had early histological changes
and it has been recently reported in other turtle species, in- that suggested degeneration within the tumor. During field
cluding loggerheads (Caretta caretta) in Florida and olive surveys based on gross lesions, prevalences of 1-10% have
ridleys (Lepidochelys olivacea) from the Pacific coasts of been reported in this nesting population. This is considered
Mexico and Costa Rica. Normal skin (6) and tumor (41) bi- the first diagnostic confirmation of FP in olive ridley turtles.
opsies were collected from 25 adult female olive ridleys in
Ostional, Costa Rica, between July and September 1997.
Grossly, biopsies were small, white to grey, smooth to verru-
RESCUE, REHABILITATION AND RELEASE OF MARINE TURTLES WITH

FIBROPAPILLOMATOSIS: AN EPIDEMIOLOGIC PERSPECTIVE
A. Alonso Aguirre
Joint Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, University of Hawaii, 2570 Dole Street, Honolulu, HI 96822-2396,
U.S.A. Alonso.Aguirre@noaa.gov
A perspective on wildlife epidemiology will be given tices which favor reintroduction of FP and other diseases
regarding the rescue, rehabilitation and release of stranded and their transmission to wild turtles. Based on recent re-
turtles affected with fibropapillomatosis (FP). An objective search findings, we are dealing with more than one infec-
overview will be provided to outline the pros and cons of tious agent of viral nature (i.e. herpesvirus, retrovirus,
rehabilitation of endangered species and their reintroduction papillomavirus). All these viruses are known to spread by
into the wild. How rehabilitation provides for the welfare direct contact or shed intermittently for long periods of time
of individuals is questioned as we determine if release pro- in other species. Etiologic agent(s) need to be identified and
grams for turtles with FP are in the best interest of the wild characterized and their epidemiology understood before at-
population. tempting to release turtles with FP back into the wild. In
There is no doubt that rehabilitation techniques in en- addition, these research efforts will provide better manage-
dangered species have provided a wealth of biomedical in- ment tools for the control and treatment of this disfiguring
formation that otherwise would not be collected. The data disease.
obtained in those settings have lead to the development of
diagnostic techniques, baseline physiologic information, and
experimental procedures that have contributed to the identi-
fication of possible causes and treatments of disease. Reha-
bilitation of wild animals is definitely an educational experi-
ence for both veterinarians/biologists and the general pub-
lic.
If we are to release treated turtles known to be exposed
to an infectious agent we should consider the risks that may
be avoided by this reintroduction, including veterinary prac-
Oral presentations / Veterinary Medicine and Disease 111

MANIFESTATION OF FIBROPAPILLOMATOSIS AND RATES OF GROWTH OF GREEN

TURTLES AT KANEOHE BAY IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS
George H. Balazs1, Shawn K. K. Murakawa2, Denise M. Ellis2, and A. Alonso Aguirre2

1
National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, Honolulu Laboratory, 2570 Dole Street, Honolulu,
Hawaii 96822-2396, U.S.A. gbalazs@honlab.nmfs.hawaii.edu
2
Joint Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, 2570 Dole Street, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822-2396, U.S.A.
Kaneohe Bay, located at 2131'N, 15851'W on the is- a slow moving boat in shallows where foraging occurs, and
land of Oahu, is the largest bay in the Hawaiian Islands en- by snorkeling or scuba diving with stealth to hand-capture
compassing 13 km of warm (24-27C) coastal waters <10 m turtles resting in bottom habitats. Capture efforts have been
in depth protected 4 km seaward by a barrier reef. All size- focused mainly in areas of the bay used by immature turtles
classes of green turtles (honu), Chelonia mydas, presently during the daylight hours. Turtles were held for a short time
occur here in abundance, ranging from post-pelagic juve- to record morphometrics, apply external Inconel flipper tags
niles 35 cm in straight carapace length (SCL) to adults >85 and/or injectable internal PIT tags, to conduct FP health
cm. Foraging takes place on several kinds of benthic algae screening including oral exams and assignment of a subjec-
(Acanthophora, Hypnea, Codium, Amansia) as well as tive FP affliction category (0=no external tumors, 1=light,
Halophila hawaiiana, the sole sea grass in the Hawaiian Is- 2=moderate, 3=heavy), and to collect blood and biopsies. In
lands. Green turtles in Kaneohe Bay rest underwater in muddy addition, a comprehensive Hawaiian sea turtle stranding and
channel bottoms and in crevices associated with patch-reef salvage research program has been conducted since 1983
pinnacles and other calcareous habitats (Brill et al., 1995). that includes collection of dead or FP-debilitated animals
Numerous smooth depressions and undercuts have been cre- bordering Kaneohe Bay. Turtles derived from this effort have
ated in the coral from repeated use by resting turtles. Buoy- been utilized by veterinary and other collaborators to achieve
ant fecal pellets from turtles inhabiting Kaneohe Bay regu- maximum benefit for research (including viral screening and
larly wash ashore, occasionally in great numbers (Balazs et tissue banking), diet determinations, DNA stock identifica-
al., 1993). tion, and age estimates by skeletochronology. Kaneohe Bay
Over the past 50 years Kaneohe Bay has been subjected constitutes one of several important long term in-water re-
to an array of impacts including dredging, sewage discharge, search sites that have been established in the Hawaiian Is-
siltation, increased vessel traffic, and elevated nutrients in lands to monitor FP prevalence and obtain baseline data on
freshwater runoff associated with human use and habitation the biology, ecology and life history of green turtles (e.g.,
of the surrounding landscape. As elsewhere in the main Ha- see Balazs et al., 1994; Aguirre et al., 1994). A goal of this
waiian Islands, green turtles in Kaneohe Bay were legally work is to gain insight into habitat-related and other envi-
hunted until 1978 when full protection was provided under ronmental co-factors possibly associated with and respon-
the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Since that time there have sible for the distribution and prevalence of FP.
been encouraging signs of population recovery as shown by
systematic annual counts of adult females at the Hawaiian RESULTS
nesting colony of French Frigate Shoals (Figure 1). As of October 1997, 581 green turtles ranging from
Fibropapillomatosis (FP), a tumor-forming and debili- 36.1 to 96.0 cm SCL have been captured and tagged in
tating transmissible disease of sea turtles, has emerged in Kaneohe Bay during 87 daily visits since 1989. The recap-
recent years as a serious threat in the Hawaiian Islands, Aus- ture of tagged turtles over this nine year period resulted in a
tralia, Florida, and the Caribbean. A herpes virus and total of 777 turtle-capture events. For the 581 individuals
retrovirus have been identified in association with FP, but identified, 43.9% had FP. The degree of affliction among
the etiology of the disease, the environmental co-factors re- three assigned FP categories was 1=30%, 2=31%, 3=39%.
quired for its occurrence, and modes of transmission in the The annual prevalence of FP ranged from 33 to 60% with no
wild have not been determined. The earliest verifiable case apparent trend exhibited, although occurrence of the most
of FP from the Hawaiian Islands involved a green turtle in severe cases (category 3) appears to have declined slightly
Kaneohe Bay killed by fishermen in 1958 (Balazs, 1991). during recent years. Similar findings were made when an-
However, the disease has been known from Florida since at nual prevalence was examined for all 777 of the turtle-cap-
least the 1930's when it was first reported in the scientific ture events. A significant finding was that 40% of the FP
literature as a rare occurrence. The manifestation of FP at turtles had oral tumors, often associated with and adversely
high prevalence in both Hawaii and Florida occurred almost impacting the glottis. This life-threatening manifestation of
simultaneously during the mid-1980's. FP has been documented in 61% of the FP turtles (N=222)
necropsied after stranding in the Hawaiian Islands during
METHODS recent years. No cases of oral tumors have been reported
Study techniques used in Kaneohe Bay since 1989 have from Florida or elsewhere except for a few in Australia. The
included the harmless hand-capture of turtles by diving from detection of changes in FP affliction in individuals over time
112 Veterinary Medicine and Disease / Oral presentations

(mean 2.3 1.8 years) was possible for 89 of the turtles

tagged and recaptured in Kaneohe Bay. Only four turtles
(4.5%) exhibited a decrease in FP category, while 61 (68.5%)
increased in severity and 24 (27.0%) showed no apparent
change. Remarkable cases included the FP regression from
category 3 to 1 in 16 months of a 58 cm turtle with a con-
comitant SCL growth of 4.5 cm/yr; and the FP progression
from category 1 to 3 in 11 months of a 47 cm turtle with no
measurable increase in SCL.
Tumors were often found growing in the axillary of the
flippers in addition to the eyes, neck, tail and mouth. Flipper
tags were only attached at sites free of tumors after the ap- Figure 2.Mean and standard deviation for SCL rates of growth
plication of betadine or alcohol. The examination of some exhibited by four groups of green turtles tagged and recaptured in
tagged and recaptured turtles suggested that tumor growth Kaneohe Bay. 0 = no external tumors, 1 = lightly tumored, 2 =
had been enhanced at the piercing site of the tag. Similar moderately tumored, and 3 = heavily tumored. Means bearing the
same alphabet letter (a, b) are not significantly different. No
observations were made by Wood and Wood (1993) in green significant interactions were found between SCL 5-cm size classes
turtles released from the Cayman Turtle Farm. To eliminate (35 - 75 cm) and FP categories, hence growth rates shown for FP
this confounding factor, the use of flipper tags has been dis- categories were not significantly influenced by SCL.
continued in the Hawaiian Islands and replaced exclusively
with PIT tags. consistently higher (mean 73%, FP range 52-92%), but again
no trend has been exhibited.
LITERATURE CITED
Aguirre, A.A., G.H. Balazs, B. Zimmerman, and T.R. Spraker.
1994. Evaluation of Hawaiian green turtles (Chelonia
mydas) for potential pathogens associated with
fibropapillomas. J. Wildl. Dis. 30(1):8-15.
Balazs, G.H., R. Fujioka, and C. Fujioka. 1993. Marine turtle
faeces on Hawaiian beaches. Mar. Pollut. Bull.
26(7):392-394.
Balazs, G.H. 1991. Current status of fibropapillomas in the
Figure 1.Historical trend for 25 seasons (1973-97) of green turtle
nesting at East Island, French Frigate Shoals, in the Northwestern Hawaiian green turtle, Chelonia mydas. In: G.H. Balazs
Hawaiian Islands. East Island accounts for 50% or more of all green and S.G. Pooley (Eds.), Research plan for marine turtle
turtle nesting in the Hawaiian Islands. fibropapilloma, December 4-6, 1990, Honolulu, Hawaii,
Of the 581 turtles tagged, 150 turtles (25.8%) ranging p. 47-57. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo.
from 36.6 to 73.6 cm yielded SCL recapture data useful for NMFS-SWFSC-156.
determining rates of growth. A single growth increment was Balazs, G.H., R.K. Miya, and M.A. Finn. 1994. Aspects of
used for each turtle (i.e. increase between initial and most green turtle in their feeding, resting, and cleaning areas
recent capture) resulting in an overall mean growth rate of off Waikiki Beach. Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual
2.0 1.5 cm/yr. The growth rates of tumored turtles (1.9 Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation.
1.5 cm/yr, N=89) and non-tumored turtles (2.2 1.4 cm/yr, U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-
N=61) were not significantly different (P< 0.05). However, SEFSC-341, p. 15-18.
a significant difference was found when growth rates in the Brill, R.W., G.H. Balazs, K.N. Holland, R.K.C. Chang, S.
four FP categories were examined by ANOVA. Duncan- Sullivan, and J.C. George. 1995. Daily movements,
Waller analysis revealed significantly slower growth in FP habitat use, and submergence intervals of normal and
category 3 (0.9 1.2 cm/yr) in contrast to categories 0, 1 tumor-bearing juvenile green turtles (Chelonia mydas
and 2 which were not significantly different from one an- L.) within a foraging area in the Hawaiian Islands. J.
other (Figure 2). The annual strandings of turtles along the Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 185:203-218.
shoreline of Kaneohe Bay from 1989 to 1997 accounted for Wood, F. and J. Wood. 1993. Release and recapture of
21% (range 17-25%) of all cases recorded each year through- captive-reared green sea turtles, Chelonia mydas, in the
out the Hawaiian Islands. The latter has ranged from 122 waters surrounding the Cayman Islands. Herpetological
cases in 1989 to 251 cases in 1996, with an almost consis- Journal 3:84-89.
tent annual upward trend. However, no trend has been dis-
played in the annual percentage of FP cases among these
strandings (mean 59%, range 46-69%). The percentage of
annual FP cases among the Kaneohe Bay strandings has been

FIBROPAPILLOMA IN THE OSTIONAL OLIVE RIDLEY (Lepidochelys olivacea)

POPULATION
Anny Chaves Quiros, Leslie A. du Toit, and Guillermo Marin Whitney Eure
Douglas Robinson Marine Turtle Research Center, Ostional, Costa Rica. turtles@gema.com
At the last workshop on Marine Turtle Fibropapilloma dorsal carapace margin and between the scoots. These le-
seven years ago, almost all attention to the disease was con- sions are varied in size with a maximum observed diameter
centrated on the green turtle, Chelonia mydas. Now we are of 20mm.
faced with an exaggerated increase in the incidence of An intense survey was undertaken in Ostional between
fibropapillomatosis in all other marine turtle species other July and September of 1997. During this time, blood and
than the Australian flatback (Natator depressa) and the Leath- tissue samples were taken from seventy two severely affected
erback (Dermochelys coriacea). animals. The turtles were treated during the arribadas occur-
The first confirmed report of fibropapilloma in the ring in those months and in some cases were re- observed in
Ostional Olive Ridley population was a single specimen in the following arribadas. In al cases the small biopsy wounds
1987. That turtle showed examples of advanced disease with had healed successfully.
the largest of the tumors measuring 30mm in diameter. Since From our observations, we have conservatively calcu-
then, there have been an increased number of observations lated that approximately 10% of the turtles nesting at Ostional
as well as an increase in size of the individual tumors. are affected, with 1% being affected severely. While these
By 1992 the problem had become so apparent that we statistics might appear low, it should be understood that an
presented a paper on the subject at the 12th Symposium on average of 300 000 turtles nest at Ostional each month. There-
Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. (Chaves, A. and Marin, fore, the number of affected nesting turtles at Ostional may
G., 1992) While we do not know the exact number of dis- be more than 30 000. As George Balazs mentioned, it is the
eased turtles, we may safely say that the number affected is severence rather than the number of tumors that is impor-
rising rapidly. tant. This is concurrent with the Ostional data.
There is also evidence that the size of the tumors is It is important to note that there have been no reports
increasing exponentially to the number of tumors on the in- of fibropapilomas on stranded, dead turtles at Ostional.
dividual turtle. Between 1991 and 1993, the average size of Considering the high number of potential study sub-
tumors found were 10mm in diameter with an average 3 le- jects and the relative ease of access to the site, Ostional should
sions per turtle. In 1997, the average size of the tumors ob- be considered an important location to conduct investiga-
served was 25mm in diameter, the largest being 140mm, and tion of fibropapillomatosis. It is critical that funds be secured
the number of tumors per turtle upwards of 20. Most of the to initiate long-term funding for this important research.
growths observed were of the "cauliflower" type but the We gratefully acknowledge the invaluable cooperation
"smooth, golfball" type are also regularly seen. of George Balazs of the Southwest Fisheries Science Center
While most of the observed lesions were on the neck Honolulu Laboratory and the World Wildlife Fund, Central
and around the eyes and mouth, there has also been an in- America Regional Office.
crease in the number of turtles with tumors appearing on the
ADVANCES IN THE DETERMINATION OF DIETARY PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS FOR

AD LIBITUM FED LEPIDOCHELYS OLIVACEA HATCHLINGS
1
Martha Harfush1, Carlos Antonio Martinez-Palacios2, Elpidio Lpez Reyes1, and Carlos Rojas1,
1
Centro Mexicano de la Tortuga, Instituto Nacional de la Pesca, P. O. Box 16, Puerto Angel, Oaxaca, 70902 Mxico.
cmtharfu@angel.umar.mx
2
Unidad Mazatln, en Acuicultura y Manejo Ambiental del Centro de Investigacin en Alimentacin y Desarrollo A. C. P.
O. Box 711, Mazatln, Sinaloa, 82000, Mxico
INTRODUCTION
The management of an important number of species in In spite of that only recently the raising of marine turtles
captivity is offering unique opportunities in order to achieve has allowed us to obtain experiences thanks to which it has
different studies helping to better understand some relevant been possible to improve the conditions of captivity, we
aspects of the cycle of its life; turtles are not the exception, have also been able to study, among other aspects, the qual-
for their raising has been developed in several parts and prac- ity and temperature of water, some diseases, clinical treat-
tically in all the states of development. ment including surgery, and aspects of feeding, too. On this

respect we might mention the works realised with white turtle Experimental diets: Seven experimental diets were
Chelonia mydas in Great Caiman Island and in Isla de la formulated with different levels of protein, these variations
Juventud, Cuba, where they have been working with hawks- levels were achieved by replacement of fish, head shrimp
bill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata (Pelegrin et al., 1994). and meat meal with dextrin in order to produce isocaloric
One of the most important aspects in the management of any diets (Table 1). Ingredients were mixed and prepared as
type of animal is nutrition (Tacon and Cowey, 1985, Tacon described in Martnez et al., 1988.
1987), for it is what the health of the biological organism Experiment protocol: Turtles were fed ad libitum three
depends on. Consequently, it is obvious to expect that a good to four times a day. Feed intake was recorded daily. Each
feeding, based on each species nutrition requirements will diet was tested in triplicate for 49 days. At the start of the
result in strong and healthy organisms. experiment and at subsequent fortnightly intervals, turtles
One of the main reasons to know the best nutrition re- were batch weighted to the nearest two decimal places using
quirements for marine turtles (and by this to be able to ob- and Ohaus balance. At the end of the experiments, turtles
tain better results from their culture) is its research for con- were batch weighed.
servation. However, we should not avoid other benefits which Statistics methods: Statistical comparisons were made
might be obtained, such as the optimisation of resources in using a one-way analysis of variance. Mean differences
order to save any unnecessary supply of food products between treatments were tested for significance (P<0.05) by
(Martnez et al., 1996), reducing captivity maintenance costs, Duncans Multiple Range Test. Standard errors (s.e) of means
standardising diets, as well as the improvement of sanitary were calculated from the mean-square for error.
conditions and therefore the reduction in costs of medicine
healing treatments. RESULTS
The growth response and fortnightly weight increase
OBJECTIVES
of Lepidochelys olivacea over the experimental period at
To determine the optimum protein requirements within different protein levels is shown in Figure 1 and Table 2.
the diet provided ad libitum during the early culture of olive The best growth response in terms of final body weight was
ridley hatchlings Lepidochelys olivacea. observed with the turtles consuming diet D40 although no
To evaluate the level of protein on above mentioned significant difference (P<0.05) was found with de diet D50,
status where it be obtained the best individual weight gain, diets D45, D35 and D30, was found no significant differ-
the specific growth rate (SGR), food conversion ratio (FCR), ence and the diets D25 and D20 (Table 2), are significant
survival and protein/energy rate (P:E). different (P<0.05) each other. A similar response was also
observed with the weight gain (%) (Table 2).
METHODS After realizing the average weight gain broken line
analysis against protein level as shown in Figure 2 (Zeitoung
Experimental animals: Lepidochelys olivacea
et al, 1976) a 43% protein requirement value was obtained
hatchlings were taken from La Escobilla Beach these were
with a optimum P:E. of 118.48 g protein/Kcal (45%, 7%
immediately fed with a 38% protein diet; then, when they
lipids and 3.79 Kcal/g.
reached a mean weight of 19,080 mg they were transferred
to the Centre experimental system and stocked in a number
of 10 turtles per tank.
Diet
Formula * D50 D45 D40 D35 D30 D25 D20
Fish meal 28.57 24.29 20.00 17.14 14.29 10.00 7.14
Head shrimp meal 5.48 7.30 9.13 7.30 5.48 5.48 3.65
Meat meal 25.75 21.88 18.02 15.45 12.87 9.01 6.44
Wheat meal 6.35 6.35 6.35 6.35 6.35 12.69 12.69
Fish oil 1.80 2.11 2.42 2.93 3.43 3.92 4.43
Table 1. Formulation and nutrient Corn oil 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.81 0.81
content of the experimental diets. Dextrin 4.20 10.21 16.23 22.98 29.73 31.14 37.89
All figures quoted except energy Nutrients contents
are in g kg -1 Protein 50.00 45.00 40.00 35.00 30.00 25.00 20.00
Lipids 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.00
Fibre 2.62 2.78 2.94 2.65 2.35 2.42 2.13
Ash 8.22 7.52 6.82 5.82 4.83 3.81 2.81
NFE 23.91 23.44 22.96 22.50 22.04 26.58 26.12
ME(Kcal/100g) 382.89 379.78 376.67 376.18 375.70 374.01 373.52
Protein** 49.87 43.19 39.57 34.92 27.73 23.89 18.15
1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
* Fixed ingredients present in all diets were 8.96 g kg Soya meal, 3.38 g kg Spinach meal, 10.57 g kg
-1 -1 -1 -1
Corn meal, 0.01 g kg BHT, 1 g kg Lecithin, 0.10 g kg Vitamins prepared mixture, 0.20 g kg Minerals
-1 -1 -1 -1
prepared mixture, 0.12 g kg Vitamin C, 0.02 g kg Coline, 0.02 g kg , CaCO3 0.50 g kg , CaHPO4 0.10 g
-1 -1
kg y Carboximetil cellulose 2g kg .
** From proximate analysis (A.O.A.C. 1984).

Table 2: Mean Growth performance of Lepidochelys olivacea fed to satiation
Diet
50 45 40 35 30 25 20
Survival (%) 96.67 80.00 100.00 90.00 96.67 93.33 80
Initial weight (mg) 19,080 19,077 19,077 19,067 19,083 19,043 19,073
Average initial weight (mg) 1,908 1,908 1,908 1,907 1,908 1,904 1,907
Final weight (mg) 52,807 39,843 51,480 38,438 39,160 32,970 23,313
Average final weight (mg) 5,470 5,002 5,148 4,252 4,048 3,536 2,902
Weight gain (%) 186.69 162.19 169.86 123.03 112.14 85.66 52.14
Individual weight gain (mg/day) 42.41 36.83 38.58 27.93 25.48 19.42 11.84
Ind. fd cons. (mg/day) 359.30 374.70 352.34 332.15 307.21 292.54 286.1
S.G.R. (%/day) 1.25 1.15 1.18 0.95 0.90 0.74 0.5
FCR 0.856 1.017 0.914 1.196 1.207 1.509 2.474
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

As it was already mentioned, the works carried out about Under the ad libitum feeding an optimum growth was
nutrition in marine turtles are still few, but coincides about obtained in Lepidochelys olivacea hatchlings with a 43%
pointing out a high requirement protein for those species of protein level (Figure 2). This protein level was also provid-
carnivorous preferences like the carried out with hawksbill ing a maximum efficiency in the consumption of food. From
turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) by Pelegrin and collabora- a 45% protein diet, which was the more convenient for the
tors (1994) who compared two diets with 40-45% protein maximum requirement found, a P:E value obtained was
against meal fish. 118.18 g of protein/Kcal. Other researchers have suggested
60
that the Lepidochelys olivacea is requiring a higher contents
of protein due to the fact that it is considered preferentially
50
50 carnivorous (Mrquez, et al., 1976; Mortimer, 1995), in
45
40
comparison with other species of marine turtles such as green
Weight (gr)
40
35
30
30
or black turtles which are preferentially considered as her-
20 25 bivorous (Bjorndal, 1995; Balazs, 1979; Mortimer 1995).
20
10
0
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
initial 14 28 42 final
Days
The authors wish to acknowledge the INP for the sup-
Figure 1: Average individual growth in grams observed in olive ridley port granted for realizing the study; they also acknowledge
hatchlings fed with different levels of protein during the experiment. Miss M. in C. Ana Puello Cruz in CIAD Mazatlan for her
In the wilderness numerous studies have also been done support in determining technology bromatological diets; to
in order to know more about the feeding of the turtles, such M. in C. Isabel Abdo of the APR, to Dr. Ma. Cristina Chavez
as the one carried out by Bjorndal (1995) and Balazs (1995). for the checking of the preliminary paper. They acknowl-
It has also been observed that some hatchlings eat plankton edge as well CONACYT project 4586 A9406 support.
organisms (Mortimer, 1995). However, at any experiment
level there is still a lot of work to do with different species in LITERATURE CITED
order to make a comparison between carnivorous/herbivo- AOAC, 1984. Official Methods of Analysis of the Association
rous resulting in a high quality food. of Official Analytical Chemists, 14th. Ed. AOAC,
Washington D.C. pp. 1018.
Balazs, G.H., 1995. Growth rates of immature green turtles
in the Hawaiian Archipilago. 117-125 In: Bjorndal K.A.
Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtles.
Bjorndal, K.A., 1995. The Consequences of herbivory for
the Life Story Pattern of the Caribbean Green Turtle
Chelonia mydas. pp. 111-116 In: Bjorndal K. A. (Ed.)
Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtles.
Mrquez, R., A. Villanueva, and C. Peaflores. 1976.
Sinopsis de datos biolgicos sobre la tortuga golfina.
Instituto Nacional de Pesca. Sinopsis sobre la Pesca.
2:1-61
Figure 2. Average weight gain broken-line analysis (%) for L. olivacea
Martnez-Palacios, C.A., Galvn-Cruz, R., Olvera-Novoa,
hatchlings against percentage of dietary protein level. M.A., and Chvez-Martinez, C., 1988. The use of Jack

Bean (Canavalia ensiformis. Leguminosae) meal as a imbricata. In: Memoria de resmenes del XI Encuentro
partial sustitute of fish meal in diets for tilapia Interuniversitario para la Proteccin y Conservacin
(Oreochromis mossambicus. Cichlidae). Aquaculture, de Tortugas Marinas. Melaque, Jalisco, Mexico.
68, 165-175. Tacon, A.G.J. and Cowey, C.B. 1985. Protein and amino acid
Martnez-Palacios C.A., M. Harfush-Melndez, M.C. requirements. In: Tytler, P. and Calow, P. (Eds.), Fish
Chvez-Snchez, and L.G. Ross. 1996. The optimum energetics: New Perspectives p. 349. Croom Helm.
dietary protein level for the Mexican cichlid Cichlasoma London and Sydney.
urophthalmus (Gunther): a comparison of estimates Tacon, A.G.J. 1987. The nutrition and feeding of farmed
derived from experiments using fixed-rate feeding and fish and shrimp -A training manual. Vol. 1. The essential
satiation feeding. nutrients GCP/RLA/075/ITA. FAO 117p.
Mortimer, J.A. 1995. Feeding Ecology of sea turtles. In: Zetioung, I.H. Ullrey, D.E., Magee, W.T., Gill, J.L. and
Bjorndal K. A. (Ed.) Biology and Conservation of Sea Bergen. W.G. 1976. Quantifying nutrient requirements
Turtles. Nutrition, Growth and Hibernation. pp. 101- of fish. J. Fish Res. B. Can., 33, 167-172.
109
Pelegrin, E. 1994. Comparacin de dietas balanceadas con
picadillo de pescado en tortuga carey Eretmochelys
VOLVULUS IN THE DUODENUM FROM FREE LIVING GREEN SEA TURTLES

(CHELONIA MYDAS) AS A PROBABLE CONSEQUENCE OF HERBIVORY
Carlos R. Hasbn1,2, Jaime H. Samour1, Saif Al-Ghais1, and Andrew J. Lawrence2

1
Environmental Research and Wildlife Development Agency, P. O. Box 45553, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
c.hasbun@biosci.hull.ac.uk
2
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Hull, Hull, HU6 7RX, U.K.
The recently created Environmental Research and Wild- num appeared empty and necrotic with diffuse purple-black
life Development Agency of the United Arab Emirates per- mucous. No apparent signs of acute endoparasitisim, obstruc-
formed during May and August of 1977, post-mortem ex- tion by foreign objects, or other disorders were observed.
aminations on stranded green sea turtles found in Ras Al In all cases, duodenal volvulus was diagnosed, the cause
Khaimah. From ten carcasses found fresh enough to permit of which may have been dietary in origin. The rise in water
adequate analyses of mortality, three died of an apparent temperature, with an associated rise in the temperature of
natural cause, findings which are here presented. Full stom- seagrass, thus enhancing the over-fermentation of ingests with
achs on all individuals were observed, being composed of the subsequent liberation of excessive amounts of gas is dis-
fresh seagrass (99%) and presenting a clear duodenal volvu- cussed as the probable cause of volvulus formation.
lus extending over an area of approximately 100 cm. Duode-
LESIONS, PATHOGENS AND TOXINS IDENTIFIED IN 13 STRANDED MARINE

TURTLES IN FLORIDA
Bruce L. Homer1, Allen Foley2, Kristin J. Fick3, Matilde C. Lores3, Anthony E. Redlow2, and Elliott R. Jacobson4
1
College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, PO Box 100145, Gainesville, FL, 32610-0145 U.S.A.
homerb@mail.vetmed.ufl.edu
2
Florida Marine Research Institute, St. Petersburg, FL, U.S.A.
3
Florida Marine Research Institute, Tequesta, FL, U.S.A.
4
College of Veterinary Medicine, Gainesville, FL, U.S.A.
Thirteen marine turtles (8 Caretta caretta and 5 Che- choanae and distal bowel, and grossly abnormal organs were
lonia mydas) stranding along the east coast and southwest analyzed for bacteria and fungi. Sections of liver and kidney
coast of Florida were necropsied and evaluated for potential were frozen and then analyzed for concentrations of 22 met-
pathogens and toxins. Sizes of the necropsied turtles ranged als. The primary lesions in five turtles were mainly associ-
from 27 to 104 cm (straight carapace length). ated with trauma that included boat-related injuries (n=3),
Representative sections of all identified organs were penetration of the larynx by a fish hook (n=1) and strangula-
collected and evaluated by light microscopy. Swabs of the tion by the buoy rope of a lobster pot (n=1). The primary

lesions in four turtles were mainly associated with gastroen- considered to be elevated in one or more turtles, including
teritis. The pathogens identified in intestinal isolates from (ranges reported in ppm): aluminum (1.2-22 in liver; 0.97-
these turtles were Listonella damsela, Shewanella 2.5 in kidney); arsenic (1.0-18 in liver; <1.0-23 in kidney);
putrefaciens, and/or Morganella morganii. The primary le- cadmium (0.89-29 in liver; 0.97-73 in kidney); copper (2.9-
sions in the remaining four turtles were mainly associated 60 in liver; <0.10-2.0 in kidney); iron (97-7600 in liver; 11-
with systemic fungal infections by Paecilomyces sp. (n=2) 120 in kidney); mercury (0.12-2.9 in liver; <0.02-4.3 in kid-
or with shell (n=1) or cutaneous (n=1) necrosis and inflam- ney); selenium (0.13-21 in liver; 0.06-13 in kidney); and zinc
mation. The causes of death were determined to be septice- (18-56 in liver; 10-51 in kidney). Metal toxicity may have
mia (n=9), severe enteritis (n=3), and acute renal necrosis been a factor in the demise of several turtles.
and renal failure (n=1). Concentrations of eight metals were
CONTAMINATION BY PHTHALATE ESTER PLASTICIZERS IN TWO MARINE TURTLE

SPECIES
J. Arturo Jurez Cern1, Ana R. Barragn Rocha1, and Humberto Gmez Ruiz2
1
Laboratorio de Tortugas Marinas, Facultad de Ciencias, UNAM. Mxico. mcart@rocketmail.com
2
Laboratorio de Espectrometra de Masas, Facultad de Qumica, UNAM, Mxico
It is well known how man has affected the survival of METHODS

all sea turtle species because of egg poaching, incidental
We sampled one egg from each of 11 clutches of L.
capture of adults in fisheries, loss of nesting habitat, etc.
olivacea and one egg from each of 14 clutches of D. coriacea.
Nevertheless, researchers have not paid a lot of attention to
After extraction of lipids with hexane and saponification,
the possible effects of pollutants on sea turtle biology.
the samples were analyzed in a gas chromatograph coupled
Until very recently, plastics were considered little more
to a mass spectrometer. The details of this method are de-
than physical pollutants with isolated importance in certain
scribed in Jurez (1998).
areas. However, their role as chemical sources of pollution
is beginning to be understood. Phthalates and hydroquinones RESULTS
are anthropogenic molecules widely used in the plastic in-
dustry, and are easily released in any medium. Experiments We found several chemical pollutants that came
showed that phthalates are highly toxic, with important ef- from plastic ingestion in 42.8% of the leatherback samples
fects on the reproductive biology of organisms and have been and in 27.3% of the ridley samples. Such molecules are note-
considered estrogenic, cancerogenic, orchidotoxic and mu- worthy not only because of their presence, but also because
tagenic (Giam, et al., 1978; Jobling, et al., 1995). Reports they were found in the egg, which means that they found
on phthalate concentrations in the Atlantic Ocean, regard their way through the lipid physiology of the mother and
them as higher than those of DDTs or PCBs (Giam et al., through vitellogenesis.
1978). The substances were divided in two categories:
For several nesting beaches in countries like Costa Rica a) Phthalates, which include Dimethyl-phthalate,
(Hirth, 1987) and Mexico (Sarti et al., 1994), the most com- Dibutyl-phthalate and Dioctyl-phthalate in 21.4% of the leath-
mon debris found are plastics. Carr (1986, 1987a and 1987b) erback samples, and Dioctyl-phthalate in 9.1% of the ridley
explained how juvenile turtles behave as passive migrants, samples. All this substances are used in the manufacture of
converging in the great oceanic currents with their food plastics, as plasticizer molecules.
source, and unfortunately also with a large variety of debris b) Antioxidants (AO), compounds derived from
which increase the possibility of ingestion of plastics. There naftoquinones such as Terbutyl-toluene and Butyl-toluene.
is a large amount of reports of adult sea turtles ingesting These molecules are used in industry to prevent the oxida-
plastics (Mrosovsky, 1981; Den Hartog and Van Nierop, tion of a polymer and polymerization of its precursors. We
1984; Barragn et al., 1992 among others), and all of them found six antioxidants, with as much as four different kinds
conclude that plastic may have a detrimental effect in the in each species.
health of the animals. However, there is almost no informa- The relative percentage of the pollutants, represented
tion on the exact effect of plastics on the turtles physiology. by the size of their chromatographic peaks (Figure 1), show
In this study, we analyzed samples of egg yolk of two proportions similar or higher than the ones for the rest of the
sea turtle species, leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) compounds in the non-saponifiable fraction. This could in-
and olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), in search of poten- dicate that sea turtles act as biomagnifiers, accumulating
tially harmful substances stored among the lipid contents. toxic molecules in their tissues.

lutants that can have a detrimental effect in a living organ-

ism.
ACKNOLEDGMENTS
To Adriana Laura Sarti for her support during field and
laboratory work at Camp Chacahua, and at the Sea Turtle
laboratory of Facultad de Ciencias, and for providing travel
funds to the first two authors so they could assist to the sym-
posium. To Juan Carlos Alvarado and Guadalupe Sanchez
S. for their support in the field work at Chacahua, and to
INE for all their logistics support.
LITERATURE CITED
Barragn, A., C. Lpez, M. Mata, A. Quintana, E. Luz, and
L. Sarti 1992. Contenidos Estomacales de Lepidochelys
olivacea en la Costa Sur del Estado de Michoacn. In:
Benabib, M. and L. Sarti (Eds.). Memorias del VI
Encuentro Interuniversitario Sobre Tortugas Marinas.
Pub. de la Soc. Herp. Mex. No. 1 ISSN0188-6835,
Mxico D.F. pp 39-50.
Carr, A. 1986. Rips, FADS, and little loggerheads.
Bioscience, 36(2):92-100
Carr, A. 1987a. Impact of nondegradable marine debris on
the ecology and survival outlook of sea turtles. Marine
Pollution Bulletin, 18(6B):352-356
Carr, A. 1987b. New perspectives on the pelagic stage of
sea turtle development. Conservation Biology, 1(2):103-
121
Den Hartog, J. and M.M. Van Nierop. 1984. A study on the
gut contents of six leathery turtles Dermochelys coriacea
(Linnaeus) (Reptilia: Testudines: Dermochelyidae) from
British Waters and from the Netherlands. Zoologische
Verhandelingen. 209: 3-36
Figure 1. Reconstruction of chromatograms of the non-saponifiable Giam, C.S., H.S. Chan, G.S. Neff,, and E.L. Atlas. 1978.
fraction in the yolk of two sea turtle species a) Dermochelys coriacea Phthalate ester plasticizers: A new class of marine
and b) Lepidochelys olivacea. Observe the size of the peaks that pollutant. Science, (199): 419-421.
correspond to pollutants (AO y DBF) in comparison to the rest of
the molecules. Hirth, H.F. 1987. Pollution on the marine turtle nesting beach
in Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica. Enviromental
CONCLUSIONS Conservation, 14(1):74-75.
Jobling, S., T. Reynolds, R. White, M.G. Parker,, and J.P.
The presence of plastic chemical pollutants in the Sumpter. 1995. A variety of environmentally persistent
yolk of sea turtle eggs shows that these molecules are ca- chemicals, including some phthalate plasticizers, are
pable of being transported from the gut to all the system re- weakly estrogenic. Enviromental Health Perspectives
sponsible of processing lipids, and permeate through vitel- 6(103): 582-587.
logenesis. Since this is a vital process in reproductive biol- Jurez C., J.A. 1988. Anlisis de la fraccin liposoluble
ogy, these findings alert about a kind of impact of pollutants presente en el vitelo del huevo de las tortugas marinas
in sea turtle biology that is poorly understood. Dermochelys coriacea y Lepidochelys olivacea. B. Sc.
It is evident that the consequences of plastic inges- Thesis. Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Biologa,
tion for sea turtles may go beyond the mere blocking of the UNAM, Mxico. pp. 67.
gut. Plastic pollutants could affect the fitness of populations Mrosovsky, N. 1981. Plastic jellyfish. Marine Turtle
by altering the reproductive functions and have a possible Newsletter 17: 5-7
cumulative effect for generations, as reported for other ver- Sarti, M.L., T. Argueta y A.R. Barragn. 1994. Aspectos
tebrates. More research is essential to reveal the true effect biolgicos y reproductivos de las tortugas marinas que
of phthalates and hydroquinones on the embryo development anidan en Mxico. Biologa de campo. 1993-1994.
and reproductive physiology of sea turtles. It is also impor- Facultad de Ciencias UNAM. 62-76 pp.
tant to determine the minimum concentrations of these pol-

MERCURY CONCENTRATION IN SCUTE SCRAPINGS OF SEA TURTLES IN THE

GULF OF MEXICO
Stephanie M. Presti1, Andre M. Landry2, and Albert E. Sollod1

1
Dept. of Environmental and Population Health, Tufts University School of Veterinary Medicine, 200 Westboro Rd.
N. Grafton, MA 01519. spresti@opal.tufts.edu
2
Sea Turtle and Fisheries Ecology, Texas A&M University at Galveston Galveston, TX 77551
Phlebotomy has been the only technique used in the mydas). Differences in mercury concentrations were noted
past for detecting the accumulation of mercury, a toxic envi- between the different species which may be due to differ-
ronmental contaminant, in live sea turtles. This study was ences in foraging ecology. Differences were also noted be-
undertaken to demonstrate whether sufficient levels of mer- tween different size classes. In the larger turtles sampled, the
cury could be detected in the keratinized scutes of the cara- concentrations of mercury in the keratin tended to increase
pace to be useful as a non-invasive test for this, and possibly with the size of the carapace. It was demonstrated that mer-
other heavy metals. Eighty-two sea turtles, caught at Sabine cury concentration in the keratin was up to 7,486 ppb, and
Pass on the Gulf coast of Texas and Louisiana, were sampled on average 36 times higher than in the blood. Scute mercury
by phlebotomy and scute scraping. The species sampled in- levels were also 5.2 times higher than previously reported in
cluded seventy-six Kemps Ridleys (Lepidochelys kempi), kidney, and 2.4 times higher than in liver. It was concluded
three Loggerheads (Caretta caretta), two Hawksbills (Eret- that scute scraping could be a highly sensitive, non-invasive
mochelys imbricata) and one Green sea turtle (Chelonia technique for monitoring mercury in live sea turtles.
MORPHOLOGIC AND CYTOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BLOOD CELLS FROM

THE GREEN TURTLE, CHELONIA MYDAS, IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS
Thierry M. Work1, Rose E. Raskin2, George H. Balazs3, and Scott Whittaker4

1
U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resource Division, National Wildlife Health Center, Honolulu Field Station, PO Box
50167, Honolulu, HI 96850, U.S.A.
2
University of Florida, Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610,
U.S.A.
3
National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, Honolulu Laboratory, 2570 Dole St., Honolulu, HI
96822, U.S.A.
4
University of Florida, Electron Microscopy Core Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Center for Biotechnology Research,
Gainesville, FL 32611, U.S.A. thierry_work@usgs.gov
We tried to identify and characterize blood cells from

free-ranging Hawaiian green turtles, Chelonia mydas, in or-
der to standardize nomenclature. To do this, we examined
blood from a total of 26 green turtles from Puako on the
island of Hawaii and Kaneohe Bay on the island of Oahu.
Blood was examined using a combination of light and elec-
tron microscopy and cytochemical stains including benzi-
dine peroxidase (PER), chloroacetate esterase (CAE), alpha
naphthyl butyrate esterase (NBE), acid phosphatase (ACP),
Sudan black B (SBB), periodic acid-Schiff (PAS), and tolui-
dine blue (TB). We recognized 6 types of leukocytes includ-
ing lymphocytes, monocytes, thrombocytes, heterophils,
basophils, and small and large eosinophils. Cell morphology
of mononuclears and most granulocytes were similar to that
of other reptiles except that green turtles have both large and
small eosinophils. Our classification of green turtle blood
cells clarifies improper nomenclature reported previously and
provides a standard base of reference for future hematologic
studies in this species and allows for hematologic compari-
son of healthy and unhealthy aggregations.

F. A. Abreu-Grobois, R. Briseo, R. Mrquez, and L. Sarti (compilers)
SEX RATIOS OF FORAGING SEA TURTLES IN THE PAMLICO-ALBEMARLE

ESTUARINE COMPLEX, NORTH CAROLINA, U.S.A.
Joanne Braun-McNeill1, Sheryan P. Epperly1, David W. Owens2, and Rhonda W. Patterson2

1
NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisheries Science Center, Beaufort, NC 26516, U.S.A.
jbraun@hatteras.bea.nmfs.gov
2
Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, U.S.A.
INTRODUCTION
The natural sex ratios of sea turtles have been of inter- derlying the smoother stroma of the testis. Only in the very
est since the discovery of temperature-dependent sex deter- small green sea turtles was this distinction a problem.
mination (TSD) in sea turtles (Owens and Hendrickson,
1978). It is possible that the sex ratio within a management RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
unit is dynamic, varying among cohorts. Studies have shown We confirmed the sex of 47 loggerheads, 6 greens (the
that adult populations are difficult to evaluate for sex ratios sex of one very small (SCL=24.8 cm) green could not be
due to various sex-determined behaviors (Wibbels et al., determined) and one Kemps ridley through laparoscopic
1987). Likewise, the sex ratios of hatchling populations can examination of the gonads. The testosterone titers of all 32
vary depending upon the geographic location or the time of female loggerheads were < 20 pg/ml, but 9 of the 15 male
year (i.e., incubation temperature) the eggs are laid. In theory, loggerheads had testosterone titers < 30 pg/ml. Based on
an immature stage of a sea turtle population has not devel- green sea turtle testosterone titers, the 1 male ( > 20 pg/ml)
oped such behavior biases and is thus more likely to reveal and 5 females (< 10 pg/ml) would have been classified cor-
the actual sex ratio for that population. In addition, the benthic rectly. The Kemps ridley was a female. Although serum
immature life stage represents a condensation of many years testosterone titer has been determined to be an accurate in-
of hatchling production (Wibbels et al., 1987). Interestingly, dicator of the sex of immature sea turtles, testosterone lev-
most sex ratios of sea turtle populations described to date els in immature turtles vary directly with ambient tempera-
have been fairly close to 1:1, or up to a bias of about 1.9:1 ture (Owens, 1996). Cooler temperatures depress testoster-
(Owens, 1996). one titers, thus biasing results against males (towards un-
The purpose of this poster is to report on the sex ratio knowns and females). We believe the cold water tempera-
results of the foraging populations in Pamlico and Core tures at which the lapd turtles were captured (<20C) de-
Sounds, N. C., 1995-1997. These data were collected while pressed testosterone titers. As water temperatures decreased
sampling the catches of pound nets set in these sounds. throughout the season, the testosterone levels of all turtles
captured likewise decreased (Figures 1-2), as evidenced by
METHODS the misclassification of 9 male loggerheads.
Blood samples were drawn from the dorsocervical si- To determine whether testosterone titers were being
nus or from the jugular vein, and were analyzed to deter-
mine testosterone titers of the individual. In 1995 and 1996,
one 4 cc sample of blood was drawn within 30 minutes of
possession of the turtle. In 1997, two 4 cc samples of blood
were drawn from each turtle (N=139) - one immediately upon
possession of the turtle (sample A), the second within 30
minutes of possession (sample B) - to determine affects of
stress on testosterone levels and sexing results. A serum an-
drogen sexing technique was used to sex the sea turtles fol-
lowing a testosterone radioimmunoassay procedure (Wibbels
et al., 1987; Owens, 1996; Valverde, 1996).
The sex ratios for both loggerhead and green sea turtles
in 1995 and 1996 (Bass et al., in press) were the most skewed
sex ratios yet published for a foraging population (Owens,
1996). In order to confirm serum androgen sexing technique
results, surgical observation of the gonad was performed in Figure 1. Testosterone titers of loggerhead (Caretta caretta) sea
November 1997 on 47 loggerheads, 7 greens and one Kemps turtles captured 1995-1997.
ridley via a laparoscopic entry into the peritoneum (Wood et
al., 1983). Visual differentiation of the ovary and testis was depressed by cold water temperatures (<20C - temperature
based on the ovaries lumpy appearance with underlying pri- minima of previous sex ratio studies typically were 15-18C)
mordial follicles in contrast to the seminiferous tubules un- , we used the lowest testosterone level of a confirmed (lapd)
Poster presentations / Anatomy and Physiology 121

their corresponding testosterone titers did not overlap, we

did not apply a cold water correction to green sea turtles.
However, testosterone levels of green sea turtles also de-
creased as water temperatures decreased (Figure 2). Thus
we conclude that the sex determination of immature sea turtles
caught in warm waters may be accurate, but caution should
be used when applying this technique to loggerhead and green
turtles caught in cold water (<20C).
No significant changes in testosterone titer occurred
between blood samples taken immediately upon possession
of the turtle and those taken within 30 minutes (N=139,
P=0.16). Wibbels et al. (1985) had similar results with im-
mature loggerheads captured via trawler or pound net in
Florida and Virginia, and suggested that the titers of samples
taken near the time of capture should not be influenced by
Figure 2. Testosterone titers of green (Chelonia mydas) sea turtles the stress associated with capture.
captured 1995-1997.
Pound nets are not set in abundance until the fall when
male loggerhead (6.1 pg/ml) as the threshold for determin- the sounds fauna begin emigrating due to decreasing water
ing females (0-6.0 pg/ml) and the highest testosterone level temperatures. Thus, most of the turtles were captured in water
of a confirmed (lapd) female loggerhead (14.7 pg/ml) as < 20C. We plan to increase the number of sea turtles cap-
the threshold for determining males (14.8 pg/ml and higher). tured and lapd when waters are > 20C to determine if a
We determined that 21 of 25 lapd loggerheads that could female bias holds true.
not be categorized based on testosterone titer were female
and that 4 of the 25 were male. We applied these ratios to LITERATURE CITED
all uncategorized loggerheads caught in cold water during
1997, resulting in a total of 69% female. For loggerheads
Bass, A. L., S. P. Epperly, J. Braun, D. W. Owens, and R. M.
caught in warm water (>20C) (n=26), we applied the test-
Patterson. (In press). Natal origin and sex ratios of
osterone thresholds of Owens (1996). The results indicated
foraging sea turtles in the Pamlico-Albemarle Estuarine
69% were female (with only one unknown). By eliminat-
Complex. Proceedings of the 17th Annual Sea Turtle
ing loggerheads captured when water temperatures were
Symposium.
<20C, we saw similar sex ratiosfor 1995 and 1996, and
Owens, D. W. 1996. Hormones in the life history of sea
across all 3 years (Table 1).
turtles. Pages 315-341 in P. L. Lutz and J. A. Musick,
Since we confirmed the sex of only 6 green turtles and
eds. The Biology of Sea Turtles. CRC Press, New York,
N. Y.
Table 1. Predicted sex of loggerhead and green turtles* foraging in
the Pamlico-Albemarle Estuarine Complex, North Carolina.
Owens, D. W. and J. R. Hendrickson. 1978. Endocrine studies
and sex ratios of the green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas.
Species Fla. Mar. Res. Publ. 33: 12-14.
Year/Sex Loggerhead Green Wibbels, T., D. W. Owens, Y. A. Morris, and M. S. Amoss.
1987. Sexing techniques and sex ratios for immature
1995 N 18 8 loggerhead sea turtles captured along the Atlantic coast
%Female 61.1 87.5 of the U. S. U. S. Dep. Commer. NOAA Technical Report
%Male 22.2 12.5 NMFS-53:65-74.
%Unknown 16.7 0.0 Valverde, R. A. 1996. Corticosteroid dynamics in a free-
1996 N 18 0 ranging population of olive ridley sea turtles
%Female 83.3 - (Lepidochelys olivacea Eschscholtz, 1829) at Playa
%Male 16.7 - Nancite, Costa Rica as a function of their reproductive
%Unknown 0.0 -
behavior. Ph. D. Thesis. Texas A & M University,
1997 N 26 4 College Station.
%Female 69.2 50.0 Wood, J. R., F. E. Wood, K. H. Critchley, D. E. Wildt, and
%Male 26.9 25.0 M. Bush. 1983. Laparoscopy of the green sea turtle,
%Unknown 3.8 25.0
Chelonia mydas. Br. J. Herpetology 6:323-327.
1995-1997 N 62 12
%Female 71.0 75.0
%Male 22.6 16.7
%Unknown 6.5 8.3
* Sea turtles captured in water temperatures > 20C
122 Anatomy and Physiology / Poster presentations

PRIMARY EVIDENCE OF SPERM STORAGE IN THE OVARIES OF THE OLIVE RIDLEY

MARINE TURTLE (LEPIDOCHELYS OLIVACEA)
Anny Chaves1, Margarita Arana2, and Leslie du Toit1

1
Douglas Robinson Marine Turtle Research Center. Ostional, Costa Rica.
2
Biology Dpt., Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia. Lima, Per. turtles@gema.com
The possibility that marine turtles are able to store the transport of the spermatazoids to the ovary.
sperm and later fertilize the eggs, has been proposed by vari- The presence of spermatazoids in the oviduct might be
ous authors (Ehrhart, 1982, Owens, 1980). However, it has the first evidence to support the hypothesis of sperm storage
not been possible find a storage structure in the female (Fox, and retarded
1977) although there have been observations of sperm in The poster will present SEM photos of the
the oviduct (Owens, 1980, Solomon and Baird, 1979, Chaves spermatazoids in the ovary and the ultra structure of the ovary
and Jaen,1986). Neither has it been possible to clarify the and oviduct.
temporal relationship between the moment of fertilization This project was financed by the Japanese International
to ovulation and the migration of the ovules to the oviduct. Cooperation (JICA) and the Douglas Robinson Marine Turtle
Samples of the ovary and oviduct were taken from a Research Center.
recently deceased turtle found on the beach after an arribada.
The samples were fixed in formalin (10%) and, 24 hours BIBLIOGRAPHY:
later, were processed and ready for the scanning electron
Chaves, A. 1986. Viabilidad de los huevos de la tortuga
microscope (SEM).
marina Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz) en Playa
The oviducts contained 107 fully developed eggs (with
Ostional, Guanacaste, Costa Rica. Escuela de Biologa.
shells) ready to be deposited (50 and 57 eggs in each ovi-
Universidad de Costa Rica. Tesis de Licenciatura.
duct). Also observed in the ovaries were developing ovules
Ehrhart, L.M. 1982. A Review of Sea Turtle Reproduction.
which were between 15 and 20 mm in diameter, recent scars
In: K. Bjorndal,ed. Biology and Conservation of Sea
15 mm in diameter and numerous "corpus albicans".
Turtles. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington D.C.
Once analysed under the SEM, the ovary showed a
pp 29-38.
multi-folded wall covered with different sized folicules.
Fox, H. 1977. The Urogenital System of Reptiles. In: Gans,
Attached to the walls were eggs of various sizes, many of
ed. Biology of the Reptilia, vol. 6. Academic Press,
which were in a state of calcification.
London. pp 1-157.
Observed at this point of the ovary were a number of
Owens, D. 1980. The Comparative Reproductive Physiology
spermatozoids of which the
of Sea Turtles. Amer. Zool. 20: 549-523.
flagella, head and neck could be clearly identified.
Solomon, S. and T. Baird, 1979. Aspects of the Biology of
The early calcification of the eggs indicates that by
Chelonia mydas. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev. 17:
necessity they should be fertilized before their migration to
347-361.
the oviduct. The samples of oviduct wall show it to be com-
pletely ciliated, which indicates the function of facilitating
COMPARISON OF TECHNIQUES USED TO SEX LEATHERBACK HATCHLINGS
Leticia Gmez1, Cristina Ordez1, and Miriam Benabib2

1
Programa de Tortugas Marinas, Facultad de Ciencias, UNAM, Mxico D. F. 04510. lsm@hp.fciencias.unam.mx
2
Instituto de Ecologa, UNAM. Apdo. Postal 70-275, Mxico D. F. 04510
INTRODUCTION
Identifying the sex of hatchlings and juveniles is an observation in the microscope; b) Tissue clearing: it con-
important limiting factor in the studies of sex determination sists in rendering the gonad transparent with a solution of
of sea turtles. Because secondary sexual characters are not glycerin and formalin, for its observation in the stereoscopic
yet developed, sex has to be identified by anatomical and microscope. There are several criteria for the identification
histological studies of the gonads. Basically, there are two of sex with this technique.
techniques most widely used to sex hatchlings that depend The clearing technique has several advantages over the
on the processing of the gonads: histological technique, mainly that it is faster and cheaper.
a) Histology: involves embedding the tissue either in However, questions have been raised repeatedly about the
paraffin or in epon to obtain sections of the gonads for their validity of the results obtained with the clearing technique.

Problems seem to arise in particular when working with the sex the gonads were those proposed by Yntema and
leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), whose hatchlings Mrosovsky (1980). The characteristics used to sex the cleared
seem to have very undifferentiated gonads. Due to the di- gonads were those described by Benabib (1984), Van der
versity of sexing criteria, it is important to compare the his- Heiden et al. (1985), and Briseo (pers. comm.). Three types
tological and the clearing techniques in gonads of the same of gonads were distinguished among the histological sec-
individuals, to define which technique would be advisable tions: immature ovary, immature testis, and ovotestis. The
to sex gonads of hatchlings of the leatherback turtle. characteristics used to identify each were the following:
Immature ovary. - The external surface of the gonad (ger-
OBJECTIVE minal epithelium or cortex) is markedly thickened. The ger-
minal cells, if any, are located in the superficial epithelium.
To evaluate the equivalency of the histological and the
The medulla starts to look fragmented to form medullar
clearing techniques for the identification of sex of leather-
cords, and the blood vessels are distributed mainly in the
back hatchlings.
central region of the gonad. The epithelium is separated from
STUDY AREA the medulla by a tunica albuginea. Immature testis. - The
germinal epithelium is formed by a single row of cells, there-
Field work was done in Playn de Mexiquillo, fore being thinner than in the ovary. It has been reported
Municipio de Aquila, in the state of Michoacn, Mxico. It that the testis presents medullar cords that appear continu-
is found in the central part of the coast of Michoacn, 80 km ous with the external epithelium of the gonad, and that a
NW of Ciudad Lzaro Crdenas. The beach is approximately few germinal cells may be observed in those cords, but most
18 km long, running from the rocky shore named La Punta, germinal cells are in the superficial epithelium. However, in
up the creek La Manzanilla. The study area included ap- our samples we observed these characteristics only in one
proximately 6.6 km, from the SE end of the beach (La Punta), ovotestis; in most gonads classified as male, we found a dense
up the estero named La Majahua, to the NW. A base camp medulla and a simple epithelium surrounding it. The blood
was located in the site known as El Farito. vessels were located mainly in the periphery of the gonad.
Ovotestis. - Presents characteristics of both sexes in differ-
METHODS ent combinations.
During the nesting season of the leatherback turtle The criteria of Benabib (1984) used to sex the cleared
(October to February) of the years 1992-1993, nests were gonads were: Immature ovary. - The gonad is completely
collected in the beach as part of a permanent conservation transparent, with no evident internal structures. Immature
program, and kept in a protected corral at el Farito. After testis. - The gonad has tubular internal structures, that may
55 to 60 days of incubation, once emerged from the nests, be colored (red or brown), or not. Ovotestis. - The gonad
79 hatchlings were collected at random from 31 different has a combination of characteristics of the female and the
nests. Twenty six of those hatchlings were sacrificed by de- male gonads, with completely transparent areas, areas with
capitation, and dissected immediately to take out the go- tubular structures, and/or with areas were the tubular struc-
nads attached to the kidneys. One gonad of each hatchling tures are very loosely and incompletely distributed.
was put in Karnovskys fixative, and later embedded in epon The criteria of Van der Heiden et al. (1985) to sex the
in the laboratory. Transversal histological sections of 1 to 2 cleared gonads were the following: Ovary. - The lateral
microns were obtained of the anterior and median part of edges of the gonad are serrated, the central part of the gonad
the gonad, and stained with Toluidine blue 0.5%. The other is less opaque than the borders, and no internal structures
gonad was fixed in 10% formalin in phosphate buffer 1 M, are evident. Testis. - The surface of the gonad is smooth,
and cleared with glycerin according to the technique de- and presents different patterns of granulation.
scribed by Van der Heiden et al. (1985), using a 5% glyc- The third set of criteria (Briseo, pers. comm.) used to
erin solution in 4% formalin in phosphate buffer 1 M. The sex the cleared gonads included the following: Ovary. - The
remaining 53 hatchlings were sacrificed with an injection of gonad presents numerous foldings in its edges, and the cen-
0.1 ml sodium pentobarbital (Anestesal) in the spinal cord. tral area is less opaque than the rest of the gonad. Testis. -
These hatchlings were then fixed in 10% formalin in phos- The edge of the gonad is smooth.
phate buffer 1 m. The animals were dissected in the labora- The morphological characteristics used by Rimblot et
tory: one gonad was embedded in paraffin, and 6-7 microns al. (1985) to sex the gonads were: Ovary. - The gonad is
sections obtained, which were stained either with hematoxy- relatively long and thin, and its edge is smooth. Testis. -
lin-eosine, or with Pas+; the other gonad was cleared with The gonad is relatively thick, the surface is irregular, with
glycerin. The cleared gonads were observed using a stereo- transversal grooves.
scopic dissection microscope, and the sectioned gonads were
observed with a light transmission microscope. RESULTS
The histological characteristics taken into account to In the histologically processed gonads, we obtained a
Table 1. Sexing results obtained Species Immature testis Immature ovaries Ovotestis Total
D. coriacea 20 42 7 69

Table 2. Sexing results obtained with the different criteria using the glycerin clearing technique
Q
Criteria Immature testis Immature ovaries Ovotestis Ambiguous Total
Benabib 12 57 6 0 75
Briseo 10 14 2 0 26
Van der Heiden et al. 6 15 0 54 75
Rimblot et al. 2 10 0 37 49
sex ratio of 5:6, thus, having a bias toward the production of
more females. We observed a high proportion of ovotestis
ovary, immature testis, and ovotestis.
(9.86%; Table 1). Each criteria used to sex the glycerin
Until now, it had not been described the high amount
cleared gonads, rendered different sex ratios (Table 2). All
of vascularization present in the gonads at this stage of dif-
of these criteria tended to underestimate the number of male
ferentiation. The general observation was that immature ova-
gonads as compared to the histological technique. The only
ries have a central vascularization, and that blood vessels in
criteria that detected ovotestis were those of Benabib (1984)
immature testes tend to be in the periphery. Probably, this
and Briseo. The criteria reported by Van der Heiden et al.
vascularization corresponds to the internal tubular structures,
(1985), and Rimblot et al. (1985), were not reliable in the
interpreted as characteristic of the glycerin cleared testes.
sense that a large proportion of gonads from the sample could
There was a high discrepancy in the criteria, and there-
not be sexed because they did not present the combination
fore the results obtained, when sexing the glycerin cleared
of characters that supposedly describes each sex, and there-
gonads. Therefore, we suggest to keep using histology to
fore, were classified as ambiguous.
identify the sex of recently hatched leatherback turtles, at
The sex of the gonads identified with histological sec-
least until more accurate criteria for the identification of sex
tions, was compared, one by one, with the sex obtained for
in cleared gonads are described.
those specimens using the different criteria used to sex the
cleared gonads. In the best case, only 66.6% of the sex of
LITERATURE CITED
the gonads in a sub-sample of 21 gonads sexed by R. Briseo,
coincided with their sex identified with histology (Table 3). Benabib, M. 1984. Efecto de la temperatura de incubacin,
However, the criteria used by R. Briseo could not be rela posicin del nido y la fecha de anidacin en la
produced by us to give us the same sex in each gonad. Us- determinacin del sexo de Dermochelys coriacea. Tesis
ing a sample of 70 gonads, the best approximation to the de Maestra (Biologa). Facultad de Ciencias, UNAM.
results obtained with histology, was a 40% coincidence with 60 pp.
the criteria used by Benabib (1984). Rimblot, F., J. Fretey, N. Mrosovsky, J. Lescure, and C.
Pieau. 1985. Sexual differentiation as a function of the
DISCUSSION incubation temperature of eggs in the sea-turtle
Dermochelys coriacea. Amphibia-Reptilia 6:83-82.
The histological sections of the gonads showed the
Van der Heiden, A. M., R. Briseo-Dueas, and D. Ros-
characteristics of the epithelium commonly used to distin-
Olmeda. 1985. A simplified method for determining sex
guish each sex (i.e. a pseudostratified, thick epithelium in
in hatchling sea turtles. Copeia 1985:779-782.
females, and a simple, thin epithelium in males). However,
Yntema, C. L. and N. Mrosovsky. 1980. Sexual
we could not identify seminiferous tubules as reported in
differentiation in hatchling loggerheads (Caretta caretta)
males of other species, and only in a few cases, differences
incubated at different controlled temperatures.
in the structure of the medulla of each sex could be detected.
Herpetologica 36:33-36.
Therefore, the identification of the sex of the gonads pro-
cessed histologically was based mainly on the epithelium. It
is still a problem the interpretation of the characteristics ob-
served in gonads classified as ovotestis, mainly because of
the little differentiation shown by gonads of recently hatched
leatherback turtles. Therefore, we use the terms immature
Table 3 . Comparison of the results obtained when sexing with
histology versus the different criteria used for sexing cleared gonads
Compared criteria # of gonads whose sex coincide # of gonads whose sex do not
coincide
Histology vs. Benabib 28 42
Histology vs. Van der Heiden et al. 10 60
Histology vs. Rimblot et al. 11 38
Histology vs. Briseo 14 7
Van der Heiden et al. vs. Briseo 8 13
Benabib vs. Van der Heiden et al. 14 56
Benabib vs. Rimblot et al. 10 39
Benabib vs. Briseo 8 13

CORNEAL STRUCTURES AND DENTIGENOUS LAMINA IN THE MOUTH OF THE

MARINE TURTLE CARETTA CARETTA (LINNAEUS,1758)
C. Mendoza1, Ma. Abaurrea2, and L. Gllego1

1
Zoology Laboratory, Department of Animal Biology, The Balearic Island University, 07071 Palma de Mallorca, Spain
2
Department of Cellular Biology, Granada University, 18071- Granada, Spain. dbalgc0@ps.uib.es
From the dissections of various examples of Caretta be attributed to the function of the dentigenous lamina, a
caretta frozen post-mortum, we describe the arrangement fine epithelial tissue with non-mineralized teeth, located
of the corneal cover which forms the beak of the turtle and between the corneal structure and the mandibular bones.
covers the bones of both mandibles. The differences in thick- The dentigenous lamina is described from data obtained
ness in the distinct regions of the mouth permit the animal by scanning microscopy studies, and its evolutionary state
to grind-up very hard foods, such as the shells of notably is discussed. The aforementioned structure is considered
sized mollusks. primitive, as bones such as the vomer and the palate still
Although the corneal cover does wear with use, it main- maintain the capacity to bear teeth, a trait that occurs in C.
tains a size proportional to that of the animal; the older the carettas ancestors as well as some of the current day
individual, the greater size the cover. This indicates that the Ophidea.
rate of cover growth is superior to the rate of wear, and can
COMPOSICION QUIMICA DEL HUEVO DE LA TORTUGA LORA (LEPIDOCHELYS

OLIVACEA)
Randall Mora1, Carlos Herrera2, and Anny Chaves3

1
Escuela de Tecnologa de Alimentos , Costa Rica
2
Escuela de Qumica. UCR, Costa Rica
3
Programa Tortugas Marinas. UCR Actualmente: Centro para la Investigacin de las Tortugas Marinas Douglas Robinson;
Ostional Guanacastle, San Pablo Heredia, Costa Rica, turtles@gema.com
Con el objeto de conocer la composicin qumica del lo que son ms susceptibles al ataque microbiano. La cscara
huevo de la tortuga Lora, se tom una muestra de 50 huevos del huevo de tortuga tiene un alto contenido de protenas
de playa Ostional, Guanacaste, Costa Rica. Se realiz una que le confieren flexibilidad. La parte comestible del huevo
separacin de las cscaras, claras y yemas, tomando las masas de tortuga contiene aproximadamente la mitad los lpidos y
individuales de cada uno de dichos componentes. Se protenas del huevo de gallina y el mismo porcentaje de
realizaron determinaciones de humedad, protenas, lpidos, carbohidratos, adems contiene 2.3 veces menos colesterol
cenizas y carbohidratos a cada uno de los componentes. A que la parte comestible del huevo de gallina. Los huevos de
la grasa extrada de la yema se le determin el contenido de tortuga lora contienen cidos grasos esenciales. Adems tiene
colesterol y se le realiz un perfil lipdico mediante los cidos C25:5 y C22:5 y algunos con nmero de carbono
cromatografa de gases. Los huevos de la tortuga lora tienen impar, que son caractersticos de las grasas de origen marino.
un peso promedio de 27.9 g. Estn constituidos por un 57.4% Presentaron un ndice de aterogenicidad ms alto que los
de yema, un 38.4% de clara y un 4.14% de cscara. Estos huevos de gallina, pero similar al de la carne de res y menor
presentan un contenido de humedad ms alto de los que el de los quesos.
correspondientes componentes en el huevo de gallina, por
PORCENTUAL COUNTS OF BLOOD CELLS IN LEATHERBACK HATCHLINGS
Ofelia Margarita Silva Pea1, Adriana Laura Sarti Martnez1, and Concepcin Rugerio Vargas2
1
Laboratorio de Torgtugas Marinas, Fac. de Ciencias, UNAM., Mxico
2
Depto. de Biologa Celular y Tisular, Fac. de Medicina UNAM, Mxico. lsm@hp.fciencias.unam.mx
Blood samples taken from hatchlings incubated in red and white cells were done using blood smears which
hatchery (n= 14) and poliestirene boxes (n=15), were ana- were stained with Wright's stain. Five stages described of
lyzed. The technique used was cardiac puncture using EDTA the Erythropoiesis process were observed, these were higher
sodium as anticoagulant. Percentages of different types of in hatchlings from hatchery. It is important the presence of

mitotic figures in circulating blood. Different types of

Leucocytes were not founded in all the observed smears.
Eosinophils, Basophils, Lynphocytes, Monocytes and
Azupholis were higher in hatchlings coming from hatchery,
on the other hand, Thrombocytes were more numerous in
hatchlings incubated in boxes.
ESTIMATING AGE IN HAWAIIAN GREEN SEA TURTLES BY SKELETOCHRONOLOGY
George R. Zug1 and George H. Balazs2

1
Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC,
20560, U.S.A. zug.george@nmnh.si.edu
2
National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, Honolulu Laboratory, 2570 Dole St., Honolulu,
HI, 96822-2396, U.S.A.
Green sea turtles, Chelonia mydas, in Hawaiian coastal with increasing age and size. This link of age and size is a
waters range from 35 cm SCL juveniles to 106 cm SCL adults physiological and evolutionary component of the growth
(Balazs et al., 1987). An earlier skeletochronological analy- pattern of every animal. Why is there such a difference be-
sis (Zug and Balazs, 1985) of a small sample suggested that tween these and the 1985 estimates? The 1985 estimates
in Hawaii, large juveniles to adults might be as old as 43-81 derive from an average growth width protocol that was noted
years. A larger sample salvaged since 1991 to examine the then to provide overestimates in large turtles with large re-
effects and onset of fibropapillomas also permits us to use sorption cores in the humerus.
skeletochronology to estimate the ages of these turtles.
Skeletochronology is based on the reptilian aspect of skel-
etal growth by appositional deposition of new bone on old.
This periosteal growth is cyclic, producing discrete bony
layers in response to environmental and/or physiological
cycles. The number of layers serves as an age index, and we
assume that each layer represents one year of growth, i.e.,
the number of layers equals the estimated age of the turtle in
years.
For skeletochronological analysis, we use 0.6-0.8 mm
cross-sections of the humerus from the middle of the shaft.
Although analogous to dendrochronology in determining the
number of years of growth, bone is a dynamic tissue. Re-
sorption and remodeling in the core of the humerus destroys
the earlier periosteal growth layers, and a protocol must be
developed to estimate the number of lost layers. We use the
correction-factor protocol (Parham and Zug, 1998) which
estimates the number of lost layers by determining the aver-
age growth vector of increasing humerus diameter in the
youngest/smallest turtle in the sample. This vector via a re-
Figure 1. The association of age estimates and size in the Hawaiian
gression equation provides an estimate of the lost/resorbed green sea turtle sample. The 29 cm turtle was captured in the pelagic
layers. The total number of layers (also the estimated age in habitat in a commercial highseas driftnet fishery.
years) is the sum of the number of estimated lost layers and
the number of remaining periosteal layers. Linear regression of the age estimates yields a positive
Age estimates range from 4.8 to 34.6 yr (Figure 1). and strong association of age (X) and size (Y) [Y = 22.8 +
The smallest turtle in the sample has the lowest age estimate 1.91 X, r2 = 0.90]. Because of the strong linearity of these
and the two largest individuals the oldest estimates. Are the data, exponential growth models do not fit these data. Ex-
age estimates strictly the function of size and the mechanics amining the data for local growth trends with a smoothing
of the age-estimation protocol? Because the correction-fac- function, e.g., LOWESS, suggests different growth rates at
tor protocol and, for that matter, any other technique rely on different life stages, as in an Australian population of C.
the observed (remaining) growth layer and resorption-core mydas (Limpus and Chaloupka 1997).
diameters, a component of the estimates is likely always pro- Skeletochronology yields age estimates, not actual
tocol-linked, because the diameter of the humerus enlarges ages, of sea turtles, because resorption destroys the earlier

layers. Another limitation of the skeletochronological data

is that age estimates are not equally extractable from the
different age classes. Skeletochronology relies on a pattern
of distinct layering within the bony elements. Such patterns
are most evident in the smaller turtle, and their occurrence
becomes less frequent in the larger individuals. Age can be
estimated for 89% of the 30-69 cm SCL turtles, 72% for 70-
79 cm, 18% for 80-89 cm, and 29% for >89 cm turtles. An-
other aspect of bone layering in Hawaiian C. mydas is the
predominance of annuli to lines of arrested growth.
This observation suggests continuous growth in most indi-
viduals in this population, although retaining a cycle of rapid
versus slow growth, and thus producing layers and permit-
ting skeletochronological analysis.
LITERATURE CITED.
Balazs, G. H., R. G. Forsyth, and A. K. H. Kam. 1987.
Preliminary assessment of habitat utilization by
Hawaiian green turtles in their resident foraging
pastures. U. S. Dept. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo.
NMFS-SWFSC-71: 1-107.
Limpus, C. and M. Chaloupka. 1997. Nonparametric
regression modelling of green sea turtle growth rates
(southern Great Barrier Reef). Marine Eco. Prog. Ser.
149: 23-34.
Parham, J. F. and G. R. Zug. 1998. Age and growth of
loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) of coastal
Georgia: an assessment of skeletochronological age-
estimates. Bull. Marine Sci. 61: 287-304.
Zug, G. R. and G. H. Balazs. 1985. Skeletochronological
age estimates for Hawaiian green turtles. Marine Turtle
Newsl. (33): 9-10.
Zug, G. R., A. Wynn, and C. Ruckdeschel. 1986. Age
determination of loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta,
by incremental growth marks in the skeleton. Smiths.
Contrib. Zool. 427: 1-34.

TRACKING OF THE TAGS (T AND J) APPLIED ON KEMP'S RIDLEY IN RANCHO

NUEVO, TAMAULIPAS
Refugio G. Castro M., Alma S. Leo P., Enrique Conde G, and Rolando Orta N.
Centro Regional de Investigaciones Pesqueras Tampico-Tamps, Calle Altamira S/N, Col. Isleta Perez, Apdo. Postal: 197
Tampico, Tamps., Mxico. criptam@tamnet.com.mx
The Kemp's ridley is considered to be the most endan- We present the tracking of those turtles tagged in the
gered of sea turtles and an endemic species to the Gulf of eighties with the T and J series, in respect of the last four
Mexico (Mrquez, 1994), since its only zone of reproduc- seasons (1994-1997), checking for the increment in cara-
tion in the world is exclusive to the beach of Rancho Nuevo, pace length, preference in the incidence zones, number of
Tamaulipas. A way of keeping track of each of the nesting times it was recorded each season and finally if it was re-
turtles is through the recording of the tagging and recaptur- tagged with another series
ing that was begun in 1966. The data gathered through the
recording of traditional steel tags, used to this day by Instituto
Nacional de la Pesca and satellite tracking (Richard Byles)
with the help of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, indicate
that the zones between their nesting and reproduction areas
are shallow waters (Marquez, 1996). The field work is as
follows: beach patrols (recorridos"), three or more times a
day depending on the weather conditions appropriate for a
possible "arribada" (arrival), tagging specimens, collecting,
moving and transplanting the egg clutches to a protective
corral, and the releasing of hatchlings.
EMERGENCE PERIOD OF TRANSPLANTED NESTINGS AND THE EFFECT OF AIR

AND SAND SURFACE TEMPERATURE ON THE HATCHLINGS OF THE TURTLE
LEPIDOCHELYS KEMPI IN RANCHO NUEVO TAMAULIPAS, MEXICO
A.L Cruz Flores1, R. Snchez Trejo2, R. Mrquez-Millan3, and R. Castro Melendez 1

1
CRIP- Tampico Tamaulipas, C.P. 89090, Mxico
2
Lab. Ecologa Costera y Pesqueras, UAM-X, A.P. 23182, C.P. 04960, Mxico, D.F., Mxico
3
CRIP- Manzanillo, A.P. 591, Colima, C.P. 28200, Mxico. rtrejo@cueyatl.uam.mx
The are several studies which deal with the hatchling 25.5 C to 31.5 C and the surface ranged from 29.2 C to
emergence period at natural and artificial nest of several turtle 34.5 C. The maximum emergence was detected from the 41
species. Nevertheless, no precise data on the importance of to the 43rd day of incubation and at the 46th day. Air and
air and sand surface temperature or their effect on the emer- sand surface temperatures were highly correlated and both
gence period of Lepidochelis kempi have been reported. This influenced hatchling emergence, this was inhibited when tem-
species has its main anidation site on the shores of Rancho perature increased 1-2 C above 26.0 C. Thus we conclude
Nuevo Tamaulipas, Mexico. In the present study the preemer- that preemergence and emergence are regulated by air tem-
gence period (when the nest mouth collapses) and emergence perature in trasplanted nestlings which is the governing fac-
(when more than ten hatchlings appear at the nest mouth), as tor of the emergence period and the hours of hatchling emer-
well as the on set and gradual decrease of this phenomenon gence for this species.
were registred, so as to determine the association between
temperature records obtained at two-hour intervals. The re-
lation between these factors and hatchling emergence was
determined through statistical analysis. Preemergence period
was observed since the 40th day of incubation when the av-
erage air temperature was 27.1 C and sand surface tempera-
ture was 35.4 C; hatchling emergence occurred mainly from
1:30 to 6:30 hours when the air temperature ranged from
Poster presentations / Conservation and Management 129

CONSERVACION DE LAS TORTUGAS MARINAS EN EL SALVADOR SINOPSIS Y

PERSPECTIVAS.
Celina Dueas1, Mauricio Vsquez1, and Carlos Hasbn2

1
Direccin General de Recursos Naturales Renovables, Servicio de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre Calle y Cantn El
Matazano, Soyapango, El Salvador. dgrnr@es.com.sv
2
University of Hull, United Kinddon U.K.
INTRODUCCION
En El Salvador se encuentran y anidan cuatro especies Lepidochelys olivacea, desconociendo por completo su
de Tortugas Marinas; golfina (Lepidochelys olivacea); metodologa de trabajo.
prieta (Chelonia agassizi); baule (Dermochelys Durante 1986, la Direccin de Patrimonio Natural
coreacea) y la tortuga carey (Eretmochelys imbricata). (Ministerio de Educacin), trabaj en playa San Diego,
El recurso tortuga marina ha constituido incorporando el componente de educacin ambiental.
tradicionalmente una fuente de generacin de ingresos para El perodo 1989-1996 La asociacin ambientalista
la comunidad de tortugueros e intermediarios que comercian AMAR, combinadamente con PANAVIS y comunidades
sus productos y subproductos. desarrollaron toda una metodologa de trabajo, con la
Actualmente a nivel nacional todas las especies se incorporacin de la comunidad en el proceso de conservacin
encuentran en peligro de extincin, debido principalmente a de las tortugas marinas en Barra de Santiago, logrando
la captura incidental de adultos y subadultos reproductores incorporar 41,291 neonatos de Lepidochelys olivacea.
por efecto de las diferentes artes de pesca, sobreexplotacin Durante estos ocho aos se involucr a las comunidades
de huevos y utilizacin de algunos subproductos, como el en el manejo comunitario a traves de canje de huevos fres-
caso de artesanas de concha de carey. cos por enseres y artculos de primera necesidad (1989-
Es urgente establecer y desarrollar una estrategia de 1993); veda parcial de playa, en esta se prohiba la extraccin
conservacin de tortugas marinas, que sea congruente con la de huevos durante tres das a la semana (1994-1995) y entrega
necesidades de recuperacin del recurso y la satisfaccin de voluntaria de dos docenas huevos por cada nidada encontrada
las necesidades socioeconmicas de las comunidades de (1996-1997). La obtencin de huevos fue mas eficiente con
usuarias que se benefician de los mismos. esta ultima metodologa.
Para que los esfuerzos de conservacin sean efectivos
Tabla 1. Instituciones involucradas en la Conservacin de Tortugas
y sostenibles se deber promover la participacin integrada Marinas en El Salvador (1974-1996)
de los sectores polticos, ONGs, usuarios, planificadores del
desarrollo turstico, Camara de la Industria Pesquera y AO INSTITUCION SITIO O PLAYA # CRIAS ESPECIE METODOLOGIA
acuacultura, otras instiruciones gubernamentales. 1974-78 Servicio El Tamarindo 1420 /ao L. olivacea 100% luz solar
Recursos Isla Madresal C. agassizi
Pesqueros Isla San Sebastian
MAG Playa Hermosa
ANTECEDENTES San Diego
Barra de Santiago
Los esfuerzos de conservacin de tortugas marinas en 1979-86 PANAVIS El Icacal 193,000 L. olivacea Se desconoce
El Salvador haban sido aislados, realizados por diferentes MAG Isla San Sebastian
Barra de Santiago
C. agassizi
instituciones sin responder a metodologas estandarizadas y Garita Palmera
en la mayora de los casos sin el debido seguimiento e 1987 Direccin de San Diego ------------ ------------- Se incorpora la
integracin institucional. Patrimonio
Cultural
educacin
ambiental
En la tabla 1, se puede apreciar la cronologa de (MINED)
proyectos realizados y los resultados obtenidos antes de 1997. 1989-96 Asociacin Barra de Santiago 41,291 L. olivacea
AMAR
Entre 1974-1978 el Servicio de Recursos Pesqueros
Region II MAG Cangrejera 8,000 L. olivacea Se desconoce
(Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadera) liber 1420 cras de 1990
la especie Lepidochelys olivacea, empleando corrales de Comunidad Bola de Monte L. olivacea A media sombra
Bola de Monte 6,500 C. agassizi
incubacin bajo un sistema abierto de total radiacin solar. E. imbricta
ONGVision playa Puntilla 7,104 L. olivacea A media sombra
En el perodo 1979-1986 el Servicio de Parques Mundial D.coriaceae
Nacionales y Vida Silvestre (Ministerio de Agricultura y Fuerza Naval playa San Diego, 9,500 L. olivaceae A media sombra
Ganadera) centr sus esfuerzos en las playas El Icacal e playa Cangrejera,
Pla. San Juan,
C. agassizi
E. imbricata
A sol total
Isla San Sebastan (en el oriente del pas) y Barra de Santiago Golfo de Fonseca
Playa El Flor
y Garita Palmera en la zona occidental de El Salvador,
logrando liberar 193,000 cras y trabajando con las especies
MATERIALES Y METODOS
Lepidochelys olivacea y Chelonia agassizi
En 1990, la regin II del Ministerio de Agricultura y En noviembre de 1997, el Servicio de Parques
Ganadera,. en Playa Cangrejera, libero 8,000 cras de Nacionales y Vida Silvestre, emiti la Veda al
130 Conservation and Management / Poster presentations

aprovechamiento de huevos, manejo de neonatos y productos conservacin se deber elaborar e implementar una Estrategia
derivados de las tortugas marinas en El Salvador. Una buena Nacional de conservacin de las tortugas marinas.
parte de los fundamentos de esta veda los dio la experiencia En la elaboracin y aplicacin de esta Estrategia se
que se obtuvo en aos anteriores, especialmente en la Barra deber involucrar a los diferentes sectores estatales, ONGs
de Santiago, por parte de la Asociacin ambientalista AMAR. de desarrollo y ambientalistas, lideres religiosos, comunales
La base legal que da la pauta para la emisin de esta y usuarios.
Veda fue la Ley para la Conservacin de Vida Silvestre. Esta En la Estrategia se consideraran aspectos como: la
Veda regula el comercio de huevos de las especies proteccin del habitat, manejo, control de explotacin,
Lepidochelys olivacea, Chelonia agassizi y Eretmochelys investigacin, participacin comunitaria, educacin
imbricata; adems regula el establecimiento y manejo de ambiental, procedimientos de pesca que disminuyan el
corrales de incubacin, manejo de neonatos y prohibe el impacto sobre los adultos, determinacin de los sitios de
comercio y consumo de huevos de Dermochelys coriacea y mayor anidacin, fortalecimiento legal, tcnico y financiero
el comercio de productos de carey y subproductos de de las instituciones y de las reas naturales que incluyen
cualquier tipo. ecosistemas costeros.
La base tcnica del sistema de aprovechamiento emitido
en Octubre de 1997 fue la metodologa empleada en los aos PROTECCIN DEL HBITAT
anteriores, pero principalmente la generada en Barra de
La conservacin del hbitat conlleva una variedad de
Santiago. La base legal fue la Ley de Conservacin de Vida
formas y tcnicas de manejo desde la creacin o
Silvestre, emitindose una Resolucin que regula el consumo
consolidacin de reas costero marinas protegidas bajo
y comercializacin de los huevos de Tortugas y adems
diferentes categoras de manejo, esfuerzos a limitar el acceso
prohibe el comercio de otros productos y subproductos de
o actividades en reas claves como sitios de anidacin
las mismas.
especficos o proteccin a congregaciones de aguas, tratando
En 1997 por primera vez se logra realizar un esfuerzo
de simular las condiciones naturales lo ms preciso posible.
integral entre PANAVIS/ ONGS/ comunidades, logrando
Se deber dar prioridad a la determinacin de los sitios
establecer 10 campamentos a lo largo de toda la costa
de mayor anidacin de tortugas, determinacin de playas
salvadorea. Con este esfuerzo se liberaron 25,296 cras de
donde se presenten anidaciones dispersas, determinacin de
las especies: Lepidochelys olivacea; Chelonia agassizi;
areas de interanidacin y de rutas migratorias y areas de
Dermochelys coriacea y Eretmochelys imbricata.
concentracin y forrajeo.
Para poder aplicar la Resolucin de Veda, se realizaron
visitas peridicas a las diferentes comunidades para MANEJO
explicarles el proceso tcnico y legal, as como brindar
capacitaciones al personal encargado de los corrales de El aprovechamiento de los huevos actualmente se regula
incubacin, se emitieron licencias a los tortugueros, para a traves de la Resolucin de Veda, pero a corto se ha incluido
garantizar que el aprovechamiento lo realizaran unicamente adems en el reglamento de la Ley de Conservacin de la
las comunidades de la costa y llevar un control de las perso- Vida Silvestre, el cual se espera sea aprobado en 1998.
nas que se dedican a esta activadad; se repartieron boletas Se considerar adems la no intervencin y nula
de control de los huevos que se permiti comerciar y se traslocacin de huevos.
distribuyo una gua para el establecimiento y manejo de Dentro de la realidad salvadorea son pocos los sitios
corrales de incubacin. en donde se puede implementar la veda total al
aprovechamiento de los huevos; uno de estos lugares es la
Table 2. Resumen de los resultados obtenidos por la aplicacion de
veda en 1997. Isla Martn Prez, ubicada en el Golfo de Fonseca, el cual es
un importante sitio de anidacin para Chelonia mydas.
PLAYA DEPARTAMENTO EJECUCIO N TORTUGAS LIBERADAS En casos de hacer transplantes de nidos, stos son
Bola de Monte Ahuachapan Comunitario 5,000
Barra de Santiago Ahuachapan AMAR-PANAVIS 3,500
supervisados por el Servicio de Parques Nacionales y Vida
Playa El Flor Sonsonate Fuerza Naval 3,790 Silvestre y a travs de un proyecto y un Convenio firmado
La Libertad F. Naval-Comunidad 6,000
San Diego
Toluca La Libertad CESTA (ong) 6,500
por las partes interesadas. En dichos corrales se trata de crear
Amatecampo La Paz Comunitario sin datos las condiciones lo mas naturales posibles y empleando
El Pimental La Paz Comunitario sin datos
materiales rusticos y de bajo costo.
La Zunganera La Paz Comunitario sin datos
Punta San Juan Usulatan PNC-Fuerza Naval 306 En el caso de los neonatos, actualmente se regula el
La Union La Union Fuerza Naval 200
manejo a travs de la Veda en la cual se permite tener un
Total 25,296 maximo de 30 individuos de L. olivacea o C. Agassizi,
unicamente para fines educativos o de interpretacin, as
PERSPECTIVA PARA LA CONSERVACIN DE mismo se exige que las cras que emergen de corrales de
LAS TORTUGAS MARINAS EN EL SALVADOR incubacin debern ser liberadas inmediatamente.
El Servicio de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre

considera que para implementar adecuadas medidas de

CONTROL DE EXPLOTACIN Ley de Conservacin de Vida Silvestre y la Resolucin de

COMERCIALIZACIN Veda al aprovechamiento de huevos, manejo de neonatos y
productos derivados de las tortugas marinas, es administrada
La comercializacin de huevos de tortugas actualmente
por El Servicio de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre.
sta siendo regulada y controlada por el Servicio de Parques
Es prioridad la aprobacin de los Reglamentos de dicha
Nacionales y Vida Silvestre, a travs de una Resolucin de
ley, lo cual proveera de un soporte muy eficiente al recurso.
Veda.
Actualmente se permite comercializar el 70 % de los
DISCUSION Y RESULTADOS
huevos y el resto se debe destinar a corrales de incubacin;
el control se ejerce por medio de la emisin de boletas y Al comparar el nmero de cras liberadas en los
licencias para los tortugueros. proyectos ejecutados antes de 1997, con los de este ao, se
Tradicionalmente en nuestro pas no existe una cultura observa que en este ltimo ao la cantidad de individuos es
para el consumo de carne, aceites, cremas y grasas. Ni relativamente mayor.
tampoco una utilizacin muy arraigada de carapacho, Pero si comparamos la calidad de la informacin
escamas, garras, osamentas, huesos, crneos y vrtebras de generada en 1997, con la producida en Barra de Santiago en
tortuga. Con la nueva Resolusion queda totalmente prohibido el periodo 1989-1996, la primera no es significativa, esto se
este tipo de comercio. debe a que no se dispone de suficiente personal y recursos
En El Salvador, an no se ha dado una experiencia de como para dar la asesora y realizar la toma de datos en el
establecimiento de una granja comercial. La experiencia sitio. Se pone de manifiesto que para poder coordinar una
mundial y sobretodo bajo la realidad y contexto salvadoreo, accin de tal magnitud, se requiere de un fuerte apoyo
no se recomienda una operacin de este tipo. Cualquier financiero institucional que podra ser a travs de ONGs o
iniciativa de exportacin deber cumplir con las volver sostenible econmicamente los proyectos de
estipulaciones tcnicas exigidas por CITES. Conservacin de Tortugas Marinas.
En este proceso de conservacin de las Tortugas Mari-
INVESTIGACIN nas desde sus inicios en los aos 70s, hasta ahora 23 aos
despues, se ha contado con una experiencia propia de
Se debern realizar estudios sobre sitios de anidacin,
recoleccin con apoyo de voluntarios, trueques y
estimacin del nmero de hembras anidantes, condiciones
prohibiciones, logrando una participacin comunal de
fsicas en nidos naturales y en corrales de incubacin, uso y
avanzada; igualmente se ha pasado de metodologas
comercio ilcito de huevos y otros subproductos, hbitats
dispersas, hasta una estandarizacin de stas y de iniciativas
empleados para alimentacin y establecer un programa de
locales de difusin hasta el involucramiento de los medios
marcaje.
de comunicacin y de la implementacin de programas de
educacin ambiental para llegar a diversos sectores de la
PARTICIPACIN COMUNITARIA
poblacin.
Se debern abrir ms espacios para que las comunidades Igualmente oportuno ha sido contar en toda esta
de tortugueros tengan una participacin activa en las acciones experiencia tcnica, con la existencia de una Ley de
de conservacin de las tortugas marinas debiendo participar Conservacin de Vida Silvestre que permite que esta sea
en la elaboracin de proyectos, ejecucin y evaluacin, as aplicable a fin de lograr cumplir con sus objetivos de
como en los programas de educacin no formal; para ello se Proteccin, Uso, Aprovechamiento y Manejo de la Vida
buscar el apoyo de Cooperativas, Asociciones de Silvestre y en nuestro particular de las Tortugas Marinas.
Desarrollo Comunitario, Ministerio de Educacin y de Salud,
Iglesias, etc.
EMPLEO DE TECNICAS PESQUERAS QUE

DISMINUYAN EL IMPACTO SOBRE LAS
POBLACIONES DE ADULTOS.
Para esto se contar con la participacin de
Cooperativas de pescadores de la Cmara de pesca y
acuacultura y el Centro de Desarrollo para la Pesca.
Se explorran alternativas que puedan ser empleadas
para disminur el impacto sobre los adultos y se propondr
un efectivo mecanismo de verificacin del uso del mecanismo
TED.
LEGISLACIN NACIONAL
Actualmente existe una legislacin dispersa que ampara
la proteccin del recurso tortuga en tierra y mar. La actual

THE SEA TURTLE CONSERVATION PROJECT IN BARRA DE SANTIAGO, EL

SALVADOR EVALUATED FROM A POLICY PERSPECTIVE: IMPLICATIONS FOR
CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT.
Angela Formia1, Carlos Roberto Hasbun2, Mauricio Vasquez3, and Emilio Leon4
1
Institute of Zoology- The Zoological Society of London, Regents Park, London NWl 4RY, U.K.
margarida.fernandes@ucl.ac.uk
2
Dept. of Biological Sciences, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, U.K.
3
Servicio de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre, Ctn. El Matasano, Soyanpango, El Salvador
4
Asociacion Ambientalista A. M. A. R., Reparto Palomo No. 1314, Col. Layco, San Salvador, El Salvador
The Sea Turtle Conservation Project in Barra de able is the proposed course of action. Finally, the scope of
Santiago, El Salvador was established in 1989 as an attempt the problem should be bounded to a manageable size to be
to protect the dwindling population of olive ridleys feasibly handled in the policy process.
(Lepidochelys olivacea) nesting in the area. We will present 2) The Social Process. Each key player places demands
an in-depth assessment of this project, its context, key playon the system and its values, each has expectations and em-
ers and driving forces, as a means to illustrate the use of the ploys different strategies (i. e. diplomatic, ideological, eco-
policy orientation in conservation, a method described back nomic and military) to achieve goals. One of the fundamen-
in 1943 by Harold Lasswell. Small-scale sea turtle conser- tal difficulties in the resolution of conflicts, including the
vation projects worldwide share several common character- contrasting values placed on natural resources, is the clash-
istics: they struggle to survive on limited resources, tiny ing of base values, and the fact that everyones behavior is
budgets and huge odds. It is time to evaluate whether many aimed at maximizing these base values. The various actors
of these efforts are misdirected, whether projects are based normally approach a problem with different epistemologies,
on an accurate definition of the real problem and its context, different standpoints and biases, different ways to conceptu-
and whether the limited available resources are appropriately alize a process or a conflict, they all perceive their roles as
utilized. Many projects fail to evaluate trends and outcomes being different, governed by different interests and perspec-
of past management strategies, and conservation activities tives. A successful outcome is able to reconcile all factions,
remain unchanged from year to year due to the absence of a redistributing and organizing beliefs and perceptions into a
holistic and adaptive approach to examining the measures of unified picture. The policy scientist identifies the differences
their success. For instance, should an organization expand in resource valuation and attempts to find common grounds.
the scope of its action, at the risk of losing effectiveness at It is in this common ground that one can find loci for inter-
the small scale of operations? Or, are many conservation pro- vention and stimulation of positive change.
grams covering a big hole with a patch that is pitifully inad- 3) The Decision Process. In the analysis of the six stages
equate, and curing the symptoms of an epidemic rather than of the decision process (Table 1), we will attempt to distin-
preventing it from spreading? The policy orientation is nec- guish knowledge of substantive biology and knowledge
essarily problem-oriented rather than solution-oriented, it in the policy and management process. Although both of
transcends the biases of narrow disciplinary approaches, these factors are essential to successful conservation, knowl-
stimulates new insight and creativity in search for ideas and edge of the policy process is normally neglected in favor of
alternatives, it seeks to understand goals, trends and expec- determining more and more about the endangered species
tations, as well as causal relationships and sources of uncer- and its habitat. Contrary to the belief of many conservation
tainty. We hope it will provide a stimulus for self-analysis organizations, such knowledge, once complete, does not au-
and re-assessment of many conservation efforts worldwide. tomatically point to the elimination of threatening processes.
4) Organizational Analysis. Clark and Cragun (1991)
WHAT IS THE POLICY ORIENTATION? write that understanding organizations and knowing how to
make them work for species recovery can make the differ-
Harold Lasswell, the creator of the policy sciences, el-
ence between a program that succeeds and one that fails.
egantly describes the decision-making process with a policy
Too often, when a project does not attain its goals, the
orientation as an integration of morals, science and policy
failure is attributed to technical problems and insufficient
(Lasswell 1943).
resources. Instead, the structure of the organization should
1) Contextual Problem Orientation. In order to design
be re-examined, the flow of information within it and the
a rational problem definition, it is important to understand
systems of decision-making through the hierarchy should be
the historical context, driving forces and observed scientific
questioned. The policy analyst should be able to know the
and social trends. Awareness of the context and of goals and
system and manipulate around obstacles that arise within it,
expectations leads to a better problem definition, which, in
pushing for innovation and inquiry. An ideal conservation
turn points to alternatives and creative insights into potential
organization should be entirely structured toward problem-
solutions. The problem definition also contains measures of
solving, it should be flexible and quick in appraising situa-
success and indicators to determine how realistic and justifi-

Table 1. The Six Stages of the Decision Process Applied to Sea Turtle Conservation in Barra de Santiago, El Salvador
PHASE DEFINITION DESCRIPTION CRITIQUE
Initiation: A concern comes to the surface and is identified as requiring Population decline Not nationally recognized problem
attention and action. It is a problem for whom? Why does it matter that it Anecdotal evidence Individual initiative
be resolved? Does it matter enough to justify attention? What are
possible solutions?
Estimation: Perception of a problem is the result of an imposed frame of Economic and demographic pressure Oversimplification of problem definition Inattention
reference, accepted assumptions, dominant epistemologies. The Unsustainable use of natural resources Lack to alternatives, different sources of mortality,
problem definition develops from evidence, communication and of conservation awareness High hatchling context and key players Inadequate assessment of
information gathering. Are there alternative definitions? What lessons mortality population status
can be learned from precedents and experiences? Is there an in-built
appraisal function as a basis for learning and to integrate knowledge and
experience? Do participants expectations match or conflict?
Selection: Debate on the issues allows for multiple views, values and Education, headstarting, beach patrols, in- Maintenance not task orientation
compromises. Feasibility assessments are performed to choose among situ hatchery National awareness campaigns No TEDs enforcement
program designs and uncertainty on options is reduced. NGO involvement No outcome assessment
No indicators of success
Implementation: Should include a formal assessment of the adequacy Childrens ecology group, annual turtle No performance standards
and equity of implemented objectives, and work efficiency and release festival, hatchery activities, partial Ineffective leadership
effectiveness should constantly be questioned. Mechanisms should be beach protection, hiring of local beach Inadequate scientific information and resources
in place to deal with common obstacles and errors and to enforce patrollers, display of juvenile turtles, local Inconsistent methodology
performance standards. natural resource museum, establishment of Lack of enforcement power
regional reserve, media campaigns, fund- No structured response to obstacles (local
raising activities resentment and resistance to change)
Inattention to market demands
Evaluation: Pitfalls include insensitivity to criticism and limited learning No formal evaluation Single-loop learning No No double-loop learning
from experience. Expected and realized performance should be trend data Insufficient measures of success
compared. Double loop learning mechanisms should, on the basis of Lack of re-evaluation of premises and priorities
experimentation and reflection, arrive at insights on project premises and Lack of problem definition
priorities. The flow can be envisioned as going from governing values to
strategies to consequences and back to governing values, allowing
constant molding of the problem definition.
Termination: Have long or short-term goals been attained? Is the None No goal attainment (long/short-term) mechanism
problem solvable as currently defined? The validity of goals must be re- and guidelines
assessed and information generated about new problems. Institutional No project replacement plans (TEDs)
rigidity, political and local pressure, a blocked learning cycle and small-
scale parochial vision may be obstacles preventing smooth transitions.
tions and in responding to change and challenges. Informa- Table 2

tion should be transferred effectively and efficiently within Identify key leverage point within system
sectors and learning mechanisms should be double-looped, Improve science
whereby premises and priorities are frequently re-evaluated Improve interagency coordination
and fed back into the cycle. Communication - designated liaison
Well defined project headquarters
WHAT ARE THE OBSTACLES? Consistent methodology
Create central information bank
This analysis will conclude by making a few recom- National and local level
mendations (Table 2) and suggesting possible reasons why National habitat survey and population census
conservation practices with wider scopes and better long- (update regularly/create)
term effects are not being implemented at the local scale in Create evaluation mechanisms
Barra de Santiago and in many other conservation projects Periodic evaluation workshops
worldwide. Both types of conservation should be carried out, a) reasses premises, goals, priorities
both have invaluable advantages and one should not be b)encourage public participation
stressed at the expense of the other. Running a hatchery, beach c) evaluate progress toward goals
patrols and educational activities is much simpler and clearly Logistical meetings
defined than attempting to address a large-scale unmanage- Designate leadership roles
able problem such as resource over-exploitation or poverty. Well defined, stable, reliable, respected
Aside from scale, financial restrictions and logistical diffi- authority
culties become paramount for small organizations. However, Improve enforcement
the required changes are usually so long-term that they nor- Consistent presence of authority
mally outlast funding sources and they may not have identi- Incentives and funding
fiable measures of success. Finally, changes such as the imple- Obtain partnerships with outside funding sources
mentation of TEDs or the establishment of protected areas Global and national dissemination of successful project
appear to be political and lobbying problems which become outcomes
removed from the local community and preclude many op- Implement and/or enforce TEDs
portunities for environmental education.

REFERENCES Clark, T.W. and J.R. Cragun. 1991. Organization and

management of endangered species programs.
Brewer, G.D. 1992. The policy sciences: Overview and
Endangered Species UPDATE 8(8):1-14.
summary materials. (Unpublished manuscript).
Lasswell, H.D. 1943. Personal policy objectives.
Brewer, G.D. and P. deLeon. 1983. The foundations of policy
Memorandum. (Unpublished manuscript).
analysis. The Dorsey Press, Homewood, IL.
A MULTIMEDIA PROJECT ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION OF THE

POPULATION ABOUT THE SEA TURTLES OF THE ISLAND OF MARGARITA,
VENEZUELA, AND AN INTEGRATION OF DATA BASE FOR HATCHING CONTROL
Angel Gmez Bonive

Fundacin OIKOS, VenezuelaUrbanizacin Nuevo Juan Griego. Qta Salitre. Juan Griego, Estado Nueva Esparta, Isla de
Margarita, Venezuela
Due the evolution of new technologies in the field of In the same way, due to the great amount of informa-
computer science and bearing in mind the interest that all the tion about the hatching of sea turtles on the beaches of the
layers of the population are taking in this area, it is necessary island, it is important to have a computerized data base that
to integrate something as important as Environmental Edu- could process this information, work out statistical reports
cation with its systems and programs worked out especially and save it to be used later as background for research projects
for this purpose. In this respect, an attempt has been made to that could be developed around this aspect. The Data Base
develop a multimedia project (images and sounds) to be of the Sea Turtles is a program, developed to save informa-
implemented during the first stage of the educational system tion pertaining to general data about the beaches, hatching
in different areas of Margarita Island. The program could let specific data about the beaches and, additionally, to show
the people get acquainted, in an easy and didactical way, reports about the distribution of nest per moths, years and
with the most important aspects of the biology and conser- beaches.
vation of sea turtles, including such aspects as: taxonomy,
life cycle, factors affecting survival and a brief reviev of the
current situation of sea turtles on the Island of Margarita,
Venezuela.
SEA TURTLES IN THE CENTRAL COAST OF VENEZUELA
Hedelvy J. Guada1, Vicente J. Vera2, and Marco Garca3

1
WIDECAST/Universidad Simn Bolvar. Apdo. 50.789. Caracas 1050-A. Venezuela. 95-79050@usb.ve
2
PROFAUNA. Edif. Camejo. Mezzanina. El Silencio. Caracas 1010. Venezuela
3
Universidad Central de Venezuela. Facultad de Ciencias. Escuela de Biologa. Caracas. Venezuela
Since the ends of 1987, when it was prepared the na- The main goal of this preliminary work was to gather
tional report for the II Western Atlantic Turtle Symposium information to confirm sea turtle nesting beaches in the 1998
(WATS II) under the coordination of FUDENA (Foundation reproductive season and, to include the beaches reported in
for the Defense of Nature) (Medina et al., 1987; Vernet, the inventory of the Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plan for
1987), it has not been done again any survey about the status Venezuela (Guada and Sol, in prep.). Moreover, we want
of the sea turtles in the beaches close to the capital city of to establish the most important nesting beaches in the area in
Caracas. The fishermen and people living in coastal locali- order to initiate monitoring programs or environmental edu-
ties indicated that the four species of marine turtles nesting cation activities focused to sea turtles.
in Venezuela are found in these beaches: Chelonia mydas,
Eretmochelys imbricata, Caretta caretta and Dermochelys METHODS
coriacea. Information from divers, tourists and local people
We have conducted interviews according to the
indicates that the turtles are caught in the fishermen nets.
Pritchard et al. (1984) guidelines in the following beaches:
Sometimes, we receive reports about that sea turtle meat it is
Chichiriviche de la Costa, Osma, Todasana and Caruao, be-
sold in the littoral markets (Catia La Mar) or that eggs are
tween January and February of 1998. . At the same time,
sold to tourist in the beaches (Naiguat).
we have evaluated these beaches as possible nesting areas.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This work needs to be completed. As the nesting sea-
son has not begun, the intervew process will continue to try
Ten interviews were conducted. According to the people
to define the key informants and nesting sites to establish a
we have found that the most common species in the area are
monitoring program by May of 1998. Simultaneously we will
the loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta and the hawskbill turtle,
be offering lectures with materials provided by the Colum-
Eretmochelys imbricata. The leatherback turtle, Dermochelys
bus Zoo (Powell, Ohio) and to continue distributing envi-
coriacea, is less frequent and always more than 2 miles from
ronmental educational mterials. Fortunately, a NGO based
the coast. Nobody of the persons identified to Chelonia
in Caruao (Fundacin oder a los Nios) have offered sup-
mydas. Besides the beaches indicated previously as nesting
port for our sea turtle conservation efforts.
sites (Quebrada Seca, Mono Bravo, Mono Manso and
Chuspa) (Medina et al., 1987; Vernet, 1987), we have now
LITERATURE CITED
several localities to be confirmed as nesting areas:
Chichiriviche de la Costa, Caaveral, Osma, Playa Grande Guada, H. and G. Sol (Comp.). Plan de Accion para la
(Todasana), Urama, El Fraile and Santa Clara (10 36 - 10 Recuperacin de las Tortugas Marinas de Venezuela.
41 N, 66 21 - 67 14 W). The begining of the nesting WIDECAST. In prep.
season was indicated for May or June. Sometimes the eggs Medina, G., B. Alvarez, J. Buitrago, and H. Molero. 1987.
are stolen and sold. The fishermen told that if a turtle is death Tortugas marinas en la costa caribea de Venezuela.
in the nets (trenes), it is eaten by them. Informe preparado para el II Simposio de las Tortugas
The information gathered, even in a same beach seemed Marinas del Atlntico Occidental (STAO/WATS).
contradictory some times: Chichiriviche de la Costa, as ex- FUDENA. Caracas.
ample, has been reported as nesting beach for some local Pritchard, P., P. Bacon, F. Berry, A. Carr, J. Fletmeyer, R.
people, while others comment that several years ago, they Gallagher, S. Hopkins, R. Lankford, R. Mrquez M., L.
have not observed some nest. In a general way, it seems that Ogren, W. Pringle, Jr., H. Reichart, and R. Witham. 1983.
the western area evaluated (Chichiriviche de la Costa), it may Manual sobre tcnicas de investigacin y conservacin
be used for nesting sea trtles, although scarcely. Several ad- de las tortugas marinas. Second Ed.. K.A. Bjorndal and
jacent beaches to Chichiriviche de la Costa must be surveyed G.H. Balazs (Eds.). Center for Environmental Education,
by boat. From Caaeral to Chuspa, some localities could be Washington, D.C.
relatively more important for nesting turtles, although no- Vernet, P. 1987. Proyecto Inventario de Tortugas Marinas
body mentioned mre than two turtles per night in a same en la costa caribea de Venezuela. Informe interno de
beach. In a general ay, the study area may be more important FUDENA. Caracas. 9 pp, 2 anexos, mapas.
for foraging turles than for nesting turtles. Several fisher-
men told that the have found turtles with tags. Join with the
interviews nd beach evaluation, we have distributed envi-
ronmental ducational materials as the WIDECAST sea turtle
identification sheets and posters on sea turtles.
USE OF MINIATURE TEMPERATURE DATA LOGGERS TO ESTIMATE SEX RATIOS OF

HATCHLING LOGGERHEAD SEA TURTLES
JoAnne Hanson1, Thane Wibbels1, and R. Erik Martin2

1
Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294-1170, U.S.A.
bio009@uabdpo.dpo.uab.edu
2
Ecological Associates, Inc., P. O. Box 405, Jensen Beach, FL 34958-0405, U.S.A.
Sea turtles possess temperature-dependent sex deter- tive success in a population (Mrosovsky and Yntema, 1980;
mination (TSD) in which the incubation temperature of the Morreale et al., 1982). They are also of evolutionary interest
egg determines the sex of the hatchling (Yntema and since sex ratios produced from TSD do not always conform
Mrosovsky, 1980; Mrosovsky, 1994). During TSD, the tem- to sex ratios predicted by evolutionary theory (Bull and
perature during the approximate middle third of the incuba- Charnov, 1988).
tion period determines sex (Yntema and Mrosovsky, 1982). A variety of previous studies have used beach tempera-
Previous studies indicate that TSD in sea turtles can produce ture data to estimate hatchling sex ratios (Mrosovsky et al.,
a variety of hatchling sex ratios, including some which are 1984; Mrosovsky and Provancha, 1989; 1992; Mrosovsky
highly biased (reviewed by Mrosovsky, 1994). Hatchling sex et al., 1992). These studies used temperature probes which
ratios are of conservational interest since they contribute to were buried in the nesting beach. These probes were attached
the population sex ratio and thus could alter the reproduc- to manual or automatic recorders located above ground. The

current availability of small and self-contained temperature 1980; 1982; Limpus et al., 1985; Mrosovsky, 1988;
data loggers, provides a means of avoiding many of the lo- Mrosovsky and Provancha, 1989; 1992; Marcovaldi et al.,
gistical difficulties associated with the repeated recording of 1997). The great majority of the nests (92.5 %) were pre-
beach or nest temperatures. The self-contained data loggers dicted to produce 100% females. Both control and nourished
can be buried in the beach or placed directly into nests. They beaches were predicted to produce primarily female
can be programmed to record temperatures at specific inter- hatchlings.
vals for the entire incubation period or nesting season. Once The female biased sex ratios predicted for Hutchinson
retrieved from the nest or nesting beach, the temperature data Island in the current study are consistent with those previ-
can be downloaded to a personal computer. ously predicted for Cape Canaveral Seashore (Mrosovsky
During the current study, temperature data loggers were and Provancha, 1989; 1992). These data support the hypoth-
used to record incubation temperatures in loggerhead sea esis that an overall female-biased hatchling sex ratio may be
turtle, Caretta caretta, nests on Hutchinson Island, Florida. a standard feature of the C. caretta inhabiting the Atlantic
This area represents one of the densest nesting areas for C. coastal waters of the U.S.
caretta that inhabit the Atlantic coastal waters of the U.S.A
previous study of C. caretta on a nesting beach approximately ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
140 km north of Hutchinson Island (i.e. Cape Canaveral;
This research was conducted under Florida Department
Mrosovsky and Provancha, 1992) indicated that highly fe-
of Environmental Protection permit TP #089, and was spon-
male-biased sex ratios (estimates of 87 to 99 % females)
sored in part by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad-
were consistently produced over a 5 year period. Examina-
ministration, U.S. Department of Commerce, and the Mis-
tion of sex ratios from Hutchinson Island can provide in-
sissippi-Alabama Sea Grant Consortium under Grant #
sight as to whether such biases might be a normal character-
NA56RG0129. It was also partially funded by the Univer-
istic of C. caretta nesting on Florida beaches. The beaches
sity of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB), and by a GAANN
of Hutchinson Island also provide a means of examining the
grant to UAB Graduate School.
effects of beach nourishment on nest temperatures. Beaches
on the southern half of Hutchinson Island have been replen- LITERATURE CITED
ished with sand (i.e. nourished) in order to compensate for
erosion, whereas the beaches on the northern half do not re- Bull, J.J. and E.L. Charnov, 1988. How fundamental are
ceive supplemental sand. Thus, Hutchinson Island contains Fisherian sex ratios? Oxf. Surv. Evol. Biol. 5:96-135.
both control and nourished beaches for examining the ef- Limpus, C.J., P. Reed, and J.D. Miller, 1985. Temperature
fects of beach nourishment on C. caretta nest temperatures. dependent sex determination in Queensland turtles:
Hobo temperature data loggers (Onset Computer Cor- Intraspecific variation in Caretta caretta. In: Grigg, G.,
poration, Pocasset, MA) were used to monitor nest tempera- Shine, R., and Ehmann (Edited) Biology of Australian
tures. These units contain a thermistor probe and, at the tem- Frogs and Reptiles H. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Sydney,
peratures common in sea turtle nests, are precise to approxi- Australia. pp. 343-351.
mately 0.4 Co. The data loggers were calibrated in custom Marcovaldi, M.A., M.H. Godfrey, and Mrosovsky N., 1997.
incubators which maintain a constant internal temperature Estimating sex ratios of loggerhead turtles in Brazil from
of +0.2 degrees C. Prior to use in the field, data loggers were pivotal incubation durations. Can. J. Zool. 75:755-770.
programmed to record temperature at 1.2 hour intervals and Morreale, S.J., G.J. Ruiz, J. R.Spotila, and E.A. Standora,
were then double bagged in heat sealed plastic bags (Dazey 1982. Temperature-dependent sex determination:
Seal-A-Meal and Kapak/Scotchpack). Incubation tempera- Current practices threaten conservation of sea turtles.
tures were monitored in a total of 40 nests. These nests were Science 216:1245-1247.
laid during June and July, which is the period during which Mrosovsky, N. 1988. Pivotal temperatures for loggerhead
the majority of nesting occurs. To account for temperature turtles (Caretta caretta) from northern and southern
variations during this period, 10 nests were monitored with nesting beaches. Can. J. Zool. 66:661-669.
data loggers early in the period, 20 were monitored toward Mrosovsky, N. 1994. Sex ratios of sea turtles. J. Exp Zool.
the middle of the period, and 10 nests were monitored to- 270:16-27.
ward the end of this period. For each group, half of the data Mrosovsky, N., A. Bass, L. A. Corliss, J.I. Richardson, and
loggers were deployed on the control beach, the other half T. H. Richardson, 1992. Pivotal and beach temperatures
on the nourished beach. Nesting turtles were selected as they for hawksbill turtles nesting in Antigua. Can. J. Zool.
were just beginning to crawl up the beach to nest. No pref- 70:1920-1925.
erence was given to turtles based on the location where they Mrosovsky, N., P.H. Dutton, and C.P. Whitmore, 1984. Sex
nested on a particular beach. In each of the nests, the data ratios of two species of sea turtles nesting in Suriname.
logger was placed in the approximate centre of the egg clutch. Can. J. Zool. 62:2227-2239.
Mean daily Incubation temperatures during the Mrosovsky, N. and J. Provancha, 1989. Sex ratio of
thermosensitive period were used to predict sex ratio based loggerhead sea turtles hatching on a Florida beach. Can.
on previously published pivotal temperatures and transitional J. Zool. 67:2533-2539.
range of temperatures for C. caretta (Yntema and Mrosovsky,

Mrosovsky, N. and J. Provancha, 1992. Sex ratio of hatchling Yntema, C.L. and N. Mrosovsky, 1980. Sexual differentiation
loggerhead sea turtles: data and estimates from a 5-year in hatchling loggerheads (Caretta caretta) incubated at
study. Can. J. Zool. 70:530-538. different controlled temperatures. Herpetologica 36:33-
Mrosovsky, N. and C.L. Yntema, 1980. Temperature 36.
dependence of sexual differentiation in sea turtles: Yntema, C.L. and N. Mrosovsky, 1982. Critical periods and
implications for conservation practices. Biol. Conserv. pivotal temperatures for sexual differentiation in
18:271-280. loggerhead sea turtles. Can J. Zool. 60:1012-1216.
MORTALITY RATES OF NESTING HAWKSBILL TURTLES IN BARBADOS: A POSITIVE

IMPACT OF TOURISM ON SEA TURTLES
Julia A. Horrocks1, Steve Hertzlieb2, and Vickie Copeman2

1
Department of Biological and Chemical Sciences, University of the West Indies, Barbados. bcs@uwichill.edu.bb
2
Bellairs Research Institute, St. James, Barbados
INTRODUCTION RESULTS
In Barbados, it has been illegal to kill sea turtles nest- Since 1987, 1,003 nesting attempts by hawksbills have
ing on the beach or within 100 yards of the shore since 1904. been recorded, where the fate of the female was known. Of
However, owing to a lack of enforcement personnel and an the 1,003 activities, 597 (59.5%) occurred on beaches with
insufficient penalty, hawksbills, Eretmochelys imbricata, the adjacent hotels or restaurants and the remaining 406 (40.5%)
primary species nesting in Barbados, continue to be killed on beaches with no tourism-associated development.
during nesting, primarily for the consumption of meat and
eggs. 600
Over the past two decades, Barbados has been exten-
sively developed for tourism. Much of this development has 500
occurred on the more leeward south and west coasts, with
400
the north and east coasts still largely undeveloped. Most
hawksbill nesting activity to date has been recorded on the
300
developed leeward west and south south-west coasts (see
Poponi et al., Poster). The consequence of this is extensive 200
negative impacts of tourism-associated developments on
nesting beaches on these coasts. The impacts include loss of 100
available nesting beach due to coastal armouring, inadequate
setbacks to walls and buildings, light pollution (see Woody 0
et al., Poster), and destruction of indigenous vegetation. Und e ve lo p e d T o uris t B e ac he s
Although there are many negative impacts of tourism- B e ac he s
related developments on turtle nesting beaches, a potential
positive impact is that there may be reduced poaching, since T o tal P o ac hing A tte m p ts
these beaches being more brightly lit and heavily traversed
than undeveloped beaches. The objective of this paper is to Num b e r o f o c c atio ns the fe m ale was
investigate whether the presence of security personnel and s ave d
tourists on hotel/restaurant beaches acts as a deterrent to
potential poachers of nesting female turtles.
Figure 1. Chart showing the number of occasions on which a female
turtle was killed during nesting attempts on undeveloped beaches
METHODS and tourist beaches.
All nesting attempts where the fate of females was
On 94 occasions (9.4%), the female was killed by
known i.e. whether the female successfully re-entered the
poachers. Of these deaths, only eight occurred on hotel/res-
sea or not, were compiled from the hawksbill nesting activ-
taurant beaches. A significantly higher proportion of females
ity database of the Barbados Sea Turtle Project for the ten
emerging on beaches with no tourism-associated develop-
year period (1987-97). The location of each nesting attempt
ment were killed (21.2%) than females emerging on hotel/
was categorised according to whether the female emerged
restaurant beaches (1.3%; X2 =109.7; P<0.001, Figure 1).
on a beach adjacent to a hotel or restaurant, or whether she
This suggests that the possibility of being observed and/or
emerged on a beach with no tourism-related development.

confronted is a major deterrent to poachers on hotel/restau- DISCUSSION

rant beaches.
Negative impacts of coastal developments on hawks-
That confrontation is more likely on hotel/restaurant
bill nesting are well documented and remain a major con-
beaches is supported by the fact that when poachers did tar-
straint to species recovery. Potential positive effects of de-
get turtles on these beaches (N=14), on six (42.9%) occa-
velopment have seldom been assessed. In Barbados, poach-
sions the turtles were physically taken away from them (by
ing of nesting females is less common on hotel/restaurant
tourists on 3 occasions and by hotel security guards on 3
beaches than on undeveloped beaches, and poachers were
occasions) after the poachers had turned the turtles on their
more likely to be confronted on the former beaches. In the
backs. When poachers targetted turtles emerging on beaches
absence of effective legislation and enforcement, tourism-
with no tourism-associated development, on only nine of 95
associated developments adjacent to nesting beaches may
(9.5%) occasions were turtles physically taken from them
assist in protecting adult females from poaching and may
(by tourists on 2 occasions and by local residents (some-
therefore contribute to species recovery.
times with police support) on 7 occasions (X2 = 8.81; P<0.01,
For this effect of tourism development to have a net
Figure 2).
positive benefit, the known negative impacts of development
must be minimised. In particular, the lights that can contrib-
100
ute to the prevention of poaching can adversely affect
hatchlings following their emergence causing significant lev-
80 els of disorientation.
Large hotels are located on several important nesting
beaches in Barbados and most have responded positively to
60 the Barbados Sea Turtle Project to make beach lighting more
turtle friendly. They have shown willingness to reduce light
40 intensity and reorient lighting. Discussions about the use of
more turtle friendly types of light fixtures are underway.
In conclusion, tourism-related development adjacent to
20 nesting beaches can provide protection from poaching for
nesting females. To realise the full benefits of this, it remains
important to protect the nesting beach from adverse effects
0 of development. In Barbados, this typically will require re-
duction of light intensity, reorientation of lights, use of more
U ndev elo ped T o urist
turtle friendly light fixtures, adherence to appropriate set-
B eaches B eaches backs above the high water mark, and protection of indig-
T o tal P o ac hing A tte m p ts enous vegetation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Num b e r o f o cc atio ns the fe m ale was
We would like to thank the Columbus Zoo, Ohio for
s ave d
financial support of the Barbados Sea Turtle Project in 1997.
Figure 2. Chart showing the number of occasions on which a female
was saved during poaching attempts on undeveloped beaches and
tourist beaches.
ESTIMATION OF LEATHERBACK NESTING FEMALES IN MEXIQUILLO BEACH

DURING 1995-1996 AND 1996-1997 NESTING SEASON USING PIT TAGS AND
PHOTOIDENTIFICATION.
Patricia Huerta Rodrguez1 and Laura Sarti Martnez1 and 2

1
Lab. de Tortugas Marinas, Facultad de Ciencias, UNAM. Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria, Mxico D. F. 04510.
Mxico. lsm@hp.fciecias.unam.mx
2
Instituto Nacional de la Pesca. Pitgoras 1320, 5 Piso. Mxico D. F. 03310. Mxico
INTRODUCTION
The leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) in the world (Pritchard 1982). A drastic decline in the nesting num-
Mexican Pacific was considered the most important in the bers of this population has been observed in the past years

(Sarti et al., 1996), enhancing the need of an accurate annual comparison of the photographs, considering on first stance
estimate of the number of recruit and remigrant females to the shape, size and distribution of the pink spot, and as second
this area. criterion, the rest of the head pigmentation (McDonald,
In Playn de Mexiquillo, Mich., only monel tags were 1995).
used for the identification of the nesting females until 1994; PIT TAGS. As described by Dutton and McDonald
nevertheless, the high loss rate of this kind of tag avoids a (1994), PIT tags were placed in the left shoulder, previously
proper evaluation of the number of females. Therefore, the disinfected, of each leatherback using AVID injectors and
use of alternative techniques for identification of turtles, us- readers.
ing tags with a higher retention rate became a priority. The alternative tagging systems were simultaneous to
The use of PIT (Passive Integrated Trasponder) tags the application of traditional monel tags. PIT tagging and
and photoidentification (PID) techniques using the pink spot photographs were done while the turtle was laying eggs,
responded to such priority (McDonald 1995, Dutton and monel tags were applied afterwards.
McDonald 1994). Both techniques allow a longer-term moni-
toring of the individuals than the traditional tagging systems, RESULTS
since their permanence is higher, and the estimates calcu-
Table 1 shows the results of the tagging program in
lated using a tag-recapture system are more accurate.
Mexiquillo beach for 2 nesting seasons
PIT tags are glass capsules that hold a microchip; they
MONEL TAGS
are injected in the muscle mass of the shoulder area in the
Monel tags, although represent an easy and visible form
leatherback turtle, and are detected by means of a portable
of identifying a turtle, have some problems like low reten-
reader (Dutton and McDonald 1994). Photoidentification of
tion rate in the animal, possibly due to bad tagging tech-
natural markings allows, using an image catalog, to have a
nique or to being naturally rejected by the turtles tissue (tags
record of turtles for identification; the pink spot in the head
surrounded by necrotic tissue). Evidence of this is the high
has been considered as a natural marking adequate for the
percentage of females bearing a tag scar each season.
characterization of each individual since its size and shape
PHOTOIDENTIFICATION
are different in every turtle (Lpez et al., 1992; McDonald
PID is a technique that allows the identification of in-
1995).
dividuals on the long term. The advantage of this technique
is that it can detect recaptured individuals that have lost the
STUDY AREA
regular monel tag, and that in other circumstances are con-
Playn de Mexiquillo is located in the south region of sidered like new. However, this system doesnt allow im-
Michoacn State, Mexico, between the coordenates mediate recognition of the turtle on sight, since it requires an
180946N 1025207W and 180534N 1024831W. extensive and detailed search on a catalog, aside the photo-
It has an extension of 18 km, from which 6.5 km were moni- graphic process. This technique was used as a method paral-
tored and were the most important nesting area for lel to the traditional monel tagging.
Dermochelys coriacea. As part of the natural markings, the pink spot can be
complemented with the rest of the pigmentation that sur-
METHODS rounds it.
TRADITIONAL TAGGING In order to obtain the best results is necessary to have
Monel Tags. Traditionally, nesting females are tagged an standardized method of shooting photographs, avoiding
by application of serial-numbered monel metal clamp, in the distortions of the image due to angle changing. It is also im-
skin fold of the rear flippers, mainly on the left one. portant to eliminate the excess of sand over the head mark-
ALTERNATIVE TAGGING ings or any other obstacle that spoils the adequate observa-
PHOTOIDENTIFICATION (PID). Photographs were tion of the natural markings.
taken from the pigmentation pattern seen in the dorsal surface PIT TAGS
of the head (pink spot and surrounding markings). For each The application of PIT tags, is a system with a high
photograph, a card was placed with the number of the monel retention rate for turtles (Dutton and McDonald 1994). As is
tag for that female. A reflex camera was used, with a normal the case of monel tagging, some experience is needed for
lens of 52 mm and black-and-white Kodak Plus-X-Pan film, preventing the loss of the PIT tag due to improper place-
125 ISO and 2 flashes with a diffuser, one on each side of the ment. The area of application must be disinfected as an in-
camera to avoid glare and shadows in the images. The fection-preventing measure. An important disadvantage is
photographs were developed and printed manually in a dark that, being internal tags, if no reader is available, the identi-
room. The identification of turtles was made by visual fication of the turtle is impossible.
Season Total clutches Nesting Females Females Females

Table1. Results of tagging (6.5 Km) Females Monel-tagged Photoidentified PIT- tagged
program in Mexiquillo, Beach 1995-1996 800 160-210* 162 92 -
during 1995-1996 and 1996-1997
1996-1997 60 14-16* 14 - 14
*Number of nesting females was estimated with clutch frequency and total number of clutches in the season.

DISCUSSION LITERATURE CITED

Looking for new options of identification of individu- Dutton, P. and D. McDonald. 1994. Use of PIT tags to identify
als gets special importance in order to know the ecology and adult leatherbacks. Marine Turtle Newsletter
biology of the populations they form part of. Both PID and 1994(67):13-14.
PIT tagging offer new alternatives for saturation tagging pro- Lpez, C., L. Sarti and N. Garca. 1992. Estudios de las
grams, since the loss rates are lower than the ones for tradi- poblaciones de tortugas marinas Lepidochelys olivacea
tional tagging. In the case of Dermochelys coriacea in Playn (golfina) y Dermochelys coriacea (lad) con nfasis en
de Mexiquillo, the objective is to establish both systems as a aspectos conductuales y reproductivos, en el Playn de
complementary form, in order to follow in the long term the Mexiquillo, Michoacn. Biologa de Campo. Facultad
identified turtles and to estimate with a higher accuracy the de Ciencias, UNAM. 140pp.
number of nesting females. McDonald, D. 1995. Pink spot photoidentification of
The cost of monel tags and PITs, as well as the equip- leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) on the Sandy
ment, developing and printing process, and the time con- Point National Wildlife Refuge, St. Croix, USVI. Final
sumed in the analysis of the photographs, is compensated by report 7pp.
the benefits obtained with the parallel use of the three tech- Pritchard, H. 1982. Nesting of the leatherback turtle
niques for the knowledge of the leatherback populations. Dermochelys coriacea in Pacific Mexico, with a new
Our objective is to establish these identification meth- estimate of the world population status. COPEIA 1982
ods in the five major nesting beaches for Dermochelys (4):741-747
coriacea in the Mexican Pacific (Mexiquillo, Mich., Tierra Sarti, L., N. Garca, A. Barragn, and S. Eckert. 1996.
Colorada, Gro., Llano Grande, Chacahua y Barra de la Cruz, Variabilidad gentica y estimacin del tamao de la
Oax.), in order to gain a major knowledge of the population poblacin anidadora de tortuga lad Dermochelys
status of this species in the Mexican Pacific. coriacea y su distribucin en el Pacfico mexicano.
Temporada de anidacin 1995-1996. Informe tcnico.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Laboratorio de Tortugas Marinas, Facultad de Ciencias,
UNAM., Programa Nacional de Tortugas Marinas,
The authors extend their gratitude to the following
Instituto Nacional de la Pesca, Mxico. 34pp.
people: Ana Isabel Bieler Antolin (Laboratorio de Fotografa
y Microcine, Fac. de Ciencias, UNAM), Donna Dutton.
(Ocean Planet), Peter Dutton (NOAA-Southwest Fisheries
Science Center), personnel from Laboratorio de Tortugas Ma-
rinas, Fac. de Ciencias, UNAM, Julie Anne Guillemot, and
Miguel A. Herrera E.
DESIGN OF THE CENTER FOR INTERPRETATION, RESEARCH AND PROTECTION IN

THE WILDLIFE REFUGE "CHOCOCENTE", SANTA TERESA, CARAZO, NICARAGUA
Carla Isabel Lopez Fernandez

Facultad de Arquitectura; Universidad Nacional de Ingenieria; Avenida Universitaria; Frente a la Escuela de Danza; Managua,
Nicaragua. nicam@sdnnic.org.ni
The Wildlife Refuge "Chococente" is located on the time viable alternatives of subsistence for the local popula-
Pacific coast, 130 Km from the capital, Managua. It is one tion could be provided through participative ecotourism, re-
of the eight priority areas that form part of The National search and interpretation.
System of Protected Areas and one of the two beaches on
the Nicaraguan Pacific coast where masive nesting
("arribadas") of Paslama Turtles (L. olivacea) ocurr, as well
as being an important nesting beach for Bull Turtles or Leath-
erbacks (D. coriacea). It also contains one of the last reducts
of tropical dry forest with an extension of 4.800 has.
Due to the importance of Chacocente, this paper de-
scribes a proposed design for an ecotourism center inside of
the area, dedicated to management activities, research and
interpretation. It pursues the objective to provide this pro-
tected area with adequate infrastructure for such activities
that could develop self-sufficiency in the future. At the same

ROLE OF THE MUNICIPALITY OF SANTA TERESA, NICARAGUA IN THE

CONSERVATION OF SEA TURTLES IN CHOCOCENTE
Jos Antonio Martnez Narvaez

Del Centro de Salud 2 C. Al oeste, Santa Teresa, Carazo, Nicaragua. nicam@sdnnic.org.ni
As coordinator of The Environment and Natural Re- one mile of distance from each other, in recognition of our
sources Commission of the municipality of Santa Teresa, sea turtles potential we have with proud the symbol of a turtle
Nicaragua, I have the responsibility of a major to protect the in our shield of the municipality in Santa Teresa. the ancient
environment and the natural resources; it is a luck for this experience we have with these sea turtles could give all the
municipality to have 'arribadas' of olive ridley (L. olivacea) turtles specialists more knowledge of those they actually have
turtles and the visit of leatherbacks (D. coriacea) in only
XCACEL: PROPOSAL FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF A

PROTECTED AREA
Benito Prezas Hernndez, Roberto Herrera, and Julio C. Zurita.

El Colegio de la Frontera Sur. Unidad-Chetumal. A. P. 424. Chetumal, Quintana Roo, Mxico, 77000.
zurita@xaway.ciqro.conacyt.mx
INTRODUCTION
The state of Quintana Roo, has 14 areas legally pro- FIDECARIBE lands are subject to low density tourism de-
tected, by state or federal official decree. Two belong to the velopments, with up to 10 rooms per hectare. FIDECARIBE
continental zone and l2 to the coastal zone, in which are found controls 1,800 hectares from Akumal to Xel-ha including
important sea turtles nesting sites. Yum-balam, Isla Contoy the main nesting beaches of the marine turtles. In 1996 Prezas
and Sian Kan Biosphere reserve are hawksbill Eretmochelys updated this proposal and established the category of ap-
imbricata, nesting sites. Green Chelonia mydas and logger- propriate handling.
head Caretta caretta nest at these sites and also on the east- The purpose of the present work is to provide a general
ern part of Isla Cozumel and Tulum National Park. The stud- panorama of the proposal to consider Xcacel as a protected
ies made by Zurita et al. (1993) determined that the beaches area.
with the greatest density of turtle nests are: Chemuyil, Xcacel
and Aventuras DIF; in addition they recommended legal ac- AREA
tions to be taken for their integral protection due to their
Xcacel is located along the eastern coast of the state
biological characteristics, their biogeographic importance and
of Quintana Roo, 112 km south of Cancn by way of the
their state of conservation, and the threat that prevails within
Puerto Jurez - Chetumal highway, in the tourist corridor
the tourist corridor Cancn - Tulum.
Cancn - Tulum,. Xcacel is in the municipality of Solidarity.
The present state of the beach is fairly stable, despite
In the north it borders Chemuyil, in the south Xel-Ha, in the
the pressures of tourist development. The principle beaches
east the Caribbean Sea and in the west federal highway 307
of the area are owned by Fideicomiso Caleta de Xel-ha y del
(Figure 1). The total area is 311 hectares, of which 156 are
Caribe (FIDECARIBE), which was created to advance tour-
in the terrestrial environment and 155 in the aquatic.
ist development. Xcacel was owned by the federal govern-
ment from 1972 to 1992, since 1993 it has been in the hands
RESEARCH REVIEW
of the state.
In 1994 the Ecological group of the Mayab (GEMA) The relevant aspects of flora and fauna of the area are
officially proposed incorporating Xcacel into the National mentioned in the studies by GEMA (1994) and Prezas (1996).
System of Protected Areas (SINAP). The proposal includes The aquatic habitat is represented by two cenotes and coral
the diagnosis asked for by the federal authorities, including reefs. In the terrestrial area, it displays a disturbed zone,
the physical, biological, historical, cultural, investigation, leg- occuping extension of 2 hectares and represents 1.3 % of the
islation and socioeconomic aspects of the proposed area. The total area; 15% corresponds to the secondary vegetation rep-
National Institute of Ecology has not answered GEMAs re- resented by an abandoned coconut plantation (Cocos
quest. At the moment, the importance of Xcacels beach is nucifera), 83.7% of the area is made up of native vegetation
considered in the Management Plan of the tourist corridor in a good state of conservation in which subcaducifolia pre-
Cancn - Tulum since it is in a zone of ecological protection dominates the low forest. In the terrestrial habitat 137 plant
(Gob. Est. 1994b). The same document indicates that the species, 20 mammals, 11 amphibians, 24 reptiles and 44 birds

were registered; in the aquatic habitat 23 species of algae, d) disturbance of nesting female turtles and their nests e)
23 corals and 109 fishes were registered. disturbance caused by the artificial illumination of the beach
Some of the species observed at Xcacel are consid- and adjacent areas f) disturbance caused by noises gener-
ered under some kind of protection, either by the Mexican ated by aquatic activities and g) disturbances in the reef and
laws (Gob. Fed. 1994a) or by international norms (IUCN, its platform, potentially able to alter the water flow. The vi-
1988; 1989). For the species of plants: the palm kuka ability study concludes that in the strip between the 60 m
Pseudophoenix sargentii, Chit Thrinax radiata, Hooloop isobath and the Federal Highway Chetumal - Puerto Juarez,
Bravaisia tubiflora, subin Acacia dolichostach and man- there should not exist any type of development. It is neces-
grove (Rhizofora mangle, Avicennia germinans, sary to closely evaluate the proposal to include this coastal
Laguncularia racemosa and Conocarpus erecta). Within the strip and its associated forest in the National System of Pro-
species of fauna: the marsh crocodile Crocodylus moreleti, tected Areas. Finally, it is asked that in case the area is sub-
the boa Boa constrictor, the marsh turtle Kinosternon ject to sale, that conservationists groups who have promoted
creaseri, Rhinoclemmys areolata, and the loggerhead and the protection of the area and sea turtles are given the right
green sea turtles. of first refusal. The UNEP/ACOPS report (1995) recom-
Along the entire coast of Quintana Roo, Zurita et al. mends permanent monitoring of the signed agreements, since
(1993) registered 1,331 to 2,166 loggerhead turtle nests and there is a probability that this area will be sold for unsustain-
481 to 2,296 green turtle nests, of these 60% of the logger- able tourist development which would cause ecological dam-
head and 45% of the green turtle nests were found on the age and is contrary to the above mentioned agreement.
beaches in the central part of the state. In the sea turtle tag-
ging program in the central part of Quintana Roo, Zurita et
al. (1994, 1997) indicated that an average of 269 logger-
head and 120 green turtles were tagged. Preliminary data of
the maximum efficiency intercepting nesting turtles on the
main beaches is 75% for loggerheads and 89% for green
turtles during the period of 1987 to 1995. Mrquez (1976)
estimated 500 nesting loggerhead turtles and, 283 to 420
green turtles nesting in Quintana Roo (Ogren, 1989).
The relevance of conserving the main areas of these
nesting colonies of loggerhead and green turtles, is based
on: a) more than 10 years of investigation and conservation
of these main nesting areas by the defunct Centro de
Investigaciones de Quintana Roo, b) the investigations made
by Dr. Brian Bowen and his team from the University of
Florida, who indicate that a substantial portion of the diver-
sity of mtDNA found among green turtles in the Atlantic
resides in this population, and similar arguments can be made
about the loggerhead turtles of this area c) eight years of
environmental education activities have been carried out at
this beach d) and finally X cacels present state of conser-
vation.
Considering the ecological importance of the area
Xcacel and the threat of tourist development the situation
should be reviewed. The representatives of the three levels
of government (Federal, State and Municipal), research cen- Prezas (1996) analyzed the incidence of tourism in the
ters, scientists with ecological knowledge and natural re- area and evaluated alternatives such as a source of financing
source management experience, conservation groups, and the with controlled or low impact tourism, whose benefits would
representatives from civil and private associations signed the be utilized for the operation of the area and to support the
document: Management Plan of the Tourist Corridor Cancun activities of protection, investigation, conservation and en-
- Tulum (Gob. Fed. 1994a). This document indicates the fol- vironmental education. Following a simplified scheme to
lowing : In the case of the realization of development evaluate the suitable category of management for the pro-
projects or exploitation in the zone of Xcacel the following tected area proposal by Mackinnon et al. (1990) and accord-
risks to the integrity of the ecosystem and the species in dan- ing to the natural values and suitable handling of the area.
ger of, extinction that live there, such as marine turtles who Prezas (1996) concludes that it should be considered as a
depend on these beaches for their reproduction: a) erosion Managed Natural Reserve, according to the proposed cat-
of dunes b) disturbance of the vegetation that controls the egorization by International Union Conservation Nature
flow of water c) contamination and alterations of the physi- (IUCN), and that with respect to the National
cal, chemical and biological characteristics of the beaches

System of Protected Areas (SINAP), it can be consid- CONCLUSIONS

ered an area of protection of flora and wild fauna. GEMA
There is increasing pressure to develop this area. All
(1994) proposes the creation of a local administration to man-
or part of the three of the critical beaches (Chemuyil,
age Xcacel which would keep accounts available for public
Aventuras-DIF and Xcacel) have recently been sold. If the
inspection and possibly giving greater stability to the project.
state and federal authorities do not include the area of Xcacel
in SINAP, then this risks the losing of one of the most impor-
tant nesting sites for the green and loggerhead turtles. The
recovery of these nesting colonies would be affected; there-
fore, it will be left in doubt the credibility of the actions made
by the Mexican Inter-ministerial Commission for Marine
Turtle Protection and Conservation. A substantial portion of
the mtDNA diversity in Atlantic green turtles resides in this
one nesting population, and similar arguments can be made
for the loggerhead species. Consider the effects of the con-
struction of tourist infrastructure in the nesting areas of
Chemuyil and Aventuras DIF.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Therefore, we recommended an overhaul of the envi-
ronmental impact studies and a permanent monitoring of de-
velopment in these areas. That this area, Xcacel, vital to sea
turtle reproduction be protected in a meaningful way.
LITERATURE CITED
GEMA, 1994. Propuesta para incorporar Playa Xcacel al
Sistema Nacional de Areas Protegidas como reserva
ecolgica. Grupo Ecologista del Mayab, Cancn, Q.
Roo, 50 pp.
Gobierno Federal. 1993. Acuerdo por el que se crea el Comite
Nacional para la Proteccin y Conservacin de Tortugas
Marinas. Diario Oficial de la Federacin. Mxico. 2 de
diciembre de 1993
Gobierno Fedederal. 1994a. NOM-059-Ecol-1994. Norma
Oficial Mexicana-059. Tomo CDLXXXVIII No. 10,
16 de marzo de 1994, Diario Oficial de la Federacin.
All the legal mechanisms that have been realized to Mxico D.F., 60 pp.
protect the area are based within the structure of the Mexi- Gobierno Estatal. 1994b. Acuerdo de coordinacin para el
can Inter-ministerial Commission for Marine Turtle Protec- ordenamiento ecolgico de la regin denominada
tion and Conservation created in 1993, through the estab- corredor Cancn-Tulum, Peridico Oficial Gob. Q. Roo.,
lishment of the National Committee for the Protection and 9 de junio de 1994. 10(7):1-30
Conservation of Marine Turtles (Gob. Fed. 1993b). This sys- IUCN, 1988. Rare and threatened palms of the new world.
tem of organization is reflected in the activities of the differ- Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat. 44 pp.
ent institutions (SEMARNAP, INP, PRONATURA, Com- IUCN, 1988. Red list of threatened animals. The IUCN
mittee of Protection in Isla Cozumel, Ecological Group of Conservation Monitoring Center. Cambridge. 154 pp.
Akumal, Amigos de Sian Ka an, Xcaret and others) to pro- IUCN, 1989. Rare and threatened palms of Central America
tect the marine turtles in Quintana Roo (Isla Holbox, Isla Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat. 44 pp.
Contoy, Cancun, Reserve of the Biosphere of Sian Kaan, Mackinnon, J., K. Mackinnon, G. Child y J. Thorsell, 1990.
Xcaret Eco. archeological Park, Akumal, Xcacel and 10 Manejo de Areas Protegidas en los Tropicos. UICN y
beaches along the central coast, Mahahual and adjacent PNUMA, trad. Biocenosis, Mxico. 314 pp.
beaches) with the purpose of stabilizing these nesting colo- Mrquez, R.M. 1976 Reservas naturales para la
nies. Nevertheless, the sale of Xcacel was announced in conservacin de las tortugas marinas de Mxico. Ser.
February of 1998 by the state government of Quintana Roo Inform., I.N.P./S.I. 83: 1 - 22.
for the development of a Eco- tourist project; similar to Ogren, L. 1989. Status Report of the Green Turtle. Proc.
the ones on Aventuras-DIF and Chemuyil beaches in 1997. 2nd Western Atlant. Symp. U.S. Dep. Comm., NOAA,
At the time of this writing the sale is pending. NMFS. Panama City, 89 - 94 p.

Prezas, B.H. 1997. Xcacel: Propuesta para el turtle biology and conservation. 1-5 March 1994.
establecimiento y manejo de una rea protegida. Tes. Bjorndal, K.A,, A. B. Bolten, D.A. Johnson y P.J. Eliazar
Maestra, El Colegio de la Frontera Sur. Chetumal, Q (Comps.). NOAA-TM-NMFS-SEFSC-351. pp 300-303.
Roo. 90pp. Zurita, J.C., R. Herrera y B. Prezas, 1997. Catlogo de
UNEP/ACOPS, 1995. Mexico City recommendations on marcas aplicadas a las tortugas marinas en Quintana
Sustainable Development of Tourism in the Wider Roo (1965 - 1995). El Colegio de la Frontera Sur
Caribbean. Mexico City, 18-20 April 1995. 275 pp. (ECOSUR), Chetumal, Quintana Roo. mimeo,. 121 pp.
Zurita, J.., R. Herrera y B. Prezas, 1993. Tortugas marinas
del Caribe. pp 735-751 In: Biodiverdidad Marina y
Costera de Mxico. Salazar-Vallejo, S.I y N.E. Gonzlez
(Eds.). Com. Nal. Biodiversidad y CIQRO, Mxico,
865
Zurita, J.C., B. Prezas, R. Herrera y J.L. Miranda, 1994. Sea
turtle tagging program in Quintana Roo, Mexico. In:
Procedings of the fourteenth annual symposium on sea
RESEARCH AND MANAGEMENT OF LOGGERHEAD SEA TURTLES, CARETTA

CARETTA, AT THE CRIP SEA TURTLE RESEARCH STATION, BAHIA DE LOS
ANGELES, BAJA CALIFORNIA, MEXICO
Antonio Resendiz S. Hidalgo1 and 2, Beatris J. Resendiz2, Jeffrey A. Seminoff3, and Wallace J. Nichols3
1
Centro Regional de Investigacion Pesquera, El Sauzal de Rodriguez, Ensenada, Baja California, Mxico. bandaa@cicese.mx
2
Sea Turtle Research Station, Apartado Postal 135, Ensenada, Baja California, Mxico
3
Wildlife and Fisheries Science, School of Renewable Natural Resources, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721,
U.S.A.
INTRODUCTION
The origin of loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) tag along the Pacific Coast of the Baja Peninsula. The trans-
along the coast of Baja California has until recently been a pacific migration of this turtle, "Adelita", has been followed
mystery. Various authors have cited the abundance by thousands of people over the Internet (Nichols, et al.,
of subadult and adult individuals in this area (Shaw, 1997) and she has recently completed the journey (Nichols
1947, Marquez,1969, Ramirez Cruz et al., 1991, Bartlett, et al., in prep).
1989), but no nesting areas along the eastern Pacific are
known. CRIP SEA TURTLE RESEARCH STATION
Sternberg (1981) speculated that C. caretta nested in The CRIP Sea Turtle Research Station in Bahia de Los
Panama and Cornelius (1982) in Nicaragua, but these re- Angeles, Baja California, Mexico was founded in 1979. Dur-
ports are unsubstantiated. Bartlett (1989) was the first to sug- ing times of a legal sea turtle fishery in Bahia de Los Ange-
gest that these animals originate in the western Pacific (Aus- les, the monitoring of this fishery was carried out by the lo-
tralia). cal Canal de Las Ballenas fishing cooperative. Originally,
In 1993 a group of geneticists from the United States all harvested turtles were inventoried at the Coronado Island
and Mexico investigated the genetic affinities between indi- lagoon north of town. In 1980 monitoring efforts were up-
viduals captured as bycatch in the Pacific high-seas fishery graded and a holding facility (later to become CRIP STRS)
and individuals along the Baja California peninsula (Bowen was constructed on the northern edge of Bahia de Los Ange-
et al.,1995). They demonstrated that loggerheads found in les. The first studies of captive sea turtles at this facility oc-
the eastern Pacific had affinities with nesting populations in curred in 1981 when several juvenile loggerheads and black
Japan (95%) and Australia (5%). Following this, two adult sea turtles were donated from the Canal de Las Ballenas fish-
loggerhead sea turtles raised in the CRIP-Sea Turtle Research ing cooperative. The original goal was to house and reha-
Station (STRS) and included in the Bowen et al., survey were bilitate turtles injured in fishing nets and keep undersized
released along the Pacific coast of the Baja Peninsula in the animals (< 75 cm) for studies and eventual release. In 1982,
summer of 1994. One of these two adults was later captured economic hardship in Mexico and declining sea turtle popu-
along the southeastern coast of Japan near Kyushu (Resendiz lations brought about the collapse of the fishing cooperative
et al., 1998). In the summer of 1996 an additional adult fe- in Bahia de Los Angeles and marked the independence of
male raised at the CRIP-STRS was released with a satellite the CRIP Sea Turtle Research Station.

METHODS male);
Comments: Released with loggerhead #3 (Resendiz et al.,
Loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) captured in
1992).
the central province of the Gulf of California near Bahia de
los Angeles, Baja California, Mexico (28 58 N,113 33 W)
Loggerhead #5
were held in outdoor circular concrete tanks (5 x I.5 m).
ID# 37 and 333;
Turtles were fed a variable diet consisting of fish, shark, and
Origin: Donated by Canal de Las Ballenas Fish Coop., BLA;
ray in addition to seasonally available items such as the Cali-
In Captivity: 1982-1993;
fornia sea hare (Aplysia californica), giant squid (Dosidicus
Released: Donated to Museo*;
gigas), mussels (Modiolus capax), blue swimming crabs
Growth: From 40.0 cm / 10.4 kg. to 65.4 cm / 48.12 kg.
(Gallinectes arcuatus), princely fiddler crabs (Uca princeps)
(Female);
and pelagic red crabs (Pleuroncodes planipes). Weight and
Comments: This individual was donated to the Museo de
straight carapace length were taken every month. Cleaning
La Tortuga, Mazunte, Oaxaca, Mexico for Pacific log-
occurred every day. Tanks were shaded with plastic mesh.
gerhead exhibit (Nov. 1993).
Turtles were identified with plastic tags placed on the front
flippers. All loggerheads were released offshore from Santa
Loggerhead #6
Rosaliita, Baja California, Mexico (2840' N, 11412' W).
ID# 302;
Origin: Donated by local fishermen;
RESULTS
In Cap-tivity: 1986-1996;
Loggerhead #1 Released: Aug. 10,1996;
ID# 309 and 39; Growth: From 29.9 cm / 4 kg. to 83 cm / 95.3 kg. (Female);
Origin: Donated from local Fish Coop. "Canal de Ballenas" Comments: This turtle ("Adelita") was released with a
BLA; Telonics ST-3 satellite transmitter supplied by the
In Captivity: 1981-1994; United States Fish and Wildlife Service. It has re-
Released: July 19, 1994; cently completed an east-west transpacific migration
Growth: From 42.0 cm / 12.7 kg. to 79.8 cm /80.8 kg. (Fe- that was followed by many via the Internet (Nichols
male); et al., 1997).
Comments: This loggerhead had the longest stay (13 yrs) at
the STRS and was released with "Rosita" in 1994 (see Each of these six turtles was used in the initial genetic
Resendiz et al., 1998). analysis of the Pacific loggerhead assemblage (Bowen et al.,
1995) and have been confirmed to have haplotypes consis-
Loggerhead #2 tent with those found on Japanese nesting beaches.
ID# 27 and 310;
Origin: Donated from a sport fisherman; DISCUSSION
The migratory and genetic research that has been fa-
Released: July 19, 1994;
cilitated by this station has been important to our understand-
Growth: From 32.9 cm / 6 kg. to 85.6 cm / 97 kg. (Female);
ing of Pacific loggerhead ecology. The genetic analyses
Comments: 478 days after her release from Baja California
(Bowen et al., 1995), the flipper tag recovery (Resendiz et
waters, this turtle ("Rosita") was caught by a fisher-
al., 1998), and the migratory route as demonstrated through
man off-shore from Kyushu, Japan (Resendiz et
satellite tagging efforts (Nichols, this symposium) all sup-
al.,1998).
port the transpacific migratory nature of this endangered spe-
cies. Movements that encompasses the entire North Pacific
Loggerhead #3
emphasize the importance of increasing the geographical
ID# 38;
scale of investigations and modifying our approach to sea
Origin: Donated by Canal de Las Ballenas Fish Coop.,BLA;
turtle conservation to incorporate such vast migrations.
We suggest that efforts must continue to perform simi-
Released: Oct. 18,1991;
lar flipper-tagging and satellite tracking efforts with wild-
Growth: From: 46.7 cm. / 11.4 kg to 74.6 cm. / 69.9 kg.
caught individuals so that our findings may be supported.
(Male);
Regardless, the research efforts carried out at the CRIP-STRS
Comments: Released with Loggerhead #4 (Resendiz et
illustrate the importance of an interdisciplinary approach to
al.,1992).
sea migratory studies and the benefit of cooperative multi-
national investigations of sea turtle biology.
Loggerhead #4
ID# 40;
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Origin: Donated by Canal de Las Ballenas Fish Coop., BLA;
In Captivity: 1981-1991; Released: Oct. 18,1991; We would like to thank the local community of Bahia
Growth: From 36. 2 cm / 7.2 kg to 77.9 cm / 78.0 kg. (Fe- de los Angeles (Ejido) and the hundreds of volunteers and

fishermen who have been involved with this project. In ad- Nichols, W.J., J.A. Seminoff, and L. Jimenez. (In Press.) Sea
dition, Dr. Grant Bartlett, One World WorkForce, Coastal turtles, Science, and surfing: Riding the Internet from
Conservation Foundation were critical to the success of these the classroom to the field. Proceedings of theSeventeenth
projects. We would especially like to thank CRIP-PESCA, Annual Sea Turtle Symposium. Sharon Epperly (Comp.).
the Bartlett Lab, Foundation For Field Research, Sea Turtle Ramirez Cruz, J.C., I. Pena Ramirez and D. Villanueva Flores.
Center, and University of Arizona for their generous finan- 1991. Distribucion y abundancia de la tortuga perica
cial assistance. Caretta caretta Linnaeus (1758) en la costa occidental
de Baja California Sur, Mexico. Archelon 1:1-4.
LITERATURE CITED Resendiz, A., B. Resendiz. 1992. Loggerhead turtles released
after ten years in captivity. Marine Turtle Newsletter 57:
Bartlett, G. 1989. Juvenile Caretta off Pacific coast of Baja
7-9.
California. Noticia Caguamas 2:2-10.
Resendiz, A., B. Resendiz, W.J. Nichols, J.A. Seminoff, and
Bowen, B.W., F.A. Abreu-Grobois, G.H. Balazs, N.
N. Kamezaki. 1998. First confirmed east-west
Kamezaki, C.J. Limpus and R.J. Ferl. 1995. Trans-
transPacific movement of a loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta
Pacific migrations of the Loggerhead sea turtle
caretta, released in Baja California, Mexico. Pacific
demonstrated withmitochondrial DNA markers. Proc.
Science, Vol. 52, no. 2: pp. 151-153.
Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. Vol. 92, pp. 3731-3734.
Shaw, C.E. 1947. First record of the red brown loggerhead
Cornelius, S.E. 1982. Status of sea turtles along the Pacific
turtle from the eastern Pacific. Herpetologica 4:55-56.
coast of Middle America. Pages 211-219 in K. Bjorndal
Sternberg, J. 1981. The worldwide distribution of sea turtle
(Ed). Biology and conservation of sea
nesting beaches. Center for Environmental Education,
turtles.Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
Washington DC.
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Uchida, S., and H. Teruya. 1988. Transpacific migration of
Resources. 1995. By UCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist
a tagged loggerhead Caretta caretta. International
Group.
Symposium on Sea Turtles, Hiwasa, Japan. Poster
Marquez, M.R. 1969. Additional records of the Pacific
presentation.
Loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta gigas, from the North
Mexican Pacific Coast. J. Herp. 2:108-110.
TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL VARIATION OF THE HATCHING TEMPERATURE IN

TRANSPLANTED LEPIDOCHELYS KEMPI NESTINGS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON
THE SEX RATIO, AND EGG SURVIVAL AND MORTALITY
G. Vzquez Luna1, R. Sanchez Trejo2, R. Mrquez Millan3, and R. Castro Melendez1

1
CRIP- Tampico Tamaulipas, C.P. 89090, Mxico.
2
Lab. Ecologa Costera y Pesqueras, UAM-X, A.P. 23182, C.P. 04960, Mxico, D.F. Mxico
3
CRIP-Manzanillo, A.P. 591, Colima, C.P. 28200, Mxico. rtrejo@cueyatl.uam.mx
The influence of temperature on the sex ratio has been to the higher metabolic heat thus produced by the embryonic
studied for almost all the known species of marine turtles development. Nevertheless, these differences did not affect
since the 1970's and in different parts of the world. Never- the sex ratio, as they ocurred after the critical period for the
theless, the influence of the thermal gradients which develop sex determination and did not exceed 0.4 C. Egg mortality,
within the nests of Lepidochelys kempii on the determina- which was 24 % could not be relatied to thermal defferences
tion of the sex ratio, and egg survival and mortality has within the nest, as no correlation to temperature of the nest
scarcely been studied. The thermal gradients within the nests was statistically proven.
of this species were determined through temperature records
obtained with thermocouple thermal sensors at different
points and depths of the incubatory chamber during the
months of maximums anidation of this turtle in Rancho
Nuevo, Tamaulipas, Mxico. The information thus obtained
was further statistically studied in order to determine if sig-
nificative thermal gradients ocurred, as well as, their rela-
tion to sex ratio, and egg survival and mortality. These re-
sults show significative differences in the temperature of the
peripheral regions of the nest as compared to the core region
which are due to the aggregation af the eggs at this latter and

MARINE TURTLE PROJECT, TOLUCA BEACH - CESTA
Rafael Vela Nuila and Juan Carlos Snchez.

Salvadoran Center for Appropriate Technology Kilometro 4, Carretera a San Marcos # 392, San Salvador, El Salvador.
cesta@es.com.sv
The marine turtle is one of the many animal species

important for the maintenance of the marine ecological en-
vironment and it also has historical importance. It is in dan-
ger of extinction and some of the principal reasons for this
threat in El Salvador are:
1) THE OVER-EXPLOITATION OF EGGS.

2) PRAWN BOATS CAUSE OCCASIONAL DEATHS.
3) OCEANIC POLLUTION BY DOMESTIC AND IN-
DUSTRIAL WASTES
As a result of this CESTA (Salvadoran Center for Ap-

propriate Technology) started the MARINE TURTLE
PROJECT at Toluca Beach, Department La Libertad, El Sal-
vador in 1994. The aim of this project is the protection and
conservation of marine turtles in order to maintain both the
marine ecological balance as well as provide food for the
people. The project has achieved one of these objectives by
making possible the hatching of 30,000 small turtles of the
species Olive Ridley (Lepydochelys olivacea). The success
of this project is due to local families and their leaders living
in the community. They have been involved in the construc-
tion of a hatchling nursery and two pools. An important part
of this project was to strengthen community cooperation as
well as develop relations with other institutions. One of our
visions is to find an adequate alternative with the objective
of benefiting local people as well as turtle egg collectors,
with the idea to reduce the over-exploitation of turtle eggs as
well as to improve the quality of life for the people and pro-
moting in them the awareness of the threat to this turtle spe-
cies. Hopefully, in the medium term we will achieve that the
turtle egg collectors will not be totally dependent on turtle
eggs for their income but will find other sources such as sell-
ing handicrafts, natural medicines and organic foods, nature
walks for the public, etc. This would permit the reduction of
egg collectors on the beach and the possibility to declare this
a protected zone. This will allow the turtles to lay their eggs
with less human intervention.

SEA TURTLES IN THE GULF OF VENEZUELA: A PRELIMINARY DIAGNOSIS
Tito Barros1, Lenin Parra2, Mayra Matos2, and Lizbeth Caceres2

1
Museo de Biologia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad del Zulia, Apdo. 526. Maracaibo 4011, Edo. Zulia, Venezuela
lparra@solidos.ciens.luz.ve
2
Departamento de Biologia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad del Zulia, Apdo. 526, Maracaibo 4011, Edo. Zulia, Venezuela
An inventory was made of all available reports Venezuelan towns and also Maicao, a nearby town in
concerning the presence of sea turtles in the Gulf of Colombia. We intend to update and complete information
Venezuela, in order to start an evaluation of their current on the status of sea turtles in the Gulf of Venezuela by making
situation. The study area includes the coast of the Venezuelan an inventory of possible nesting sites, as well as documenting
Guajira, located at the northwestern extreme of Venezuela, the effect of human activities on sea turtles in the area.
as well as the shores of the Cienaga de los Olivitos Wildlife
Refuge, at the northeast of the Gulf of Venezuela. In 1987, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
four species - Chelonia mydas, Caretta caretta, Dermochelys The presentation of this work at the 18th Annual
coriacea and Eretmochelys imbricata - were reported in this Symposium has been possible thanks to arrangements made
area. C. mydas is the most frequently reported species, and by J. G. Frazier to get support from The David and Lucile
most of them have been individuals of immature size. This Packard Foundation to L. Parra. Moreover, L. Parra, M.
suggests that the Gulf is a foraging area for immatures. In Matos and L. Caceres were supported by Corpozulia, LUZ,
1995 a Lepidochelys olivacea was found on Caimare Chico Presidencia de la Asamblea Legislativa del Estado Zulia and
beach. Several specimens of Dermochelys coriacea and Presidencia de la Comisin Especial de Lmites, Asuntos
Eretmochelys imbricata have been found stranded with Fronterizos e Indgenas.
portions of fishing nets around their bodies, which confirms
the threat of incidental capture in fisheries. Several shells
were also found along the coast. Sea turtles have traditionally
been important as food in the diet of the Guajira people, and
in recent years Guajiros have sold turtle products in
OCCURRENCE, DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF GREEN TURTLES, CHELONIA

MYDAS, IN LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK: 1986-1997
Kerin A. Berry1, Marie E. Peixoto1, and Samuel S. Sadove1 and 2

1
Department of Natural Sciences, LIU Southampton College, Southampton, NY 11968, U.S.A.
2
Puffin Consulting, P.O. Box 361, Jamesport, NY, 11947, U.S.A. bphysa1@pipeline.com
Loggerhead and kemps ridley sea turtles have been Green sea turtles generally arrive in Long Island dur-
studied extensively, but relatively little has been reported ing late July - early August and remain in the are until late
about the biology of juvenile green turtles in Long Island, October - early November with the highest abundance in
New York. Tagging, morphology, and positional data was late September and early October. Although green turtles
collected from 1986 through 1997 in cooperation with com- were found throughout the Peconic Estuary there were clearly
mercial fishermen. time dependent distributional trends. During arrival and de-
A total of 81 individual green turtles was captured dur- parture periods turtles were found in eastern areas. During
ing the study period. The average number of turtles per year peak times green turtles were found in more western areas
is 7.364.50 with a range of 0-19. Of the 81 turtles captured, but widley distributed. Distributions were found to be highly
21%(n=17) were recaptured. In any one year the highest re- correlated with submerged aquatic vegetation distributions.
capture rate was.75 during 1991. Annual recapture rates indicate that more turtles are
The mean straight carapace length for all green turtles present in New York waters now than at the beginning of
captured is 31.935.83cm (n=81); mean weight is this study.
4.844.95kg (n=77). Growth rates were calculated for five
turtles with recapture intervals of 25 days or greater. The
mean growth rate for 30-40cm size class is 8.704.54kg/yr.
The mean SCL growth rate is 6.331.87cm/yr
Poster presentations / Developmental Habitats and Habitats 149

TRACKING A SUBADULT CARETTA CARETTA THROUGH PUBERTY
Emma Hickerson and Dr. David Owens

Department of Biology, Texas A&M UniversityCollege Station, TX 77843, U.S.A. emmah@bio.tamu.edu
Sea turtles either residing at or passing through the

Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary have been
studied since fall 1995, Scientific divers captured a subadult
male Caretta caretta in June, 1995, and on two subsequent
occasions over a period of 19 months, Documentation of the
development of secondary sex characteristics over this time
period indicate that this Individual a going through puberty.
Satellite and radio tracking data suggest strong site fidelity
during this life history stage. Data suggest that the Flower
Gardens may provide feeding habitat for Caretta caretta
subadults.
SEA TURTLE FEEDING GROUNDS OF BRAZIL
Maria ngela Marcovaldi1, Augusto C. C. D. da Silva2, Berenice M. G. Gallo3, Ceclia Baptistotte3, Claudia F. Vieitas3,
Claudio Bellini2, Eduardo H. S. M. Lima3, Jaqueline C. de Castilhos3, Joo C. A. Thom2, and Taisi M. Sanches3
1
Fundao Pr-TAMAR National Coordination - CP2219, Salvador BA, 40210-970, Brazil. protamar@e-net.com.br
2
TAMAR-IBAMA/Fundao Pr-TAMAR Regional Coordinators
3
TAMAR Technical Coordinators
The main sea turtle nesting sites in Brazil have been in recovery tanks) are all recorded. Important notes are also
protected since 1980 by TAMAR (Brazilian Sea Turtle recorded through key words in a specific field of the data-
Conservation Program), a federal government initiative of base. Data recording goes through the following steps: a field
IBAMA (Brazilian Institute for the Environment), co-man- notebook, a regional database and the national database where
aged by Fundao Pr-TAMAR, a non-governmental orga- all the information is gathered and kept. Detailed informa-
nization. Since then, TAMAR has also collected information tion has been gathered on the fishing methods that most of-
on dead and stranded turtles found along the Brazilian coast- ten capture marine turtles in Brazilian coastal waters where
line. Of the seven species of sea turtle existing in the world, TAMAR is working, and is now being described and com-
five are found in Brazil: loggerhead (Caretta caretta), green piled in a manual (Fundao Pr-TAMAR, in prep.). Fish-
(Chelonia mydas), leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), ing methods are mostly artisanal, the most common being:
hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) and olive ridley floating weirs, set nets and fish traps. This census will help
(Lepidochelys olivacea) (Marcovaldi and Marcovaldi 1987). to identify the main threats to the turtles in their feeding
Following the establishment of conservation and research grounds and also aid the development of appropriate man-
stations at the main nesting areas, TAMAR began in 1991 to agement and conservation strategies necessary to address
work in the main feeding grounds, where the levels of inci- their impacts.
dental capture is high (Marcovaldi 1991). Initial efforts to The overall results obtained so far reveal specific char-
increase at-sea protection of marine turtles found in feeding acteristics of each area, which enables TAMAR to apply spe-
areas were at Ubatuba and afterwards in Almofala and Pontal cific methodologies for their management. Depending on the
do Peba (Figure 1). In addition, some of the nesting beaches physical and cultural characteristics of the feeding grounds,
also support regular numbers of turtles that feed, mate, and the work is divided into two major strategies. First, environ-
rest in the nearby coastal waters. All stations collect infor- mental education is undertaken at sites with high levels of
mation on dead and stranded turtles found along the beaches. capture, with the aim to alert the local fishermen of the threats
As was done with data from nesting turtles, a database of some fishing techniques to sea turtles and the marine en-
has been created to organize and standardize the collection vironment. Through the campaign Not everything caught
of information in the feeding grounds. Date, time of occur- by the fishing net is fish, techniques of reviving captured
rence, condition of turtle (alive, dead or drowned), curved turtles that are unconscious are taught to the fishermen and
carapace length and width, species, sex (when possible), tag the coastal communities in general. The campaign involves
number and the final outcome (dead, released at sea, or held informal conversation, video presentations (a special 5 min-
150 Developmental Habitats and Habitats / Poster presentations

Table 1. Number of dead turtles recorded by TAMAR along the the capture of turtles using free diving is a specialized skill,
Brazilian coastline since 1980. currently TAMAR is undertaking to train its interns and per-
SPECIES NUMBER manent staff in these techniques. This occurs mainly in
Chelonia mydas 953 Fernando de Noronha and Atol das Rocas (Figure 1).
Eretmochelys imbricata 45
Caretta caretta 154
Lepidochelys olivacea 202
Dermochelys coriacea 10
Non identified 1530
TOTAL 2894
utes animation video was made for this purpose), and distri-
bution of leaflets and posters. Hiring the people involved in
fisheries activities to work for the protection of turtles check-
ing the nets for turtles and orienting other fisherman about
better spots for placing nets, as well as creating new ecologi-
cally sound economic alternatives are all part of the pro-
gram. The TAMAR Program intends to revive and maintain
the cultural identity of the coastal areas by employing tech-
niques that directly involve the coastal communities, such as
promoting festivals and parties with the sea turtle image as
the theme. This strategy is used mainly at the Ubatuba and
Figure 2. Number of turtles captured on fishing devices and safely
Almofala stations (Figure 1).
released to the sea by TAMAR
Of 6561 records, only 44.1% correspond to dead and

stranded individuals. In the majority of the cases, the cause
of death could not be identified, due to advanced decompo-
sition, which could indicate that these deaths occurred off
shore or in harbors away from TAMAR stations. Table 1
presents data on dead turtles found along the coast by spe-
cies. In Alagoas State (Pontal do Peba- AL) (Figure 1), most
turtles were already far too decomposed to enable the iden-
tification of the species or cause of death.
In Bahia (BA) and Esprito Santo (ES) States set nets
are a common fishing device that capture sea turtles, and in
Sergipe State (SE) semi-industrial shrimp trawlers are com-
mon.
The records of turtles captured in fishing devices are
mainly from the fishing communities of Ubatuba (87.3%)
and Almofala (6.7%), where most of the turtles were safely
released to the sea (98.5% at Ubatuba and 98.7% at
Almofala). In Ubatuba, most of the turtles captured (98.3%%)
Figure 1. Location of TAMAR stations in Brazil were Chelonia mydas, where carapace measurements sug-
gest a population of juveniles and subadults (Table 2). Float-
The second strategy that began in 1987 is in water re- ing weirs are the fishing devices that more often capture sea
search studies on behavior and growth parameters of marine turtles in the area (79.6%). At Almofala the greatest major-
turtles, and takes place at sites with good diving conditions. ity of individuals were also Chelonia mydas (92.5%), and
Researchers capture sea turtles through free diving, tag the carapace measurements suggest a population of juveniles to
individuals, and take notes on weight and curved carapace adults (Table 2). Fish traps are the fishing devices that more
length and width (Bellini and Sanches 1996). Tags used are often capture sea turtles in this area (91.2%).
Inconel (model # 681), and are placed one on each of the In Atol das Rocas and Fernando de Noronha (Figure
front flippers, at the trailing edge proximal to the first scale. 1), 1127 captures of sea turtles were recorded during under-
After which, turtles are immediately released to the sea. As water studies, being 770 captured at the first station and 357
Table 2. Records of green turtle

Station Max CCL Min CCL N Max CCW Min CCW N Max Min N
(Chelonia mydas) captures in (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) weight weight
Ubatuba and Almofala Stations; Ubatuba 96.0 27.0 2141 91.5 21.0 1944 2.4 83.0 2019
CCL = curved carapace length, Almofala 120.0 27.0 170 113.0 21.0 170 - - -
CCW = curved carapace width,
weight in kg.

at the latter one. The species most frequently captured were ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Eretmochelys imbricata and Chelonia mydas in both places
We thank Charles Tambiah and Matthew Godfrey for
(Table 3).
reviewing the manuscript. TAMAR is affiliated with IBAMA,
Table 3. Records of sea turtle captures in Fernando de Noronha co-managed by Fundao Pr-TAMAR and officially sup-
and Atol das Rocas Stations; CCL = curved carapace length (in ported by PETROBRAS. We would like to acknowledge
cm), CCW = curved carapace width (in cm), weight in kg.
travel assistance from a grant made to the Symposium from
STATION Max Min N Max Min N Max Min N David and Lucile Packard Foundation.
CCL CCL CCW CCW Weight Weight
F. Noronha
E. imbricata 84.0 30.5 395 68.0 26.0 287 42.0 1.5 277 LITERATURE CITED
C. mydas 81.0 32.0 73 73.0 26.5 36 31.0 3.8 40
Atol das Rocas Bellini, C. and T.M. Sanches. 1996. Reproduction and
E. imbricata 86.5 35.0 153 75.0 32.0 133 51.0 6.5 29
C. mydas 85.0 33.5 160 75.0 30.0 151 22.0 4.5 22
feeding of marine turtles in the Fernando de Noronha
Archipelago, Brazil. Marine Turtle Newsletter. 74: 12-
Because individuals are tagged before release, upon 13.
recapture data on growth rates and behavior are obtained. FUNDAO PR-TAMAR, (In prep.) Manual das artes
When capture happens away from the beach, researchers only de pesca que capturam tartarugas marinhas no Brasil.
tag and measure the turtles, without weighting them. At Atol Marcovaldi, M.., 1991. Sea Turtle Conservation Program
das Rocas, the same methodology is also used for adult indi- in Brazil expands activities. Marine Turtle Newsletter.
viduals that reproduce in the area, which are not weighted 52: 2-3.
due to their dimensions (Table 4). The only species nesting Marcovaldi, M.. and G.G. Marcovaldi. 1987. Projeto
there is Chelonia mydas. Tartaruga Marinha: reas de desova, poca de
reproduo, tcnicas de preservao. Boletim Fundao
Table 4. Biometric parameters of C. mydas captured at Atol das
Rocas using free diving.
Brasileira para Conservao da Natureza. 22: 95-104.
Max CCL Min CCL N Max CCW Min CCW N

(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
Males 118.0 85.0 54 110.0 85.0 54
Females 132.0 110.0 8 117.0 102.0 8
The number of turtles saved and released at sea is in-

creasing annually at TAMAR stations (Figure 2). Through
these research and conservation activities, TAMAR is gain-
ing a better understanding of sea turtles at different life his-
tory stages, and is working to protect them as well as their
habitats. All work is carried out with due consideration of
the environmental, social, economic and cultural conditions
of the local communities.
SIZE CLASS OF SEA TURTLES IN NEW YORK FROM 1986 TO 1996
David P. Reynolds1 and Samuel S. Sadove2

1
Dept. of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104 U.S.A. reynoldsdp@juno.com
2
Puffin Consulting Inc., PO Box 361, Jamesport, NY, 11947 U.S.A.
Sea turtle occurrence is seasonal in the temperate wa- work and the NMFS Cooperative Marine Turtle Tagging
ters around Long Island, New York and appears to provide Program.
important summer foraging habitat for juvenile sea turtles. The sea turtles that were retrieved from pound nets were
Sea turtles regularly caught in commercial fishing gear (pound used in various studies. The studies reported mean straight
nets) in near shore embayments are loggerhead (Caretta carapace lengths (SCL) for three species of sea turtles.
caretta), Kemps ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) and green Standora et al. (1989) examined growth rates and movements
(Chelonia mydas) sea turtles. These captures are a result of of Kemps ridleys (mean SCL = 29.4 cm) in New York. Te-
an ongoing program with commercial fishermen. Upon cap- lemetry studies were also done by Standora et al. (1991) on
ture, straight carapace length (SCL), width, and mass were Kemps ridley (mean SCL = 30 cm). Investigation on the
measured. We tagged turtles with either a Passive Integrated diets of green turtles (range 25 to 40 cm) (Burke et al., 1991),
Transponder (PIT) tag or a Monel Tag. All data was recorded Kemps ridleys (mean SCL = 32.5 cm) (Burke et al., 1994)
for the New York Sea Turtle Stranding and Salvage Net- and juvenile Kemps ridleys (mean SCL = 32.8 cm) and log-
152 Developmental Habitats and Habitats / Poster presentations

gerheads (mean SCL = 50.1 cm) (Burke and Standora, 1993) and Conservation. NOAA Tech. Mem. NMFS-SEFSC-
were performed using pound net captures. Additional SCL 302, 195pp.
were reported for cold-stunned greens (mean SCL = 32.7), Burke, V.J. and E.A. Standora. 1993. Diet of juvenile Kemps
Kemps ridleys (mean SCL = 29.4 cm) and loggerhead (mean ridley and loggerhead sea turtles from Long Island, New
SCL = 49.5 cm) sea turtles in New York (Morreale et al., York. Copeia 1993, 1176-1180.
1992). Burke, V.J., S.J. Morreale, and E. A. Standora. 1994. Diet of
Age estimations are based on SCL of nesting female the Kemps ridley sea turtle, Lepidochelys kempii, in New
turtles (Frazer and Ehrhart, 1985). Caillouet et al. (1995) York waters. Fish. Bull. 92:26-32.
used 600 mm SCL and Marquez-M (1994) used 650 mm Caillouet, C.W., C.T. Fontaine, S.A. Manzella-Tirpak, and
SCL for the estimate of age at sexual maturity. The reported T.D. Williams. 1995. Growth of head-started Kemps
mean SCL for the sea turtles in New York between 1986 to ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) following
1996 indicate that these loggerhead (mean = 49.4 cm, SD = release. Chelonian Conserv. Biol. 1: 231-234.
1.34), Kemps ridley (mean = 30.2 cm, SD = 1.43), and green Frazer, N.B. and L.M. Ehrhart. 1985. Preliminary growth
(mean = 32.2 cm, SD = 4.54) sea turtles are juveniles. models for green, Chelonia mydas, and loggerhead,
We compared the variance of SCL within each species Caretta caretta, turtles in the wild. Copeia 1985, 73-79.
for loggerhead (n = 233), Kemps ridley (n = 107) and green Marquez-M., R. 1994. Synopsis of biological data on the
(n = 80) sea turtles that were caught in pound nets in New Kemps ridley turtle, Lepidochelys kempi (Garman,
York waters between 1986 and 1996. The null hypothesis is 1880). NOAA Tech. Mem. NMFS-SEFSC-343, 1-91.
that there is no significant difference in the mean SCL for Morreale, S.J., A.B. Meylan, S. S. Sadove, and E. A.
loggerhead, Kemps ridley and green sea turtles from 1986 Standora. 1992. Annual occurrence and winter mortality
to 1996. The alternative hypothesis is that there is a signifi- of marine turtles in New York waters. J. Herpetol. 26:
cant difference in mean SCL for loggerhead, Kemps ridley 301-308.
and green sea turtles from 1986 to 1996. We fail to reject the Standora, E.A. S.J. Morreale, R. Estes, R. Thompson, and
null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the M. Hilburger. 1989. Growth rates of juvenile Kemps
mean SCL for loggerhead (p = 0.5525), Kemps ridley (p = ridleys and their movement in New York waters. In:
0.5584) and green (p = 0.3492) sea turtles from 1986 to 1996. Eckert, K., L. Eckert, and T. H. Richardson. 1989. Proc.
The likelihood that a Type I error was made was set by (= of the 9th Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Biol. and
0.05. According to the data, there is no significant differ- Conserv. S. A., 7-11, Jekyll Island, Georgia, NOAA Tech.
ence in the mean SCL for loggerhead, Kemps ridley and Mem. NMFS-SEFC-232.
green sea turtles over the 10-year period. Standora, E.A., V.J. Burke, and S.J. Morreale. 1991.
The analysis of the data showed no significant differ- Application of recent advances in satellite transmitter
ence in the variance of SCL of three sea turtle species over a microtechnology: Integration with sonic and radio
10-year period. Sea turtles captured in near shore waters tracking of juvenile Kemps ridleys from Long Island,
around New York during the summer have been considered NY. In: Salmon, M. and J. Wyneken. (Comps.). Proc. of
to be juvenile and sub adults based on SCL. The reported the 11th Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Biol. and
means of SCL in previous studies using pound net captured Conserv. NOAA Tech. Mem. NMFS-SEFSC-302, 195p.
sea turtles were similar to those found in this analysis. This
study indicates that there has been no significant change in
mean SCL of three species of sea turtles over a 10-year pe-
riod. The size class of the three species of sea turtles com-
prises the majority of sea turtles that occur in New York
waters. This analysis also provides further support that for
some juvenile and sub adult sea turtle species, the Northeast
U.S. is an important summer foraging habitat.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks are owed to the commercial fishermen
of Long Island. We thank all the volunteers who have col-
lected data over the last ten years. We also thank Dr. Mike
Oconnor for comments on the data analysis.
LITERATURE CITED
Burke, V.J., S.J. Morreale, P. Logan, and E.A. Standora. 1991.
Diet of green turtles (Chelonia mydas) in waters off Long
Island, NY. In: Salmon, M. and J. Wyneken. (Comps.).
Proc. of the 11th Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology

GENETIC POPULATION STRUCTURE OF THE LEATHERBACK TURTLE IN THE

EASTERN PACIFIC: CONSERVATION IMPLICATIONS
Ana R. Barragn1 and Peter Dutton2

1
Laboratorio de tortugas marinas, facultad de ciencias, unam. Circuito exterior c.u Mxico D.F. 04510, Mxico
2
Noaa-nmfs southwest fisheries science center. La jolla, ca 92038, U.S.A. arbr@hp.fciencias.unam.mx
Genetic techniques have given a fast and relatively easy this conclusion is supported by a few recaptures of tagged
way to handle some basic management problems for sea turtle females found nesting in different beaches in the same sea-
populations, that cant be solved using traditional monitor- son. Comparing the populations of Mexico and Costa Rica,
ing techniques such as tagging. During the past few years, a low level of population subdivision as well as high values
genetic studies have shed light in some of the biological char- for Nm are also observed, which suggest the same degree of
acteristics of the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) gene flow, yet recent common ancestry cant be discarded
in the Eastern Pacific, and have made significant contribu- as an explanation. These results support the idea that the
tions to conservation programs for the species. During these nesting colonies in the Mexican Pacific belong to the same
studies, samples taken from the major rookeries in Mexico Management Unit (MU) as described by Moritz, 1994, which
and Costa Rica were analyzed for several loci (mithocondrial possibly includes the Costa Rican population. If this is true,
DNA and microsatellites), in order to assess the population institutions working in the conservation of the leatherback
structure of this species in the Eastern Pacific. None of the in the Eastern Pacific must collaborate closely together to
two kinds of DNA studied, mithocondrial or nuclear, showed effectively protect this species.
evidence of population substructuring. Concordance among
the results with different loci, high haplotypic diversity and
high values of Nm suggest a significant degree of contempo-
rary gene flow between all the nesting colonies within Mexico;
GENETICS OF MEXICAN BLACK TURTLE ROOKERIES BASED ON mtDNA D-LOOP

SEQUENCES- PRELIMINARY RESULTS
Omar Chassin Noria1, Daniel Piero D.1, Peter Dutton2, Javier Alvarado3, and F. Alberto Abreu Grobois4
1
Laboratorio de Gentica y Evolucin. Instituto de Ecologa, UNAM. A. P. 70-275., Mxico, D. F. C. P. 04510
ochassin@miranda. ecologia.unam.mx
2
NOAA-NMFS Southwest Fisheries Science Center P. O. Box 271. La Jolla CA 92038
3
Instituto de Investigaciones sobre Recursos Naturales, UMSNH. Santiago Tapia No. 517. Morelia, Michoacn, Mxico. C.
P. 58000.
4
Laboratorio de Conservacin y Manejo de Recursos Biticos, Estacin Mazatln, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnologa
UNAM, Apdo. Postal 811 Mazatln, Sinaloa Mxico C. P. 82000
The black turtle, Chelonia agassizi nests at more than a This study is extending previous genetic surveys to a
dozen beaches on the coast and islands of Western Mexico. greater number of rookeries and utilizing larger sample sizes.
More than 90% of its nests are found in Colola and Maruata Based on the sequencing of the d-loop of mitochondrial
beaches in Michoacn state. The systematic status of this turtle DNA, it seeks to ascertain the extent of genetic structuring
has been debated recently, as its alleged singularity (particu- of these assemblages and their relationship to other rooker-
larly with respect to other Pacific basin Chelonia popula- ies in the Pacific that have also been studied with the same
tions) in terms of biogeographic isolation, carapace colora- methods. which should provide a better understanding of
tion and shape, breeding skull morphology and reproductive the evolutionary relationships among Chelonia populations
biology may not be sufficiently compelling to classify as an and aid regional management strategies.
independent taxonomic category. It is of interest that previ- Preliminary comparisons of D-loop sequences from
ous molecular genetic analyses, using RFLP and sequences Colola individuals (N=36) and those from other portions of
of mtDNA and nDNA loci, do not support a genetic distinc- the Chelonia range in the Pacific basin are discussed. Within
tiveness of the black turtle (Dutton et al., 1996; Bowen and the 36 sequences analyzed there were found two haplotypes
Karl, 1997). Nonetheless, these studies, although indicative, that differ in three positions, the frequency value of Haplo-
have suffered from low sample sizes and rookery coverage type E was of 0.611, whereas Haplotype F was of 0.3889.
to be conclusive. The estimated values of haplotype diversity (h) was of 0.4888
154 Genetics and Evolution / Poster presentations

0.0408 and the nucleotide diversity () was of 0.003612 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

0.00249.
A todos los tortugueros de Chiapas, Oaxaca, Guerrero,
The haplotypic diversity is the probability that two
Michoacn, Colima y Jalisco por su apoyo incondicional,
haplotypes taken at random from the population should be
Gracias! Al NOA-ANMFS por las secuencias de
different and the nucleotide diversity is the probability that
Nucleotidos y a la CONABIO por el convenio Num. FB437/
two nucleotides with homologous positions taken at random
L166/97 OCN would like to thank DIF and CECADESU for
should be different; therefore, at larger values of this quanti-
their support during the Symposium.
ties corresponds a higher genetic diversity of the population.
The genetic variability could be reduced in small popu-
LITERATURE CITED
lations and a scarce variability diminishes the capacity for
adaptation to environmental changes because the fitness of Bowen, B.W. and Karl A.S. (1997) Population Genetics
each individual is limited. Phylogeography, and Molecular Evolution In: Lutz, L.
The diversity values found in this investigation are high and Musick, A.J. (Eds). The Biology of Sea Turtles. CRC
in comparison to the results obtained in Costa Rica, Surinam Press. U.S.A. pp 29-50.
and Ascencin (Encalada, 1996); although their beaches, just Dutton, P.H., Davis T.G., and Owens, D. (1996b) Molecular
as Michoacans, have a similar number of nests per year. Phylogeny for marine turtles based on sequences of the
Besides, the variability values obtained in Michoacn are ND4-Leucine tRNA and control region of mitochondrial
somewhat lower than the ones from beaches with a less num- DNA. Mol Phylogenet. Evol. 5: 511-521
ber of nests per year, like Quintana Roo, Florida and Brazil Encalada, E.S. (1996) Conservation genetics of Atlantic and
(Encalada, op. cit). For making comparisons it would be Mediterranean green turtles: inferences from mtDNA
important to obtain results from other beaches and ideally to sequences In: Bowen, B.W. and Witzell, W.N.
compare them with a healthy population. As a preliminary Proceedings of the International Symposium on Sea Turtle
statement it could be said that the genetic variability of the Conservation Genetics. NOOA Technical Memorandum.
Ch. agassizi from Michoacn hasnt been diminished in spite NMFS-SEFSC-396. Pp 33-40.
of the reduction of individual numbers in the last decades.
MATING SYSTEM OF CARIBBEAN LEATHERBACK TURTLES AS INDICATED BY

ANALYSIS OF MICROSATELLITE DNA FROM HATCHLINGS AND ADULT FEMALES
Caitlin Curtis1, Charlene J. Williams2, and James R. Spotila3

1
2
Department of Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107 U.S.A.
3
School of Environmental Science, Engineering, and Policy, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, U.S.A.
caitlincurtis@hotmail.com
We examined the mating system of leatherback turtles, in both nests indicating that they were fathered by the same
Dermochelys coriacea on the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica male. These results differ from Pacific leatherbacks (Rieder,
in 1996. We collected 5-50 l of blood from 35 nesting feet al., 1998) which appear to have a polygynous mating sys-
males and 20-30 hatchlings from 18 nests of those females. tem at Playa Grande, Costa Rica. The mating system in the
We stored blood in Longmires solution and on PCR DNA Caribbean would maintain more genetic variation in the popu-
sample isolation paper. We used primer sets (Ei8 and Cc117) lation and may be related to its greater population size.
from Caretta caretta and Eretmochelys imbricata
(FitzSimmons et al., 1995) and (Dc99) from D. coriacea
(Dutton, 1995) in PCR reactions to amplify microsatellite
(CA)n/GT)n regions from leatherback DNA. We screened
families at two loci, and if further clarification was needed,
at Dc99 as well. If more than 2 paternal alleles were de-
tected we assumed they came from more than one male. There
was no difference in amplification of microsatellite regions
between blood stored in lysis buffer or on sample isolation
paper. The DNA paper is superior for collecting DNA
samples in the field. Single maternity occurred in 10 of 11
nests. Multiple maternity occurred in one nest. Successive
nests laid by one female contained the same paternal alleles
Poster presentations / Genetics and Evolution 155


MICROSATELLITES

1
National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, La
Jolla Laboratory, P. O. Box 271, La Jolla, CA 92038, U.S.A. peterd@cliban.ucsd.edu
2
Dept. Animal Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, U.S.A.
Molecular techniques provide new tools for peeking tion rates were highest in DC2-95, one of the most polymor-
into the sex life of sea turtles. Observations on courtship and phic loci. The lack of multiple paternity in this study cor-
mating in leatherbacks are almost non-existent, although sea roborates previous findings with microsatellites for green
turtles are generally presumed to be promiscuous based on turtles in Australia (FitzSimmons 1996), and suggests either
extensive studies of green turtles (Alvarado and Figueroa, that female leatherbacks rarely mate with multiple males (per-
1991). FitzSimmons (1996) surprisingly found that multiple haps as a result of behavioral factors, like competition, or
paternity was rare in Australian greens. Leatherback pater- because they rarely encounter them), or that sperm competi-
nity studies to date have been invalid due to an insufficient tion occurs. Either scenario would require the ability to store
number of reliable polymorphic loci. We have identified in- sperm. The detection of mutation within one generation turn-
formative new microsatellite loci, and have sampled succes- over emphasizes the importance of using multiple loci when
sive clutches laid by the same females over a three month attempting to detect multiple paternity with microsatellites.
period in St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. A total of 6 loci Samples from additional females are presently being ana-
were used to construct the genotypes of nesting females and lyzed.
their offspring. Loci were amplified by PCR using fluores-
cent dye-labelled primers analyzed on a 377A ABI automated ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
sequencer with GENESCAN. Paternal genotypes were in-
ferred by comparing the known offspring and known mater-
tance with laboratory work. Funding was provided in part by
nal genotypes.
the U.S. Virgin Islands Dept. Planning and Natural Resources,
Using allele frequencies for the St. Croix nesting popu-
Earthwatch Institute and NMFS.
lation, the probability of detecting multiple paternal alleles
(d) was determined for each locus and across all loci (D)
LITERATURE CITED
(see FitzSimmons, 1996). The probability of detecting mul-
tiple paternity was relatively low for some individual loci Alvarado, J. and A. Figueroa. 1991. Comportamiento
(DC99 and N32 in particular), combined D for all 6 loci was reproductivo de la tortuga negra Chelonia agassizii.
99%. Analysis of data from a total of 178 hatchlings from Ciencia y Desarrollo 17(98):43-49.
series of 3 to 5 clutches (n=17 total) laid by each of 4 fe- FitzSimmons, N.N. 1996. Use of microsatellite loci to
males, did not reveal any evidence of multiple paternity. investigate multiple paternity in marine turtles, pp. 69-
Unexpected paternal alleles were detected in four cases; how- 78 in: Bowen, Bowen, B.W. and W.N. Witzell (Eds.)
ever, since in each case these alleles were only present at 1996. Proceedings of the International Symposium on
one locus, they were considered to be mutations rather than Sea Turtle Conservation Genetics. NOAA Technical
contributions by a second male. Two instances of mutation Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-396. 173pp.
of the maternal allele were also detected in this way. Muta-
MORPHOLOGICAL COMPARISONS IN SKULLS OF LOGGERHEAD TURTLE,

CARETTA CARETTA, AMONG THREE ROOKERIES OF AUSTRALIA, FLORIDA AND
JAPAN
Naoki Kamezaki and Masafumi Matsui

Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Japan. JCG03011@niftyserve.or.jp
The loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta, is widely dis- in skull morphometrics among three localities (Australia,
tributed in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, mainly Florida, and Japan). Twenty-four measurements were exam-
in subtropical and temperate waters. Comparative morpho- ined for 108 skulls. In the canonical discriminant analysis,
metric study is useful for determining taxonomic relation- the Japan sample was completely separated from the other
ships within an animal group, but few such data are avail- two samples on the first canonical axes. The stepwise dis-
able for this species. We investigated geographic variation criminant analysis chose five measurements that were great-

est contributors to separate samples. In the canonical dis-

criminant analyses using these five measurements (height of
nasal opening, length of secondary palate, width of preor-
bital, cranial length, and height of premaxilla), most of the
Japan specimens were separated from other two samples on
the first and second canonical axes. Discriminant analysis
showed that all specimens from Japan were classified cor-
rectly, but 6% of the Florida were misclassified to the Aus-
tralia samples. These results showed that the Japan sample
is notably distinct from the Australia and Florida samples.
But, there is no single skull character that perfectly distin-
guishes the one local sample from others. Therefore, we think
it better to consider this species to be monotypic.

GENETIC POPULATION STRUCTURE OF THE LEATHERBACK TURTLE IN THE

EASTERN PACIFIC: CONSERVATION IMPLICATIONS
Ana R. Barragn1 and Peter Dutton2

1
Laboratorio de tortugas marinas, facultad de ciencias, unam. Circuito exterior c.u Mxico D.F. 04510, Mxico
2
Noaa-nmfs southwest fisheries science center. La jolla, ca 92038, U.S.A. arbr@hp.fciencias.unam.mx
Genetic techniques have given a fast and relatively easy this conclusion is supported by a few recaptures of tagged
way to handle some basic management problems for sea turtle females found nesting in different beaches in the same sea-
populations, that cant be solved using traditional monitor- son. Comparing the populations of Mexico and Costa Rica,
ing techniques such as tagging. During the past few years, a low level of population subdivision as well as high values
genetic studies have shed light in some of the biological char- for Nm are also observed, which suggest the same degree of
acteristics of the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) gene flow, yet recent common ancestry cant be discarded
in the Eastern Pacific, and have made significant contribu- as an explanation. These results support the idea that the
tions to conservation programs for the species. During these nesting colonies in the Mexican Pacific belong to the same
studies, samples taken from the major rookeries in Mexico Management Unit (MU) as described by Moritz, 1994, which
and Costa Rica were analyzed for several loci (mithocondrial possibly includes the Costa Rican population. If this is true,
DNA and microsatellites), in order to assess the population institutions working in the conservation of the leatherback
structure of this species in the Eastern Pacific. None of the in the Eastern Pacific must collaborate closely together to
two kinds of DNA studied, mithocondrial or nuclear, showed effectively protect this species.
evidence of population substructuring. Concordance among
the results with different loci, high haplotypic diversity and
high values of Nm suggest a significant degree of contempo-
rary gene flow between all the nesting colonies within Mexico;
GENETICS OF MEXICAN BLACK TURTLE ROOKERIES BASED ON mtDNA D-LOOP

SEQUENCES- PRELIMINARY RESULTS
Omar Chassin Noria1, Daniel Piero D.1, Peter Dutton2, Javier Alvarado3, and F. Alberto Abreu Grobois4
1
Laboratorio de Gentica y Evolucin. Instituto de Ecologa, UNAM. A. P. 70-275., Mxico, D. F. C. P. 04510
ochassin@miranda. ecologia.unam.mx
2
NOAA-NMFS Southwest Fisheries Science Center P. O. Box 271. La Jolla CA 92038
3
Instituto de Investigaciones sobre Recursos Naturales, UMSNH. Santiago Tapia No. 517. Morelia, Michoacn, Mxico. C.
P. 58000.
4
Laboratorio de Conservacin y Manejo de Recursos Biticos, Estacin Mazatln, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnologa
UNAM, Apdo. Postal 811 Mazatln, Sinaloa Mxico C. P. 82000
The black turtle, Chelonia agassizi nests at more than a This study is extending previous genetic surveys to a
dozen beaches on the coast and islands of Western Mexico. greater number of rookeries and utilizing larger sample sizes.
More than 90% of its nests are found in Colola and Maruata Based on the sequencing of the d-loop of mitochondrial
beaches in Michoacn state. The systematic status of this turtle DNA, it seeks to ascertain the extent of genetic structuring
has been debated recently, as its alleged singularity (particu- of these assemblages and their relationship to other rooker-
larly with respect to other Pacific basin Chelonia popula- ies in the Pacific that have also been studied with the same
tions) in terms of biogeographic isolation, carapace colora- methods. which should provide a better understanding of
tion and shape, breeding skull morphology and reproductive the evolutionary relationships among Chelonia populations
biology may not be sufficiently compelling to classify as an and aid regional management strategies.
independent taxonomic category. It is of interest that previ- Preliminary comparisons of D-loop sequences from
ous molecular genetic analyses, using RFLP and sequences Colola individuals (N=36) and those from other portions of
of mtDNA and nDNA loci, do not support a genetic distinc- the Chelonia range in the Pacific basin are discussed. Within
tiveness of the black turtle (Dutton et al., 1996; Bowen and the 36 sequences analyzed there were found two haplotypes
Karl, 1997). Nonetheless, these studies, although indicative, that differ in three positions, the frequency value of Haplo-
have suffered from low sample sizes and rookery coverage type E was of 0.611, whereas Haplotype F was of 0.3889.
to be conclusive. The estimated values of haplotype diversity (h) was of 0.4888

0.0408 and the nucleotide diversity () was of 0.003612 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

0.00249.
A todos los tortugueros de Chiapas, Oaxaca, Guerrero,
The haplotypic diversity is the probability that two
Michoacn, Colima y Jalisco por su apoyo incondicional,
haplotypes taken at random from the population should be
Gracias! Al NOA-ANMFS por las secuencias de
different and the nucleotide diversity is the probability that
Nucleotidos y a la CONABIO por el convenio Num. FB437/
two nucleotides with homologous positions taken at random
L166/97 OCN would like to thank DIF and CECADESU for
should be different; therefore, at larger values of this quanti-
their support during the Symposium.
ties corresponds a higher genetic diversity of the population.
The genetic variability could be reduced in small popu-
LITERATURE CITED
lations and a scarce variability diminishes the capacity for
adaptation to environmental changes because the fitness of Bowen, B.W. and Karl A.S. (1997) Population Genetics
each individual is limited. Phylogeography, and Molecular Evolution In: Lutz, L.
The diversity values found in this investigation are high and Musick, A.J. (Eds). The Biology of Sea Turtles. CRC
in comparison to the results obtained in Costa Rica, Surinam Press. U.S.A. pp 29-50.
and Ascencin (Encalada, 1996); although their beaches, just Dutton, P.H., Davis T.G., and Owens, D. (1996b) Molecular
as Michoacans, have a similar number of nests per year. Phylogeny for marine turtles based on sequences of the
Besides, the variability values obtained in Michoacn are ND4-Leucine tRNA and control region of mitochondrial
somewhat lower than the ones from beaches with a less num- DNA. Mol Phylogenet. Evol. 5: 511-521
ber of nests per year, like Quintana Roo, Florida and Brazil Encalada, E.S. (1996) Conservation genetics of Atlantic and
(Encalada, op. cit). For making comparisons it would be Mediterranean green turtles: inferences from mtDNA
important to obtain results from other beaches and ideally to sequences In: Bowen, B.W. and Witzell, W.N.
compare them with a healthy population. As a preliminary Proceedings of the International Symposium on Sea Turtle
statement it could be said that the genetic variability of the Conservation Genetics. NOOA Technical Memorandum.
Ch. agassizi from Michoacn hasnt been diminished in spite NMFS-SEFSC-396. Pp 33-40.
of the reduction of individual numbers in the last decades.
MATING SYSTEM OF CARIBBEAN LEATHERBACK TURTLES AS INDICATED BY

ANALYSIS OF MICROSATELLITE DNA FROM HATCHLINGS AND ADULT FEMALES
Caitlin Curtis1, Charlene J. Williams2, and James R. Spotila3

1
2
Department of Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107 U.S.A.
3
School of Environmental Science, Engineering, and Policy, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, U.S.A.
caitlincurtis@hotmail.com
We examined the mating system of leatherback turtles, in both nests indicating that they were fathered by the same
Dermochelys coriacea on the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica male. These results differ from Pacific leatherbacks (Rieder,
in 1996. We collected 5-50 l of blood from 35 nesting feet al., 1998) which appear to have a polygynous mating sys-
males and 20-30 hatchlings from 18 nests of those females. tem at Playa Grande, Costa Rica. The mating system in the
We stored blood in Longmires solution and on PCR DNA Caribbean would maintain more genetic variation in the popu-
sample isolation paper. We used primer sets (Ei8 and Cc117) lation and may be related to its greater population size.
from Caretta caretta and Eretmochelys imbricata
(FitzSimmons et al., 1995) and (Dc99) from D. coriacea
(Dutton, 1995) in PCR reactions to amplify microsatellite
(CA)n/GT)n regions from leatherback DNA. We screened
families at two loci, and if further clarification was needed,
at Dc99 as well. If more than 2 paternal alleles were de-
tected we assumed they came from more than one male. There
was no difference in amplification of microsatellite regions
between blood stored in lysis buffer or on sample isolation
paper. The DNA paper is superior for collecting DNA
samples in the field. Single maternity occurred in 10 of 11
nests. Multiple maternity occurred in one nest. Successive
nests laid by one female contained the same paternal alleles


MICROSATELLITES

1
National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, La
Jolla Laboratory, P. O. Box 271, La Jolla, CA 92038, U.S.A. peterd@cliban.ucsd.edu
2
Dept. Animal Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, U.S.A.
Molecular techniques provide new tools for peeking tion rates were highest in DC2-95, one of the most polymor-
into the sex life of sea turtles. Observations on courtship and phic loci. The lack of multiple paternity in this study cor-
mating in leatherbacks are almost non-existent, although sea roborates previous findings with microsatellites for green
turtles are generally presumed to be promiscuous based on turtles in Australia (FitzSimmons 1996), and suggests either
extensive studies of green turtles (Alvarado and Figueroa, that female leatherbacks rarely mate with multiple males (per-
1991). FitzSimmons (1996) surprisingly found that multiple haps as a result of behavioral factors, like competition, or
paternity was rare in Australian greens. Leatherback pater- because they rarely encounter them), or that sperm competi-
nity studies to date have been invalid due to an insufficient tion occurs. Either scenario would require the ability to store
number of reliable polymorphic loci. We have identified in- sperm. The detection of mutation within one generation turn-
formative new microsatellite loci, and have sampled succes- over emphasizes the importance of using multiple loci when
sive clutches laid by the same females over a three month attempting to detect multiple paternity with microsatellites.
period in St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. A total of 6 loci Samples from additional females are presently being ana-
were used to construct the genotypes of nesting females and lyzed.
their offspring. Loci were amplified by PCR using fluores-
cent dye-labelled primers analyzed on a 377A ABI automated ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
sequencer with GENESCAN. Paternal genotypes were in-
ferred by comparing the known offspring and known mater-
tance with laboratory work. Funding was provided in part by
nal genotypes.
the U.S. Virgin Islands Dept. Planning and Natural Resources,
Using allele frequencies for the St. Croix nesting popu-
Earthwatch Institute and NMFS.
lation, the probability of detecting multiple paternal alleles
(d) was determined for each locus and across all loci (D)
LITERATURE CITED
(see FitzSimmons, 1996). The probability of detecting mul-
tiple paternity was relatively low for some individual loci Alvarado, J. and A. Figueroa. 1991. Comportamiento
(DC99 and N32 in particular), combined D for all 6 loci was reproductivo de la tortuga negra Chelonia agassizii.
99%. Analysis of data from a total of 178 hatchlings from Ciencia y Desarrollo 17(98):43-49.
series of 3 to 5 clutches (n=17 total) laid by each of 4 fe- FitzSimmons, N.N. 1996. Use of microsatellite loci to
males, did not reveal any evidence of multiple paternity. investigate multiple paternity in marine turtles, pp. 69-
Unexpected paternal alleles were detected in four cases; how- 78 in: Bowen, Bowen, B.W. and W.N. Witzell (Eds.)
ever, since in each case these alleles were only present at 1996. Proceedings of the International Symposium on
one locus, they were considered to be mutations rather than Sea Turtle Conservation Genetics. NOAA Technical
contributions by a second male. Two instances of mutation Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-396. 173pp.
of the maternal allele were also detected in this way. Muta-
MORPHOLOGICAL COMPARISONS IN SKULLS OF LOGGERHEAD TURTLE,

CARETTA CARETTA, AMONG THREE ROOKERIES OF AUSTRALIA, FLORIDA AND
JAPAN
Naoki Kamezaki and Masafumi Matsui

Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Japan. JCG03011@niftyserve.or.jp
The loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta, is widely dis- in skull morphometrics among three localities (Australia,
tributed in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, mainly Florida, and Japan). Twenty-four measurements were exam-
in subtropical and temperate waters. Comparative morpho- ined for 108 skulls. In the canonical discriminant analysis,
metric study is useful for determining taxonomic relation- the Japan sample was completely separated from the other
ships within an animal group, but few such data are avail- two samples on the first canonical axes. The stepwise dis-
able for this species. We investigated geographic variation criminant analysis chose five measurements that were great-

est contributors to separate samples. In the canonical dis-

criminant analyses using these five measurements (height of
nasal opening, length of secondary palate, width of preor-
bital, cranial length, and height of premaxilla), most of the
Japan specimens were separated from other two samples on
the first and second canonical axes. Discriminant analysis
showed that all specimens from Japan were classified cor-
rectly, but 6% of the Florida were misclassified to the Aus-
tralia samples. These results showed that the Japan sample
is notably distinct from the Australia and Florida samples.
But, there is no single skull character that perfectly distin-
guishes the one local sample from others. Therefore, we think
it better to consider this species to be monotypic.

THE USE OF SHADE OVER OLIVE RIDLEY, LEPIDOCHELYS OLIVACEA,

HATCHERIES
Carlos Roberto Hasbn1, Mauricio Vsquez2, Emilio A. Len3, and Carlos Thomas3
1
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Hull, Hull, HU6 7RX, U.K. c.hasbun@bioci.hull.ac.uk
2
Servicio de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre, Ctn. El Matasano, Soyanpango, El Salvador
3
Asociacin Ambientalista AMAR, Rep. Palomo 1314, Col. Layco, San Salvador, El Salvador
The Asociacin Ambientalista AMAR in joint effort the hatchery with no shade averaged 34.1oC, r = 33.5-35.5oC,
with the National Parks and Wildlife Service of El Salvador, in August and 33.7oC, r = 32.5-35oC, in September. After
initiated in 1989 a sea turtle conservation program in Barra September, temperatures stabilized to an average of 32.5oC
de Santiago, close to the Guatemalan border. The use of arti- in October. Similar to 1991, sand moisture content was not
ficial shade over hatcheries to incubate olive ridley, significantly different in all hatcheries, averaging 11.2%
Lepidochelys olivacea, eggs has been considered as a prod- throughout the season.
uct of observing low hatch success rates between 0% and Considering the documented pivotal temperatures
40%, from nests left under total sunlight during the months which produce a 1:1 sexual ratio in olive ridley hatchlings
of August and September of 1989 through 1992. and the hatch success rates observed in these studies, partial
During the first week of August of both 1991 and 1992 shade in all hatcheries in El Salvador has been used since
field seasons (August through December) three hatcheries 1992, especially during August and September. However,
with different amounts of shade, approximates of 100% (to- and due to temperature sex dependency, hatchery thermal
tal shade: no direct rays of sun entering horizontally to the regimes are monitored twice a day to avoid possibilities in
hatchery but being well illuminated), 50% (partial shade) and skewing sexual ratios and lowering hatch success rates. In
0% (no shade), were built to study the hatchery thermal re- addition, palm fronds used as shade are not fixed to the roof
gimes and its effect on hatch success rates. Since 1989, hatch- structure, and often, are positioned so as to increase or re-
ery walls have been constructed of stripped coconut palm duce the amount of shade over the nests as to maintain a
fronds. These fronds of approximately 1.5 m in length by 1 desired temperature range between 30oC and 31oC.
to 3 cm in width, are nailed vertically to a wooden frame
leaving a space of 1 to 2 cm from each other. Unstripped ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
coconut palm fronds were used as shade. The amount of shade
Participation of Carlos Roberto Hasbn at the sympo-
cast over the nests was established by observing the ratio
sium was made possible by the partial support of The David
between direct sun light and shade over 1 m2 at different lo-
and Lucile Packard Foundation.
cations inside the hatchery at 12:00 p. m. Surface and 35 cm
in depth sand temperatures were recorded twice daily. Sand
moisture content at 35 cm in depth from all hatcheries was
measured on a monthly basis.
During 1991, hatch success rates expressed as percent-
ages were as follows: 90.2% with total shade (80 nests), 79%
with partial shade (12 nests) and 40% with no shade (40 nests).
Low hatch success rates between 0% and 15% observed in
the hatchery with no shade, corresponded to the eggs incu-
bated during August when sand temperatures at 35 cm in
depth averaged 34.4oC, with a maximum of 35.5oC. These
high temperatures were considered as probable causes of low
hatch rates. Temperatures lowered after the first week of Sep-
tember through December, documenting an average tempera-
ture of 32.5oC with a range of 29.8oC to 33.8oC. Average
moisture content of the sand in all hatcheries throughout the
season was 10.5%. These did not vary significantly between
each hatchery.
During 1992, hatch success rates were as follows: 85.7%
with total shade (11 nests), 87% with partial shade (38 nests)
and 8.8% with no shade (10 nests). Temperatures from the
hatcheries under total shade and partial shade remained rela-
tively constant throughout the season with a monthly aver-
age of 29.5oC, range (r) 28.3oC-30.0oC and 29.8oC-30.8oC
respectively. On the other hand, temperatures recorded from
158 Methods in Conservation and Management / Poster presentations

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE BLACK TURTLE IN MICHOACAN, MEXICO
Javier Alvarado Diaz1, Carlos Delgado Trejo2, and Alfredo Figueroa Lopez2
1
Instituto de Investigaciones sobre los Recursos Naturales U.M.S.N.H. Aptdo. 35-A, Morelia, Michoacn 58000, Mxico
jadiaz@zeus.ccu.umich.mx
2
Fac. Biologa U.M.S.N.H. Mxico
Seven years of data (1986-1992) on nesting periodic- of nests per female in a season was 2.2 +- 1.3 (range = 1 - 7,
ity, nesting frequency, egg cluctch size and remigratory in- n = 700). Average clutch size was 67.8 +-19.3 eggs (range =
tervals of the black turtle in Michoacan are presented. Infor- 1 - 137, n = 1,400 nests). Average overall fecundity per sea-
mation about relative clutch mass and size and weight of son was 141.6 +-92.2 eggs showed a positive correlation (r
hatchlings and eggs is also presented. Most frequent = 0.369, P < 0.001, n = 1,400). Mean relative clutch mass
internesting intervals were 11 to 13 days (47.7%) (X = was 4.24+-0.9% (range = 2.8 - 6.1, n = 20). Most frequent
14.7+6.2 days, range=5-49, n=700 turtles. Average number remigratory intervals were three and four years.
COMPARISON OF GROWTH CURVES FOR SEA TURTLES OF TWO NEST IN

CAPTIVITY, AND THE FOLLOW OF EVOLUTION OF LIVING TAG TECHNIQUE IN
GREEN TURTLES CHELONIA MYDAS AT XCARET ECO-ARCHEOLOGICAL PARK.
Alejandro Arenas, Rodolfo Raigoza, and Roberto Snchez

Acuario Xcaret, Av. Xpuhuil No. 3, Suite, 150, S.M. 27 C.P. 77500, Cancn Q. Roo, Mxico. acuario@cancun.rce.com.mx
INTRODUCTION
Xcaret Eco-Archeological park started its sea turtle cap- their body weight, given three times per day during the first
tivity program with research work and environmental edu- year of life, reducing the protein percentage from the raw
cation in 1993 with Green Turtles Chelonia mydas and mark- protein down to 35 % after the first year twice a day, in ac-
ing living tag technique (Zurita, 1994). The research with cording with Wood (1991).
turtles with turtles has been taking place at several sites around Out of each lot we kept 15 specimens, at 19 mouths old
the world, with different species and objectives; in a com- they were tagged with microchip on the rear left fin for their
mercial way Mariculture in Grand Cayman with Chelonia individual identification and were confined to a lagoon a 600
mydas since 1968 (Wood and Wood, 1980), the head start m2 surface and an average depth of 1.5 m; an average tem-
program in HMFS in Galveston since 1989 with Lepidochelys perature of 26.18 C, pH of 6.985 and 25.4 of salinity. This
kempii (NOAA, 1990, furthermore the work described by lagoon is connected with the sea by an inlet and fresh water
W. N. Witzell in 1983 with Eretmochelys imbricata and the in flows through underground currents.
ones that took place in Brazil by the Brazilian Marine Turtle The turtle samples took place each month and after-
Foundation. wards it was done every two months, until they reached 27
The conservation work done in the Mexican Caribbean months of life with the purpose of reduce the stress by han-
from 1964 to 1982 were described by Zurita (1985) and it dling. The parameters that were taken are the Curved Cara-
mentions the sea turtle at the Puerto Morelos Acuacultura pace Wide (cCW), Curved Carapace Long (cCL) and the
Station Q. Roo for research of the species growth, it was weight for each turtle, using a tailors ruler strip and a digital
suspended in 1982 due to lack of funding. The current works roman scale in a tripod (FAO, 1991).
objective us to describe the growth, sexual dimorphism and
the living tag development on the Chelonia mydas in captiv- RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
ity. The growth analysis for the Chelonia mydas in captiv-
ity is from 19 months old through 27 months old. To analyze
METHODOLOGY
the behavior in lot 1 and 2, a multiple linear regression out
In 1993 off springs from two nest out of Xcacel beach of the data in each parameter and it was compared with the
were transported and were considered as lot 1 and 2 after difference between the slops and elevation for each regres-
they reached 15 days old they were given the living tag sion. The data number for lot 1 is n = 12 and n = 15 for lot 2.
(Hendrickson and Hendrickson, 1981). Each nest was kept We was found that the weight has a lineal relation, wile
in separate, 12,000 lt3 pools with a continuous sea water the cCL and cCW do not show a linear behavior there for a
flow and a nourishment based on pelet form food (Tortugas transformation of the data was used according with the ex-
AS) with 40% of raw protein, with a daily ration of 3% of pression (y = y2).The comparison of the two regressions was
Poster presentations / Modeling and Population Biology 159

performed by evaluation the likeness between regression coin lot 2 is bigger with a rate of 2.16 kg/month. Mrquez R.
efficients of each lot using t student like in Zar J. 1996. For M. in 1976 report to Grand Cayman a commercial size for
the test we established that each of one of the parameters Chelonia mydas of 45 kg at 5 years old, if we assume that
regressions has the same slope and elevation (Ho) assuming the relation between weight is lineal these turtles show a rate
that the turtles are growing under the same conditions. of 1.33 kg/month, which is lower than the rates we obtained
for the first 4 life years. During these years the turtles has
90
reached an average of 75 kg.
80
70 100
90
60
Curved Carapace length cCL (cm)

80
50
Weigth (kg)
70
40 60
30 50
20 40
10 30
20
0
10
0 10 20 30 40 50
Age (months) 0
Lot1 Lot2
0 10 20 30 40 50
Lot1 Lot2 Age (months)
Figure 1. Weight increase in lot 1 and lot 2 Chelonia mydas (Adjusted
lines)
Figure 3. Growth (cCL) lot 1 and lot 2 Chelonia mydas (Adjusted
For the slopes weight comparison a t = 3.4717 was ob- Curves)
tained and the value in tables was t0.05(2),254 = 1.965 which is For the cCW y cCL the relation is not a line, so the
less than the calculated and according to the test we reject increase rates at different points are variable with a tendency
Ho. In the same way when the elevations are compared the to decrease a long the time. To compare we obtained the
result of the calculation is t = 8.5991 and the value in tables rates on the three first months and the last ones. For cCW
was t0.05(2),254 = 1.965, so we reject Ho again. (Figure 1). the lot 1 show a rate of 1.63 cm/month at the beginning and
0.92 cm/month at the end, while the lot 2 on the first months
80 had an increase of 2.03 cm/month and on the last ones this
70 value is 0.98 cm/month.
Curved Carapace Wide cCW (cm)
60 The grow rate for cCL in the lot 1 during the first pe-
50 riod is 2.25 cm/month and 0.84 cm/months for the last
months. The lot 2 had an increase of 2.49 cm/months and at
40
the end the value is 0.94 cm/month. It shows a decrease on
30
the grow of turtles a long the time.
20 About the living tag evolution the data shows in a glo-
10 bal way for both lots, which have 27 organisms, the lost of
0 mark in 2 turtles and in 25 of them (92.60 %), we can ob-
0 10 20 30 40 50 serve a scar in the first dorsal shield, this mark has grown
Lot1 Lot2 Age (months) with the turtles, but it has been alight. In the ventral part of
the turtles of both lots the mark can be recognized, so this
Figure 2. Growth (cCW) lot 1 and lot 2 Chelonia mydas (Adjusted technique have success in the turtles for 4 years old.
Curves) In a fenotipic view and based in the morphology of the
The same relation was observed for the other two pa- tail we observe the beginning of sexual dimorphism in the
rameters in the cCW the comparison of the slopes have a turtles of both lots. The lot 1 have 10 females and 2 males
calculated value of t = 1.0832 and the Table value t0.05(2),254 that represent a proportion of 5:1. In contrast the sex pro-
=1.965. The calculus for the elevations is t = 10.3225 with a portion in lot 2 is near 1:1 with 8 males and 7 females but we
value table of t0.05(2),255 =1.965 (Figure 2). For the cCL values think that laparoscopy exam is required to have accuracy in
the t = 1.3144 for the slopes with their correspond on tables some cases.
t0.05(2),254 = 1.965 and the elevations with a calculated value of
t = 7.6800 and t0.05(2),254 = 1.965 obtained in tables, shows that ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Ho is rejected, so there are significant differences between We thank the many worker at Xcaret Park for they work
each slope and elevation of regressions. (Figure 3) during four years with the turtles; special thanks to Julio
Based on analysis we observed that the relationship Zurita; Eric Jordan for the invaluable help to make this work;
between the increase on weight and the time in months is DIF and CECADESU for their support during the sympo-
lineal, the lot 1 presents a rate of 1.92 kg/month and the value sium workshops.
160 Modeling and Population Biology / Poster presentations

LITERATURED CITED Wood, J.R. and F.E. Wood. 1980. Reproductive Biology of
Captive Green Sea Turtles Chelonia mydas. Amer. Zool.
Hendrickson, J.R. and L.P. Hendrickson. 1981. Living tags
20: 499-505 (1980).
for sea turtles. Final Report, U.S. Fish Wild, Serv. 7 p.p.
Wood, J.R. and F.E. Wood. 1980. Reproductive Biology of
Mrquez, R. 1976. El cultivo de las tortugas marinas en la
Captive Green Sea Turtles Chelonia Mydas.Amer.Zool.,
isla Grand Cayman. INP, Estacin de investigacin
20: 499-505.
pesquera, La Paz, B., C., Sur, Bol. INF. 33: 6-1
Zar, J.H. l996. Biostatistical Analysis. Third Edition.
NOAA. 1990. Kemps Ridley Head Start Experiment and
Zurita J.C., R Herrera, and B. Prezas. 1994. Living tags in
other Sea Turtle Research at the Galvesston Laboratory:
three spaces of the sea trutle hatchlings in the Mexican
Annual Report-Fiscal Year 1989. Technical
Caribbean. pp. 273-277 in: Proceeding of the thirteenth
Memorandum NMFC-266.
annual symposium on sea turtle biology and
NOAA. 1990. Kemps Ridley Head Start Experiment and
conservation. 17-23 February 1993. Shoeder, B.A. y B.E.
Other Sea TurtleResearch at the Galvesston Laboratory:
Witherington (Comps.). NOA-TM-NMFS-SEFSC-341.
Annual Report-Fiscal Year 1989. Technical
Zurita, J.C. 1985. Aspectos biolgicos y pesqueros de las
Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-266.
tortugas marinas en el caribe mexicano. Tes. Prof. Fac.
W. Fischer et al. Gua Fao para la identificacin de especies
Ciencias. UNAM, Mxico, 83 p.p.
para los fines de la pesca. Volumen 111 vertebrados-
parte 2.
Witzell, W.N. 1983. Synopsis of Biological Data on the
hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus 1766)
FAO Fisheries Synopsis No. 137.
SEA TURTLES OF THE CAPE FEAR RIVER BASIN (NORTH CAROLINA, U.S.A.): AN
IMPORTANT NURSERY AREA?
Denise M. Barnes1, Heather Miller Woodson1, Wm. David Webster1, Erin Redfearn2, and Gilbert S. Grant3
1
University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Department of Biological Sciences, Wilmington, North Carolina, U.S.A.,
28403. BarnesD@UNCWIL.EDU
2
Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida, U.S.A., 33486
3
Coastal Carolina Community College, Jacksonville, North Carolina, U.S.A., 28540
INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS

Studies of many shipping channels of the southeast coast Stranding: Data from the Sea Turtle Stranding and Sal-
of the United States (Charleston harbor, SC; Savannah, GA; vage Network from 1980-1996 were examined for the study
St. Marys entrance, GA; Ponce de Leon inlet, FL; Canaveral area, the Cape Fear River basin. These data include such
ship channel, FL; Ft. Pierce inlet, FL; St. Lucie inlet, FL) information as stranding location (latitude/longitude and a
conducted surveys, which investigated the relative abundance physical description of the area), carapace width and length,
or distribution of sea turtles (Van Dolah and Maier 1993; species, final disposition (release, burial, salvage, etc.), sex
Butler et al., 1987). Extensive surveys of the Core and of turtle, condition (alive, fresh dead, etc.), and tag informa-
Pamlico Sounds in North Carolina have been completed by tion. Stranding reports from the area were grouped by spe-
the Beaufort Laboratory (National Marine Fisheries, NOAA, cies to generate monthly and yearly totals for each species as
in Beaufort, NC) and have demonstrated that these areas are well as combined species totals. Mean carapace sizes were
utilized by immature loggerhead, green and Kemps ridley also calculated for each species.
sea turtles (Epperly et al., 1996; Epperly et al., 1995; Epperly Trawling: Live animal captures as a result of trawling
et al., 1994; Epperly and Veishlow 1989; Epperly et al., were obtained by endangered species observers during the
1991). However, the importance of the Cape Fear River ba- wood debris removal project conducted by the U.S. Army
sin as a sea turtle habitat has been largely overlooked. Since Corps of Engineers, Wilmington District, April 14-May 24,
the majority of the turtle nesting in North Carolina occurs on 1997. Twenty-nine trawling days were completed during this
the beaches surrounding the mouth of the Cape Fear River, period; some days were missed due to dangerous weather
this area could be an important habitat. To examine turtle conditions. Total trawl time was 798 hours, with 1406 trawls
utilization of the Cape Fear River basin, live animal cap- made; the average tow lasted 34 minutes. Six shrimp trawlers
tures and stranding data for this region were reviewed. were contracted to remove wood debris from shrimping

Table 1. Monthly strandings, by species, for the years 1980-1996.
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC TOTAL
BY
SPECIES
Caretta caretta 3 0 0 10 77 99 64 39 16 7 6 3 324

Lepidochelys kempi 0 0 0 0 7 7 4 5 2 0 0 0 25
Dermochelys coriacea 0 0 0 1 11 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 14
Chelonia mydas 0 0 0 0 12 10 0 0 0 1 1 1 25
TOTAL 3 0 0 11 107 118 68 44 18 8 7 4 388
grounds in the Cape Fear River basin near the Corps Ocean 36.5 CL, 22.9-42.5 CW). One leatherback was sighted during
Dredge Material Disposal Site, within eight kilometers of the study period, but was not captured. All captures during
the mouth of the river. These grounds were fouled by debris this endeavor were live.
scattered from the disposal site as a result of two hurricanes
that struck the area in 1996. Corps of Engineers guidelines DISCUSSION
required boats of at least 18 m in length which towed 13-15
This paper demonstrates the importance of the Cape
m twin-rig fish trawls, with 6.4 cm mesh, with no turtle
Fear River basin as a habitat for immature and adult sea turtles
excluder devices (TEDs) to maximize debris removal. The
of many species. Stranding reports do not provide a complete
absence of TEDs necessitated the presence of endangered
picture of sea turtle presence in an area, as not all specimens
species observers. Tow times were limited to 40 minutes,
are seen on beaches and reported. In a study conducted by
from the time the trawl doors entered the water until the time
Epperly et al.,, only 7-13% of known fishery-induced turtle
the doors were brought to the surface. All turtles captured
deaths resulted in strands on the mainland due to water
were measured, photographed and tagged before release
movement away from beaches during the winter (1996).
approximately eight kilometers from the trawling site.
Similar studies have not been conducted during other times
Information on trawling locations which resulted in sea turtle
of the year, but our data indicate that dead turtles wash ashore
captures was provided by boat captains. Mean sizes were
more frequently in the summer months in the Cape Fear River
calculated for loggerheads and Kemps ridleys, which were
basin.
the only species captured during the project. A map of capture
Although a few studies have looked at the Cape Fear
locations was provided by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
River as a possible habitat for sea turtles, there has been less
personnel.
coverage of the area than other areas of the state, such as
Core and Pamlico Sounds. The Cape Fear River, as well as
RESULTS
other North Carolina waters, was examined for sea turtle
Stranding: From 1980 to 1996, 388 sea turtles stranded presence as reported by local fishermen (Epperly et al., 1995).
in the study area: 324 loggerheads, 25 Kemps ridleys, 25 It was found that the Cape Fear River had the second most
greens and 14 leatherbacks. Monthly strandings by species frequent turtle sighting per fishing hour with one turtle per
are displayed in Table 1. 124 fishing hours. The average of all North Carolina inshore
Mean size (in centimeters) of turtles is as follows: 33.7 waters was one turtle sighting for every 227 hours of fishing.
curved length (CL), 31.2 curved width (CW) for loggerheads A lower sighting ratio of one turtle per 141 fishing hours
(range 10.5-127.0 CL, 11.2-122.0 CW); 28.9 CL, 29.2 CW was reported for the extensively studied Pamlico Sound.
for Kemps ridleys (range 12.8-49.5 CL, 13.0-50.8 CW); 33.9 Trawling data are likely to be an underestimate of sea
CL, 29.9 CW for greens (range 11.0-68.6 CL, 9.5-62.2 CW); turtles in the study area due to the possibility of larger, nesting
and 74.1 CL, 50.7 CW for leatherbacks (range 47.0-134.6 size turtles avoiding the trawl. It is also possible that turtles
CL, 32.0-91.4 CW). Of the 169 live strandings, 141 were are spending less time at the bottom in April and May due to
loggerheads; 15 were Kemps ridleys, and 13 were green cold bottom water. Nelson (1996) found that turtles in St.
turtles. No live leatherbacks were reported. Strandings of Marys River, GA, U.S.A., spent less time at the bottom
loggerheads and greens were widespread in the region, compared with other times of the year, presumably due to
whereas Kemps ridleys were consolidated around the colder bottom water temperatures and the need to bask.
Carolina Power and Light Brunswick Plant intake canal and Several studies have investigated the presence of turtles
leatherbacks were concentrated at the mouth of the river. in the shipping channels and inlets of Charleston harbor, SC;
Trawling: A total of 19 sea turtles were captured during Savannah, GA; St. Marys entrance, GA; Ponce de Leon in-
the wood debris removal project: 14 loggerheads and five let, FL; Canaveral ship channel, FL; Ft. Pierce inlet, FL; and
Kemps ridleys. Mean carapace size (in centimeters) of the St. Lucie inlet, FL. Trawl data from our study was collected
loggerheads was 62.9 CL and 58.5 CW (range 40.0-102.0 outside of the Wilmington shipping channel, which is the
CL, 40.0-93.0 CW); mean carapace size (in centimeters) of first of its kind. When the Wilmington shipping channel was
the Kemps ridleys was 34.3 CL and 36.4 CW (range 22.9- trawled before dredging, only one turtle was found (Wilder,

pers. comm.). It would seem that since we found so many kept us safe and alive. Volunteers who assisted with data
turtles outside of the Wilmington channel, other studies may collection include Mariah Humphrey, Wendy Kuehnl, Erica
actually be underestimates of the abundance of turtles in the Shelton, Tonya Kochick, Leslie Sydow, and Trevis Karper.
vicinity of those channels.
More work needs to be completed in this area during LITERATURE CITED
all times of the year to properly assess this area as an impor-
Butler, R.W., W.A. Nelson, and T.A. Henwood. 1987. A trawl
tant sea turtle habitat, especially for young loggerhead and
method survey for estimating loggerhead turtle, Caretta
Kemps ridley turtles. The majority of turtles captured and
carreta, abundance in five eastern Florida channels and
stranded were not adults, indicating the use of the river as a
inlets. Fish. Bull. 85(3): 447-453.
nursery area by immature turtles. This is especially impor-
Epperly, S.P., J. Braun and A.J. Chester. 1995. Aerial surveys
tant as the Cape Fear River is a deep water shipping channel
for sea turtles in North Carolina waters. Fish. Bull. 93:
which undergoes dredging on a frequent basis. Dredged chan-
254-261.
nels have been shown to attract sea turtles as reported by
Epperly, S.P, J. Braun and A. Veishlow. 1995. Sea turtles in
Butler et al.,(1987) in the Canaveral ship channel, Cape
North Carolina waters. Conservation Biol. 9(2): 384-
Canaveral, Florida.
394.
Epperly, S.P, J. Braun, A.J. Chester, F.A. Cross, J.V. Merriner,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
P.A. Tester, and J.A. Churchill. 1996. Beach strandings
We would like to thank the U.S. Army Corps of Engi- as an indicator of at-sea mortality of sea turtles. Bull.
neers, Wilmington District, for the opportunity to gather the Mar. Sci. 59(2): 289-297.
trawling information as endangered species observers and Epperly, S.P. and A. Veishlow. 1989. Description of sea turtles
for review of the manuscript. Specifically, we would like to distribution research in North Carolina. Proc. 9th Annual
thank Phil Payonk, Trudy Wilder, Bill Adams and Ed Turner. Symposium Sea Turtle Biol. and Conserv.
Tagging permits were issued by the National Marine Fisher- Epperly, S.P., A. Veishlow and J. Braun. 1991. Distribution
ies Service, Miami, Florida. We also thank members of the and species composition of sea turtles in North Carolina,
Sea Turtle Stranding and Salvage Network and especially 1989-1990. Proc. 11th Annu. Symp. Sea Turtle Biol. and
Therese Conant and Ruth Boettcher, Sea Turtle Coordina- Conserv.
tors, North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission. Caro- Nelson, D. 1996. Subadult loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta
lina Power and Light, Brunswick Plant, was also of great caretta) behavior in St. Marys entrance channel,
help. We are grateful to The Center for Marine Science Re- Georgia, U.S.A. PhD thesis. College of William and
search, Graduate School, International Programs, Mary.
Chancellors Office and the Advancement Office at the Uni- Van Dolah, R.F. and P.P. Maier. 1993. The distribution of
versity of North Carolina at Wilmington and the Bald Head loggerhead turtles (Caretta carreta) in the entrance
Island Conservancy and its members for support, as well as channel of Charleston Harbor, South Carolina, U.S.A.
The David and Lucile Packard Foundation and the Chelonia J. Coastal Research 9(4): 1004-1012.
Institute for providing travel support. During the project, we
were transported by Perry Johnston and Jeff Peoples who
REPRODUCTIVE CYCLES OF LEATHERBACK TURTLES
Debora Garca M. and Laura Sarti

Laboratorio de Tortugas Marinas, Fac. de Ciencias, UNAM. Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universtiaria, Mxico D.F: 04510,
Mxico. arbr@hp.fciencias.unam.mx
Over the last 15 years the leatherback turtle in with 3-year periods. Since the 1986-87 nesting season, year
Mexiquillo beach, Michoacan, Mexico, has been surveyed in which there was a peak of 4,816 clutches laid in 4 km
for nesting population size and some reproductive param- stretch of beach, an important decrease in nesting numbers
eters (e.g. remigration cycles). From a total of 4,411 observed has been observed, and by the 1996-1997 season only 60
females (tagged), only 238 have been found bearing tags from nesting were registered in 18 km of beach.
other nesting beaches. Most of these females are observed Females lay an average of 64 yolked eggs per clutch,
only once in the nesting beach and only 79 have returned to with an average frequency of about 4 clutches per season.
nest in Mexiquillo in subsequent years (barely 1.8% of the Each clutch is laid within a 9.3-day interval.
remigrations). Five percent of these females returned to nest
with one year periods, 39.2% with 2-year periods, and 36.7%

RESULTS FROM THE TAGGING PROGRAM ON JUVENILE HAWKSBILL TURTLES

OFF RIO LAGARTOS, YUCATN, MEXICO

INP Centro Regional de Investigacin Pesquera de Yucalpetn. AP 73, Progreso, Yucatn, CP 97320. Mxico
mgarduno@minter.cieamer.conacyt.mx
A tagging program of juvenile hawksbill turtles the origin (Y=0.378 X; r2=0.74) show an emigration rate of
(Eretmochelys imbricata) have made from 1985 up to 1997 37.8 km/100 days. We are shown length frequencies in 4
in the Rio Lagartos protected area. Tagged juvenile have been stages 1985-87(n=269), 1990-94 (n=197), 1996 (n=337) and
recaptured, must of them inshore of Rio Lagartos. Four have 1997 (n=256). In 1996 is shown two modes separated by 8
been recaptured in far places like the Miskito zone in Nica- cm could be interpret like two different cohorts. In 1997 there
ragua (900 km; 5 years), Laguna de Terminos (Atasta) in is mode about 24 cm. we interpret like a new recruitment
Campeche, Mex. (700 km; 6 years), Mariel Bay in Cuba (300 cohorts. The 4 length frequencies present the same range of
km; 3 years), and in front of Progreso, Yuc.; Mex. (250 km; size.
1.4 years). A regression analysis linear model adjusted to
FECUNDITY OF THE HAWKSBILL TURTLE ERETMOCHELYS IMBRICATA IN LAS

COLORADAS, YUCATAN

INP Centro Regional de Investigacin Pesquera de Yucalpetn. Mxico. mgarduno@minter.cieamer.conacyt.mx
We analyze the fecundity of the Hawksbill turtle

Eretmochelys imbricata. We dont found a variation in the
mean of eggs/nest between 6 years (F=1.3< F.05=2.21). Also
there are not a diminished in the number of eggs/nest through-
out the season (p>0.025; one tail). A regression analysis lin-
ear model between the size of the turtle v.s. number of eggs/
nest yields a slope (0 (p=0.0014), but there is a correlation
coefficient r2=9.48% very weak between the variables. Also
there is a difference in the mean eggs/nest between turtle
were record one time on the season v.s. those were record 3
or more times (155 v.s. 168 eggs/nest). These hypothesis has
been found in the literature.
BIAS-FREE ESTIMATES OF MEASUREMENT ERROR IN SEA TURTLE

MORPHOMETRIC DATA COLLECTION
Jonathan Gorham, Michael Bresette, and Bruce Peery

Quantum Resources, Inc. P.O. Box 1691, Jensen Beach FL 34958 U.S.A. jonathan_gorham@email.fpl.com
Quantification of measurement error is a critical factor culations. Turtles selected for this study were recaptures from
in somatic growth rate studies, particularly with slow grow- our tagging program with at large intervals of less than 14
ing animals. Most estimates of error have been generated by days, where true growth is negligible (less than 0.01cm from
repeated measurements of an individual turtle, either with our growth data). Therefore, any measurement differences
one or several observers. Whenever observers are aware data between subsequent recaptures are attributable solely to mea-
is being collected for calculating measurement error, there is surement error. Results indicate that measurement error for
an almost unavoidable bias to minimize error. In our study, experienced observers is small, but is sufficient to obscure
straight and over the curve measurements were collected real growth over short recapture intervals of 1-2 months. In
under routine field conditions by multiple observers who were all cases, straight line measurements were found to be more
unaware the data would be used for measurement error cal- reliable than over the curve measurements.

TIME SERIES FRAMEWORK (TSF): A TOOL FOR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT OF

MARINE TURTLES MERRITT ISLAND, FLORIDA, U.S.A.
Mark J. Provancha1, Jane A. Provancha1, Joao Ribeiro da Costa1, and Henrique Bentes de Jesus2
1
Dynamac Corporation, Kennedy Space Center, Florida, U.S.A.
2
Chiron, Information Systems, Lisbon, Portugal. Mark.Provancha-1@ksc.nasa.gov
A times series framework (TSF) tool was utilized to cludes the Browser tool, controlling all the navigation in the
view time series data for marine turtles as related to conser- database, the Manager Tool controlling data analysis, the In-
vation efforts at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) and the Merritt spector Tool presenting time series characteristics, the Dis-
Island National Wildlife Refuge (MINWR). Recently, play Tool creating tabular presentations of data, a Plotter
109,587 records were entered into an Oracle database. Pa- Tool, the Slide Show Tool associating images with themes
rameters measured for species Caretta caretta and Chelonia and sites, and the Slide Tool presenting selected images. The
mydas included: nests, false crawls above and below the high TSF browser allows the user to search the desired datasets
tide, number of nest depredated, and disturbed. Future ini- within the database and select data based on location or pa-
tiatives will include adding marine turtle netting data col- rameter. Furthermore, TSF allows for a GIS interface be-
lected from the lagoonal waters and beach temperature pro- tween ArcView and the database. The user selects the datasets
files of KSC. Data are queried and viewed using the TSF to query and a graphical display of those selected sites is
browser which may run in a UNIX or Windows environment presented in the GIS by accessing information within the da-
without prior knowledge of standard query language (SQL) tabase.
or Oracles procedural language (PL). The TSF browser in-
COMPUTER PROGRAM THAT GENERATES A LESLIE MATRIX FOR THE ANALYSIS

OF THE TAGGED INFORMATION IN THE SEA TURTLE
No Andrs Villanueva Lpez 1, Ren Mrquez Milln1, Miguel Angel Carrasco Aguila1, Mara Carmen Jimnez
Quiroz1, Juan Daz Flores2, and Manuel Snchez Perez2
1
Centro Regional de Investigaciones Pesqueras de Manzanillo, Playa Ventanas s/n. Apartado Postal 591, Manzanillo, Colima,
Mxico, C.P. 28200.
2
Instituto Nacional de la Pesca Pitgoras No. 1320, 4to piso, Col. Santa Cruz Atoyac, Mxico, D.F. 03310. anoevi@bay.net.mx
A computer program, compiled in Clipper 5.2 language

was done, that can organize the registers of tagged turtles of
a seasons and follow an individual during and inside each
season, it also elaborates abstracts of the information. The
program used as reference the data base information of the
beach Rancho Nuevo, Tamaulipas, on Kemps ridley
(Lepidochelys kempii). Information of 8,000 registers, on
electronic tags of the Pittag (Passive Integrated Transporder
Tag) of the years from 1988 to 1997 were analyzed with the
Leslie Matrix, which simplifies the interpretation of the in-
formation and its posterior analysis. The program can purify
any information in relation to different tagged species of sea
turtle or other animals. The program is friendly, because it
works in basic operative system (MS-DOS), with low re-
sources of hardware and it is compatible with any Windows
environment. The information to process must have a DBF
version 4 format, with the fields of the tagged information
organized in vertical form, the capacity of the program is
limited to the computer size.

A DOUBLE-CHAMBERED EGG CHAMBER IN A LOGGERHEAD TURTLE (CARETTA

CARETTA) NEST FROM NORTHWEST FLORIDA, U.S.A.
Martha L. Maglothin, Margaret M. Lamont, and Raymond R. Carthy

Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, U.S.A. MMLAM@gnv.ifas.ufl.edu
Variations in the shape of a sea turtles egg chamber in 15a, 35 (97.2%) hatched, and of the 60 eggs in 15b, 54
have been observed, however the general shape of one egg (90%) hatched. Nest 33 experienced emergence on August
chamber with one surface opening is consistent. A nest of 30/31, and of the 154 eggs, 112 (72.7%) hatched.
two egg chambers with one common opening has not Because the nests shared similar characteristics, it
previously been reported. In 1997, two loggerhead turtle appears the same turtle laid both double-chambered nests,
(Caretta caretta) nests were discovered along Cape San Blas, although it is unknown how this was accomplished. The shape
Florida with two egg chambers joined by a single surface of the nesting crawls and the conjoined egg chambers was
opening. The first nest (#15) was observed on June 20, 1997, typical, therefore variation was most likely not in the shape
at mile marker 2.56. Both chambers were not initially of the flipper. Possibly the turtle had an abnormality in the
discovered, therefore only 60 of 96 eggs were relocated (60 function of the rear flippers causing her dig a separate
eggs; #15a). The remaining eggs (#15b) were inadvertently chamber with each flipper. Hatching success indicated the
left in situ. On July 3, a second double-chambered nest (#33) eggs laid by the turtle were viable. In addition, the double-
was observed at mile marker 2.55, and all 154 eggs were chambered nests appear to provide an adequate environment
relocated. Hatchlings emerged from Nest 15a on August 19/ for successful incubation and hatching.
20 and from Nest 15b on the following night. Of the 36 eggs
DIET COMPOSITION OF THE BLACK SEA TURTLE, CHELONIA MYDAS AGASSIZII,

NEAR BAJA CALIFORNIA, MEXICO.
Jeffrey A. Seminoff 1, Wallace J. Nichols1, Antonio Resendiz2, and Anthony Galvan1

1
Wildlife and Fisheries Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 U.S.A. seminoff@ccit.arizona.edu
2
Centro Regional de Investigacion Pesquera, El Sauzal de Rodriguez, Ensenada, Baja California, Mxico.
INTRODUCTION
The coastal waters of the Baja California peninsula have (Townsend, 1916; Nelson, 1921; Hodge, 1979). Although
been considered important to the life history of the black sea to date few data have revealed eelgrass consumption by black
turtle, Chelonia mydas agassizii (Townsend, 1916; Carr, turtles in this region (Stinson, 1984), consumption of eel-
1961; Caldwell, 1962; Felger, 1976, Alvarado and Figueroa, grass by black sea turtles has been documented at similar
1992; Cliffton et al., 1982). The Gulf of California on the latitudes within the Gulf (Felger and Moser, 1973).
eastern coast of the peninsula and the eastern Pacific ocean While it is apparent coastal ecosystems along the Baja
on the west offer a variety of marine habitats. As turtles move California peninsula may provide a variety of potential food
into the Gulf, they enter a semi-enclosed body of water that resources for black sea turtles, the diet of this species is poorly
is considered a dynamic and productive ecosystem (Brusca understood. Based on three years of data, it appears that black
1980, Pacheco and Zertuche 1996). Supported by seasonal turtles in the Gulf are primarily herbivorous. In the Pacific,
upwelling of nutrient rich waters, coastal areas of this sea it is probable that blacks consume eelgrass, but data are lack-
host diverse assemblages of fish (Thomson et al.,1979), in- ing. In this report we present additional data from the Gulf
vertebrates (Brusca 1980), marine alga (Norris 1975), and of California and preliminary results from the Pacific coast
seagrasses (Felger and Moser 1973). Previous data from the of the Baja peninsula.
Gulf shows that black turtle diet is composed primarily of
red algae species (Seminoff et al., In press). In addition, in- METHODS
vertebrates such as sponge, soft corrals, Sabellid worms, and
Turtle capture was facilitated by the use of two entangle-
gastropods are ingested. ment nets (100 m x 8 m, mesh size= 60cm stretched). Nets
Upon dispersal to Pacific coastal waters of the Baja were regularly monitored during each netting trial and turtles
peninsula, turtles enter a region characterized by sandy coasts were removed immediately to minimize capture-related
interspersed with bays and estuaries. These bays are typi- stress. Upon capture, straight carapace length (SCL), weight,
cally soft bottom and host seagrass communities dominated and other physical data were recorded and diet samples col-
by eelgrass, Zostera marina (Dawson, 1951). Black sea turtles lected. Oral examination was used to recover residual food
have been documented as historically abundant these areas particles and lavage, the esophageal flushing of food com-
166 Nesting and Foraging Behavior / Poster presentations

ponents, was performed to recover ingested food samples Though over 20 algae/seagrass species were recovered in
(Forbes and Limpus, 1993). In-flow and retrieval tubes mea- lavage samples from both coasts, there were only eight ma-
sured 1.5 m. For small turtles (<55 cm SCL), both tubes were jor diet components. We define major diet components as
12 mm inner diameter (I.D.) and 17 mm outer diameter any food item that comprises >5% of total volume of at least
(O.D.). For large turtles (>55 cm SCL) in-flow tubes remained one sample. Other algae with lower consumption levels may
12 mm I.D. / 17 mm O.D. and retrieval tubes measured 17 have been incidentally taken during foraging. In all cases,
mm I.D. and 21 mm O.D. Volume was calculated through the major algae species present in lavage samples were con-
water displacement in a graduated cylinder. sistent with predominant algae species in the area of cap-
Fecal samples were collected from a subset of captures. ture. For example, the high proportion Gracilariopsis
All fecal samples were collected from the Bahia de Los An- laeminoformis and Gracilaria robusta in lavage samples from
geles study area. For this study turtles were placed into soli- Bahia de Los Angeles may reflect the high abundance of
tary holding tanks (2 m diameter) at the CRIP Sea Turtle these species at this study area (Pacheco-Ruiz, pers. com.).
Research Station in Bahia de Los Angeles. Turtles were Fecal sampling yielded the highest number of non-al-
monitored and feces were removed immediately after excre- gal food items recovered (20 spp.) when compared to lavage
tion. All turtles were released at the site of initial capture samples (9 spp). There are a number of possible explana-
within 24 hours. tions for this. First, while lavage samples represent recent
feeding, fecal samples may represent feeding over a longer
RESULTS period of time and therefore increase the likelihood of re-
covering more species. Second, invertebrate fragments may
Lavage samples were collected from a total of 84 turtles
be too large to pass through the lavage retrieval tube (17 mm
from five sites. Average lavage sample volume was 437 ml.
O.D.). Nevertheless, this demonstrates the importance of
Fecal samples were collected from a total of 34 individuals.
using lavage and fecal sampling in the analysis of diet com-
All fecal samples were collected at the Bahia de Los Ange-
position. In our study, the concurrent use of both methods
les study site. Average sample vol. was 587 ml.
concurrently greatly increased the number of species recov-
In the Gulf of California, marine algae accounted for
ered.
92% of the average lavage sample volume. A total of 20
Non-algal species were more prevalent in Gulf of Cali-
algae species were recovered, 8 major diet components. Over-
fornia samples as compared to those from the Pacific. This
all, Rhodophyta dominated with an average of 89% sample
apparent higher use of non-algal resources may reflect high
volume from the Gulf. The most prevalent was Gracilariopsis
prevalence of macroinvertebrates in the rocky shoreline habi-
laeminoformis (83% of average sample volume, freq. of oc-
tats of the Gulf (Brusca 1980). Of particular interest was the
currence = 71/78 samples). Further, in the 78 lavage samples,
frequent occurrence of Sabellid worms in both lavage and
red algae were dominant (72 samples with >5% sample vol-
fecal samples. These worms were prevalent in a majority of
ume). Chlorophyta was second most utilized (17 samples
samples. Considering their patchy distribution, it is possible
with >5% sample volume) and Phaeophyta was the least fre-
that these items are actively sought out during foraging ac-
quent (1 sample with >5% sample volume).
tivities. A similar scenario may occur with the fleshy sea
In Bahia de Los Angeles, non-algal diet components
pen, Ptilosarcus undulatus. This solitary species appears to
included a total of 22 species; 9 spp. recovered from lavage
be uncommon in the study area yet in several fecal samples
and 20 spp. from feces. The most frequently occurring non-
(N=7) up to 50 tests were recovered.
algal ingesta included Sabellid worms (56% of samples),
The frequent occurrence of substrate particles in di-
sponges (47%), Stinging Hydroids (41%), small Gastropods
etary samples from all sites suggests that feeding turtles may
(41%), and sea pen tests (23%). Plastic debris was found in
be may be ingesting this material incidentally as they closely
20% of all samples. Substrate particles were found in a total
crop seagrass and algae. Substrate may also be ingested as
of 61% of lavage and 97% of fecal samples.
turtles feed on Sabellid worms, fleshy sea pens, and other
Preliminary data from the Pacific show marine algae benthic organisms.
and seagrass accounted for 99% of the average sample vol-
ume. Eelgrass (Zostera marina) was the most prevalent CONCLUSION
seagrass (44% average sample volume, occurred in 4/6 of
samples) and the red algae Gracilaria spp. was the most Although Chelonia mydas agassizii utilize non-algae
prevalent marine algae (47%, 4/6). In addition, the seagrass food resources, their predominantly herbivorous diet is con-
Halodule wrightii (1.6%, 4/6) and marine algae Codium sp. sistent with other Chelonia populations. To further elucidate
(10%, 1/6), Ulva lactuca (<1%, 1/6), and Sargassum sp. this trend, we must continue to collect dietary samples from
(<1%, 1/6) were found. Non-algal items included soft a variety of sites along the Baja California peninsula. Addi-
Gorgonia (<1%, 2/6) and substrate (<1%, 5/6). tionally, we recommend that analyses of diet composition of
other Chelonia populations utilize both lavage and fecal sam-
DISCUSSION pling in order to maximize the number of food species re-
covered.
Black turtles feeding along the shores of the Baja Cali- This analysis of diet composition is the first step to-
fornia peninsula exhibit a strong tendency toward herbivory. wards understanding the feeding ecology of the black sea
Poster presentations / Nesting and Foraging Behavior 167

turtle in Baja Californian waters. Future study will include Cliffton, K., D.O. Cornejo, and R.S. Felger. 1982. Sea turtles
the analysis of local movement and food availability within of the Pacific coast of Mexico. In: K. Bjorndal (Ed.),
individual homeranges. When this information is coupled Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtles. Smithsonian
with diet composition, a more thorough understanding of Inst. Press, Wash., D.C. pp. 199-209.
black sea turtle behavior and feeding ecology will be gained. Dawson, E.Y. 1951. A further study of upweling and
Furthermore, by learning what resources they are most com- associated vegetation along Pacific Baja California,
monly using and where they are moving on a daily basis, we Mexico. J.Mar.Res. 10:39-58.
can begin to make educated management decisions regard- Felger, R.S., and M.B. Moser. 1973. Eelgrass (Zostera
ing gill netting activities and commercial algae harvest. marina L.) in the Gulf of California: Discovery of its
nutritional value by the Seri indians. Science 181:355-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 356.
Forbes, G. and C. Limpus. 1993. A non-lethal method for
We are indebted to the following individuals for their
retrieving stomach contents from sea turtles. Wildl. Res.
generous assistance during this study: Ana Barragan, Marcos
20:339-343.
Blanco, Kim Cliffton, Richard Felger, Jennifer Gilmore,
Hodge, R.P. 1979. Geographic distribution: Chelonia mydas
Amanda Jaksha, Isai Pacheco-Ruiz, Martin Pepper, Bety
agassizii. Herp. Rev. 12(3):83-84.
Resendiz, Mauro Rosini, Cecil Schwalbe, Francisco Smith,
Nelson, E.W. 1921. Lower California and its natural
Yoshio Suzuki, Donald Thomson, and all the Earthwatch team
resources. Mem. Natl. Acad. Sci. 16(1):194pp.
members. Further, we thank Earthwatch Institute, Wallace
Norris, J.N. 1975. Marine Algae of the Northern Gulf of
Research Foundation, University of Arizona, and National
California. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California,
Geographic Television for financial and logistical support.
Santa Barbara. 575pp.
This research was performed under permits issued by
Pacheco-Ruiz, I. and J.A. Zertuche-Gonzalez. 1996b. Green
Secretaria de Medio Ambiente, Recursos Naturales, y Pesca
algae (Chlorophyta) from Bahia de Los Angeles, Gulf
(SEMARNAP); Permiso Pesca de Fomento No. 150496-213-
of California, Mexico. Botanica Marina 39: 431-433.
03; No. 269507-213-03, and No. DOO 750-07637. We would
Seminoff, J.A., W.J. Nichols, and A. Resendiz. In Press. Diet
like to give our thanks to the Government of Mexico.
composition of the black sea turtle, Chelonia mydas
agassizii, near Bahia de Los Angeles, Gulf of California,
LITERATURE CITED
Mexico. Proceedings of the 17th annual Symposium on
Alvarado, J. and A. Figueroa. 1992. Recapturas post- Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation.
anidatorias de hembras de tortuga marina negra Stinson, M.L. 1984. Biology of the sea turtles of San Diego
(Chelonia agassizii) marcadas en Mich, Mex. Biotropica Bay, California, and in the northeastern Pacific Ocean.
24(4):560- 566. Unpublished MS Thesis, S.D. State U. 285pp.
Brusca, R.C. 1980. Common intertidal invertebrates of the Thomson, D.A., L. Findley, and A. Kerstitch. 1979. Common
Gulf of California. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, reef fishes from the Sea of Cortez. John Wiley and Sons,
AZ. 513pp. New York. 302pp.
Carr, A. 1961. Pacific turtle problem. Natural History 70:64- Townsend, C.H. 1916. Voyage of the Albatross to the Gulf
71. of California in 1911. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.
35(24):399-476.
REMOTE VIDEO CAMERAS AS TOOLS FOR STUDYING TURTLE BEHAVIOR
Robert P. van Dam1 and Carlos E. Diez2

Mona Island Hawksbill Research
1
Apartado Postal 121-031, Mxico DF 04361, Mxico. rvandam@compuserve.com
2
Negociado de Pesca y Vida Silvestre, Depto. de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales, P.O. Box 9066600, San Juan, Puerto
Rico, 00906-6600,
During the 1997 field season we employed two differ- A- CRITTERCAM

ent video camera systems to remotely observe the behavior The Crittercam was developed by Greg Marshall (Na-
of hawksbill turtles at Mona and Monito Islands (Puerto tional Geographic Television) for recording the behavior of
Rico). The recording devices, named Crittercam and Benthos- animals from a close perspective. Several models of this cam-
cam, allow turtle conduct to be monitored without the inter- era system exist and have been successfully deployed on a
fering presence of human observers. Hawksbill turtles rang- variety of large marine animals, such as seals and sharks.
ing from 20 cm juveniles to adults of both sexes are present The shallow water Crittercam used in this study consists of a
in the shallow-water habitats of the islands.. reconfigured Sony Hi8 video camera linked to a computer

Turtle ID SCL (cm) Body mass (kg) Deployment dates

Table A-1. Crittercam deployments on 95-077 77.0 50 2> 4-SEP-97
adult male hawksbills. 97-124 81.4 ~66 5> 6-SEP-97
97-112 82.0 60 11>13-SEP-97
controller and placed in a cylindrical metal housing. Exter- sumer-grade Sony 8mm video camera fitted with a wide angle
nal sensors include hydrostatic pressure for recording dive lens adapter and external sealed lead-acid battery. A timelapse
profiles. controller directs the camera to record during 5 seconds out
of every 30 seconds. Recording are suppressed at night
A- METHODS (19:00-06:00 hrs) with a programmable timer. Using a 150
min tape cassette and with the camera recording mode set to
Adult male hawksbills turtles were selected as candi- long play (LP), video surveillance covering >2 days is pos-
dates for Crittercam deployment. These large animals inhabit
sible per deployment.
the waters adjacent to the nesting beaches of Mona Island
for periods of approximately two months. Peak abundance
of males is reached in September, the month corresponding B- METHODS
with the height of the nesting season, and matings are fre- The Benthos-cam was deployed at a total of nine known
quently observed at this time. or suspected feeding sites around Mona and Monito Islands,
Turtles were captured by hand and brought aboard the in a variety of habitats and at depths of 10-24m. Deploy-
research boat for camera deployment. The anterior central ments typically lasted two days, each yielding >2000 video
scutes of the carapace were scrubbed and sandpapered, after segments and a total monitoring time of >3 hrs per site.
removal of obstructing barnacles. Ten-Set brand two-part
epoxy was used to adhere the forward-looking camera onto B- RESULTS
the carapace. Sonic and VHF radio transmitters were added
to the camera to facilitate its recovery. Turtles were released All potential feeding sites monitored using the Benthos-
at the location of capture as soon as the epoxy had hardened cam revealed hawksbill turtle activity. Turtles observed
(within ~1 hrs of capture). ranged from ~35cm SCL juveniles to large adults. Behav-
Video recording was set to 90 seconds of recording iors most frequently observed were actual feedings or turtles
every 10 min, with recordings disabled at night. A 180 min sampling prey sponges (Table AB-2). Individual turtles fed
video tape therefore allowed the monitoring of up to 1.5 days at large Geodia neptuni sponges for periods of up to 1 hr,
of turtle behavior. The time-depth recorder incorporated into with regular breaks for respiration, and returned to feed on
the Crittercam controller was set to record continuously from the same sponge on consecutive days. One turtle feeding on
turtle release, registering depth at 7.2 second intervals. Geodia behaved aggressively towards another (biting it in
Turtle recapture by hand followed tracking of the ani- the neck), perhaps to avoid competition at the feeding site.
mals through VHF and sonic telemetry, and by visual obser- Table AB-2. Classification of turtle behaviors monitored by Crittercam
vation. Recaptured turtles were brought aboard the research and Benthos-cam, listed in decreasing order of occurrence
boat for camera detachment and removal of epoxy residue. CRITTERCAM (ADULT MALES) BENTHOS-CAM
Turtles were released at the location of recapture as soon as Resting on bottom Swimming through feeding site
Steady swimming over seafloor/reef Feeding
this was completed. Surfacing to breathe Sampling sponge
Feeding Fighting
Sampling (biting) benthos
A- RESULTS Encounters with other turtles
Scraping on reef
Crittercams were deployed on three adult males and Stretching
B- Benthos-cam
subsequently recovered (Table A-1). Behaviors most fre-
quently observed were resting on the seafloor and cruising
(Table AB-2). Encounters between turtles occurred regularly, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
with male-male interactions most frequent. No copulation
We thank Birgit Buhleier and Greg Marshall (National
was observed involving the monitored animals, however the
Geographic Television) for Crittercam collaborations. We
behaviors exhibited are consistent with mating-related con-
are grateful to Mnica Bustamante, Yolanda Len, Michelle
duct (cruising to intercept females). These males foraged
Schrer and Kathy Stevens for assistance in the field. Gerald
regularly at depths from 12m to >50m, apparently on Geodia
Kooyman (Scripps Institution of Oceanography) provided
neptuni and other sponges. The Crittercam images facilitate
the housing for Benthos-cam. Support for our work on Mona
interpretation of time-depth records and more accurately clas-
and Monito Islands is provided by U.S. National Marine Fish-
sify turtle diving behavior.
eries Service, Japan Bekko Association, Departamento de
Recursos Naturales y Ambientales (Puerto Rico), U.S. Fish
B- BENTHOS- CAM
and Wildlife Service. Our work is conducted under permits
The Benthos-cam is a submersible video system for sur- from US-NMFS and PR-DRNA.
veillance of a fixed site on the seafloor. It consists of a con-

FACTORS INFLUENCING WITHIN-BEACH NEST DISTRIBUTION IN HAWKSBILL

TURTLES
Kimberly K. Woody1, Julia A. Horrocks2, and Lotus A. Vermeer1

1
Bellairs Research Institute, St. James, Barbados. bellairs@sunbeach.net
2
Department of Biological and Chemical Sciences, University of the West Indies, Barbados
INTRODUCTION
Mean % hatching success No. Nests/sq.ft
The highest density of hawksbill (Eretmochelys
imbricata) nesting in Barbados occurs on a relatively devel- 100 0.025
90
oped 1.5 km stretch of beach on the south west coast of the
Mean % hatching success

80 0.02
island. In 1997, 22 females were tagged whilst nesting on 70
No. nests/sq.ft
this beach. The distribution of nesting on this beach stretch 60 0.015
50
has not previously been assessed. 40 0.01
Nesting frequency may differ on different segments of 30
the beach for several reasons. More nesting may occur on 20 0.005
10
some beach segments than others simply because segments
0 0
vary in size, i.e., there is more available nesting space on 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
some beach segments than others. Females may prefer to Beach segment
nest in some beach segments more than others because the Figure 1. Chart showing nest density and % of hatching success in
segments have physical characteristics that increase the hatch- the eight beach segments.
ing success of nests. Females may nest more frequently on
Hatching success (% eggs that hatched) did not differ
some beach segments because they are more accessible from
between the eight beach segments (ANOVA on transformed
the sea, i.e. less beach frontage is obstructed by nearshore
data; F=0.53; P>0.05, see Figure 1), suggesting that females
rubble reefs. Finally nesting frequency may be higher on some
are not choosing segments based on characteristics of the
beach segments than others because females avoid brightly
beach that result in higher hatching success. The % of
illuminated beach areas. The purpose of this study was to
beachfront obstructed by exposed reef rubble at low tide dif-
investigate the distribution of hawksbill nesting along this
fered between beach segments (see Figure 2), but was not
most frequently used beach stretch in Barbados, and to as-
correlated with nest density on the beach segments (rs=-0.36,
sess the factors that might be influencing the distribution.
P>0.05).
METHODS % Beach Obstructed No. Nests/sq.ft
The dataset used for the study includes all nesting ac- 100 0.025
tivities (N=439) that occurred along this beach over a five 90

80 0.02
year monitoring period (1993-1997). Nests were recorded
% Beach Obstructed
70
as occurring within one of eight beach segments along the
No. nest/sq.m
60 0.015
stretch, from Segment 1 in the west to Segment 8 in the east 50
(see study area). 40 0.01

30
The % of beach frontage obstructed by nearshore rubble
20 0.005
reefs was measured at low tide. Luminance at points of emer- 10
gence from the sea and at nest sites was measured using a 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Minolta LS-100 luminance meter.
Beach segment
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION Figure 2. Chart showing nest density and % of beach obstructed
reef rubble at low tide in the eight beach segments.
Over the five-year period, the number of hawksbill nests
was not uniform across the eight beach segments (ANOVA; Luminance at points of turtle emergence from the sea
F=2.9, P<0.02). Most nests occurred in beach segments 1, 4 differed signficantly between beach segments (ANOVA;
and 5, and this pattern was consistent across years (Chi- F=4.24, P<0.001), and was significantly correlated with nest
square contingency, X2=43.4, P<0.001). The number of nests density on the beach segments (Figure 3; rs=-0.76, P<0.05).
in a segment was not correlated with the area of the segment Luminance at nest sites also differed significantly between
(Spearmans r=-0.24; P>0.05), the most heavily used seg- beach segments (ANOVA; F=3.75, P<0.003). Luminance at
ment (Segment 1) having the smallest beach area. This sug- emergence points was significantly correlated with luminance
gests that nest density must vary between segments, and this at nest sites across beach segments (rs=0.79, P<0.05). Beach
was confirmed by ANOVA (F=6.39; P<0.0001). segments with high nest site luminance tended to have lower
nest density, but the relationship was not statistically signifi-

Mean luminance at emrgence pints (candles/sq.m) No. Nests/sq.ft
4 0.025
Mean luminance at emrgence
3.5
0.02
3
pints (candles/sq.m)
No. nests/sq.ft
2.5 0.015
2
1.5 0.01
1
0.005
0.5
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Beach segment
Figure 3. Chart showing nest denity and mean luminance levels at

emergence points onto the beach from the sea in eight beach
cant (Figure 4; rs=-0.64, P=0.08). The results suggest that, at

the spatial scale investigated here (i.e. 8 beach segments along
a 1.5 km beach stretch), the best predictor of nest site distri-
bution is the degree of luminance experienced by females as
they emerge from the sea. Emerging females avoid beach
segments which they perceive as more illuminated.
Mean luminance at emrgence pints (candles/sq.m) No. Nests/sq.ft
6 0.025
Mea n lumina nce a t emrgence
5
0.02
pints (candles/sq.m)
4
No. nests/sq.ft
0.015
3
0.01
2
0.005
1
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Beach segme nt
Figure 4. Chart showing nest density and mean luminance levels at

nest sites in the eight beach segments.

THE SEA TURTLE POGRAM OF XCARET, 97 NESTINGS SEASON RESULTS.
Alejandro Arenas, Rogelio Villavicencio, Adriana DAmiano, Leonel Gomez, and Rodolfo Raigoza.
Acuario Xcaret, Carretera Chetumal-Puerto Jurez km 282, Playa del Carmen, Quintana Roo, Mxico. CP 77710.
acuario@cancun.rce.com.mx
Xcaret is located near to Playa del Carmen city. Since The turtle breeding grounds in operation are actually run
1991 we have participated in various activities for preser- by the federal government, universities, conservation soci-
vation and research with sea turtles in Mexican Caribbean eties, local and state authorities and ministries. In the state
of Quintana Roo, the Xcaret Park controls the protection of
approximately 26.3 miles of coastline. From 1991 until
1995, Xcaret collaborated with the disappear Centro de
Investigaciones de Quintana Roo (CIQRO) in the turtle
protection base in Xcacel (XC) beach, supplying food for
breeding and supporting various activities in the program.
In 1996 Xcaret, with the purpose of continuing the works
done the during the former 9 years by CIQRO together with
the Delegacin de la Secretaria del Medio Ambiente
Recursos Naturales y Pesca (SEMARNAP) in Q. Roo, the
protection and vigilance project towards other beaches
within the Maya Riviera, Tulums National park and part
of the Sian kaan Biosphere Reserve.
In 1997 the parks educational program and hatching
exhibitions exceeded our expectation. Approximately 200
hatching green turtles were successfully kept in captivity.
We took special care of them and they were displayed dur-
ing their first year of life, we showed their development
and talks about their reproduction were given to the public.
This starting program fulfilled our objective of being purely
educational. In grounds so we obtained more and better
information about nesting females. This whole work was
done in co-ordination with the ministry of SEMARNAP,
the head of the Sian Kaan Biosphere Reserve and the park
Xel -Ha, we also took advice from El Colegio de la Frontera
beaches. This paper, show the results of the program in 1997.
We protected 12 beaches, covered approximately 26.3 miles
long, from May to October. Some nests were left in situ and
others were taken to hatcheries. In total we registered 1391 100
10
loggerhead nests (Caretta caretta) and 415 green turtle nests 8
(Chelonia mydas). The principal beaches in this season are 6
Aventuras DIF (AV), Chemuyil (CH), Xcacel (XC), Punta 4
Cadena (PC). 114006 loggerhead and 39625 green turtle 2
hatchlings were released. 11811 loggerhead and 5169 green 0
Predatorised
Flooded
analysed
Destroyed
Thieved
turtle hatchlings were tagged using the living tag tech-

Lost
Successful
Not
nest
nique. 200 green turtle hatchlings kept in captivity since

last year in the park we have conducted educational activi-
ties for more than 300,000 visitors. We improved the tech-
nique of using incubators and nowadays it is one of our
atractions and a good alternative for environmental educa- Cc% Cm%
tion. This year 21 C. mydas nests and 11 C. caretta nests
were, also taking useful data for research projects on the Figure 1. Situation of nests
park sea turtles.
Conserving the countrys natural resources has not only Sur (ECOSUR). This has generated the present project
been a governmental concern, in the last 20 years non gov- whose main objective is to support the preservation of ma-
ernmental organisations have also played an increasing role. rine turtle populations, as well as to generate useful scien-
The protection of marine turtles has had strong support.
172 Nesting Beaches / Poster presentations

3 50
a low period, the number of turtle arrivals is fewer when
3 00 compared to previous years. It has been observed that these
2 50 species demonstrate biannual cycles, in the number of turtles
2 00
that nest on the coasts of Quintana Roo, year after year.
1 50
1 00 During the hatching season in 1997 two sets of records
50 were made on the nesting green turtles found, in accordance
0
whit the 1er. Encuentro Regional para la Estandarizacin
CH 0.2 km
PM 2.5 km
PC 0.3 km
CP 5.0 km
XC 2.5 km
XH 0.3 km
PV 4.5 km
AV 1.5 km
TK 3.0 km
YY 2.0 km
SJ 5.5 km
de Mtodos de Campo en los Programas de Conservacin
de la Tortuga Marina co-ordinated by Biol. Laura Sarti
N es ts of Cm N es ts of C c
and M. en C. Julio Zurita. This was applied to a total of 238
of turtles, 138 Caretta caretta and 105 Chelonia mydas.
Figure 2. Importance of nesting according to extention of the beach
The Figure 3 shows observed that the majority number of
hatchings was achieved in Xcacel (XC), this applies to both
C. caretta and C. mydas species. Other beaches which main-
tific information which helps to apply the best unknowledge tain a similarity in breeding patterns of the two species are
to the cause. Kanzul (KZ), Punta Venado (PV) and Yu-yum (YY); but in
different proportions. On the other hand, dissimilarity can
Daily visits to the nesting sites to locate and protect
be seen in San Juan (SJ), Tankah (TK) and Chemuyil (CH).
breeding females. They show a bigger number of C. mydas hatchlings, while
Recording of nursing details, counting of breeding the dominating number of C. caretta is found on the beaches
females, their nests and eggs laid. of Aventuras DIF (AV), Xel-h and Punta Cadena (PC).
Collecting and transplantation of eggs to protect in- What is important to emphasise is that in order to protect
cubation units, especially those nests vulnerable to
being destroyed by natural phenomena or predators.
Incubation of eggs, care and observation of broods 30
and rate of deaths at birth. 25
Nests near to hatching time were used in the exhibi- 20
tion incubators. 15
The eggs from nests used in the incubators were sepa- 10
rated into: apparent development and non-apparent 5
development, these were considered infertile and not 0
used.
CP
CH
PC
XC
PA
XH
AV
PV
SJ
TK
KZ
YY
The eggs with apparent development were placed in
crystal panelled incubators to simulate a natural turtle % Hatchling Cc % H atchling Cm
nest. these species it is not sufficient enough to cover a few

The broods were registered by following the tech-
nique of Hendrickson and Hendrickson (1981) tech- Figure 3. Percentage of hatchlings for species for beach
nique of live tagging, this has been used for several
years on the turtles born at Xcacel (XC) beach beaches, but it is necessary to try to enlarge the breeding
grounds. Finally we also see results of the beaches
Concerning the Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) Caahpechen-Lirios (CP), Yu-yum (YY) and San Juan (SJ)
during this season a total of 1391 nests were in the protect which are inside Sian Kaan Biosphere Reserve; Kanzul
area: 5.68% was predated, 0.14% was destroyed by other (KZ) is part of Tulums hotel zone (still undeveloped) and
turtles, 1.37% flooded, 3.81% were lost and 4.46% thieved, the rest of the beaches are part of the Mayan Riviera.
84.54% represents the successful nests, this achievement is The Figures 4.1 and 4.2 show the occupancy of nests
less than the results obtained for Chelonia mydas (Figure of both C. caretta and C. mydas in all the beaches. The
1). There were quite fewer green turtle (Chelonia mydas) percentages of emergence success, hatching success and sur-
nests a total of 414 were registered of which 3.14 were vivals can be appreciated in each case. What we have in
predatorised, 2.42% were lost, 1.93% thieved, 0.72% of nests Aventuras DIF (AV) is an extreme difference in percentage
were not analysed as the season ended and the sites were of emergence and successes of almost 2% for C. caretta
not revised, 0.24% of the nests were flooded leaving a and 1% for C. mydas, it is of vital importance to emphasise
91.54% of the nests considered successful (Figure 1). The that the beach site was only using the corral method, same
principal beaches of nesting during this season are Aventuras as in Chemuyil (CH) where the results indicate the same
DIF (AV), Chemuyil (CH), Xcacel (XC) and Xel-ha (XH) percentages but more balanced, with a difference of 2% in
in relation for the extension for the beach to coincide with both species. At Xcacel (XC) the results of emergence is
Zurita et al. (1993) (Figure 2). One should consider this as
Poster presentations / Nesting Beaches 173

1 8
1 6
1 4
1 2
1 0
8
6
4
2
0
XC reubicated
CP reubicated
XH reubicated
KZ reubicated
CH corral
AV corral
XC corral
XH corral
PM in situ
PC in situ
CP in situ
XC in situ
PV in situ
XH in situ
KZ corral
YY in situ
KZ in situ
SJ in situ
TK in situ
% E m erge n ce s u cce s % H a tc h in g S u c c e s s % S u r v iv o r
Figure 4.1. Use of the nests for Cc
3% higher from the success rate for C. caretta and a differ- sults (Figure 5). As touristic development is starting to in-
ence of 2% for C. mydas, the difference between corrals terfere with the turtles well-being in the region, this method
and in situ nests is not considered. As for Kanzul (KZ), has become their only choice protection.
where three different methods were used and the other Another part of this same program is the use of the
beaches were only applied in situ methods show no differ- living tagging technique previously mentioned. This is a
ence between their percentages. means of recording biological data on each of the species.
Originally we thought of using incubators as insur- Enabling us to know the development in different stages,
ance against the possibility of a hurricane damaging the
nests on the beach. An unexpected benefit from improving
this technique is that it is now one of our atractions and an 9 5 .5
useful tool in our environmental education program. Incu- 95
bators offer a higher rate of survival than corral nests. The 9 4 .5
nests used in incubators were kept most of the time in Xcacel 94
(XC)s protecting corral. A few days before hatching they 9 3 .5
were transferred to Xcaret park. We separated developing 93

% E mer gen ce % H a t c h in g % S u r v iv o r
eggs from the undeveloped ones to avoid possible infesta- S ucces s S ucces s
tions of dipterous and premature fatalities. By removing C a r e tta c a r e tta C h e l o n ia m y d a s
Figure 5. Hatching results for Cc and Cm

18
16
14 determine the age, When they reach sexual maturity and
12 their migratory habits up to the point when they go back to
10
8 lay eggs where they were born themselves. Until now Xcaret
6 has worked only with hatchlings from Xcacel (XC) an this
4
2 year we tagged 16,980.11.811 were C. caretta and 5,169 of
0 the C. mydas. This work has been carried out in the park for
reubicated
reubicated
XC corral
XH corral
AV corral
KZ corral
SJ in situ
YY in situ
several years, it is the continuation of the project originally

CP
KZ
developed by CIQRO, the results of previous years and those

% E m er gence s ucces s % H atchingS ucces s % S ur vivor of the present time are shown in the following diagram.
LITERATURE CITED
Figure 4.2. Use for the nests for Cm Hendrickson, J.R. and L.P. Hendrickson. 1981. Living
the eggs a few days before hatching we get a more reliable tags for sea turtles. Final Report. U.S. Fish and
counting of broods freed at the beach. This year 21 C. mydas Wildlife Service.
nests and 11 C. caretta nests were used as samples and re- Zurita J., R. Herrera, and B. Prezas. 1993. Tortugas Marinas
sults obtained show little difference in survivor, emergence del Caribe. pp 735-751 In: Biodiversidad Marina y
success and hatching success compared to actual in situ re- Costera de Mxico. Com. Nal. Biodiversidad y CIQRO.
Mxico. 865 p.

MARINE TURTLE NESTING AT THE ARCHIE CARR NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE IN

1997.
Dean A. Bagley, Linh T. Uong, Allie B. Danner, Shigatomo Hirama, Laura A. Wick, and Llewellyn M. Ehrhart
Dept. of Biology, University of Central Florida; P. O. Box 162368; Orlando, FL 32816. dab15782@pegasus.cc.ucf.edu
INTRODUCTION
The summer of 1997 was the sixteenth consecutive 1400
season that the UCF research group has studied marine turtle 1200 1107
nest production and reproductive success in south Brevard

1000
County, Florida; the area known as the Archie Carr Na- 821
Number of nests
tional Wildlife Refuge (ACNWR). It was also the ninth con- 800
686
secutive year in which the group studied marine turtle re- 600
477
production in central Brevard County, north of the Refuge,
between Melbourne Beach and Patrick Air Force Base. The 400
281
206
19.5 km stretch of beach in the Central Brevard Study Area 200
77
174 161
87 103
180
66
47 43
(CBSA) and 21 km within the Carr Refuge Study Area 32
0
(CRSA) are subdivided into 0.5 km sections. All nesting 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
and non-nesting marine turtle emergences were identified Nesting season
as to species and enumerated during daily surveys between

Figure 2. Florida green turtle nest totals in the Carr Refuge Study Area.
5 May and 9 September 1997. A sample of 380 nests was 1982-1997.
marked to calculate reproductive success. Unlike the turbu-
lent seasons of 1995 and 1996, the 1997 season was ex- old long-term average of the 1980s by about 43%, and was
traordinarily calm and remained unscathed by tropical sys- 4% below the average of the 1990s (Figure 1). Ignoring the
apparent upswing in the nest production figures seen in the
20000 first half of the 1990s and computing a comprehensive 15-
18000
16918 year (1982-1996) average (11,399), loggerhead nest pro-
16000 14730
14328 14305
13194 13326
14000 12754
12
Number of nests
12000 10745 10591

10240
9780 10
9432 9381
10000 8838 10
7995 7753
8000
8
Number of nests
6000
4000
6
2000
4
0 4
1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Nesting season 2 2 2 2
2
1 1 1
Figure 1. Loggerhead nest totals in the Carr Refuge Study Area. 1982- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1997. 0
1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
tems. Nesting season
Since the establishment of the Carr Refuge in 1990, Figure 3. Leatherback nest totals in the Carr Refuge Study Area. 1982-
we have seen an increase in nesting activity by all three 1997.
species that regularly nest on these beaches (Figures 1, 2, duction in 1997 exceeds the 15-year average by about 1,927
3). These results continue to show that the beaches of the nests or 17%. So, any way one looks at the figures for 1997,
Carr Refuge support the greatest aggregation of nesting log- nest production was sustained at the higher level character-
gerheads and Florida green turtles in this hemisphere. Each istic of this beach since the creation of the Carr Refuge in
year nest production figures serve as a tribute to the deci-
sion-makers who envisioned a marine turtle refuge in
south Brevard County (Figures 5 and 7). While acquisition Nesting Success
of refuge lands is only about 72% complete, commercial (The percentage of total emergences
and residential development continue at an alarming rate which result in a nest)
within the Refuge boundaries. CBSA CRSA OVERALL
Loggerheads 57.7% 60.9% 59.4%
LOGGERHEADS (CARETTA CARETTA) Florida Green Turtles 44.3% 54.6% 50.4%
Leatherbacks n/a 100% 100%
The 1997 loggerhead nest total, at 13,326 exceeds the

2200
2004
Reproductive Success
2000
1748
Reproductive Success
1800 1613
(The percentage of hatchlings that emerge from the nest)
1587 1580
1523 1521 # #
1600 CBSA CRSA OVERALL
nests nests
1302
1400 1252 Loggerhead 68 67.5% 148 48.8% 54.7%
Number of nests
1200
Florida Green Turtle 13 53.5% 64 56.5% 56%
972 Leatherback n/a 4 40% 40%
1000
767
800 659
527
75% and 107% over 1995 and 1993, the previous two low
600 450
years. Like loggerheads, green turtle activity began early
400 241
164 this season, but began very slowly. Figure 6 indicates that
200 55
6 2
there were probably only five turtles nesting in South
0
M M M M M-Jn Jn Jn Jn Jn-Jl Jl Jl Jl Jl-Ag Ag Ag Ag Ag-Sp Sp Sp Brevard County for the first four weeks of the season, yet
Week by the end of August we had encountered 34 individuals.
Spatial distribution of green turtle nesting is given in Fig-
Figure 4. Temporal distribution of loggerhead nests in the Central
Brevard and Carr Refuge Study Areas in 1997.
30
1990.
24 24
The first nesting loggerhead was found on the evening 25
22
21
of 25 April, the earliest ever actually encountered by the 20 20
20
UCF group. Figure 4 shows the temporal distribution of
Number of nests
loggerhead nests throughout the season. The spatial data in 15
14 14
15
Figure 5 represents an overall mean of 238 nests/km in the

10 10
CBSA (383/mile) and 634 nests/km (1021/mile) in the 10
CRSA for the 1997 season. Loggerhead nesting success at

4
60.9% was at the the highest level since 1987. An addi- 5
2
3
2
3
tional 4,647 in CBSA brought the total nest production to 0 0 0
17,973 for that stretch of beach from Patrick AFB to 0

M M M M M-Jn Jn Jn Jn Jn-Jl Jl Jl Jl Jl-Ag Ag Ag Ag Ag-Sp Sp Sp
Sebastian Inlet State Recreation Area. Reproductive suc- Week
cess at 48.8% was lowered due to raccoon depredation,
Figure 6. Temporal distribution of Florida green turtle nests in the Central
which accounted for 9% of the total number of nests in Brevard and Carr Refuge Study Areas in 1997.
CRSA.
ure 7. In CRSA, green turtle nesting success at 54.6% was
FLORIDA GREEN TURTLES (Chelonia mydas) nearly 7% higher than in 1996, and reproductive success
Green turtles characteristically exhibit a biennial nest- was 56.5%.
ing pattern of high and low years (Figure 2) and 1997 In 1997 we continued our collaboration with Barbara
was expected to be a low year. With 180 nests in CRSA Schroeder (National Marine Fisheries Service) in placing
and 28 additional nests in CBSA, green turtle nesting ac- satellite transmitters on post-nesting green turtles. You can
tivity was at the highest level in a low year since surveys follow the progress of these animals courtesy of National
began in 1982. In CRSA, this represented an increase of Marine Fisheries Service, Florida Dept. of Environmental
20
1000
Central Brevard Study Area
Central Brevard Study Area
Carr Refuge Study Area
Carr Refuge Study Area
800 15
Number of nests
Number of nests
600
10
400
200
0
11.0-12.0 S
14.0-15.0 S
17.0-18.0 S
20.0-21.0 S
23.0-24.0 S
25.0-26.0 S
0.0-1.0 S
2.0-3.0 S
5.0-6.0 S
8.0-9.0 S
14.5-14.0 N
12.0-11.0 N
9.0-8.0 N
6.0-5.0 N
3.0-2.0 N
1.0-0.0 N
0
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
11.0-12.0 S
14.0-15.0 S
17.0-18.0 S
20.0-21.0 S
23.0-24.0 S
25.0-26.0 S
0.0-1.0 S
2.0-3.0 S
5.0-6.0 S
8.0-9.0 S
14.5-14.0 N
12.0-11.0 N
9.0-8.0 N
6.0-5.0 N
3.0-2.0 N
1.0-0.0 N
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Beach location by kilometer

Beach location by kilometer
Figure 7. Spatial distribution of Florida green turtle nests in the Central

Figure 5. Spatial distribution of Loggerhead nests in the Central Brevard Brevard and Carr Refuge Study Areas in 1997.
and Carr Refuge Study Areas in 1997.

Protection, and Caribbean Conservation Corporation by ac- 1997, we encountered four leatherback nests at ACNWR.
cessing the World Wide Web at http://www. cccturtle. org. Nesting success was 100%; reproductive success was 40%.
LEATHERBACKS (DERMOCHELYS CORIACEA) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

These beaches have never been thought of as criti- We thank the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (espe-
cally important leatherback nesting grounds but we noted cially Sandy MacPherson) and the Richard King Mellon
in 1995 that there was a meager suggestion of increased Foundation for their continued support; to Earl Possardt
leatherback activity on these beaches in the past five years. for making his vision of the Archie Carr National Wildlife
There were only four nests in the eight years between 1982 Refuge a reality, and to Doc, who keeps on keepinon in
and 1989, and 21 nests during the eight year period from the Archie Carr tradition. Thanks also to Jason Drake, Ja-
1990 to 1997 (Figure 3). These data indicate that leather- son Godin, and Dr. John Weishampel of the GAMES
back activity is on the increase and can no longer be re- (Geospatial Analysis and Modeling of Ecological Systems)
garded as negligible or unimportant at the Carr Refuge. In LAB for their assistance, technical skills, time and patience.
RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF ELEVEN YEARS OF WORK ON TURTLE NESTING

ON THE COAST OF COLIMA, MEXICO
Noem Barajas Campuzano, Armando Hernndez Corona, and Germn Reyes Ortega
SEMARNAP- Colima, Victoria 360 Colima, Col., Mxico
The state of Colima has 160 kilometers of coastline, get. SEMARNAP which is in charge of th El Chupadero
where the olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) turtle arrives area covers 25 km. of coast, from de Boca de Apiza to
to nest. The population of this turtle is larger than the popu- Tecualillo. SEDESOL which is in charge of Cuyutlan cov-
lation of the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) and ers also an area 25 km. from Boca de Pascuales to Tepalcates
black turtle (Chelonia agassizi). The work of protection of beach. These two areas are the most important for turtle
the turtles began in the state of Colima in 1987 with the nesting on the coast of Colima. We describe and compare
prospection of four important beaches. We put four points eleven seasons of nesting for the three species of turtle that
of observation on the beach of Playa de Oro, Volantin- arrive on Colimas coast. This analysis is based on the vari-
Tepalcates, Tecuanillo and El Chupadero. After obtaining ables related to reproductive ecology. We also have a pro-
results we began to work permanently due to the impor- gram on marking and recaptured of the turtle.
tance of nesting on this beach. At this moment we only have
two areas of observation because of a reduction on our bud-
SEA TURTLE NESTING VARIATION IN THE BEACHES OF THE SOUTH ZONE OF SIAN
KAAN RESERVE, DURING 1991, 1992 AND 1993 SEASONS
Carlos Lpez, Juan Bezaury Creel, and Jorge Carranza Snchez

Amigos de Sian Kaan A.C. Mxico. sian@cancun.rce.com.mx
Sea turtle research and protection activities have been sities. Although theres no significant variation, an incre-
done in almost all the coast of Quintana Roo, in the Mexi- ment in the number of tracks can be observed for 1997 sea-
can Caribbean, including the protected areas of Special Bio- son. Percentages of emergence are high in natural nests and
sphere Reserve of Contoy Island, in the north, and the Bio- theres no variation among seasons. Female tagging has
sphere Reserve of Sian Kaan in the south. In this last area, resulted in some recaptures throughout the years and an
sea turtles have been studied in 1991, 1992, 1993 and 1997. observed growth of the turtles.
These research projects have focused on the nesting density The species important for this area are the green turtle,
for the different species that reproduce in these beaches, on the loggerhead and the hawksbill. The beaches in this area
the evaluation of emergence percentage in natural nests as have proven to be important for sea turtle nesting, and due
well as on size of females, nesting frequency and interval. to the prevalent conditions in the Reserve, it is possible to
In these years we have described 12 nesting beaches in the keep the nests in situ, which is difficult to do in other coastal
area of Sian Kaan, being the beaches of San Lorenzo, San zones of Mexico and the rest of the world.
Martn and Mosquitero the ones with highest nesting den-

EVALUATION OF QUARTZ, ARAGONITE AND CARBONATE BEACH COMPATIBLE

SAND ON NEST TEMPERATURE AND SUCCESS PARAMETERS OF CARETTA
CARETTA NESTS IN SOUTHEASTERN FLORIDA, U.S.A.
Stephen M. Blair1, David Nelson2, Rebecca Cheeks3, Joe Hibler1, Timothy Gross4, Peter Lutz3, and Jim Hoover5
1
Dade County Department of Environmental Resources Management, Miami, FL, U.S.A. blairs@itd.metro-dade.com
2
United States Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Stations, Vicksburg, MS, Florida U.S.A.
3
Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, U.S.A.
4
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, U.S.A.
5
Dade County Department of Parks and Recreation, Miami, FL, U.S.A.
Due to the ecological and economic importance of isolated for sex determination. Sex of hatchlings was deter-
coastal beaches in South Florida, state and federal agencies mined utilizing the estrogendiol/testosterone ratios (Gross
have made the commitment to maintain and rebuild them, et al.1995). Post emergence success evaluations were con-
through beach renourishment, utilizing off-shore sand de- ducted on each nest. The number of dead-in-nest, live-in-
posits. Unfortunately, deposits are dwindling, particularly nest, pipped-live, pipped-dead, unhatched-developed (show-
along the Southeast coast of Florida (Broward and Miami- ing visual signs of embryonic development), unhatched-
Dade counties). Accordingly, alternate sources of sand for undeveloped (no visible indications of any embryonic de-
beach renourishment are being explored, including: pres- velopment) and shells were tallied and recorded. Sand color
ently unidentified offshore deposits, non-domestic arago- was characterized utilizing Munsell Soil Classification
nite and carbonate sands, and quartz sands from upland/ Charts (1994, GretagMacbeth, Windslow, NY). Reflectance,
inland deposits. Since nearly one-third of the worlds popu- hue and chroma were determined for each sand type.
lation of nesting loggerhead sea turtles nest in the south- First years temperature, nesting success and sex ratio
eastern United States, an important part of the evaluation information have been reported previously (Cheeks et al.,
process is to determine the effects of alternative sands on In press; Cheeks, 1997; Nelson et al., 1996). This paper
sea turtle nests and nesting. A hatchery study was initiated presents results of the temperature and nest success infor-
to test the effects of various sand types on the general nest mation for the 1997 replicated renourished, aragonite and
success parameters, sex ratios and temperature environment quartz sands, and compares these data with past results.
of loggerhead sea turtle nests. The program was initiated in
1995 and has continued through three nesting seasons (95- SAND TEMPERATURE
97). The program has been a cooperative effort of the U.S. Sand temperature was expected to follow a gradient
Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experimental Station, relative to color as indicated by past results (Nelson et al.,
Miami-Dade County Department of Environmental Re- 1996, Milton et al., 1997) and the sand color classification.
sources Management, Florida Atlantic University and the Aragonite and Upland sand (lightest colored) were expected
University of Florida. to be the coolest, with Renourished carbonate (the darkest),
An experimental hatchery was established on Miami the warmest of the sands. Figure 1 illustrates the daily fluc-
Beach, Florida, within which, 4 to 6 20 ft. X 20 ft. X 4 ft tuation of sand (control) temperatures recorded during 1997,
cells were filled with one (or a mixture) of the following and illustrates the consistent difference noted between ara-
sands: renourished (from off-shore borrow source), arago- gonite and renourished sand. Renourished sand was con-
nite (Great Bahama Bank, Bahamas), or quartz (from in- sistently 1.25 to 1.50 C warmer than the aragonite. This
land central Florida). Not all sands were used during each difference was a s great as 2.6C during 1996, and excep-
year. Renourished sand and aragonite sand were utilized tionally warm and dry year (during the nesting season), how-
during each of the three years with replicate cells tested ever, in 95 and 97, the nominal difference was 1.5C.
during 1997. Quartz evaluation began in 1996 and repli- The average daily temperatures of the upland silica
cate quartz cells were also tested during the 1997 season. sand was much warmer than anticipated in consideration
Up to 36 loggerhead nests were relocated into nests of stan- of the sands color and apparent reflectant surface. The silica
dardized depth, within each sand cell. Nests were positioned sand was comparable to the temperatures found in the darker
on three foot centers. Temperature of the nests were recorded renourished sand. Upland silica was approximately 2C
with either a Vemco Minilogger (self contained tempera- warmer than the aragonite, and 0.25 - 0.5C warmer than
ture datalogger) or thermocouples connected to a Campbell the renourished sand. Specific, but presently undetermined
Scientific AM416 Mutiplexer, and recorded on a Campbell physical properties or characteristics of the sand (i.e., min-
Scientific 21X Datalogger. Data were transferred to PCs eral characteristics, more translucent) are believed to result
and evaluated with MS Excel (Microsoft) and SAS statisti- in greater heat conductance than the renourished or arago-
cal software (SAS, Inc.). Approximately 5-7 days prior to nite sands.
estimated emergence, selected nests were opened and eggs The daily fluctuation (range) in the upland sand was

largest of the sands, being about twice that of the aragonite prior to pipping. Although precipitation contributed to the
or the renourished sands. The greater daily fluctuation was decrease at the end of the incubations illustrated in Figure
a consistent trait in the 96 and 97 tests. Additionally, the 2, a decline in temperature during the pipping period (1-3)
upland sand appeared to lose more heat during periods of days prior to emergence, was noted in the nests. Mid-depth
cooling (i.e., during rain and cooler air temperatures; Fig- clutch temperatures were between 1.5 - 3.0 C warmer than
ure 1, ref: 8/20, 9/7 and 9/15) than the aragonite or the sand temperatures and average daily nest temperatures
renourished sands. This greater range of temperature fluc-
35
tuation could result in modified proportions of incubation 34
ARA
REN
A R -2 7 M
time spent at specific temperature, and therefore, in consid- 33
A R -2 8 M
R E -2 7 M
eration of Georges (1994), could have an effect on the over-
Temperature (C)
R E -2 8 M
32
31
1 9 9 7 M id - D e p t h S a n d C o n t r o l T e m p e r a t u r e s
30
33 29
32
28
31
Temperature (C)
27
30 7 /9 7 /1 6 7 /2 3 7 /3 0 8 /6 8 /1 3 8 /2 0
29 D a te
28
27 Figure 2. 1996 Daily average Temperature in Renourished and

26 Aragonite nests and controls
25
1 :25
7 /14
1:25
7/21
1 :2 5
7 /2 8
1 :25
8 /4
1:25
8/11
1 :2 5
8 /1 8
1 :25
8 /25
1:25
9/1
1 :25
9 /8
1:25
9/15
1 :2 5
9 /2 2
1 :25
9 /29
were as high as 35.69 C (in renourished sand).
D a te & T ime
UPB1MC ARACM REACM INS C M
HATCHING AND EMERGENCE SUCCESS
Figure 1. Daily sand temperature fluctuation in aragonite, renourished, Yearly average hatching success by cell (average suc-
upland and in-beachsand.
cess of all nests in a cell) over the three seasons varied from
71.6% to 86.7%, and emergence success between 64.7%
all hatchling sex ratios produced by the nests.
and 81.3% (Table 2). Although these ranges refer to all sands
The 96 nesting season was the warmest and driest of
combined, they are also indicative of the amount of year to
the seasons investigated. This is reflected in the high aver-
year variation documented within each sand type. For ex-
age sand temperatures for both aragonite and renourished
ample, average hatching success of renourished nests was
sands (Table 1). The average sand temperature (throughout
significantly greater than that of aragonite in 1995. How-
incubation) for renourished sand was 31.39C. Daily aver-
ever, the reverse was true in 1996. No significant difference
age nest temperatures in renourished sand reached as high
as 35.69C in central (mid and sides) of the nest. Specific
low success rates for certain renourished nests are consid- Table 2. Hatching and Emergence Success, and Incubation Length
for the sand cells tested 1995-1997
ered to be an effect of these high temperatures, however,
other nests with similar temperatures (+35C) showed high Hatching Emergence Incubation (days)
Mean Std. Dev Mean Std. Dev Mean Std. Dev
Table 1. Average Sand Control Temperatures (C)
ARA 95 78. 6% 15. 4 74. 9% 15. 4 59. 9 2. 2
Sand Type 1995 1996 1997 ARA 96 86. 7% 9. 3 81. 3% 11. 8 58. 1 3. 7
Aragonite 27. 56 28. 89 28. 18 ARA 97 75. 0% 22. 3 69. 3% 27. 3 58. 1 2. 9
Renourished 28. 95 31. 89 29. 15 ARB 97 78. 5% 12. 2 72. 1% 20. 9 56. 6 2. 6
Upland 29. 32
In-Beach 30. 07
REA 95 83. 8% 13. 0 81. 2% 13. 3 52. 5 2
REA 96 71. 6% 19. 6 64. 7% 21. 9 50. 8 3
(75-90%) hatching and emergence levels. REA 97 74. 3% 19. 8 68. 3% 21. 5 54. 1 3
Statistical analysis of the sand temperatures, normal- REB 97 75. 1% 25. 2 69. 5% 28. 3 52. 4 1. 7
ized to the aragonite control found the renourished sand to
be significantly warmer than aragonite during each year of UPA 96 79. 0% 30. 4 76. 9% 29. 6 53. 5 1. 4
the project. The upland sand was significantly warmer than UPA 97 77. 6% 23. 7 73. 6% 24. 0 51. 9 2. 8
the aragonite, but not significantly different from the UPB 97 77. 7% 21. 9 74. 7% 21. 6 53. 1 2. 3
renourished.
Data from 1996 are used to illustrate the relationship INS 97 73. 8% 26. 3 73. 0% 25. 9
between the nest and sand (control) temperature during in-
cubation (Figure 2). Little increase, relative to the control was found between any other combinations of sands in 1996
is noted through the first third of the incubation. A moder- or 1997.
ate but steady increase is consistently seen during the sec- The average length of incubation for each cell is pre-
ond trimester. The greatest rate of change is seen in the sented in Table 2. Each season, nests incubated in arago-
third trimester, with maximal temperatures occurring just nite sand had a significantly greater incubation length than

HATCHING EMERGENCE INCUBATION

SAND
SUCCESS SUCCESS LENGTH
Table 3. Significance summary of Aragonite 80. 3% 76. 7% 58. 3(A)
comparisons of hatching and
Renourished 76. 4% 72. 0% 52. 3(B)
emergence success, and
incubation length 1995-1997 Upland 77. 9% 74. 6% 52. 6(B)
Significance n. s. n. s. p<0. 05
(Duncan Multiple Range) (A)(B)
renourished or upland sands. Nests in aragonite sand had a Gold Coast, Queensland Department of Environment
four to seven day longer incubation than those in and Heritage, and Australian Nature Conservation
renourished, and three to six day longer incubation than Agency.
nests in upland silica sand. Nests in the upland sand had Gross, T.S., D.A. Crain, K.A. Bjorndal, A.B. Bolton and
equivalent incubation time as the renourished sand, and, R.R. Carthey. 1995 Identification of sex in hatchling
although not significantly different, averaged 1 to 2 days loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) by analysis of
shorter than the nests in the renourished sand. As with the steroid concentration in chorioallantoci/amniotic fluid.
temperature, we found the lighter upland silica sand to have General Comparative Endrocrinology. 99:204-210.
characteristics similar to the renourished sands. Milton, S.L., A. Schulamn, and P.L. Lutz. 1997. The effect
Table 3 presents a summary of the statistical analyses of beach nourishment with aragonite versus silicate sand
of hatching and emergence success, and incubation length on beach temperature and loggerhead sea turtle nesting
for the pooled (across years) data. No significant differences success. Journal of Coastal Research.
were found between the sands for the hatching or emer- Nelson, D., S. Blair, R. Cheeks, P. Lutz, S. Milton, and T.
gence success. Significant differences were identified in the Gross. 1996. Evaluation of alternative beach
incubation length of the sands, with aragonite having a sig- nourishment sands a loggerhead sea turtle nesting
nificantly longer incubation period (three to seven days). substrates. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterway
The upland and silica sands showed comparable nest incu- Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
bations lengths, with the upland sands have a slightly
shorter, but not significantly different incubation length.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project is the result of numerous individuals dedi-
cation and assistance. We thank Sarah Milton, Sue Kim,
Tim McIntosh, Martin Roch, Leanne Welch and Sabina Beg,
for daily assistance with field and hatchery work. Special
thanks are also give to Bill Ahern, Tony Way and the crew
at the Miami Beach Sea Turtle Hatchery facility. Addi-
tional thanks go to Bill Margolis who manages the Broward
County Hatchery Facility at Fr. Lauderdale, Florida for pro-
viding us with additional nests during the 1995 and 1997
portions of the study.
LITERATURE CITED
Cheeks, R.J., S.M. Blair, D. Nelson, S.L. Milton, P.L. Lutz,
and T. Gross. (in Press). Sea turtles and sand
temperatures: Sex or death? Proceedings of the
Sixteenth Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and
Conservation.
Cheeks, R.J., 1997. The effect of various sand types on the
nest temperature and hatching success in the
Loggerhead (Caretta caretta) Sea Turtle. M. S. Thesis,
Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL.
Georges, A. 1994. The influence of fluctuating temperatures
on hatchling sex ratios - a model and proposed test using
Caretta caretta. pp 156-162. In: Comp., J.R..
Proceedings of the Australian Marine Turtle
Conservation Workshop held at Sea World Nara Resort,

TEMPERATURE AND THE TEMPORAL SPREAD OF MARINE TURTLE NESTING AND

HATCHING IN CYPRUS, EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN.
Annette C. Broderick and Brendan J. Godley

Marine Turtle Research Group, Division of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology, Graham Kerr Building, University of
Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland, U.K. A.Broderick@bio.gla.ac.uk
INTRODUCTION Table 2. Length of incubation periods of C. mydas and C. caretta

nesting in Cyprus in each of the years 1993-1997 with standard
Both nesting and hatching of marine turtles were moni-
tored at Alagadi Beach, a major rookery on the north coast of
Cyprus throughout the seasons of 1993-1997. For details of YEAR
C.MYDAS C.CARETTA
methodology see Broderick and Godley (1996). MEAN S.E. N MEAN S.E. N
1993 50.6 0.57 24 47.9 0.62 17
1994 51.4 0.53 45 47.9 0.36 58
ONSET OF NESTING 1995 51.1 0.55 52 51.1 0.55 40
1996 49.86 1.75 7 48.18 0.54 44
Variation in the onset and duration of nesting, was re- 1997 50.23 0.80 13 47.43 0.45 40
corded between species and among years (see Table 1). threshold temperature earlier in the season which would
These data have been compared to temperature data for the stimulate egg production and/or migration to the breeding
region. After five seasons monitoring, it is premature to un- sites.
dertake any statistical analyses, however the timing of the Several studies have questioned how a rise in tempera-
nesting season appears to be correlated with the prevailing ture due to global warming will affect such temperature de-
temperature conditions i.e. an earlier season when tempera- pendent species (e.g. Mrosovsky and Provancha 1992).
ture rises earlier. The onset of nesting appears to coincide However, if the start of the nesting season is dependent on
the ambient temperature reaching a certain threshold, then if
Table 1. Onset of the nesting season for C. mydas and C. caretta global warming occurs, females may shift their nesting sea-
in Cyprus in each of the years 1993-1997. son, with their clutches effectively incubating during similar
temperature regimes.
Onset of nesting
Year
C.mydas C.caretta INCUBATION PERIODS
th th
1993 16 June 15 June
st st
1994 31 May 31 May Incubation periods ranged from 44-59 days in C. mydas
th th
1995 6 June 24 May nests and 42-60 days in C. caretta nests. The mean incuba-
th th
1996 11 June 27 May
1997
th
5 June
th
27 May tion periods recorded in each of the five study years for both
species are given in Table 2. Mean incubation periods of C.
with a rise in mean daily air temperature to approximately mydas nests laid in Cyprus, are shorter than those laid in
25C (see figures 1 and 2). It is likely that if environmental Turkey (53.8 days), the only other major nesting site of C.
temperature is acting as a seasonal cue, that this would be a mydas in the Mediterranean (Gerosa et al.,1995). Similarly,
incubation periods of C. caretta nests in Cyprus
9 35 are shorter than those recorded in by
8 Margaritoulis (1989) in Greece (55.5 days) and
30
by Erkakan (1993) in Turkey (59.3 days).
7
In some years, linear relationships were
Mean air temperature (C)
25
Number of nests laid
6 recorded between the date of lay and the

20 incubation period of the nest for both C. mydas
5
(e.g. Figure 3) and C. caretta. Quadratic
4 15 equations better explained these relationships
3 in long nesting seasons for both species (e.g.
10 Figure 4).
2 It has been well documented that an
5 increase in temperature decreases the incubation
1
period of marine turtle nests (Mrosovsky et
0 0
al.,1995). This fact may explain the shorter
02-Jun
10-Jun
18-Jun
26-Jun
04-Jul
12-Jul
20-Jul
28-Jul
01-May
09-May
17-May
25-May
05-Aug
13-Aug
21-Aug
29-Aug
incubation periods of C. mydas and C. caretta

nests in Cyprus. A prevailing sunnier and
Figure 1. The temporal distribution of nesting of C. mydas, 1993, with

mean daily air temperatures in centigrade.

9 35 warmer climate is found in Cyprus compared

8
to other sites where marine turtle nesting
30 studies have been undertaken in the
7 Mediterranean. As can be seen figures 1
Mean air temperature (C)

25
Number of nests laid
6 and 2, air temperature increases throughout

20
the early part of the nesting season. This
5
will account for the decrease of incubation
4 15 periods as the season progresses, except
3
for the occasional late nests which are
10 incubated in the cooler temperatures of
2 September and have slightly longer
5 incubation periods.
1
0 0
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
05-Jun
12-Jun
19-Jun
26-Jun
03-Jul
10-Jul
17-Jul
24-Jul
31-Jul
01-May
08-May
15-May
22-May
29-May
07-Aug
14-Aug
21-Aug
Meteorological Department in north-
ern Cyprus for access to temperature data;
Figure 2. The temporal distribution of nesting of C. caretta, 1994, with mean daily air members of GUTCE 1993-1997.
temperatures in centigrade.
LITERATURE CITED
65
y = -0.0832x + 56.792 Broderick, A. C. and B. J. Godley. 1996.
2
R = 0.1603 Population and nesting ecology of the
60 green turtle, Chelonia mydas, and
loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta, in
Incubation period (days)
northern Cyprus. Zool. Middle East.

55
13. pp. 27-46.
Erkakan, F. 1993. Nesting biology of
50
loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta L.
on Dalyan beach, Mugla - Turkey. Biol.
Cons. 66. pp. 1-4.
45 Gerosa, G., P. Casale, and S. V. Yerli. 1995.
Report on a sea turtle nesting beach
study (Akyatan, Turkey), 1994. Chelon,
40
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Marine Turtle Conservation and
Day of the year (May 1st = day 1)
Research Program (Tethys Research
Institute), P. O. Box 11/224 00141 Roma
Figure
3. The linear relationship between the day of the year on which a nest was laid and the Italy. 27 pp.
resultant incubation period of C. mydas nests, 1994. Margaritoulis, D. 1989. Loggerhead sea
turtle nesting: Kiparissia Bay, Greece.
65 Marine Turtle Newsletter 49. pp 5-6.
Mrosovsky, N. and J. Provancha. 1992. Sex
2
ratio of hatchling loggerhead sea
y = 0.0033x - 0.522x + 66.619
60 2 turtles: data and estimates from a 5-year
R = 0.3799
study. Can. J. Zool. 70. pp. 530-538.
Incubation period (days)
55
Mrosovsky, N., C. Lavin, and M. H. Godfrey.
1995. Thermal effects of condominiums
on a turtle beach in Florida. Biol. Cons.
50 74. pp. 151-156.
45
40
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Day of the year (May 1st = day 1)

Figure
4. The quadratic relationship recorded between the day of the year on which C. caretta
nests were laid and their incubation period in 1995.

MARINE TURTLES NESTING MONITORING IN EL CUYO, YUCATAN, MEXICO.

SEASON 1997
Eduardo Campos Bravo1 and Felipe Be Estrella2

1
Pronatura Pennsula de Yucatn, A.C. Mxico.
2
Secretara de Medio Ambiente Recursos Naturales y Pesca, Delegacin Yucatn, Mxico. pronatyuc@laneta.apc.org
The hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) nesting and 60.4%. In 42,424 eggs incubated in 300 nests
period lasted for six months, from mid-April to October. aproximately 34,165 hatchlings emerged. The nesting pe-
During this time twenty eight female Hawksbill turtles were riod for the green turtle (Chelonia mydas), lasted five months,
marked and twenty eight recaptured. Were registered 406 from May until mid-September, during which five female
nests of which: 82% (333) were incubated in situ, 11.5% green turtles were marked and seventeen were recaptured.
(47) were relocated near of the nesting site and 6.6% (27) Of the 44 nests which were registered, 93.2% were incu-
were transported to the corral. A total of 12.8% (52) fell bated in situ (42) and 6.8% were relocated on the beach (3).
subject to depredation by foxs, racoons and dogs, 3.9% (16) A total of 13.6% (6) of the nests were affected by high tide
were wiped out as a result of high tide and 2% (8) were looted and flooding. For undisturbed nests the average hatch suc-
by humans. For undisturbed nests the average hatch success cess and emerge success of in situ nests (n= 32) was 92.2%
and emerge success of in situ nests (n=227) was 88.5% y and 87.9% respectively. Of the 3,607 eggs incubated in 33
90.2% respectively, in relocated nests on the beach (n=39) nests, proximately 3,313 hatchlings emerged.
65% and 55%, and relocated at corral nests (n=27) 77.1%
REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS OF HAWKSBILL TURTLES (ERETMOCHELYS

IMBRICATA) IN ISLA DE AVES WILDLIFE REFUGE
Evaristo Caraballo1, Lenin Parra2,3, Samuel Narciso4, Yovanni Aponte2, and Guillermo Snchez2,3
1
FUDENA, Programa de Areas Marinas y Costeras, Apdo 76. 471, Caracas 1071-A, Venezuela lparra@ciens.luz.ve
2
FUDENA, Programa de Tortugas Marinas, Apdo 76. 471, Caracas 1071-A, Venezuela
3
Universidad del Zulia, Museo de Biologa, Apdo. 526, Maracaibo 4011, Edo. Zulia, Venezuela
4
PROFAUNA, Edif. Camejo, Mezzanina, El Silencio, Caracas 1010, Venezuela
Isla de Aves Wildlife Refuge, in the eastern Caribbean animals to nest on beaches where nesting has not bee re-
Sea (154030 N, 633626 W), is one of the most impor- corded in recent years, and it is possible that a new nesting
tant nesting sites of the green turtle (Chelonia mydas). Since site may develop on Isla Aves.
1979, FUDENA with the help of the Venezuelan Navy has
sent researchers to tag and monitor the green turtles that nest ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
on the Island. A 1968 fishermens report of hawksbill nest-
The presentation of this work at the 18th Annual Sym-
ing on Isla Aves was described by Caldwell and Rathjen
posium has been possible thanks to the kind arrangements
(1969), but there have been no authenticated records of spe-
made by J. G. Frazier to get support from the David and
cies other than green turtles nesting on the Island. On 8
Lucile Packard Foundation to L. Parra. Moreover L. Parra
August, 1996, several turtles - distinct from the green turtles
was supported by Corpozulia, LUZ, Presidencia de la
- were observed swimming to the north of the island. A few
Asamblea Legislativa del Estado Zulia and Presidencia de
hours later a female turtle was observed on the sandy beach
la Comisin Especial de Lmites, Asuntos Fronterizos e
of the west side of Aves, and it was observed by researchers
Indgenas.
for about 65 minutes. This turtle was tagged on its left fore
flipper with tag number N3632, and it was measured with a
LITERATURE CITED
flexible tape: standard curved carapace length = 92 cm;
curved carapace width = 88 cm. In September 1997, several Caldwell, D. K. and W. F. Rathjen. 1969. Unrecorded West
dead hatchlings were found near the site of the nest, and they Indian nesting sites for the leatherback and hawksbill
were subsequently identified as Eretmochelys imbricata. sea turtles, Dermochelys coriacea and Eretmochelys i.
This species of turtle is known for its isolated nesting imbricata. Copeia 1969(3): 622-623.
strategy and the use of small, remote beaches. Increased
human perturbation of hawksbill beaches could drive these

HATCHING AND EMERGENCE OF LEPIDOCHELYS OLIVACEA FROM PROTECTED

AND UNPROTECTED NESTS IN LA GLORIA (PLAYON DE MISMALOYA),JALISCO,
MEXICO: 1991 - 1994.
Rosa Estela Carretero Montes and Jos Antonio Trejo Robles

Centro de Ecologa Costera, Universidad de Guadalajara, Gmez Faras # 82, San Patricio-Melaque, Jalisco, C.P. 48980,
Mxico. jtrejo@costera.melaque.udg.mx
The protective activities for the marine turtle by the 1992, 1993 and 1994 a total of 91 nests in situ of the open
University of Guadalajara, began in the eithies in the now sea marine turtle Lepidochelys olivacea were protected and
Reserve Zone -Playon Refuge of Mismaloya. The principle observed. The study is based on percentages of hatchings,
activity that has envolved to the present time are the patroll emergency and incubation of the natural nests as compared
through the zone with the objective of finding marine female to the transported and protected ones in corrals on the same
turtles either depositing eggs or nests of the same and col- dates as the previous. This way the obtained results thru four
lecting and transporting them to protective corrals and thereby years of protection of natural nests give us the hatchings and
later freeing the young. This practice is constant and inten- emergency percentages are higer than the protective corrals
sive and thanks to the presence of investigators and counter- nest. One must mention that in the natural nests as in the
parts along with the Mexican Naval Marine forces the prey- corraled ones a temporal behavior of hatching was found
ing incidents have declined, so as to permit the allocation of through -out the period.
1 km of beach for the nests in situ and allow investigations
of the same. Specifically during their time of nesting in 1991,
CHARACTERIZATION OF HAWKSBILL TURTLES NESTING BEACHES IN THE DOCE

LEGUAS KEYS
Elvira Adelaida Carrillo Crdenas

Centro de Investigaciones Pesqueras, 5ta. Ave. Y 248, Santa Fe, C. de la Habana, Cuba. cubacip@ceniai.inf.cu
The Doce Leguas Keys is the main area of hawksbills of then between 300 and 3500 m), and nearly all beaches are
reproduction in the Cuba Archipielago. Keys are located narrow (12 m as an average) with long coral barriers limit-
south of Camagey province, 60 km far from land 45 keys ing an inner area mainly composed of sand spots, stone and
are included in the are, extending over 120 km, and more seagrass meadows; bottoms are generally low, and vegeta-
than 60% of the area is formed by sandy beaches of fine tion is mainly formed by mangrove, pines, some varieties of
sands, favoring nesting. In others, sands is thicker and mixed palms and other native species.
to coral residues, mollusks and stones. Length varies (must
RESULTS OF THE PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE KEMPS RIDLEY

TURTLE (L. KEMPI) IN TAMAULIPAS, 1995-1997
Refugio G. Castro M.1, Leo P.1, Alma S.1, Enrique Conde G.1, Rolando Orta N.1, Juan Daz2, and Manuel Snchez P.2
1
CRIP- Tampico Calle Altamira s/n col. Isleta Prez, Tampico Tamaulipas, Mxico
2
Instituto Nacional de la Pesca, Pitgoras 1320, 5 Piso, Col. Sta. Cruz Atoyac. Mxico D.F. 03310, Mxico
criptam@tamnet.com.mx
The Program of Conservation and Management for the releasing 125,639 hatchlings. In 1996, 2,047 clutches were
kemps ridley turtle (L. kempi) in the coast of Tamaulipas and collected and 119,196 hatchlings were released. In 1997, 2,340
North of Veracruz state, carry out a Mexico-E.U.A. (MEXUS- clutches were collected representing the recruitment of
Golfo) cooperation agreement. Both countries support the 149,567 hatchlings.. These numbers show an increase of
program with important contribution of human resources and nestings of 25% and hatchlings of 19% in relation to 1995. In
equipment. This collaboration have allowed the increase of this project participate other Mexican and American institu-
the area patrolled to 200 Km of beach in the NW of the Gulf of tions and organizations such as National Marine Fisheries
Mexico and the protection of thousands of nests and the Service E.U.A., U.S.A. Fish and Wildlife Service, Gladys Por-
recruitment of hundreds of thousand of hatchlings to the ter Zoo, Secretara de Marina, Delegacin Federal-
wildlife population. In 1995 were collected 1,868 clutches, SEMARNAP, Tamaulipas, PROFEPA, Gob. Estatal y Munici-

pal, CANAINPES, Mxico-NFI, EUA, PEMEX, Universidad

del Noreste (UNE), CET-Mar No. 9 Secretara de Educacin
Pblica and Boy Scouts
MARINE TURTLE NESTING AND CONSERVATION AT GANDOCA BEACH 1990-1997

(TALAMANCA, COSTA RICA)
Didiher Chacn
Programa Marino/Humedales, Proyecto Conservacin de las Tortugas Marinas Asociacin ANAI, Apdo. 170-2070, Sabanilla,
San Jos, Costa Rica. anaicr@correo.co.cu
The leatherback sea turtle was studied in Gandoca, an of 405 nest/yr. (r=0.5883); the biometric datas show coinci-
important nesting beach on the southeastern Caribbean coast dent information with others rookeries in the Caribbean. The
of Costa Rica (82 37W;09 37N), from 1990 to 1997 dur- most important problems in Gandoca are poaching (that was
ing March through July. The 9 km of beach was patrolled reduced from 100% in 1985 to 13% in 1997), the erosion
every night from approximately 2000 through 0400 hours and the big pieces of garbage of the beach. The project has
by 3-5 groups, so that all turtle nests are identified and col- developed a model with 9 components and, with the partici-
lected are 20 biotic and abiotic paramenters. The trend for pation of part of the community and the Wildlife Refuge
the number of nest every year is growing by an index of 127 Authorities, work in microbusiness in ecoturism with volun-
nest/yr. The minimum nesting season was 226 nests and the teers produced over US$14,000 input into the local economy.
maximum 1,135 with a average of 534 nest/yr. and a median
ESTADO ACTUAL DE CONSERVACION DE LAS TORTUGAS MARINAS EN LOS

DEPARTAMENTOS DEL MAGDALENA Y LA GUAJIRA, CARIBE COLOMBIANO.1997
Jorge Alberto Crdoba, Sigfried Milklin, and Diego Amorocho

Fundacin FES alle 64 Norte No.5B-146 Local 26 Cali. Colombia. fesambi@cali.cetcol.net.co
The present work was accomplished with the purpose ing data.
of gathering and updating the information produced untill With the registered data we established the following
this moment in the Departments of Magdalena and la Guajira relation for nesting species: 8 C. caretta : 3 D. coriacea : 1
in the Caribbean coast of Colombia. This research includes E. imbricata
characterization of the nesting beaches, identification of spe-
cies harvested by local inhabitants and efforts developed in
the zone by sea turtle conservation organizations.
The beaches of the zone are suitable for the reproduc-
tion of sea turtles, but the high predation has decreased the
number of nesting turtles. Other factors that have affected
this decrease are the shrimp trawling in shallow waters near
the beaches, the tourism in the area and the social problems
that converts the turtles in a way of subsistence for local
inhabitants, most of them indigenous people.
The few sea turtles conservation projects developed in
the zone, have never had enough founds, so they can no pro-
tect the whole area, althoug they are protecting and relocat-
ing nests in 3 different sites establishing beach hatcheries.
During our field trip in August of 1997, we registered
36 nests, which were protected by different NGOs and
Gubermental organizations. Surely the nesting activity was
higher, but due to the excessive poaching and the lack of
vigilance in the zone, it was impossible to give an exact nest-

INVESTIGATION ABOUT THE QUANTIFICATION OF SEA TURTLES AT THE NATURAL

RESERVE JUAN VENADO ISLAND, LEON, NICARAGUA
Francisco Ral Cruz Martnez

Ministerio del Ambiente y Los Recursos Naturales; Delegacion de Len, Contiguo a la Biblioteca del Banco Central; Len,
Len, Nicaragua. nicam@sdnnic.org.ni
The protection of the seaturtles and the forest in Juan land, we give some help in food to the people who partici-
Venado Island is made it with the help of the community. pate in the collection, which has an equivalent of C$ 150
The Natural Reserve of Juan Venado Island is located at the Cordobas or US$ 15.00 Dls. The surviving average of the
pacific coast, southly of Poneloya, Leon, Nicaragua. Under eggs that we got from the little turtles is about 70% which
decree # 1,320 it has extension of 4,600 has and 22 km of are throw to the sea and the people of the communities are
perimetral area of beach, where como to nest nearly 500 witness of than our goal for this year is to sew (scatter) around
turtles from October to January each year. The species that 40.000 eggs and we want a production of 28.000 little turtles
we have here are: Paslamas (L. olivacea); Toras (D. coriacea) or hatchlings. Beside with the account of how many turtles
and Carey (Erethmochelys imbricata). From them the two come to nest to the beach the quantity that nest every one of
first are more predominant and the third one is less known. them, and also the ones dies by different reasons and the
In order to protect these species we trade in account the nests which care ilegaly stealed through the same people.
Comunities of Las Peitas and Salinas Grandes which Its important to point out that we made some inspections in
make some damages on the eggs resources, because of the differents restaurants, market and places during the nesting
economical conditions. The people make the collection or period in order to avoid the comsumption of the people.
pick up the turtles eggs during the night and pur them in
hatchery (nursery) which are located in the coast of the is-
PROTORMAR-UAS: 21 YEARS OF RESERCH AND CONSERVATION OF SEA

TURTLES
Fernando Enciso Saracho1,.Marco A. Barraza Ortega1, Ignmar Sosa Cornejo2, and Jess Prez Mrquez2
1
Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Autnoma de Sinaloa, Paseo Claussen S/N , Mazatln, Sinaloa; A.P. 610, C.P.
82000, Mxico
2
Escuela de Biologa, Universidad Autnoma de Sinaloa., Mxico. cali@facimar.maz.uasnet.mx
Activities worked out by the diverse schools, and de- education for kids, and cultural activities mainly on the olive
partments of the Universidad Autnoma de Sinaloa since ridley turtle from Sinaloas coast are summarized.
1976 involving those of conservation, research, enviromental
CARACTERIZACIN DEL SITIO DE ANIDACIN EN LA PLAYA DE LAGUNAS DE

CHACAHUA, OAX. PARA LA ESPECIE LEPIDOCHELYS OLIVACEA (TORTUGA
GOLFINA).
Ma Teresa Espino Chvez1 and Gustavo Casas Andreu2

1
Facultad De Ciencias U.N.A.M. espino@chajul.ine.gob.mx
2
Instituto de Biologa U.N.A.M, Mxico D. F.
INTRODUCCION to de cras de tortuga marina.

Estudios realizados en diversas playas del mundo, de-
muestran que las caractersticas en las playas de anidacin OBJETIVOS
son diferentes en unas y otras e incluso dichas caractersti- Describir las caractersticas del sitio de anidacin de la
cas difieren dentro de la misma playa. Varios autores como tortuga marina Lepidochelys olivacea, (golfina), en funcin
Hendrickson (1966) y Mortimer (1980, 1990), han observa- de la temperatura, humedad y granulometra.
do, que factores como temperatura, humedad y tamao de Definir el patrn de granulometra, el porcentaje de
grano de la arena son caractersticas importantes para la humedad y la temperatura presentes en nidos naturales.
seleccin del sitio de anidacin as como para el avivamien- Establecer si existe correlacin entre la lnea de marea

y el sitio de anidacin; y la distancia del nido a la vegetacin. varianza por rangos de Kruskal-Wallis, el cual demostr que
Con base en la temperatura, humedad y granulometra el 75 % de los datos tomados de la superficie del nido
determinar si la tortuga Lepidochelys olivacea, (golfina), presentan un porcentaje de humedad de 1.95 siendo la
sigue un patrn o gradiente en la seleccin del sitio de mediana de 1.39 en la parte media de los nidos se obtuvo que
anidacin. la mediana del porcentaje de humedad es de 3.14 y que el
75% de los datos presenta una porcentaje de humedad de
METODO 3.65, mientras que el porcentaje de humedad del fondo del
nido tiene una media de 3.87 y que el 75% de las mediciones
Utilizndose un termmetro de lectura rpida (Shulteis, presenta una porcentaje de humedad de 4.38. As mismo se
10-50) se tom la temperatura de la arena en dos tempora- puede observar que existe una diferencia significativa con
das de anidacin (1993-94) de 33 nidos naturales a tres P= 0.000000000561, entre las mediciones tomadas a
diferentes profundidades, (superficie, parte media y fondo diferentes profundidades, por lo tanto se habla de tres
del nido) as como, muestras de arena para obtener la hume- poblaciones estadsticamente diferentes. (H=42.6 g. l. =2
dad y conocer la granulometra, de las mismas. As mismo p=< 0.0001).
se colectaron muestras de arena y se tomaron registros de A travs del Coeficiente de Correlacin de Spearman,
temperatura sobre 26 rastros a cada 3.75 mt. El trabajo de se muestra que existe una correlacin positiva entre las
laboratorio consisti en obtener el porcentaje de humedad mediciones de las tres partes del nido. El coeficiente de
(Mtodo de Kezdi, 1980) y el tamao de grano de la arena correlacin entre el del porcentaje de humedad de la
(Mtodo de Wentorth). superficie y el de la parte media del nido es de 0.67, entre la
parte media del nido y el fondo es de 0.76 y entre la superficie
RESULTADOS y el fondo es de 0.57 (el ms bajo).
El anlisis de los datos para la caracterizacin de los
La caracterizacin de los nidos de la tortuga marina nidos naturales en funcin al tipo de grano presente, demostr
Lepidochelys olivacea en la Playa de Chacahua se realiz que no existe diferencia significativa entre la superficie, la
con base en el anlisis de los datos de las variables parte media y el fondo del nido, en relacin con el tipo de
consideradas: temperatura, humedad y granulometra. grano de arena. Para este anlisis se aplicaron las mismas
Para caracterizar el nido en funcin de su temperatura, herramientas estadsticas utilizadas anteriormente. La
se analizaron los datos segn la profundidad del nido a cual mediana para las tres partes del nido es la misma y el mayor
haban sido tomadas las mediciones, considerndose para porcentaje de los datos (75%) esta representado por arena
cada nido tres partes, una sobre la superficie del nido, otra mediana con predominancia de granos medianos.
en la parte media y la ltima en el fondo del mismo. La Para conocer si existe una relacin entre las
descripcin sucinta de la distribucin de esta variable segn temperaturas de las diferentes partes del nido, el porcentaje
la profundidad del nido, se realiz a travs de un anlisis de de humedad y el tamao de grano de la arena se utiliz el
varianza por rangos de Kruskal-Wallis, el cual determin Coeficiente de Correlacin de Spearman, a travs del cual
que el 75 % de los datos registrados en la superficie del se puede observar que existe una correlacin negativa entre
nido presentan una temperatura de 34.0C siendo la mediana las temperaturas y el porcentaje de humedad. El coeficiente
de 30.3. Para la parte media de los nidos se obtuvo que la de correlacin entre el tamao del grano y la temperatura, y
mediana es de 32.1C y que el 75% de los datos presenta una entre el tamao de grano y la humedad, es demasiado bajo
temperatura de 33.5C, mientras que el fondo del nido tiene por lo cual no fue considerado.
una mediana de 32.3 C y que el 75% de las mediciones El Coeficiente d Spearman tambin fue utiliz para
presenta una temperatura de 34 C. Dentro de este mismo identificar la relacin entre la distancia de la marea ms alta,
anlisis se comprob que existe una diferencia significativa la distancia del nido a la vegetacin y cualquiera de las
entre la temperatura de las tres partes de los nidos siendo caractersticas del nido (temperatura, porcentaje de humedad,
esta de P=0.0000328, por lo que se puede decir que se trata granulometra y profundidad del nido), los resultados,
de tres poblaciones estadsticas diferentes. (H= 20.6 g. l. muestran que el coeficiente de correlacin entre las variables,
=2 P=< 0.0001). es tan bajo que no es posible sealar una relacin entre las
El Coeficiente de Correlacin de Spearman, demuestra mismas.
que existe una correlacin positiva entre las mediciones de La presencia de una tendencia en las variables medidas
las tres partes del nido. El coeficiente de correlacin entre la sobre el rastro que deja la tortuga, se comprob a travs de
temperatura de la superficie y la parte media del nido es de la prueba de Cox-Stuart la cual determina aparte de la
0.84, entre la temperatura de la superficie y el fondo del nido existencia de una tendencia, si esta es creciente o decreciente.
es de 0.82 y por ltimo entre la temperatura de la parte me- Los resultados obtenidos, sealan que la temperatura presenta
dia y el fondo del nido es de 0.95, lo cual nos muestra una una tendencia creciente, mientras que la tendencia que
alta correlacin entre las. presenta el porcentaje de humedad es decreciente y que la
La caracterizacin en funcin del porcentaje de granulometra no presenta tendencia alguna.
humedad de la arena de las tres partes del nido, superficie,
parte media y fondo, se realiz a travs del anlisis de

DISCUSIN Kezdi, A. 1980 Handbook of soil mechanics, soil testing,

Vol II, Elsevir, Amterdam 1980.
La caracterizacin en funcin de la temperatura,
Lennox L. and Spotila R. J. 1981 Factors affecting
humedad y granulometra de las tres partes de los nidos de
hatchability of eggs of Lepodocheys olivacea at
tortuga es la siguiente: La mediana de la temperatura en la
Nancite, Costa Rica, Ddepartament of biology, State
superficie de nidos naturales es de 32.4 C, en la parte media
University College at Buffalo.
de 33.5 C y en el fondo de 34.0C, las cuales se incrementan
McGehee, A. M. 1979. Factors affecting hatchbility success
conforme incrementa una de ellas. Los nidos naturales
of the loggerhead, sea turtle eggs (Caretta caretta).
presentan una mediana del porcentaje de humedad en su
Thesis Master of Science University of Central Florida,
superficie de 1.39, en la parte media de 3.14 y en el fondo de
Orlando U.S.A. 1-23.
3.87. El comportamiento de esta variable va a ser
Castro, A. 1991. Metodologa para el anlisis
representado por un cambio o incremento de las mismas.
granulomtrico de arenas de playa Archelon,Vol. 1,
Con respecto al tipo de grano de arena este es el mismo en
Num. 1, 1991
cualquier parte del nido.
Mortimer, J. A. 1980. Factors influencing beach selection
En relacin con la correlacin que existe entre las
by nesting sea turtles, In: Biology and conserrvation of
temperaturas y los porcentajes de humedad de las diferentes
sea turtles, Smithsonian Institution presss usa. 45-51.
partes del nido se observa que es negativo, lo que puede
Mortimer, J. A. 1990 The influence of beach sand
significar que el incremento de la temperatura, conlleva al
characteristics on the nesting behavior and clutch suvival
decremento en el porcentaje de humedad. El coeficiente de
of green turtles (Chelonia mydas), Copeia, 3: 802-817.
correlacin obtenido entre la distancia de marea, la distancia
Mrosovsky, N. 1983 Ecology and nest-site selection of
de la vegetacin y las diferentes caractersticas presentes en
leatherback turtles, In: Biological Conservation, 26:
el nido es muy bajo para considerar que existe relacin en-
47-56.
tre dichas variables.
Naranjo, G. R. 1988, Caractersticas del ambiente de
Con relacin al comportamiento que presentan las vari-
incubacion natural y su influencia en el avivamiento de
ables medidas sobre el rastro que deja la tortuga al seleccionar
los nidos de tortuga negra (Chelonia agassizii:
el sitio de anidacin se observa que la temperatura presenta
chelonidae) en las playas de colola y maruata
una tendencia creciente, el porcentaje de humedad una
michoacn, Memorias del V Encuentro
tendencia decreciente y la granulometra no parece presentar
Interuniversitario sobre tortugas marinas en Mxico;
ninguna tendencia.
Universidad Michoacna de San Nicolas de Hidalgo,
Los resultados hasta ahora obtenidos no precisan que
Conacyt, 1988.
la tortuga siga un patrn en la seleccin del sitio de anidacin,
Schwwartz F. J. 1982 Correlation of nest sand asimmetry
aunque las variables temperatura y porcentaje de humedad
and porcent loggerhead sea turtle egg hatch in North
si presenten un gradiente.
Carolina determined by geological sorting analyses.
Asb Bulletin 29(2):83, 1982.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Siegel S. 1991. Estadstica no Paramtrica (Ed.) Trillas,
A todas las personas que de una u otra forma han 344 pag.
cooperado para la realizacin de este proyecto, muchas Stancyk S. E. and J. P. Ross 1978 An analysis of sand from
gracias por su ayuda. green turtle nesting beaches on ascension island, Copeia,
1978, No. 1.
LITERATURE CITED Stoneburner D. L. and J. I. Richardson, Observations on
the role of temperature in longgerhead turtle nest site
Ackermkan, A. 1980 Physiological and ecological aspects
selection Copeia 1981: 238-241.
of gas exchange by sea turtles eggs, Zoologist 20: (3).
Bustar, R. and Greenham. 1967 Factores fisicos y qumicos
que afectan el avivamiento de la tortuga verde (Chelonia
mydas).
Casas-Andreu, G. 1978 Anisis de la anidacin de las
tortugas marinas del genero Lepidochelys en Mxico,
an. Centro cienc. Del mar y limnol. UNAM, 5 (1) 141-
158).
Harold F. Hirth, Some aspects of the nesting behavior
and reproductive biology of sea turtles, American
Zoologist 20: (3), 1980.
Hendrickson, J. R. 1966 Nesting behavior of sea turtles
with emphasis on physical and behavioral
determinants of nesting success or failure, 53-57.

CHANGES IN LOGGERHEAD NEST PREDATION PATTERNS ON WEST CENTRAL

FLORIDA BEACHES
Jerris J. Foote1, Jennifer L. Floyd2, Tracey L. Mueller1, Michael Salmon2, and Jay M. Sprinkel1
1
Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236, U.S.A.jerris@mote.org
2
Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431, U.S.A.
Depredation of loggerhead (Caretta caretta) nests in- Armadillos are omnivores who will eat almost any liv-
creased from 4.3% (in 1989) to 30% (in 1997) on the north- ing thing (Carr, 1982). In 1988, armadillo predation upon
ern 41 km of the Gulf of Mexico beaches of Sarasota County, sea turtle nests was documented on Jupiter Island at Hobe
Florida. The primary predators included raccoons P ( rocyon Sound National Wildlife Refuge (HSNWR) on the Atlantic
lotor) and nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus). Coast, Martin County, Florida (Drennen, Cooley, and
Although predation of marine turtle nests is documented in Devore, 1989). The armadillo predation continues and has
the literature (Stancyk, 1982) documentation of armadillo increased at HSNWR (Kemp, Jewell and Neely, in press;
predation of loggerhead nests had occurred only for the east and Martin, personal communication). Armadillo predation
coast of Florida. This report represents the first documenta- of loggerhead nests was first documented on Casey Key on
tion of armadillo predation from the west coast of Florida . the Gulf Coast of Sarasota County during the summer of
1993 when 15 nests were damaged.
INTRODUCTION
Annually loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) and oc-
casionally green turtles (Chelonia mydas) nest on the sandy Monitoring for marine turtle activity was conducted
beaches along Floridas central Gulf Coast. Sea turtle nests on 41 km of shoreline along the Central Gulf Coast of
in Sarasota County have suffered mortality of developing Florida, Sarasota County. The study area is composed of
turtle eggs and/or emerging hatchlings due to predation by four barrier islands and a mainland beach.
small mammals, insects, crabs, birds, and occasionally rep- Daily surveys of nesting activity document nests and
tiles. The predation rate has increased significantly over evidence of nest depredation. When a damaged nest is ob-
the past nine years with some areas of shoreline experienc- served the date of predation is recorded and the type of preda-
ing more predation than others. The primary predators in- tor is documented from evidence gathered at the nest such
clude the raccoon (Procyon lotor), the nine-banded arma- as: viewing the predator itself or identifying tracks left at
dillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), red fire ants (Soleonopsis the nest location. When the predator cannot be identified,
invicta), and ghost crabs (Ocypode quadrata). Other preda- the predator type is listed as unknown.
tors, although only incidental in number, include the fish
crow (Corvus osssifragus), the coachwhip snake RESULTS
(Masticophis flagellum), the opossum (Didelphis There has been an increase in the number of nests and the
virginiana), and domestic dogs and cats. number of nests that were attacked by predators (Figure
The raccoon is a dominate predator along Sarasota 1).
County beaches, as well as throughout the southeastern Historically, the most important predator is the raccoon
.
United States (Stancyk, Talbert, and Dean, 1980 and However, since 1993, armadillos have begun scaveng-
Stancyk, 1982). In recent years, raccoon populations on ing in nests. Between 1996 and 1997, the impact of ar-
Floridas west coast have been allowed to unnaturally in- madillos has been almost as great as raccoons.
crease due to a number of causes. First, the populations of Armadillo depredation was confined to Casey Key prior
raccoonsnatural predators, bobcats and horned owls, have to 1997. During 1997 armadillo predation was docu-
decreased over time. Additionally, unnatural food sources mented on Siesta Key. In 1997 armadillos took more
supplied by humans have allowed local populations to be- nests at Casey Key than raccoons.
come denser (Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, Armadillos and raccoons, together, are the major preda-
1998). The combination of these factors has created rac- tors at Sarasota County nest sites.
coon populations which are more numerous than that which
the habitat can adequately support. DISCUSSION
The nine-banded armadillo, was introduced to Florida
in the 1920s (Carr, 1982). Armadillos have a rapid repro- Overall depredation of marine turtle nests has increased
ductive nature. This fact, along with a dwindling natural from 4.3% (1989) to 30% (1997). Raccoons continue to
predator population, consisting of cougars, bears, and bob- be the primary predator accounting for 94.2% of all dam-
cats, allowed the Florida population to explode. Armadillos aged nests in 1991. Following the 1991 and 1992 season
had spread into south Florida by the early 1950s, and by a more aggressive nest protection effort was undertaken.
1974 were present in most sea turtle nesting areas in the Self-releasing cages were installed over all nests on south
United States (Humphrey, 1974). Venice beaches where raccoon populations were high and

has not been successful in deterring armadillo predation.

Armadillos may be expanding from Casey Key north to
Siesta Key as predation records indicate. If something is
not done to control this predator the predation rates may
approach values similar to those on Casey Key.
Something needs to be done in regard to predator con-
trol. Although there is currently some resistance to preda-
tor removal by animal rights groups it is the goal of the
Endangered Species Act to increase the population of
marine turtles. Thus some compromise must be reached
in controlling the predatory animals while allowing ma-
rine turtle nests to incubate and hatch successfully.
One option to predator removal would be sterilization of
male and use of hormonal replacement in female rac-
coons and armadillos. This option, although time con-
suming and labor intensive, would prevent the current
predation had occurred historically. In 1997 these cages population from expanding to any great degree.
were placed over 107 nests prior to any predation. Preda-
tors were not documented as damaging any of the 107 LITERATURE CITED
nests. On all other areas self-releasing cages were in-
Carr, A. 1982. Armadillo dilemma. Animal Kingdom 85(5),
stalled immediately following the initial predation of in-
40-43.
dividual nests.
Drennen, D., D. Cooley, and J.E. Devore. 1989. Armadillo
Following the aggressive nest caging activities raccoon
predation on Loggerhead turtle eggs at two national
predation remained high but fell from the high of 94.2%
wildlife refuges in Florida, U.S.A. Marine Turtle
of all depredated nests in 1991 to a low of 30.3% in 1996.
Newsletter 45, 7-8.
Beginning in 1993 armadillos began preying upon ma-
Humphrey, S.R. 1974. Zoogeography of the nine-banded
rine turtle eggs. Armadillo depredation (as primary preda-
armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) in the United States.
tors of loggerhead nests) has increased from 15.1% of
BioScience 24(8), 457-462.
all depredated nests in 1993 to a high of 40.6% in 1997.
Kemp, S.J., S. Jewell, and B.S. Neely. (In Press.) Predation
Armadillos, however, proved much more difficult to de-
of loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) nests by
ter. Even with the self-releasing cages placed over the
armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus) at Hobe Sound
nest, the rooting nature of armadillos allowed them to
National Wildlife Refuge, Florida. In: Proceedings of
successfully burrow under the flanges. Efforts were made
the Seventeenth Annual Symp. on Sea Turtle Biology
to increase the depth of the cages under the sand by
and Conservation.
straightening the flanges and burying them deeper into
Nebraska Game and Parks Commission. 2/16/98. http://ngp.
the sand. Although this method did deter armadillo pre-
ngpc. state. ne. us/ wildlife/rcoons. html.
dation in some incidences, a successful solution has yet
Stancyk, S.E., O.R. Talbert and J.M. Dean. 1980. Nesting
to be found.
activity of the loggerhead turtlecaretta caretta in the
Armadillos destroyed a higher percentage of eggs per nest
South Carolina, II. Protection of nests from raccoon
than raccoons (38% to 23%). The remaining eggs in nests
predation by transplantation. Biological Conservation
depredated by armadillos shows lower overall hatch rates
18. pp 289-298.
of 51.5% versus 78.6% hatch success for nests depre-
Stancyk, S.E., 1982. Non-human predators of sea turtles
dated by raccoons.
and their control. In: Biology and Conservation of Sea
The age of the nests at predation also varied by predator.
Turtles. Revised addition, 1995 (K. A. Bjorndal. Ed.)
The predation dates for raccoons was 27.8 +- 11.5 days
Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D. C. pp.
of incubation. The predation dates for armadillos was
139-152.
16.3 +- 15.1 days of incubation.
CONCLUSIONS
The amount of predation that is occurring appears to be
directly related to human modification of habitat . This
modification is responsible for an explosion in the popu-
lations of these predators.
Attempts to protect nests utilizing self-release wire cages
has proven beneficial in deterring raccoon predation but

TRABAJOS REALIZADOS EN LA TEMPORADA 93-97 EN EL CAMPAMENTO

TORTUGUERO ZONA DE RESERVA PLAYA PIEDRA TLALCOYUNQUE, MPIO. DE
TECPAN DE GALEANA, GUERRERO, MEXICO
Luz Daniela Gallardo and J. Eugenio Zeferino

SEMARNAP Guerrero, Mxico.
En el presente trabajo se hace una recopilacin de los

trabajos de proteccin y conservacin realizados a partir de
la temporada 1993 a la fecha, se analizaron los resultados
de la especie golfina (Lepidochelys olivacea), se estima la
poblacin desovante de tortugas y los valores de
reclutamiento que tiene en la zona.
PRELIMINARY STUDY ON PREDATOR CLUES TO DISCOVER A NEST:MARKS OF

CAMOUFLAGING AS AN ATTRACTION TO PREDATORS
Guido Gerosa*, Monica Aureggi1, and Sedat V. Yerli2

1
CHELON Marine Turtle Conservation and Research Program (Tethys Research Institute)
Viale Val Padana, 134/B - 00141 Roma, Italy. chelon@mbox.vol.it
2
Department of Biology, Hacettepe University, P. O. Box 40, 06692 Ankara, Turkey
This research was undertaken at Akyatan beach, Tur- simulated nest (false nest = F, moved nest = M and
key, the most important green turtle nesting area in the East- hole nest = H) were made by recreating the natural shape
ern Mediterranean. Natural predation is one of the main of a green turtle nest in order to understand the clues by
threat to the survival of the green turtle population in this which foxes discover the nests. F were an exact imitation
site. Behavioural study on predators, mainly foxes, was car- of a nest with the moved sand area and the leaving pit
ried out from the 7th of August 1997 until the 25th of Sep- (n=11); M (n=3) were nests with only an area of moved
tember 1997. It focused on a restricted area of 196 meters. sand and H (n=3) were nests with only a hole similar to a
The aim of this study was to understand if the presence of turtle leaving pit.
Foxes were patrolling the false nests more often than
the real nests covered with sand. Tracks were found more
frequently on F nests than either on M nests and H
nests.
The presence of fox trails of the same specimen going
from one nest to another, showed that foxes look for nest by
detecting the mark of camouflaging. Foxes seemed to fol-
low paths running parallel with the sea shore line. A couple
of false nests grouped at short distance (within 10 m) were
more visited than the ones grouped at farther distance.
the leaving pit and the moved sand, left on the beach by a
nesting female, have any particular signal which induce
foxes to approach and discover a nest on the beach. Five
real green turtle nests were present in the study area and
their leaving pit were covered with sand. Three kinds of

RESULTADOS DE PROTECCION DEL CAMPAMENTO LA GLORIA EN LA ZONA DE

RESERVA NATURAL EL PLAYON DE MISMALOYA, JALISCO, MEXICO.
Luis Fernando Gonzlez Guevara, Francisco Valadez Fernndez, Jos Luis Acua Domnguez, and Felipe Javier
Lpez Chvez
Programa de Conservacin a las tortugas Marinas, Universidad de Guadalajara, Jalisco. Mxico.
lguevara@costera.melaque.udg.mx
The Results of sea turtle conservation along the cen-

tral part of the reserve zone and sea turtle nesting site El
Playon de Mismaloya are shown for the 1997-1998 nesting
season in Jalisco, Mexico.
THE SEA TURTLES OF SURINAME 1997- PROJECT. COMPARING RELOCATED

NESTS TO UNDISTURBED NESTS.
Willem E. J. Hoekert, Luc H. G. van Tienen, Paul van Nugteren, and Sacha Dench
Biotopic Foundation, Plantage Middenlaan 45, 1018 DC Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
The Sea Turtles of Suriname 1997- project was car- 70 33
ried out by Biotopic during the 1997 nesting season in 60

32
Suriname. As a part of this project, several aspects of the 31
Nest temperature (C)

Rainfall (mm/24 hrs)
50
30
nesting ecology of leatherbacks and green turtles were stud- 40

29
ied. We compared temperature, moisture and hatching suc- 30

28
27
cess in relocated Dermochelys coriacea (Dc) and Chelonia 20
26
mydas (Cm) nests to temperature, moisture and hatching 10

25
0 24
success in undisturbed Dc and Cm nests in the Galibi Na- 35597 35607 35617 35627 35637 35647
ture Reserve in Suriname. A complete and detailed descrip- Figure 1. Average temperature in 5 undisturbed Dc nests (grey line)
and 5 relocated Dc nests (black line). The pivotal temperature for Dc
tion of the results can be found in Van Tienen, et al. (in in French Guiana is indicated (horizontal line), (Rimblot-Baly et al.,1987).
prep.). The start of the thermosensitive period is indicated (vertical dotted line).
Rainfall (mm/24 hrs) is indicated by black bars.
METHODS
within a range of 8 days (between June 5 and June 17).
During the 1997 nesting season, temperature was mea- In order to study the effect of inundation on Dc and
sured in 10 Dc and 10 Cm nests. Half of the nests were Cm nests, all Dc and Cm nests that were deposited from
relocated to a hatchery, the other half was left in the natural May 10 until June 17 on a 1 km stretch of the main nesting
situation. Moisture was measured in a similar but different beach were localised and recorded. During the same pe-
set of nests. In order to measure temperature, the nests were riod, 50 doomed Dc and 50 doomed Cm nests that were laid
opened within a day after egg deposition, and a PVC tube on other beaches were relocated to a hatchery. After hatch-
(12 mm ) was buried in the nest at a depth of 65 cm (Dc) ing, or after 80 (Dc) and 70 (Cm) days of incubation, the
and 50 cm (Cm). The tubes were firmly fixed with chicken- nests were dug up and the hatching success was determined.
wire. In order to measure moisture, the nests were opened
within a day after egg deposition, and a tensio tube
(Nieuwkoop, 1m) was buried in the sand 5 cm next to the
70 34
nest at a depth of 65 cm (Dc) and 50 cm (Cm). Every day 60

33
32
starting at 6 PM, temperatures were measured using a 50 31

Nest temperature (C)
Rainfall (mm/24 hrs)
30
Nieuwkoop digital thermistor with a 1 m probe, and the 40
30
29
28
pressure potential of the soil water was measured using a 20 27
26
Nieuwkoop Loctronic tensiometer. The nests were measured 10

25
0 24
in the same order every day. The temperatures of all 5 relo- 35597 35607 35617 35627 35637 35647
cated Cm nests were averaged for each day, as were the

temperatures for the 5 undisturbed Cm nests, the 5 relo- Figure 2. Average temperature in 5 undisturbed Cm nests (grey line)
and 5 relocated Cm nests (black line). The pivotal temperature for Cm
cated Dc nests and the 5 undisturbed Dc nests (see Figure 1 in Suriname is indicated (horizontal line), (Mrosovsky et al.,1984). The
and Figure2). Within each group, the eggs were deposited start of the thermosensitive period is indicated (vertical dotted line).
Rainfall (mm/24 hrs) is indicated by black bars. 1997 Season.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 54%(sd=31%, n=25). The average hatching success of the
50 relocated Cm nests was 68% (sd=24%, n=50). 1 relo-
Temperature - Using this method, the average tem-
cated Cm nest did not hatch
perature in the 5 relocated Dc nests was on average 1.0C
The average hatching success of the undisturbed Dc
higher than the average temperature in the 5 undisturbed
nests (3%) is very low. Whitmore and Dutton (1985) found
Dc nests (Figure 1). During the thermosensitive period, the
much higher hatch rates (32.7% 6.6, n=12) for undis-
average temperature in the 5 relocated Dc nests was above
turbed, washed over Dc nests at Krofajapasi Beach in
the pivotal temperature, whereas the average temperature
Suriname. It is likely that the low hatching success of Dc
in the 5 undisturbed Dc nests was under the pivotal tem-
nests at Galibi is primarily due to inundation. Most of the
perature known for Dc in Suriname.
Dc nests in the Galibi Nature Reserve are lad 0.5 to 2.5 m
The average temperature in the 5 relocated Cm nests
below the high tide line. Figure 3 shows that the relative
was on average 1.2C higher than the average temperature
moisture in a Dc nest located 1.85 m below the high tide
in the 5 undisturbed Cm nests (Figure 2). During the
line increases significantly as the water level rises. Another
thermosensitive period, the average temperature in both the
cause for the low hatching success is predation by the mole
5 relocated and 5 undisturbed Cm nests was above the piv-
cricket. The average percent of eggs that were predated by
otal temperature known for Cm in Suriname.
the mole cricket was 40 % in Dc nests and 20 % in Cm
nests.
MOISTURE
Figure 3 shows the relative moisture in 2 undisturbed
Dc nests and the relative moisture in 1 relocated Dc nest.
Also, the sea level at spring tide is indicated. The relative 50
moisture in the 2 undisturbed Dc nests is strongly corre-

40
lated to the sea level and the distance to the spring tide line.
Number of nests
Nests that are located more than 3 m below the spring tide 30
line (e.g. Dc C) become completely saturated with water

20
(42%) during high sea levels. In contrast, the relative mois-
ture in the relocated Dc nest is not correlated to the sea 10
level and the distance to the spring tide line. 0

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Hatchingsuccess(%)
INUNDATION
Figure 4. Hatching success for undisturbed (black bars) and relocated
950
50% (grey bars) Dc nests.
45%
40%
High tide sea level (cm N.S.P.)
750 35%
Volumetric water content (%)
550
30%
25%
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
20%
350
15%
10%
We would like to thank STINASU, Henk Reichart,
150
5%
0%
Harold Sijlbing, Ricardo Pan, Arnoud Schouten, Ronnie,
35575 35587 35599 35611 35623 35635
Saulus, Jan, Andre and Gerard for their support and co-
Figure 3. Volumetric water content of the sand surrounding 2 operation during the project. Financial support came from
undisturbed Dc nests (Dc C: light gray line, Dc D: dark grey line) and 1 AVGN (WWF Netherlands) and the Beijerinck-Popping
relocated Dc nest (Dc 5: black line). The sea level at high tide relative Foundation.
to the normal Surinam level (N. S. P.) is indicated (interrupted line),
(Dienst van de Scheepvaart, Paramaribo 1997). Dc C was located 5.1
m below the spring tide line, Dc D was located 1.85 m below the spring LITERATURE CITED
tide line. 1997 Season.
De Dienst van de Scheepvaart Paramaribo, 1997. Book of
hours for Suriname, 1997.
From may 10 until June 17, 102 Dc nests were counted
Mrosovsky, N., Dutton, P.H., and Whitmore, C.P. 1984. Sex
on the 1 km stretch. Of the 102 nests, 66 were found back.
ratios of two species of sea turtle nesting in Suriname.
Of these nests, 23 had hatched. The average hatching suc-
Can. J. Zool. 62:2227-2239.
cess of the 23 nests was 10% (sd=10%, n=23). The overall
Rimblot-Baly, F., Lescure, J., Fretey, J., and Pieau, C. 1987.
hatching success of the 66 undisturbed Dc nests was 3%
Sensibilit la temprature de la diffrenciation sexuelle
(sd=8%, n=66). The average hatching success of the 50 re-
chez la Tortue Luth, Dermochelys coriacea (Vandelli,
located Dc nests was 26% (sd=23%, n=50). 9 relocated Dc
1761); application des donnes de lincubation
nests did not hatch.
artificielle ltude de la sex-ratio dans la nature. Ann.
From may 10 until June 17, 47 Cm nests were counted
Sci. Nat. Zool. (Paris), 8:227-290.
on the 1 km stretch. Of the 47 nests, 25 were found back.
Van Tienen, L.H.G., Hoekert, W.E.J., Van Nugteren, P. and
Of these nests, 21 had hatched. The average hatching suc-
S. Dench, (in prep.). The Sea Turtles of Suriname 1997
cess of the 21 nests was 64% (sd=23%, n=21). The overall
- project: research, awareness and international
hatching success of the 25 undisturbed Cm nests was

information exchange. Technical report No 4, Biotopic

Foundation, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Whitmore, C.P. and Dutton, P.H. 1985. Infertility, embryonic
mortality, and nest-site selection in leatherback and
green sea turtles in Suriname. Biol. Cons. 34:251-272.
EFFECTS OF BEACH NOURISHMENT ON HATCHLING SIZE AND PERFORMANCE IN

THE LOGGERHEAD SEA TURTLE (CARETTA CARETTA)
Linda E. Iocco
University of Charleston, SC, Grice Marine Laboratory, 205 Fort Johnson Rd., Charleston, SC, 29412, U.S.A.
ioccol@edisto.cofc.edu
Incubation environment directly influences hatchling performance (n=30 nests), and nest success (n=41 nests).
development and survivorship in sea turtles. Some of these Results showed no significant differences between turtles
incubation parameters, including hydric and thermal con- from the two beach types in carapace length, width, or body
ditions and gaseous environment, can be affected by physi- mass; hatchling crawling and swimming speeds also showed
cal characteristics of the sand medium, such as grain size, no significant differences between beach types, although
moisture content, porosity and color. Because nourished performance was significantly affected by hatchling cara-
beaches are composed of sand from alternate sources, physi- pace length. Hatching and emergence success were also not
cal characteristics of nourishment sand may vary from those significantly different between nourished and natural
of sand found on natural beaches. beaches. The results of this study suggest that there may be
Loggerhead clutches from two nourished beaches and no detectable differences in hatchling size, performance,
two natural beaches in Florida were sampled during July and nest success between clutches incubated in nourished
and August 1997 to determine whether beach nourishment and natural beaches.
had a significant effect on hatchling body size (n=33 nests),
CLIMATIC AND OCEANIC DATABASE OF NESTING AREA OF KEMPS RIDLEY
Ma. del Carmen Jimnez Quiroz 1, Olivia Salmern2, and No Andrs Villanueva 1.
1
Centro Regional de Investigacin Pesquera- Manzanillo. Playa Ventanas s/n. Apdo. Postal 591. Manzanillo, Col., Mxico.
Tel (333)2 37 50, FAX 2 37 51. tormar@bay.net.mx
2
Laboratorio de Observacin de la Tierra. Instituto de Geografa. Circuito Universitario. Cd. Universitaria. Delegacin
Coyoacn, D. F., Mxico
There are numerous questions about the Kemps rid- Climatic factors. - the selected variables were: air
ley life cycle without answer. The environmental factors in- temperature (maximum, minimum and average), direction
fluence some aspects of the biology of this specie like: the and velocity of the wind, pluvial precipitation. The
temperature is determinant on the sexual rate and survival meteorological stations are listed in the Table 1.
of embryos (Mrosovsky and Yntema,1980); the direction
and velocity of the wind and the sea surface temperature Table 1. -Meteorological stations. Source: CONAGUA: Comisin
Nacional del Agua; CFE: Comisin Federal de Electricidad.
are related with the nesting behavior (Casas-Andreu, 1978)
and the marine currents maybe contribute to the hatch dis- METEOROLOGICAL
STATION
SOTO LA MARINA
(SM)
BARRA DEL
TORDO (BT)
PUNTA JEREZ
(PJ)
persion (Collard and Ogren, 1990). POSITION (LAT-LONG) 23 46N
98 13W
23
9746W
03 N, 22 53N
97 46W
Is necessary to have many elements to make hypoth- ALTITUDE (M)
TIME INTERVAL
12
1927-1995
5
1986-1996
2
1925-1965
esis to explain some aspects of the life cycle of this specie. CLIMATE (KEPPEN
SCALE)
BS1(H)HW(E)W (A)CA(W1)(E)W
Accordingly, the strategy is to construct a climatic and oce- SOURCE CONAGUA CFE CONAGUA
anic database, subsequently it will be one of the basis of the Oceanic characteristics. The oceanic characteristics
future investigation projects. In this work, we present some were observed with satellite imagery. Thermal band of
results of the selection, compiling and analysis of some en- NOAA-AVHRR imagery from April - September of 1989-
vironmental factors.

1993 from NOAA files; and images from 1996 donated by nitude of monthly temperature changes and the presence of
the Instituto de Geografa (UNAM) were used. gyres in the border of the continental shelf can influence
The NOAA binary files were transformed in sea sur- the arrival of females whereas the plume detected between
face temperature using the algorithm of Vzquez (1995). June and August maybe disperse the little turtles to the north-
Afterwards these images (monthly averages) were enhanced ern zones, where the presence of cyclonic gyres is common.
to bring out the marine fronts and circulation patterns. The productivity of this structures is high.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS
At the moment there are annual, monthly and daily More and actualized information is needed, like the
registers of the climatic variables. The first analysis showed hurricane trends and the more recent registers of climate
that in Barra de la Coma, near to Rancho Nuevo camp, and oceanic variables. We wait that this database will be
where the nesting activity is grater, the climatic character- incorporated to a Geographic Information System of the
istics are transitional between the dry and hot northern cli- nesting area of Kemps ridley and we hope that it can be of
mate, measured at Soto la Marina (SM) and the warm and public domain in future.
wetter southern climate registered at Barra del Tordo (BT)
and Punta Jerez (PJ). Maybe this latitudinal differences have ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
some influence on the selectivity of nesting zone by females. The climatic information used in this work was do-
There are time series of monthly temperature and rain nated by the Servicio Meteorolgico Nacional (Comisin
from SM and PJ. The first are from 1927 to 1996 and the Nacional del Agua) and the Departamento de
second from 1925 to 1965. The fluctuations of temperature Hidrometeorologa from Comisin Nacional de Electricidad.
in SM are great, specially at 40s. In recent years there are The sea surface temperature imagery of 1996 was donated
an apparent increment of this variable in SM and BT. The by the Instituto de Geografa (UNAM).
spectral analysis showed that there are some cycles of an-
nual frequency. but in this moment we are ignorant about
LITERATURE CITED
the influence of this changes on the sexual rates of the little
turtles. Biggs, D.C. 1992. Nutrients, plankton and productivity in
Monthly averages of temperature and rain indicate that a warm core ring in the western gulf of Mexico. J.
the nesting season, specially the birth of turtles, is coinci- Geophys. Res. 97(C2): 2143-2154
dent with the warmer months of the year. The first analysis Brooks, D.A. and R.V. Legeckis 1982. A ship and satellite
of the weekly averages indicate that the temperature is less view of hydrographic features in the western Gulf of
variable when the nest are more abundant. Mxico. J. Geophys Res., 87(C6): 4195-4206
The rain pattern is different. At SM there are two peaks: Casas-Andreu, G. 1978. Anlisis de la anidacin de las
June and September, whereas at BT the raining season be- tortugas marinas del gnero Lepidochelys en Mxico.
gin at June and is greater in September. This pattern appar- An. Centro Ciencias Mar y Limnol. UNAM, 51):141-
ently is influenced by the hurricanes. 157
On the other hand, the circulation pattern of Gulf of Collard, S.B. and L.H. Ogren. 1990. Dispersal scenarios
Mexico is influenced by the anticyclonic gyres detached from for pelagic post-hatchling sea turtles. Bull. Marine Sci.,
Loop current and the wind stress curl (Elliot, 1982; Sturges 47(1): 233-243
and Blaha, 1976; Vidal et al, 1992; Sturges, 1993). The Elliot, B.A. 1982. Anticyclonic rings in the Gulf of Mexico.
rivers maybe are important too. J. Phys. Oceano. 12:1292-1309
The Loop current and its variations are easily recog- Mrosovsky N and C. Yntema, 1980. Temperature
nized in the sea surface temperature (SST) imagery in the dependence of sexual differentiation in sea turtles:
colder months of the year. The penetration differences along implications for conservation practices. Biol. Conserv.
time indicate the detachment of gyres. These structures are 18:271-280
evident in the western margin by the longitudinal gradients Sturges W. and J.P. Blaha, 1976. A western boundary current
between the coast and the core of Gulf. The gyres are poor in the Gulf of Mexico. Science, 192:367-369
because their primary productivity is low (Biggs, 1992). Vidal V.M., F.V. Vidal, and J.M. Prez-Molero 1992.
Between May and August the SST is more and more Collision of a loop current anticyclonic ring against the
uniform through the Gulf and it is not possible to detect the continental shelf slope of the western Gulf of Mexico.
Loop current, but is usual the presence of a current like a J. Geophys. Res. 97(C2):2155-2172
plume leaving Tamaulipass coast with lesser tempera-
ture than surround it. Brooks and Legeckis (1984) describe
this plume like the front or transitional zone between
antyciclonic and cyclonic gyres, whereas Howard (1996)
said that it is a surgence evidence.
At the moment the first analysis indicated that the mag-

BEACH EROSION REDUCES THE HATCHING SUCCESS AT PATARA BEACH-TURKEY

1
2
3
Dokuz Eyll niversitesi, Buca Egitim Fakltesi, Biyoloji Blm, Buca-Izmir, Turkey
INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS

Two species of marine turtle have been recorded as We investigated the loggerhead turtle population on
nesting in the Mediterranean; the loggerhead Caretta caretta Patara Beach in 1992, 1993 and 1996. The total length of
and the green turtle Chelonia mydas (Groombridge, 1990). the beach is 11.8 km on the western border of Antalya, and
According to previous investigations, it is estimated that is bisected by Esen ay. In this study, the eastern part of the
on average some 2000 female Caretta caretta and 300-400 beach with a length of 7 km and only the 1 km western part
Chelonia mydas nest annually in the Mediterranean of the Esen ay was considered. Beach was patrolled con-
(Groombridge, 1990). tinuously by groups of 2-3 people between 21:00 at night
Based on our unpublished data and published sources and 8:00 in the morning. The sites of nests and tracks were
(Geldiay et al., 1982; Baran and Kasparek, 1989; Canbolat, determined with reference to their distance from numbered
1991; Baran et al., 1992, 1994, 1996; Erkakan, 1993; poles set at intervals on the beach. Eggs were counted when-
Kaska, 1993; van Piggelen and Strijbosch, 1993; Baran and ever turtles were found during egg laying or 7-10 days after
Turkozan, 1996) it is estimated that there are 1200-1700 the first emergence occured. Hatching success of nests were
Caretta caretta nests and 400-600 Chelonia mydas nests calculated as a percentage of number of hatchlings success-
on 17 different beaches (with a total length of 140 km.) in fully emerged.
Turkey annually. Using the assumption that each female
nests an average of 3 times in a season every 2-3 years RESULTS
(Groombridge, 1990), this means that approximately 400- The nesting season of Caretta caretta started at the
570 Caretta caretta and 130-200 Chelonia mydas nest an- middle of May and continued till the middle of August, and
nually on the beaches of Turkey. According to Groombridges the hatching season began in July and ended in September
1990 estimate, at least 25-30 % of the loggerhead and up to on Patara beach during the years of 1992, 1993 and 1996.
50 % of the green turtles in the Mediterranean could nest The number of nests per season were 52, 85 and 35 respec-
on the beaches of Turkey. The protection of these beaches is tively. The mean incubation period was around 60 days with
critical to survival of these species in the Mediterranean. a mean clutch size of 70 eggs. For example, the average
Literature suggests that conservation initiatives based number of eggs per nest was 69.5[S. E. =2.9] (n=25) and
on incomplete natural history information can be disastrous the average incubation period was 60.0 [S. E. =1.0] days in
(Frazer, 1992), and seemingly esoteric aspects of organismal 1992. The hatching success was very low being 37% in 1992
biology or ecology (such as temperature dependent sex de- and 41 % in 1993 and 1996.
termination) make the difference between success and fail- Hatching success was low due to sand erosion and sub-
ure in wildlife management programmes. The sequent inundation. Early in the nesting season the beach
preprogrammed female reproductive behaviour makes it is a very suitable one for loggerhead turtles. Due to affores-
unlikely that the loss of breeding habitats can be compen- tation behind the beach, there is a fence which causes the
sated for by emigration to other colonies; that is, the loss of blocking of sand movement towards the sea. Therefore,
nesting sites is accompanied by the loss of specific geno- throughout the nesting season, the sea side of the beach
types (Schroth et al., 1996). It is also found that there is a becomes lower and 40-50 meters from the sea stays wet,
genetic diversity within the loggerhead nesting population causing embryonic mortalities in nearly half of the nests
among the south-west beaches of Turkey (Schroth et al., laid in any nesting season. For example, during the investi-
1996). Thus, to preserve the genetic diversity of the sea gation season of 1992, 15 (28.84%) nests on Patara were
turtle population in the Mediterranean one needs to protect inundated by the high spring tides. The reason for 28.84%
individual nesting sites. of the nests exposed to wet area is the wind erosion on Patara
Although Patara beach is protected by the law under Beach. Behind the beach a fence is erected for forestation
the Specially Protected Areas by the Minister of Environ- purposes. In summer, off shore winds blow sand up the beach
ment of Turkey, interestingly it holds less turtle nesting and piling it against the fence and eroding the sand depth close
low hatching success compare to other nesting sites in the to the sea. In winter, on shore winds would normally blow
Eastern Mediterranean. We further speculated on the low sand back, restoring the depth at the shore, but the fence
nesting and hatching success on Patara Beach using last reduces this effect with the overall result being that sand
few yearsdata. depth close to the sea has been reduced.

DISCUSSION Canbolat, A.F. 1991. Dalyan Kumsali (Mugla, Turkiye)nda

Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758) populasyonu uzerine
Using the published data (Geldiay et al., 1982; Baran
incelemeler. Tr. J. Zoology, 15; 255-274.
and Kasparek, 1989; Baran et al., 1992, 1996; Kaska, 1993)
Erkakan, F. 1993. Nesting biology of loggerhead turtles
and ours, there may be 50-100 nests annually, in other words
Caretta caretta L. on Dalyan Beach, Mugla-Turkey.
around 20-35 Caretta caretta nest annually on Patara Beach.
Biol. Conserv., 66;1-4.
Higher levels of salinity in the sand reduce the ability
Frazer, N.B. 1992. Sea turtle conservation and halfway
of the egg to absorb water and reduce the humidity in the
technology. Conservation Biology, 6(2); 180-184.
nest chamber (Bustard and Greenham, 1968). High mois-
Geldiay, R., Koray, T., and Balik, S. 1982. Status os sea
ture levels caused by heavy rains and high tides can destroy
turtle populations (Caretta caretta caretta and Chelonia
entire turtle clutches (Ragotzkie, 1959; Kraemer and Bell,
mydas mydas) in the northern Mediterranean sea,
1980). Temperatures influence the duration of incubation,
Turkey. In: K.A. Bjorndal (Ed.) Biology and
sexual differentiation and rate of development (Mrosovsky,
Conservation of Sea Turtle pp. 425-434.
1994; Miller, 1985). The phenomenon of temperature de-
Groombridge, B. 1990. Marine turtles in the Mediterranean;
pendent sex determination has important consequences in
Distribution, population status, conservation: A report
conservation practices. That is why the location of nests in
to the Council of Europe, World Conservation
wet areas should be changed as early as possible on the
Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, U.K. 72 p.
night of laying (Limpus et al., 1979) in order to increase
Kaska, Y. 1993. Investigation of Caretta caretta population
the hatching success.
in Patara and Kizilot. M. Sc. Thesis. Dokuz Eylul
Eggs can be protected by relocating eggs for incuba-
University, Izmir.
tion under natural conditions (protected areas where eggs
Kraemer, J.E. and Bell, R. 1980. Rain-induced mortality of
are reburied in the sand above the anticipated spring high
eggs and hatchlings of the loggerhead sea turtles
tide level) or artificial conditions using expanded polysty-
(Caretta caretta) on the Georgia coast. Herpetologica
rene incubators or other non-metal containers (Styrofoam
36, 72-77.
boxes), but Mrosovsky (1982) stated that Styrofoam boxes
Limpus, C.J., Baker, V., and Miller, J.D. 1979. Movement
were 1-1.5 oC cooler than the sand, and said this may cause
induced mortality of loggerhead eggs. Herpetologica
the masculinization of Chelonia mydas. In the absence of
35, 335-338.
data on temperature-dependent sex determination and a ther-
Miller, J.D. 1985. Embryology of Marine Turtles. In: C.
mal transect of a beach, artificial hatcheries should not be
Gans, R.G. Northcutt, and P. Ulinsky (Eds.). Biology of
used. Therefore, we suggest that nest relocation would be
the Reptilia. Vol. 14. Academic Press, London and New
very useful in order to increase hatching success. The new
York. pp. 269-328.
site for relocated nests should be at least 50 meters away
Mrosovsky, N. 1982. Sex ratio bias in hatchling sea turtles
from sea and the temperature of some nests should be re-
from artificially incubated eggs. Biol. Conserv. 23, 309-
corded in order to understand the sex ratio of these nests.
314.
Mrosovsky, N. 1994. Sex ratios of sea turtles. The J. Exper.
LITERATURE CITED
Zool., 270; 16-27.
Baran, I., and Kasparek, M. 1989. Marine Turtles in Turkey. Ragotzkie, R. 1959. Mortality of loggerhead turtle eggs from
Status survey 1988 and recommendation for excessive rainfall. Ecology, 40; 303-305.
conservation and management. Hiedelberg 1989. 123pp. Schroth, W., Streit, B., and Schierwater, B. 1996.
Baran, I., Durmus, H., Cevik, E., Ucuncu, S., and Canbolat, Evolutionary handicap for turtles. Nature, 384; 521-
A.F. 1992. Turkiye deniz kaplumbagalari stok tesbiti. 522.
Tr. J. Zoology, 16; 119-139. van-Piggelen, D.C.G., and Strijbosch, H. 1993. The nesting
Baran, I., Kumlutas, Y., Kaska, Y., and Turkozan, O. 1994. of sea turtles (Caretta caretta and Chelonia mydas) in
Research on the Amphibia, Reptilia and Mammalia the Goksu Delta, Turkey, June- August, 1991. Turkish
species of the Koycegiz-Dalyan Special protected area. Journal of Zoology 17(2); 137-149.
Tr. J. Zoology, 18; 203-219.
Baran, I., and Turkozan, O. 1996. Nesting activity of the
loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta, on Fethiye beach,
Turkey, in 1994. Chelon. Conser. and Biol., 2;93-96.
Baran, I., Turkozan, O., Kaska, Y., Ilgaz, C. and Sak, S.
(1996). Research on the sea turtle populations at
Dalyan, Fethiye, Patara and Belek beaches. Dokuz
Eylul University, Izmir.
Bustard, H.R. and Greenham, P. 1968. Physical and chemical
factors affecting hatching in the green sea turtle,
Chelonia mydas L. Ecology 49, 269-276.

TEMPERATURE DETERMINED PATTERN OF HATCHING AND EMERGENCE OF SEA

TURTLES IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN

1
2
3
Dokuz Eyll niversitesi, Buca Egitim Fakltesi, Biyoloji Blm, Buca-Izmir, Turkey
INTRODUCTION
Sea turtle hatchlings primarily emerge from their nests (Akdeniz and Karpaz) of Northern Cyprus and at the south
during the evening, shortly after sunset, and thermal cues west beaches (Dalyan, Fethiye, Patara and Kizilot) of Tur-
are believed to be important in controlling emergence key. All the beaches were marked by posts running along
(Hendrickson, 1958; Bustard, 1967, 1972; Witherington et the back of the beach to allow accurate positioning of the
al., 1990). Hatchlings may dig upwards from their nest turtle activity and egg chamber. Temperatures of all five
chamber at any time during the 24 hour period (Bustard, green turtle nests and two loggerhead nests were recorded
1972). However, when approaching the surface during day- on the beaches of Northern Cyprus, and six loggerhead nests
light, the hatchlings generally stop digging, presumably in on the southwest beaches of Turkey. Temperature was mea-
response to high sand temperatures (Bustard, 1967, 1972; sured using Tiny talk temperature recorders (Orion Com-
Mrosovsky, 1980). Nocturnal emergence among sea turtle ponents (Chichester) Ltd., U.K). The accuracy of the de-
hatchlings presumably evolved as a means to reduce mor- vice was tested under laboratory conditions against a stan-
tality due to physiological stress and possibly diurnal pre- dard mercury thermometer, and they were found to have
dation (Hendrickson, 1958; Bustard, 1972). Temperature have a mean resolution of 0.35 oC (min. 0.3 oC, max. 0.4
has often been suggested as the main mechanism for con- o
C) for temperatures between 4 oC and 50 oC. We launched
trolling emergence, inhibition of the activity by tempera- the tiny talk by computer for a recording period of 60 days
tures above 28.5 oC (Mrosovsky, 1980), 30 oC (Bustard, with readings taken at 48 min. interval. This gave 30 read-
1967), 33 oC (Hendrickson, 1958) and 30-33 oC (Bustard, ings per day. They were placed at three different depths
1972) has been shown in both hatchling and posthatchling (top, middle and bottom) of the nest, during the oviposition
sea turtles. The possibility that hatchlings respond to nega- or after excavating the nest in the morning of laying (ap-
tive thermotaxis has been raised (Mrosovsky, 1980) and tem- proximately 10 hours after oviposition). The nest was then
perature gradient in the top 10 cm of the sand column is the covered, and protected with wire mesh against dog and fox
main factor controlling the emergence pattern of hatchlings predation. The position of nest on the beach was recorded
(Gyuris, 1993). as distance (m.) from vegetation and sea. A few days before
It has been suggested that hatchling sea turtles remain anticipated date of hatching these temperature recorders
in the egg chamber until their siblings hatch, so that indi- were taken from the nest and the information offloaded to a
viduals emerge as part of a group and not singly (Carr and computer. Five or six eggs were taken from each level to-
Hirth, 1961). Alternatively group emergence may simply gether with the Tiny talks. These eggs were retained in moist
reflect synchrony in the time that eggs in a nest take to sand for a few days until they hatched. Hatching times of
hatch. The number of emergences per nest was reported as these eggs were also recorded.
1-3 by Witherington et al.,(1990), 1.60.9 by Peters et Sand temperatures were also recorded just above the
al.,(1994) and the average emergence span was reported as clutch (30, 20, 10 cm.) during the hatching period in order
8.3 days by Hays et al.,(1992) and 2.31.9 days by Peters et to understand emergence pattern of the hatchlings. Emerged
al.,(1994) for Caretta caretta hatchlings. nests were excavated approximately 1 week after the last
No study has focused on the possibility that hatching emergence, thus allowing completion of the natural emer-
time might be different for the hatchlings of one clutch be- gence process. We determined hatching success by count-
cause of temperature differences within the clutch. There- ing empty eggshells and unhatched eggs left in the nest
fore we investigated the pattern of emergence by logger- cavity, and we recorded number of dead hatchlings left in
head and green turtle hatchlings by examining the thermal the nest column. Hatching times of hatchlings from 8 nests
environment of the clutch and sand adjacent to nests to iden- were also recorded by recording the number of hatchlings
tify any temperature differences within the clutch and to and time.
relate these to emergence times of the hatchlings and ther-
mal cues used by the emerging hatchlings. RESULTS
There were considerable intra-clutch temperature
variations in both the loggerhead and green turtle nests
We patrolled the beaches during the night and early in (Table 1), with up to a 2.1 oC mean temperature difference
the morning during the 1995 and 1996 seasons at beaches in loggerhead nests and up to 0.8 oC in green turtle nests.

Table 1. Information on the recorded nests and temperature measurements at green and loggerhead turtle nests.
CLUTCH INC. HATCHLING TOP MIDDLE BOTTOM MAXIMUM

NEST NO SIZE PERIOD EMERGENCE MEAN MEAN MEAN TEMPERATURE
SUCCESS (%) TEMP.SE TEMP.SE TEMP.SE DIFFERENCE
C.MYDAS 1 118 63 59 29.80.05 29.90.05 29.40.05 0.5
C.MYDAS 2 78 60 73 30.30.03 30.00.04 29.50.04 0.8
C.MYDAS 3 109 54 94 31.50.05 31.30.06 31.00.06 0.5
C.MYDAS 4 96 59 75 30.70.03 30.40.04 30.00.04 0.7
C.MYDAS 5 87 55 96 31.20.05 30.90.05 30.60.05 0.6
C.CARETTA 1 95 54 48 30.90.04 30.60.04 30.00.04 0.9
C.CARETTA 2 77 50 68 31.70.03 31.70.02 31.40.02 0.3
C.CARETTA 3 90 51 89 31.60.03 31.10.03 30.80.03 0.8
C.CARETTA 4 65 50 68 32.10.03 31.80.03 31.10.04 1.0
C.CARETTA 5 78 61 88 28.80.01 28.10.01 27.40.02 1.4
C.CARETTA 6 93 55 73 30.90.02 30.40.02 29.80.02 1.1
C.CARETTA 7 62 52 79 30.50.01 29.90.01 29.30.01 1.2
C.CARETTA 8 77 52 81 31.60.02 31.00.02 29.50.03 2.1
The top level of the green turtle nest was warmer (max. 0.8 portant in controlling the emergence (Hendrickson, 1958;
o
C) than the bottom level and also warmer (max. 0.3 oC) Bustard, 1967, 1972; Witherington et al., 1990; Gyuris,
than the middle level of the nest. The top level of a logger- 1993). It has also been suggested that hatchling sea turtles
head nest was warmer (max. 2.1 oC) than the bottom level remain in the eggchamber until their siblings hatch, so that
and the same as or warmer than (max. 0.7 oC) the middle individuals emerge as part of a group and not singly (Carr
level of the nest. and Hirth, 1961). We found that hatchlings indeed hatched
We monitored the times of emergence of loggerhead during the 24 h period, but emerged from the nests only
hatchlings from 8 nests. The mean hatching success of these during the night. We also found mean temperature varia-
nests was 76.1%. Hatching times varied between 2100 and tions within the clutch and therefore it might be that there
0530 h. Sand temperatures just above the clutch during the was variation within the nest in the time to hatching since
time of hatching were cooling (Figure 1). Hatchlings from the rate of embryonic development and consequently the
these nests and other nests, determined by counting the duration of the incubation period is dramatically affected
tracks of the hatchlings, always emerged on more than one by the temperature (Yntema and Mrosovsky, 1980; Miller,
night. The mean nightly number of hatchlings that emerged 1985).
from green turtle nests was higher in the first two hatch- Emergence asynchrony for sea turtles was reported pre-
ings (77%) and then showed a decrease. The mean nightly viously (Hendrickson, 1958; Witherington et al., 1990; Hays
number of hatchlings that emerged from loggerhead turtle et al., 1992; Gyuris, 1993; Kaska, 1993; Peters et al., 1994).
nests was higher in the first three hatchings (75%) and then We observed that hatchling emergence from green turtle
nests was less spread than from loggerhead nests. This may
be because there was less variation in the mean incubation
temperatures of green turtle nests than loggerhead nests.
When turtle eggs are kept at constant temperature, incuba-
tion duration is longer at cooler temperatures, and a 1 oC
decrease adds about 5 days in incubation (Mrosovsky and
Yntema, 1980). In natural conditions, our results suggest
that 1 oC temperature variation within the clutch causes
about 4 days delay in both hatching and emergence of
Figure 1. Sand temperatures over the nest during the hatching period. hatchlings. Therefore we suggest that nests should not be
(Numbers indicate the number of hatchlings emerged on that night). excavated right after the first emergence since there may be
some recently hatched eggs in the nest.
showed a decrease. The hatching intervals of green turtles
Cooling of sand temperatures at 15 cm. was suggested
were shorter (mean=3 nights, range 1-5, n= 45) than at
as a cue for the emergence of hatchlings (Hays et al., 1992;
loggerhead nests (mean=6.2 nights, range 2-8, n=75).
Gyuris, 1993). We found that the time of emergence was
Eggs that taken with the temperature recorders also
not correlated with any fixed absolute temperature, and
hatched at different times during the 24h period. Eggs of
hatchlings emerged during the cooling period of the sand
green turtles (n=78) hatched during the 4 days, of which 50
above the nest, suggesting that emergence is triggered by
% in the first day, 29.5 % in the second day and 19 % in the
falling temperature rather than by a by a temperature thresh-
third day and only one egg hatched in the fourth day. Eggs
old.
(n=138) taken from loggerhead nests hatched during 6 days.
Percentages hatching each day were 23.9, 32.6, 18.1, 6.5,
LITERATURE CITED
9.4, 9.4 respectively.
Bustard, H.R. 1967. Mechanism of nocturnal emergence
DISCUSSION from the nest in green turtle hatchlings. Nature 214:317.
Bustard, H.R. 1972. Sea turtles: their natural history and
Sea turtle hatchlings mostly emerge from their nests
during the evening and thermal cues are believed to be im-
Carr, A. and H. Hirth.1961. Social facilitation in green turtle
siblings. Anim. Behav. 9: 68-70. American Zoologist 20: 531-547.

Hays, C.G., J.R. Speakman, and J.P. Hayes. 1992. The pattern Mrosovsky, N. and C.L. Yntema.1980. Temperature
of emergence by loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) dependence of sexual differentiation in sea turtles:
hatchlings on Cephalonia, Greece. Herpetologica Implications for conservation practices. Biol. Conserv.
48:396-401. 18:271-280.
Gyuris, E. 1993. Factors that control the emergence of green Peters, A., K.J.F. Verhoeven, and H. Strijbosch 1994.
turtle hatchlings from the nest. Wildl. Res., 20:345-353. Hatching and emergence in the Turkish Mediterranean
Hendrickson, J.R. 1958. The green sea turtle, Chelonia loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta: Natural causes for
mydas (Linn.), in Malaya and Sarawak. Proc. Zool. egg and hatchling failure. Herpetologica, 50(3): 369-
Soc., Lond. 130: 455-535. 373.
Kaska, Y. 1993. Investigation of Caretta caretta population Witherington, B.E., K.A. Bjorndal, and C.M. Mccabe. 1990.
in Patara and Kizilot. Masters Thesis. Dokuz Eylul Temporal pattern of nocturnal emergence of loggerhead
University, Izmir, Turkey. turtle hatchlings from natural nests. Copeia 1990: 1165-
Miller, J.D. 1985. Embryology of Marine Turtles pp. 269- 1168.
328. In: Biology of the Reptilia (C. Gans, R.G. Yntema, C.L. And N. Mrosovsky. 1980. Sexual
Northcutt, and P. Ulinsky, (Eds.). Vol. 14, Academic differentiation in hatchling loggerhead (Caretta caretta)
Press, London and New York. incubated at different controlled temperatures.
Mrosovsky, N. 1980. Thermal biology of sea turtles. Herpetologica 36: 33-36.
FACTORS AFFECTING SIZE OF LOGGERHEAD AND GREEN TURTLE HATCHLINGS

IN NORTHERN CYPRUS, EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN
Alison L. Loughran1, Annette C. Broderick1, Brendan J. Godley1, and Robert W. Furness2

1
Marine Turtle Research Group, 2 Ornithology Group, Division of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology, I.B.L.S.,
Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ, Scotland, U.K. A.Broderick@bio.gla.ac.uk
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this study was to describe hatchling eters measured (p > 0.05 for all measurements). In a study
morphometrics of both species in northern Cyprus. Varia- by Peters and Verhoeven (1992), in Turkey, it was found
tion in the sizes of hatchlings among different sites was that there was a significant difference between the sizes of
examined. In addition, an investigation into the roles of live and dead full term hatchlings and suggested that smaller
adult size and nest parameters in determining the size of C. hatchlings were weaker and experienced more problems
caretta and C. mydas hatchlings was undertaken. when trying to emerge from the nest. Their analysis, how-
ever, consisted a smaller sample size and did not take into
METHODOLOGY account the possible effects of pseudoreplication (Hurlbert
1984).
Nesting: The beaches studied are shown on Map 1.
The mean hatchling sizes for live and dead full term
The intensive study site was at Alagadi (76 and 77). These,
C. mydas hatchlings are also shown in Table 1. A paired t-
together with two of the beaches on the west coast (82 and
test showed that there was no significant difference in any
83) and three at the north coast (71, 73 and 74) were moni-
of the size parameters between live and dead full term
tored at night during the nesting season. The nesting proto-
hatchlings (p > 0.05 for all measurements).
col was as described in Broderick and Godley (1996).
B) Variation among nesting sites:
Hatching: By a combination of measuring hatchlings
An investigation into the possible geographical varia-
at emergence or subsequent to excavation of the nest,
tion in hatchling sizes was undertaken. Data were assigned
morphometrics were collected. Straight carapace length,
to one of three areas depending on where the nests were
straight carapace width and weight of the hatchlings were
laid (see Map 1). An ANOVA showed that no significant
measured. In addition, upon excavation of a nest, a sand
difference existed in the mean straight carapace lengths,
sample was taken from the side of the egg chamber and was
straight carapace widths and PCA (hatchling size) of C.
subsequently analysed to determine moisture content.
caretta hatchlings among the three areas (p > 0.05 for all
measurements). A similar analysis showed that there was
no significant difference in the sizes of C. mydas hatchlings
A) Hatchling morphometrics: from different areas (p > 0.05 for all measurements).
The mean hatchling size for live C. caretta and for The Mediterranean nesting populations have been
dead full term C. caretta hatchlings are shown in Table 1. A shown to be reproductively distinct from those out with the
paired t-test showed that there was no significant differ- region. Additionally, the Cyprus C. caretta population has
ence between live and dead hatchlings in any of the param- been shown to be genetically distinct from that of Turkey

Species Hatchling measurement Mean SD N Min Max

C. caretta (live) Straight carapace length 39.97 2.67 2064 24.9 49.3
Straight carapace width 30.37 2.37 2064 20 39.7
W eight 15.29 3.97 1482 9.4 21.4
C. caretta (dead) Straight carapace length 38.78 2.17 68 33.7 43.8
Straight carapace width 29.00 2.33 68 25 35.5
Table 1. Morphometrics of
W eight 14.32 2.45 56 6.6 20
full term C. caretta and C.
C. mydas (live) Straight carapace length 45.68 1.68 1274 39 51.4
mydas hatchlings.
Straight carapace width 35.03 1.80 1274 28.2 41
W eight 19.92 2.18 1011 9.5 27.81
C. mydas (dead) Straight carapace length 44.70 3.03 34 37.6 50
Straight carapace width 33.33 2.50 34 26.4 37.5
W eight 18.59 3.56 21 11.1 23.7
population structuring at a local level. hatchlings got smaller as the season went on. This could be
C) Factors affecting hatchling size: explained either by resource allocation by the females or pro-
Straight carapace length, straight carapace width, PCA gressive drying of the substrate.
(hatchling size) and body weight, were analysed with a num- C. mydas: None of the variables investigated were
ber of variables which were thought plausible candidates as found to have a significant influence on hatchling size. It is
those influencing hatchling morphometrics. These variables unlikely that none of the factors influence hatchling size, but
are shown in Table 2. Forward stepwise multiple regression rather the lack of significance is due to the small sample size
(p to enter, p < 0.05) were employed to prevent multiple test- that resulted from taking the possible effects of
ing thus reducing the chances of Type I statistical error. pseudoreplication (Hurlbert 1984) into account.
C. caretta: It was found that when curved carapace
length and curved carapace width was used to represent ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
adult size, and also when PCA (adult size) was used instead, G. Ruxton, S. Bearhop and K. Ensor for statistical ad-
moisture content and hatch date had a significant influence vice, the parishioners of St. Josephs R. C. Church, members
on straight carapace length of C. caretta hatchlings: of GUTCE 97, friends and family for their support. BG and
SCL (mm) = 0.61 MC - 0.11 HD + 49.53 AB would like to acknowledge the financial support of The
(r2 = 0.37). David and Lucile Packard Foundation, which enabled par-
With regards to straight carapace width, it was found ticipation.
that when adult size was included in the analysis, moisture
content had a significant influence: LITERATURE CITED
SCW (mm) = 0.22 MC + 29.35
(r2 = 0.20). Broderick, A. C. and B. J. Godley. 1996. Population and nesting
For PCA (hatchling size), similar results were found. ecology of the Green turtle, Chelonia mydas, and the
Moisture content significantly influenced PCA (hatchling Loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta, in northern Cyprus.
size) when adult size was included in the analysis: Zoology in the Middle East, 3: 27-46.
PCA (hatchling size) = 0.189 MC - 1.012 Hurlbert, S. H. 1984. Pseudoreplication and the design of
(r2 = 0.22). ecological field experiments. Ecological Monograph,
No variables were found to have a significant influence 54(2): 187-211.
on hatchling body weight. McGehee, M. A. 1990. Effects of moisture on eggs and
Moisture content, therefore was found to influence hatchlings of loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta).
straight carapace length, straight carapace width and PCA Herpetologica, 46(3): 251-258
(hatchling size), whereby wetter substrates resulted in larger Peters, A and K. J. F. Verhoeven. 1992. Breeding success of
hatchlings. This was similar to the findings of McGehee the Loggerhead, Caretta caretta, and the Green,
(1990) for C. caretta. Hatching date was also found to have Chelonia mydas, in the Goksu Delta, Turkey. Dept. of
a significant effect on straight carapace length, whereby Animal Ecology. University of Nijmegen. Rapport No.
310.
Table 2: Multiple Regression Variables

VARIABLE UNITS
Curved carapace length of adult Cm
Curved carapace width of adult Cm
PCA adult Principal component of CCL and CCW
Clutch size (CS) total no. of eggs
Hatching success (HS) %
Depth to the top of the egg chamber Cm
Depth to the bottom of the egg Cm
Incubation period (IP) Days
Moisture content (MC) %
Date hatched (HD) (no. days after 1st Days
Date laid (LD) (no. days after 1st May) Days

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE POSSIBLE EFFECTS OF PHYSICAL FEATURES OF

NESTING BEACHES ON THE NEST SITE SELECTION OF C. MYDAS AND C.
CARETTA IN NORTHERN CYPRUS, EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN
Michael J. Mc Dermott1, Brendan J. Godley1, Annette C. Broderick1, Vedat Ediger2, and Robert W. Furness3
1
Marine Turtle Research Group, 3Ornithology Group:
1 and 3
Division of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12
8QQ, Scotland, U.K. A.Broderick@bio.gla.ac.uk
2
Institute of Marine Science, Middle Eastern Technical University, Erdemli, Turkey.
INTRODUCTION Number of C. caretta nests =

Both C. mydas and C. caretta are known to nest in 11.546 + (0.1 * L) + (-3.15 * O) [R2 = 0.30]
substantial numbers on the beaches of northern Cyprus Beach length is primarily responsible for the number
(Broderick and Godley 1996). In this study we attempted of nests. This was previously shown by Mortimer
to discover if any physical factors exert an effect on the (1982) for C. mydas on Ascension island.
selection of nesting beaches by either species. Table 3 illustrates the higher numbers of C. caretta
nests and nest density on northerly facing beaches.
A detailed account of the methodology is given in Mc Factors affecting the nesting density of C. caretta:
Dermott (1998). Orientation had a significant effect on the nesting den-
A) The physical parameters considered for each beach sity of C. caretta (t = - 2.486, P = 0.019, n = 36).
were: Density of C. caretta =
1) Beach length, 32.56 + (-7.26 * O) [R2 = 0.17]
2) Beach width, The beach orientation is primarily responsible for the
3) Beach gradient, nesting density with high density on northerly fac-
4) Beach aspect (beach compass orientation), ing beaches (Table 2).
5) Sand particle size,
6) Sand colour, Factors affecting the number of C. mydas nests:
7) An index of digability (to mean depth of logger- Beach width was found to exert a significant effect
head and green turtle egg chambers), and (t = 3.156, P = 0.004, n = 36):
8) An index of water logging (at mean egg chamber Number of C. mydas nests =
depth of both species). - 2.665 + (0.356 * MW) [R2 = 0.243]
B) Measurement of biological parameters: Nests on wide beaches may have less chance of be-
Collection of nesting data was undertaken according ing inundated by storm induced wave action.
to the methodology of Broderick and Godley (1996). The
biological parameters on each beach measured with regard Factors affecting C. mydas nesting densities:
to each species were: Digability to C. mydas depth was shown to be signifi-
1) Nesting density, cant, (t = 3.085, P = 0.043, n =36). Sand colour was also found
2) Number of nesting activities, to exert a significant effect, (t = - 2.697, P = 0.011, n =36),
3) Adult emergence success (%), and
4) Number of nests
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the physical parameters

measured.
Descriptive results regarding physical parameters and
Physical Parameter Unit of Mean sd Range
biological parameters can be seen in Tables 1 and 2, respec- Measurement
tively. Stepwise multiple regression analysis (Pin <0.05, Pout Length (L) M 915 912 134-
4750
>0.10) was undertaken to investigate which physical factors Mean width (W) M 19.5 912 5.4-42.5
exert a significant effect on the biological parameters. Mean slope (S) Degrees 4.05 1.64 1.5-8.45
C. mydas digability (CmD) Ordinal Count 11 9.73 0-29
C. caretta digability (CcD) Ordinal Count 21.22 9.73 0-36
Factors affecting the total number of C. caretta nests: C. mydas waterlogging (CmW) Ordinal Count 5.25 4.99 0-18
C. caretta waterlogging (LW) Ordinal Count 1.08 1.76 0-9
Beach length was shown to exert the most powerful Orientation (O) Degrees - 1-4
effect (t = 2.715, P = 0.011, n = 36). Orientation (northerly, Colour ( C ) Munsel colour chart - 1-11
C. mydas sand (Phi), (CmS) Phi units 1.73 0.41 0.38-
easterly, southerly or westerly) was also shown to be signifi- 2.29
C. caretta sand (Phi), (CcS) Phi units 1.74 0.40 0.56-
cant on the next step (t = - 2.197, P = 0.036, n = 36): 2.54

Biological Parameter Mean sd Range

Total Nests 12.61 49.0 0.0-49.0
Total Activities 42.56 43.82 43.82-182.0
Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the Total Density 0.02 0.04 0.0-103.7
biological parameters measured.
No. C. mydas Activities 16.97 31.81 0.0-172.0
No. C. caretta Activities 25.58 31.81 0.0-159.0
No. C. mydas Nests 4.22 6.65 0.0-33.0
No. C. caretta Nests 8.39 10.29 0.0-40.0
C. mydas Density 7.58 23.13 0.0-134.0
C. caretta Density 12.76 20.02 0.0-103.7
% Emergence Success C. mydas 33.0 25.79 0.0-100.0
% Emergence Success C. caretta 33.61 21.48 0.0-100.0
Proportion of nests C. mydas 0.35 0.36 0.0-0.94
Proportion of Nests C. caretta 0.65 0.36 0.0-1.0
Table 3. Mean number of nests and the mean nesting density of C.

caretta in relation to the beach compass orientation, (1 = northerly, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
316 to 45, 2= easterly, 46 to 135, 3 = southerly, 136 to 225, 4 =
westerly, 226 to 315).
We thank Professor Ilkay Salihoglu
for his hospitality and provision of labora-
Rank Orientation n Mean No. sd Mean Nesting Sd tory space at The Institute of Marine Sci-
Nests Density ence, Middle East Technical University,
1 10 38.1 31.40 28.65 31.4
Turkey; members of G. U. T. C. E 1997 for
2 5 4.46 32.39 23.46 3.13
3 11 5.73 5.22 4.46 6.49 help in the collection of data; Graeme
4 10 8.75 11.14 8.75 11.1 Ruxton for statistical advice, and The David
4 and Lucile Packard Foundation for travel
support.
Table 4. Mean number of nests and the mean nesting density of C.
LITERATURE CITED
mydas in relation to the ranked colour of beach sand, (1 is the
darkest). Broderick, A. C. and B. J. Godley. 1996.
Rank colour n Mean No. Nests sd Mean Nesting Sd Population and nesting ecology of the
Density green turtle, Chelonia mydas, and the
1 3 7.6 9.29 47.17 75.74 loggerhead turtle, Caretta carreta, in
2 3 1.3 1.53 4.20 6.03 northern Cyprus. Zoology in the
3 1 0 2.12 0.00 0.00
4 1 12 - 11.43 11.43
Middle East 13: 27-46.
5 8 1.75 2.64 2.58 3.74 Mortimer, J. 1982. The influence of beach
6 5 2 2.35 5.82 6.50 sand characteristics on the nesting
7 7 3.43 4.61 2.13 3.09 behaviour and clutch survival of green
8 2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 turtles (Chelonia mydas). Copeia
9 2 6.5 0.71 0.02 0.01
10 2 22.5 3.82 21.30 30.12
1990 (3): 802-817.
11 1 7 - 0.00 0.00 McDermott, M. J. 1998. An Investigation
density was in general higher on beaches with darker

coloured sands. The median sand grain size at C. mydas in-to the possible effects of physical features of nesting
depth was also shown to exert a significant effect, (t = - 2.583, beaches on the nest site beach selection by Chelonia
P = 0.015, n = 36): mydas and Caretta caretta. Unpublished Zoology
Density of C. mydas = (Hons) dissertation, University of Glasgow.
50.051 + (1.496 * CmD) + (-4.169 * C) + (-20.858
* CmS) [R2 = 0.499]
The digability at C. mydas nesting depth is the pri-
mary factor responsible for the nesting density, with
the sand colour and the median grain size also play-
ing a role.
Table 4 shows the number and density of C. mydas
nests in relation to sand colour the beaches in the
study.
This preliminary investigation has highlighted features

that are worthy of further study to enable a fuller understand-
ing of nest site selection in Mediterranean sea turtles.

INFESTATION OF MARINE TURTLE NESTS BY DIPTERAN LARVAE IN NORTHERN

CYPRUS, EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN, 1997
Andrew McGowan1, Annette C. Broderick1, Brendan J. Godley1, E. Geoffrey Hancock2, and David C. Houston3
1
Marine Turtle Research Group
2
Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery (Zoology Museum)
3
Ornithology Group, Division of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow,
Glasgow, G12 8QQ, Scotland, U.K. A.Broderick@bio.gla.ac.uk
INTRODUCTION
In the Mediterranean there have been only two reported shown in Table 1. One species of Sarcophagidae
cases of insect infestation of marine turtle nests (Baran and (Sarcotachina ? (nov.)) has not as yet been identified, possi-
Turkozan 1996, Broderick and Hancock 1997). However, bly a previously undescribed species, and was the most abun-
there have been several studies reporting the presence of in- dant. It was not uncommon, however, to find larvae from
sect larvae particularly from two families of diptera (Phoridae more than one species present in the same turtle nest.
and Sarcophagidae) infesting marine turtle nests (Andrade Temporal distribution of infestation:
et al.,1992, Bjorndal et al.,1985, Fowler 1975, Lopes 1982, The temporal distribution of hatched nests of both spe-
Vasquez 1994). cies indicating the distribution of those that were infested
are shown (C. caretta, Figure 1; C. mydas, Figure 2). The
METHODOLOGY temporal pattern of infestation was quite clearly different be-
tween the two turtle species. Infestation was present during
All data regarding turtle nesting and hatching were col-
all the weeks that C. caretta nests hatched and the temporal
lected following the protocol of Broderick and Godley
distribution of infestation mirrors that of hatching to some
(1996). Insect larvae were collected during excavation of
degree. However, infestation did not occur during the first 3
turtle nests, placed in jars and returned to the field labora-
weeks that C. mydas nests hatched.
tory for rearing. Upon adult emergence, flies were left for
24 hours before being euthanased using ethyl acetate, fixed, 35
and returned to the U.K. for identification. For a full de-

30
scription of the methodology employed refer to McGowan

(1998). 25 Hatched infested
Hatched non-infested
Number of nests
Levels of Infestation: 15
During the 1997 season, a total of 33 C. caretta and 11 10
C. mydas nests were recorded as being infested. This repre-

sented 17% and 21% of successfully assessed C. caretta and 5
C. mydas nests respectively.

0
Insects infesting marine turtle nests: 17 Jul - 23 24 Jul - 30 31 Jul - 6 7 Aug - 13 14 Aug -
Jul Jul Aug Aug 20 Aug
21 Aug - 28 Aug - 3
27 Aug Sept
4 Sept -
10 Sept
11 Sept -
17 - Sept
18 Sept -
24 Sept
25 Sept -
1 Oct
2 Oct - 8
Oct
For a full list of insects previously recorded infesting Week
C. caretta and C. mydas nests in the Mediterranean refer to
Baran and Turkozan (1996) and Broderick and Hancock Figure 1. Graphic of the temporal distribution of hatching and
(1997). The insect species that were found infesting C. infestation of C. caretta nests in Northern Cyprus
caretta and C. mydas nests in northern Cyprus in 1997 are
C. caretta C. mydas
Table 1. Frequency of Order Family Species Nests (%) Nests (%)
insect species recorded in
C. caretta (n = 27) and C. Diptera Sarcophagidae Sarcotachina ? (novum) 16 (48. 5) 6 (54. 5)
mydas (n = 10) infested Parasarcophaga argyrostoma* 3 (9. 1) 1 (9. 1)
nests in 1997. Parasarcophaga tibialis) 1 (3) -
*These species also Wohlfahrtia nuba* 2 (6. 1) 2 (18. 2)
recorded by Broderick and Phyllotelles pictipennes 1 (3) 1 (9. 1)
Hancock (1997) Muscidae Atherigona orientalis 1 (3) -
Chloropidae Eutropha fulvifrons 1 (3) -
Ephydridae Hecamede albicans 2 (6. 1) -
Phoridae Megaselia scalaris* 3 (9. 1) 2 (18. 2)
Coleoptera Cardiophorine species 2 (6. 1) -
Agriotine species 1 (3) -

35
mydas nests (88.2%) is almost identical to that of non-in-
30
fested C. mydas nests (89%) and was not significantly dif-
ferent (W = 41.0, p = 0.943). These results indicate that
Hatched infested
25
Hatched non-infested
infestation does not decrease hatching success and appears
Number of nests
to have no detrimental effects on viable eggs. However, one

20
moribund hatchling was found to be infested upon excava-

15 tion and thus, insect larvae may exert a deleterious effect.
In conclusion, insect infestation does not appear to be
10
posing a significant threat to the reproductive success of
5
marine turtle nests in northern Cyprus. There are however
a number of factors which may predispose marine turtle
0
17 Jul - 23 24 Jul - 30 31 Jul - 6 7 Aug - 13 14 Aug - 21 Aug - 28 Aug - 3 4 Sept - 11 Sept - 18 Sept - 25 Sept - 2 Oct - 8
nests to infestation such as the number of days over which a
Jul Jul Aug Aug 20 Aug 27 Aug
Week
Sept 10 Sept 17 - Sept 24 Sept 1 Oct Oct
nest hatches, and the amount of decaying matter present in
a nest. It is likely that the actual hatching process may be
Figure 2. Graphic of the temporal distribution of hatching and infestation
of C. mydas nests in Northern Cyprus. the cue used, in many cases, to allow flies to locate nests.
More studies of this type are required before this can be
first 3 weeks that C. mydas nests hatched. fully understood.
Which parameters predispose nests to infestation?
For a description of all the variables that were consid- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ered see McGowan (1998). As sample sizes were small and
the data were not normally distributed, Mann-Whitney U- Dr G. Ruxton (University of Glasgow) for the statisti-
tests were used for analyses. The number of days over which cal advice, Mr John Deeming (National Museum of Wales),
a nest hatched was significantly different between infested Prof R. Henry L. Disney (University of Cambridge) and Dr
and non-infested C. caretta (W = 425.5, p = 0.002) and C. Roy Crowson (University of Glasgow) for the identification
mydas (W = 49.5, p = 0.0067) nests. This indicates that the of all the insects, the members of G. U. T. C. E; travel sup-
more days a nest takes to hatch then the greater the chances port from The David and Lucile Packard Foundation to at-
are that the nest will become infested. Dipteran larvae are tend the Symposium
known to attack live hatchlings (Vasquez 1994) and this
LITERATURE CITED
poses a dilemma for conservation projects which do not
excavate turtle nests early after the first signs of hatching. Andrade, R.M., R.L. Flores, S.R. Fragosa, C.S. Lpez, L.M.
The number of dead-in-shell eggs present in a nest Sarti, M.L. Torres, and L.G.B. Vsquez. 1992. Effecto
was significantly different between infested and non-infested de las larvas de dptero sobre el huevo y las cras de
C. caretta nests (W = 439, p = 0.014) with infested nests tortuga marina en el playn de Mexiquillo, Michoacan.
having more dead-in-shell eggs present. A comparison be- Memorias Del VI Encuentro Interuniversitario Sobre
tween the number of dead hatchlings in infested and non- Tortugas Marinas en Mxico. pp. 27-37.
infested C. caretta nests was also significantly different (W Baran, I. and O. Turkozan. 1996. Nesting activity of the
= 424, p = 0.019), with more dead hatchlings being found loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta, on Fethiye beach,
in infested nests. This difference was even more marked Turkey, in 1994. Chelonian Conservation and Biology,
when a comparison was made of the total number of dead 2: 93-96.
(embryos + hatchlings) in infested and non-infested C. Bjorndal, K.A., A. Carr, A.B. Meylan, and J.A. Mortimer.
caretta nests. The result was highly significant (W = 448, p 1985. Reproductive biology of the hawksbill,
= 0.008) with infested nests having an increased number of Eretmochelys imbricata, at Tortuguero, Costa Rica, with
total dead. These results strongly suggest that the amount notes on the ecology of the species in the caribbean.
of decaying tissue matter present in a nest may influence Biological Conservation, 34: 353-368.
infestation. None of these three variables were different be- Broderick, A.C. and B.J. Godley. 1996. Population and
tween infested and non-infested C. mydas nests, however, nesting ecology of the green turtle, Chelonia mydas,
sample sizes were very small. Regression analyses showed and the loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta, in northern
no relationships between duration of hatching and number Cyprus. Zoology in the Middle East, 13: 27-46.
of dead embryos, dead hatchlings or total dead. This sug- Broderick, A.C. and E.G. Hancock. 1997. Insect infestation
gests that decaying tissue matter increases the chances of of mediterranean marine turtle eggs. Herpetological
infestation was independent of the demonstrated effect of Review, 28: 190-191.
hatching duration. Fowler, L.E. 1979. Hatching success and nest predation in
Is infestation a problem? the green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas, at Tortuguero,
The hatching success, on average, of infested C. caretta Costa Rica. Ecology, 60: 946-955.
nests was 65.4% compared to 61.5% for non-infested nests Lopes, H.S. 1982. On Eumacronychia sternalis Allen
and was not significantly different between the two groups (Diptera, Sarcophagidae) with larvae living on eggs and
(W = 292.5, p = 0.509). The hatching success of infested C. hatchlings of the east Pacific green turtle. Rev. Bras.

Biol. 42: 425-429. Michoacan. Tesis Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad

McGowan, A. 1998. Insect infestation of loggerhead Nacional Autnoma de Mxico. pp 1-64
(Caretta caretta), and green (Chelonia mydas), sea
turtle nests in northern Cyprus in 1997. Undergraduate
Thesis, University of Glasgow, Scotland, U.K.
Vasquez, L.G.B. 1994. Dpteros de la familia Sarcophagidae
que actuan como depredadores de cras de tortuga laud
(Dermochelys coriacea) en el playn de Mexiquillo,
SEA TURTLES IN SOUTHERN VERACRUZ, MEXICO: A PROPOSAL
Jos Luis Miranda

Pronatura.Veracruz Apartado Postal 399, Xalapa Veracruz 91069. Mxico. verpronatura@laneta.apc.org
One of the most important efforts in the conservation Pronatura Veracruz is interested in examining these beaches
of sea turtles world wide is the preservation of specific ar- in order to evaluate the nesting activities of female sea turtles
eas that the turtle populations use for feeding, reproduction of the fore mentioned species. In this way Pronatura will be
and nesting. It is well known that the development of tour- able to propose programs for the conservation of the main
ism centers results in contamination and the destruction of potential beach sea turtle nesting sites.
sea turtles habitats. This effect is increasing daily and is The present study is expected to be conducted during
putting the population of these chelonians on the brink of two nesting seasons, over a total duration of 21 months,
extinction. In the Mexican state of Veracruz, which has al- starting in the month of April 1998 and it concluding in
most 784 km of littorals, beginning over 15 years ago, work December of 1999.
has been carried out to aid in the conservation of sea turtles
and their habitats (Ojeda. 1993). However most of this work OBJECTIVES
has been conducted in the north of the state. To date no
conservation efforts have been made nor studies conducted
Verify the activity of the sea turtles species that ex-
concerning the reproductive knowledge of these species in ists for this area in the literature.
the south of Veracruz. The southern region encompasses Determine the principal nesting zones in the south
the coastal ecosystems between the town of Alvarado to the of the state.
city of Coatzacoalcos (18 46N, 95 46W and 18 09N, Determine the densities (nest/beach, nest/km) for spe-
94 96W), a distance of some 180 km. There is some knowl- cies in the zone.
edge in southern Veracruz referring to the presence of some Determine the principal causes of the loss of nests in
nesting sea turtle species such as : loggerhead (Caretta the zone and verify the possible causes of death of
carreta), Green (Chelonia mydas), kemps ridley females.
(Lepidochelys kempii), one of the worlds most endangered Decide on the necessity of installing a camp in order
species, hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) an probably
to protect and prevent damage to the nesting sites
leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), (Carr, et al.,1982)
during the seasonal nesting periods.
(Hildebrand. 1987) and (Vogt, et al.,1996). The decline of
the species was brought about by decades of harvesting of
Propose the most adequate strategies for the conser-
females and the over exploitation of eggs. For this reason vation and protection of the sea turtles in this zone.
MARINE TURTLES NESTING MONITORING IN CELESTN, YUCATN SEASON 1997
Emma Miranda Ruelas.

Pronatura Pennsula de Yucatn, A. C. Mxico. ppy@pibil.finred.com.mx
Will present the results about hawksbill turtle nesting of the nesting site and four were relocated at corral. A 20.8%
monitoring on Celestn, Yucatn Mxico. The patrols cov- of total were disturbed or depredated by dogs and raccoons,
ered 24 km of beach from northern rim of the town of 5.4% was stolen and 1% was flood. The maximum number
Celestn to Coloxch Point on the reserves border. The ac- of nests was registered in May and June with 67 and 74
tivities on the nesting beach were carried out between April nests respectively. The average hatchling success in situ nests
and September 1997. A total of 191 turtle hawksbill (Eret- was 89.1% and emerge success was 85%. Approximately
mochelys imbricata) nests were registered and left to incu- 16,004 hatchlings emerged in a sample of 131 nests.
bate where they were found. Seven nest were relocated near

TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE NESTING ACTIVITY OF CARETTA

CARETTA AND CHELONIA MYDAS IN AKUMAL, QUINTANA ROO
Luis Manuel Ortiz Mejia, Jess Rosiles Nieto, and Viridiana Sarabia Miranda
Centro Ukana I Akumal A.C.Carretera Puerto Jurez-Tulum km 104, Akumal Q. Roo Apartado Postal # 127, Playa del
Carmen, Q. Roo C.P. 77710, Mxico. CEA94@mail.caribe.net.mx
Two species of sea turtles nest in Akumal, Quintana cant differences were found when each beach was compared
Roo: loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and green (Chelonia to the other, both in the distribution of nesting activity and
mydas). The turtles nesting activities were compared among hatchlingssurvivor, and among the time. In order to mini-
the beaches of Akumal, each with different degree of devel- mize the negative impact that tourist development has over
opment, nighttime lighting, and recreational activity. Com- the sea turtles and their nesting beaches, management rec-
parisons were made among the time also. Highly signifi- ommendations were proposed.
PERMANENT PROTECTION PROGRAM FOR THE MARINE TURTLE THAT ARRIVE ON

THE BEACHES OF MAZATLAN.
Martha Leticia Osuna Madrigal

Acuario Mazatlan en la Ciudad de Mazatlan, Sinaloa, Mxico. Acuario@red2000.com.mx
Program established by two Projects: I. Evaluation dencies, Universities, Institutions, Companies, Hotels, Non
of the turtles that nest in the beaches of Mazatlan and II Governmental Organizations, Citizens and financing from
Monitoring and caring for the nests in the Laboratory at the Private sector, they all make possible, along with our
the Mazatlan Aquarium. staff, the continuity of the permanent activities in the pro-
This Program was formally implemented by the tection of the olive ridley turtles that arrive on the beaches
Mazatlan Aquarium in 1991 to Protect and Conserve the of Mazatlan with the rescue of the nests for their incubation
olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), species who, in the Laboratory at the Mazatlan Aquarium, that way we
based on previous data, nest in zones on beaches exposed to help to conserve this species.
city planning between Playa Cerritos and Playa Olas Altas
(28 km. length) at the City and Port of Mazatlan. TOTAL OF TOTAL OF
TOTAL OF TOTAL OF
EGGS FREED
From the beginning the Program established its Goals YEAR TURTLES RESCUED
INCUBATE SPRING
REPORTED NESTS
and Objectives, that have changed in priority, depending D (HATCHINGS)
1991 26 13 1160 522
on the observations during these years. 1992 33 14 1372 961
Presently the activities during the year are based on 1993 48 37 3345 2080
1994 75 71 7070 4766
the follow points. 1995 82 79 7434 5635
1996 82 77 7162 4599
1997 110 107 10033 6936
GOALS. * NOTE.
The above reported results did not include the following:
Program. Sensitize the citizens and visitors about the 1) Turtles who got to shore but did not nest for some reason.
2) Turtles which did nest and were not reported, and whose knowledge of the nest
necessity to collaborate to profit conservation and protec- was because of the hatchlings at shore, encounter which was reported.
tion of the sea turtles and their habitat. 3) Poached nests, which were reported afterwards, seldom done at the right moment
due to fear.
Project I. To help recuperate the females sea turtles
and their nests. We can assert that implement the Program make pos-
Project II. To obtain high survival percentages of sible inform the results obtained in the period of time since
hatchlings in the Laboratory. 1991 so for February 1998, which at once are exposed.
This Program remained the necessary time with
OBJECTIVES changes on basis at circumstances, which will be mentioned
by mean of Goals and Objectives as today.
Program. To infuse respect of citizens and visitors to
the Environment. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Project I. To evaluate the alteration in the behavior of
nesting turtles on beaches exposed to City planning. Mr. Harold Cook American Citizen who has rescued
Project II. To determinate the rate of survival of nests more 50% of the total nests during all this years.
found at the beaches and hatchlings at the Laboratory. Fondo Mexicano para la Conservacin de la
The Program follows a plan of work for whose perfor- Naturaleza, A.C. by to finance the Program during 1997
mance takes up a team composed for Governmental depen- Alin Aguilar for help with translation.

LAS TORTUGAS MARINAS EN EL PARQUE NACIONAL ISLA CONTOY, QUINTANA

ROO, MEXICO
Felipe Angel Omar Ortiz Moreno and Vernica Jurez Rivera

Parque Nacional Isla Contoy. Bld. Kukulkan km 4.8 ZH. Cancn, Q. Roo,. CP 77500, Mxico.
Isla Contoy se decreta Parque Natural para la medidas de rastros y camas, se balizo los nidos que se
proteccin de tortugas marinas en octubre de 1986. Esto es encontraron. Se realizaron recorridos nocturnos cada ter-
debido, a que en sus playas llegan a anidar cuatro de las cer da. Y a las hembras que arribaron al Parque se les marco.
ocho especies de tortugas que existen en el mundo La temporada de arribamiento de tortugas inicia en el mes
(Eretmochelys imbricata, Caretta caretta, Chelonia mydas de Abril con la llegada de Eretmochelys imbricata y termina
y Dermochelys coriacea). Los estudios realizados tienen en el mes de octubre con el arribamiento de Chelonia mydas
como finalidad aportar elementos de juicio para la y Caretta caretta. Se detectaron 22 nidadas exitosas de
conservacin y manejo de las tortugas marinas del Parque Eretmochelys imbricata con un porcentaje de avivamiento
Nacional Isla Contoy. El objetivo principal del monitoreo de 93.62%, para Caretta caretta se detectaron 23 nidadas
fue conocer las playas que son utilizadas como zona de exitosas con un porcentaje de avivamiento del 97.32%, para
anidacin de las tortugas, adems de determinar la Chelonia mydas se localizaron 37 nidadas exitosas con un
frecuencia de anidacin por especie y por playa, calcular el porcentaje de avivamiento del 97.28%. Se marcaron un to-
porcentaje de avivamiento y realizar actividades de marcaje tal de 4 hembras de Carettta caretta, 6 de Chelonia mydas
en las hembra desovantes. Para lo cual se monitoreo todos y adems un juvenil de Eretmochelys imbricata. Las playas
los das las playas de barlovento y sotavento, se tomaron con mayor frecuencia de anidacin son las de la zona de
barlovento.
WHY DO MARINE TURTLES NEST IN SUB-OPTIMAL OR UNSTABLE BEACHES

ADJACENT TO TIDAL INLETS?
Randall W. Parkinson1, Llewellyn M. Ehrhart2, Christopher Cornelisen3, and Jean-Philippe Magron1

1
Florida Institute of Technology,150 West University Blvd., Melbourne, Florida 32901-6975 U.S.A.
2
Department of Biology, University of Centra Florida, P.O. Box 162368, Orlando, Florida 32816-2368 U.S.A.
3
Massachusetts Coastal Zone Management, 100 Cambridge Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02202 U.S.A.
rparkins@winnie.fit.edu
A comprehensive marine turtle monitoring program nest on beaches that promote lower reproductive success.
reveals persistent differences in reproductive success re- This observation may simply be a consequence of the ephem-
corded on updrift and downdrift barrier island shorelines eral nature of barrier island tidal inlets. From a geological
proximal to Sebastian Inlet, Florida, U.S.A. This region of perspective, tidal inlets are temporary features, persisting
the eastern Florida peninsula has been documented histori- for no more than several hundred years. Inlets open and
cally to contain high density nesting beaches and is located close randomly and without regard to the nesting marine
within the boundaries of the Archie Carr National Wildlife turtle population. Hence, gravid females may return to nest
Refuge. However, loggerhead reproductive success on on a beach that has subsequently been rendered sub-opti-
downdrift (south) beaches located within several kilome- mal by a recent inlet opening. However, the long-term ef-
ters of the inlet has remained significantly lower than updrift fects on the nesting population are probably insignificant
beaches throughout the duration of this study (1994-present). because inlet closure occurs long before nest-site selection
These differences were initially attributed to the effects of behavior results in the avoidance of these beaches.
beach nourishment; ~100,000 cubic yards of sand were
placed on the south beach in 1993. However, statistically
significant biological (i.e., nesting success, hatch rates) and
physical (i.e., scarp formation, moisture content) differences
have persisted long after the fill material was removed by
natural processes. We suspect the physical characteristics
and instability of downdrift beaches may be a consequence
of distinct hydrodynamic processes that are associated with
most tidal inlets. It is puzzling why marine turtles would

MONITORING AND NEST PROTECTION OF THE LOGGERHEAD COLONY NESTING

IN KYPARISSIA BAY, GREECE, DURING 1997
Alan Rees, Michalis Michalopoulos, and Dimitris Margaritoulis

The Sea Turtle Protection Society of Greece, P.O.Box 51154, GR-14510 KIFISSIA, Greece. stps@compulink.gr
A major nesting area of the loggerhead turtle Caretta northwestern wind which brings waves high up the beach
caretta in Greece is found along the 44-km Bay of in summer. To counter these stresses on the nesting popula-
Kyparissia, at the western coast of Peloponnesus. Pilot moni- tion, for several years an active management program has
toring in the 1980s has revealed that most of the nests (more been carried out by the STPS. Activities include fencing of
than 85%) are made in the southernmost 10-km part of the nests, relocation of clutches to avoid inundation and a pub-
bay. Unlike the nesting regions of Zakynthos and northern lic awareness program aimed at limiting damage caused by
Crete, development of the beach area is not a major prob- residents and visitors to the area.The present poster describes
lem. Nests suffer greatly from predation by foxes and dogs the work carried out during the 1997 nesting season.
as well as from inundation caused by the strong prevailing
THE CULEBRA LEATHERBACK PROJECT: A CONSERVATION AND RECOVERY

PROGRAM FOR TURTLES
Marelisa Rivera
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, P.O. Box 491, Boqueron, Puerto Rico 00622, U.S.A.
The U.S. and Wildlife Service has conducted the of the female turtles, and tagged with flipper and PIT tags.
Culebra Leatherback Project for approximately 13 years The hatching success is calculated after excavating the nests.
through contracts, cooperative agreements and Services In the last years, a mean of 24 per year has nested in Brava
employees. The principal beaches for the monitoring of and Resaca beaches, constructing a mean of 156 nests per
leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) nesting ac- year with a mean hatching sucess of 74%. However, in 1997,
tivities have been Brava and Resaca beaches, two of the record numbers of leatherback sea turtle nesting activities
most important nesting beaches for leatherbacks in Puerto (81 female turtles and more than 300 nesting activities) were
Rico. Night patrolling with visitors and volunteers are con- reported on Brava and Resaca beaches in the Culebra Is-
ducted from April to July, after July, the beaches are visited land. This project has yielded comprehensive information
during mornings and afternoons for the excavation of nests. on the nesting biology of the leatherback that has contrib-
Generally the excavation ends in August. Data is collected uted greatly to the understanding of this species in Puerto
on nesting habitat, number of eggs, physical characteristics Rico and the U.S. Caribbean.
MAMMALIAN PREDATION ON BOCA RATONS BEACHES: A YEAR WITHOUT CAGES
K. Rusenko, C. Pfistner, D. Fowler, and A. Barker

Gumbo Limbo Environmental Complex, 1801 N. Ocean Blvd., Boca Raton, FL 33432 U.S.A.
INTRODUCTION
Since 1976, Boca Ratons Sea Turtle program has site stakes) and predation events were recorded during daily
caged all Sea Turtle nests in an effort to reduce predation beach surveys. Significant changes in predation patterns
by raccoons (Procyon lotor) and foxes (Urocyon argenteus). occurred in the absence of cages. As in previous years, most
During the 1996 nesting season a study was initiated to attacks on sea turtle nests occurred in the city parks where
determine if caging was an impediment to mammalian high populations of raccoons apparently exist. Although the
predators. Evidence collected indicated that cages actually number of nests attacked this year was twice as many as
attracted predators leading to repeated successful attacks last year, the percentage of nests totally destroyed is essen-
on caged nests during the first seven to nine days of incuba- tially the same. Foxes, not raccoons, were responsible for
tion. Throughout the 1997 Sea Turtle Nesting Season no the majority of attacks on staked nests. Raccoon attacks were
cages were placed over nests for the first time in twenty predominant in city park zones whereas fox attacks occurred
years. Instead, all nests were double-staked (dune and nest in all zones. Significantly fewer nests were attacked in the

first days of incubation this season as compared to last days ings on Turtlewalks and daytime sightings in the Parks.
of incubation. The lowest predation rates were found in zones Successful predation of nests by foxes were found in
that contained condominiums, indicating that garbage con- all zones except J. The majority of the attacks occurred in
trol may be equivalent to predator population control. zones D, E, and F; however, major increases occurred in
zones C, G, and H over the 1996 season. Successful raccoon
METHODS attacks were strongly reduced in 1997 although the distri-
bution of attacks by zone was similar with the majority oc-
During the 1997 nesting season new sea turtle nests
curring in zones D, E, and F.
were marked with a dune stake and a nest stake (double-
The number of nests that were totally lost did not dif-
staked nests) that was placed randomly about the egg cham-
fer from 1995 to 1996 (each 9%) nor did the number of
ber, no cages were used throughout the season. Each nest
partially lost nests (each approximately 6%). The number
was checked daily on the routine morning survey and pre-
of hatchout attacks increased from 1% in 1996 to 13% in
dation attempts or successful attacks were recorded by date,
1997.
nest number, and attacking species. All evidence of the at-
The hatch success results for unpredated nests found
tack was erased for continued monitoring. If an attack was
each nest contained an average of 106 hatched shells. Nests
successful, the number of days of incubation were recorded
that were total losses had no hatched shells present, par-
and compared to the incubation period of nests that had not
tially predated nests had an average of 71 (67% of
been attacked generating a percentage of incubation time
unpredated nests) hatched shells, and hatchout predated
that was used to compare the timing of the first successful
nests had 100 (95% of unpredated nests) hatched shells.
attack throughout the nesting season.
Significant numbers of hatchlings apparently escape from
Nest contents were quantified 72 hours after hatchout
both partial and hatchout predated nests although an accu-
or after 70 days of incubation according to the Florida De-
rate mortality of emerged hatchlings is difficult to estimate.
partment of Environmental Protection guidelines. From this
information, three predation types were recorded. Nests that
DISCUSSION
had no remaining eggshells or eggs were considered to be
totally predated, nests that had countable shells and eggs Double-staking nests with no caging greatly changed
were considered partially predated, and nests that were at- the nature of predation in Boca Raton. During the 1997
tacked during emergence with evidence of hatchling tracks season, there was a record low number of Loggerhead nests
were considered as hatchout predation. During the 1996 with most likely the same number of potential predators.
nesting season, cages were used and predation data was Indeed, the percent of nests attacked in 1997 was 51% (549
collected in the same manner as the 1997 nesting season total nests) compared to 26% (990 total nests) in 1996. De-
therefore allowing easy comparison of data from these two spite the high concentration of attacks in 1997, the percent-
seasons. age of total and partially predated nests was essentially no
different from 1996. The increase in hatchout predations
RESULTS was possibly due to the inability of the predator to find the
The majority of attacks were found in zones D, E, and nest prior to emergence. Most of the attacks by both foxes
F or the area of Red Reef Park through South Beach Park. and raccoons were inappropriately directed to the stakes
This pattern was also seen during the 1996 nesting season. regardless of whether they were located at a nest. Many
Significant increases in attacks were recorded in Zones B, attacks were directed to survey stakes or dune stakes indi-
C, G, and H. cating that the predator was relying on visual cues rather
The timing of attacks was very different from 1996 to than smell. Data collected in 1996 indicated that the cage
1997. During the 1996 season (with cages), approximately was indeed used as a visual cue to locate nests. The fact that
27% of the attacks occurred in the first two weeks of incu- very few nests were attacked during the first two weeks of
bation. During the 1997 season (without cages), only 7% of incubation in 1997 compared to 1996 supports this view. In
the attacks occurred during this time period with the ma- fact, 50% of the predations in 1997 occurred at hatchout
jority of attacks occurring during the last two weeks of in- and few nests were dug up at this time as judged by the
cubation. near-normal number of hatched shells in these nests.
Surprisingly, raccoons accounted for only 37% of the The most dramatic and unexpected difference from
attacks in 1997 compared to 80% of the attacks in 1996. In 1996 to 1997 was the near reversal of predator species with
1997, foxes were responsible for 61% of the attacks on sea the dominance of the gray fox. The raccoons were not sim-
turtle nests. Fox attacks were largely spread over all zones ply inept at finding a nest without a cage, they apparently
whereas raccoon attacks were largely confined to zones D, gave up looking for nests during the 1997 season. Why this
E, and F. Although a population survey was not performed, occurred is a puzzle, perhaps there was more garbage in the
there appeared to be no decrease in the raccoon population parks to attract them off the beach or the low density of
in the parks as determined by daytime sightings and the nests in 1997 made beach patrols impractical for a pack of
number of raided garbage cans. Foxes, however; may have raccoons. It is important to note that raccoon attacks occur
experienced a population increase based on increased sight- in zones with readily available garbage on the same side of

the highway as the beach. For both 1996 and 1997, few duce the raccoon populations and, as a result, reduce the
raccoon attacks occur in areas where condominiums pre- number of predated nests in these zones.
dominate or where the parks are across the highway from In the upcoming year a more dynamic approach to
the beach. Attacks in zones D, E, and F may be due to an predator reduction will be tried through the random place-
artificially high population of raccoons because of the large ment of caged and double-staked nests in an effort to pre-
food source (garbage). Eliminating the availability of gar- vent predator habituation to any single form of deterrence.
bage in Red Reef and South Beach Parks may naturally re-
LA TORTUGA MARINA EN BAHA DE BANDERAS
Susana Snchez Gonzlez, Sherman Hernndez Ventura, Jos Juan Gonzlez Ruz, Rodrigo Moncayo Estrada, and
Pablo Del Monte Luna
Estacin de Biologa Marina y Pesquera Dr. Enrique Beltrn. Instituto Nacional de la Pesca. Secretara de Medio
Ambiente, Recursos Naturales y Pesca. Calle de la Tortuga #1, La Cruz de Huanacaxtle, Nayarit C. P. 63732. Apart.
Post. 59, Buceras, Nayarit, Mxico. ebimap@pvallarta.icanet.net.mx
Por la geografa, clima y dinmica ocenica, la Baha nacional y obtener informacin acerca de diferentes aspectos,
de Banderas es estratgica en biodiversidad y por su belleza en este ao se han logrado proteger 680 nidos con 57 482
en turismo. Esto permite una relacin sociedad-naturaleza huevos y 35 008 cras lo que implica una disminucin del
con posibilidades de generar desarrollo con la explotacin 20% con respecto al ao anterior, lo que puede responder a
de sus recursos naturales. En tal contexto el Instituto El Nio; (2) Educacin ambiental y ecoturismo con la
Nacional de la Pesca, a travs de la Estacin de Biologa posibilidad de alternar diversin, riesgo controlado y
Marina y Pesquera, realiza un proyecto de investigacin y contacto con la naturaleza y en la bsqueda de una
proteccin de la tortuga marina en Nuevo Vallarta, una de alternativa regional para obtener recursos para la gente lo-
las playas de mayor concentracin de tortugas para el cal; (3) investigacin con un anlisis prospectivo de los
Pacfico Nayarita. Se cuenta con tres rubros de anlisis: (1) depredadores cticos potenciales de las cras de tortuga en
si bien la proteccin y conservacin de las tortugas marinas el rea de rompientes con una riqueza de 45 especies de los
en Mxico tiene un largo antecedente esta playa es cuales 5 son los posibles candidatos. La presentacin trata
estratgica para monitorear la evolucin del programa de exponer los avances en todos los rubros para dar a conocer
las actividades elaboradas.
EFFECT OF HURRICANE PAULINE ON THE NESTING OF OLIVE RIDLEY TURTLE IN

ESCOBILLA BEACH, OAXACA, MEXICO.
Laura Sarti1, Juan Daz1, Manuel Garduo1, Javier Vasconcelos2, Ernesto Albavera2, Cuauhtemoc Peaflores2, and
Ren Mrquez M.3
1
Instituto Nacional de la Pesca, Pitgoras 1320, 5 Piso, Col. Sta. Cruz Atoyac. Mxico D.F. 03310
2
Centro Mexicano de la Tortuga, Mazunte Tonameca, Oaxaca
3
Centro Regional de Investigaciones Pesqueras-Manzanillo. Playa Ventana S/N AP 591, Colima, 28200, Mxico
INTRODUCTION
Escobilla beach, the main nesting site in Mexico taken out to the surface. In the middle zone of the beach
for the olive ridley, was striken by hurricane Pauline on occurred the 75% of the nestings, from which 12.8% were
October 8, 1997, which affected the physonomy of the beach. estimated to be affected based on the area covered by the
The total number of nestings occurred to October 3 was logs.
779,203 in 7 arribadas. The arribadas occurred from Au- Hatchlings from the arribada from August 30 to
gust 30 to September 18, (173,574 nestings), and from Sep- September 18 began to emerge on October 15. Despite of
tember 30 to October 3, (178,828 nestings) were directly being covered by logs, thousands of hatchlings found their
affected by Pauline. ways to the surface. The ones that were not rescued died
The main effects were erosion of the whole inter- trapped by the logs.
tidal zone and deposition of large logs over a section of the Clutches from the second arribada laid in the zone
middle zone of the beach. 10% of the total nestings are laid covered by logs in the hurricane very likely didnt produce
on the intertidal zone. All the eggs laid in this area were any hatchling due to decomposition processes of the wood,

accumulated humidity and drop of temperature among other RESULTS

factors.
3 Transects were made. The results show:
The olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) sea turtle
a) zone A (intertidal zone) was totally lost by erosion.
nests along the Mexican Pacific coast. The nesting season
b) zone B (beach platform) was completely covered
is from June to January, but, in Escobilla beach, the main
with logs only in 12.8% in average for the total zone. The
nesting beach, its possible to find nestings all the year. In
area covered is in the vicinity of A zone.
this beach some days each month, under special climatic
conditions, hundred of thousands of females nest at the same c) zone C wasnt covered by logs or eroded.
time. This phenomenon is known as arribada. Since 1986 Transect 1. - Station 22
Escobilla beach is a protected area, however the protection
activities and the evaluation of the arribadas have more than
20 years.
Escobilla is located in the Oaxaca State, in the Pa-
cific coast of Mexico, between the 15 4350, 1539 52
N and 96 42 56, 96 34 38 W. The beach is 15 Km.
long, and the arribadas occur mainly in the first 8 Km (NW-
SE). Since the total ban in 1990, an important increase in
the total estimated nesting activities has been reported, from
the 210,000 activities occurred this year to 816,942 in 1997. Transect 2. - Station 17
The clutches are deposited along the wide of the
beach. 10% of them are deposited in the intertidal zone
(zone A) 75% in the middle of the beach (berm and plat-
form) (zone B) and 15% in the vegetation zone (posterior)
(zone C).
On October 8, 1997, hurricane Pauline affected the
nestings of two arribadas. Thousands of eggs were eroded
by the high tides, and squashed by logs deposited on the
beach.
Transect 3. - Station 9
METHODS TO EVALUATE THE EFFECTS ON

THE CLUTCHES
The amplitude of Escobilla does not vary much
along the beach. In the area were the arribadas are more
common, the amplitude of the beach and the area covered
with logs were measured in transects each 500 m. From the
percentage of beach covered in ecological zone the total
loss of nestings was estimated, assuming a total coverage of
the beach with eggs in these areas. Arribada occurring on August 23-28 (Table 2)
Ecological zones to the width of the beach: It was estimated that 30,449 nests from this
arribada were lost by the hurricane effects. In order to avoid
that hatchlings emerged in zone C and the free part of zone
B were trapped in the logs and debris, a 300 m-long plastic
mesh was placed in front of this area (between the logs and
zone C), and some hatchlings found trapped were rescued.
Using this mesh, around 78,000 hatchlings were recovered
and released to the sea.
Table 1. Arrivadas ocurring up to the hurricane date.
dates of arribada estimated estimated eggs (100

(1997) nestings eggs per clutch)
*
June 23-27 34,503 3,405,300
*
July 3-11 36,498 3,649,800
July 25-30 74,835 7,483,500
August 8-14 125,609 12,560,900
**
August 23-28 155,358 15,535,800
**
Aug. 30 - Sep.18 173,574 17,357,400
**
Sep. 30 - Oct. 3. 178,828 17,882,800
* emergences affected by overlapping of arribadas
** arribadas affected by hurricane Pauline

Table 2. Losses caused by Hurricane Pauline
DATES OF
ARRIBADAS ESTIMATED NESTINGS PER ESTIMATE OF NEST LOSS PER
ECOLOGICAL ZONE ECOLOGICAL ZONE TOTAL OF
AFFECTED NESTINGS
LOST
BY Zone A Zone B Zone C Zone A Zone B Zone C (0 NESTINGS
PAULINE (10%) (75%) (15%) (100%) (12.8%) %)
*1
Aug. 23-28 155,358 15,535 116,517 23,306 15,535 14,914 0 30,449
*2
Aug. 30 - Sept. 18 173,574 17,357 130,181 26,036 17,357 16,663 0 34,020
*3
Sept. 30-Oct. 3 178,828 17,883 134,121 26,824 17,883 17,167 0 35,050
TOTAL 507,760 50,775 380,819 76,166 50,775 64,279 0 115,054
Arribada occurred on August 30 - September 18 (Ta- process, the next arribada came to the beach. The females
ble 2) could climb the beach and lay their eggs with no problems.
The eggs form these arribadas were in a early/middle This arribada occurred in a wider area than usual, and it is
stage of development. It was possible to verify that some assumed that the females tried to look for open areas to
embryos (2-3 weeks old) were alive after the hurricane. nest, spreading in a wider extension of the beach.
Although there were not a representative sample, it could
possible to assume that the excess of rain and the high ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
tides were not enough to stop the embryo development in
those stages or later ones. We want to express our most sincere gratitude to all of
Arribada occurring September 30 -October 3 (Table you who where concerned about the fate of Centro Mexicano
2) de la Tortuga and Escobilla beach, to the people that con-
Pauline probably affected the eggs from this tributed with donations, support and encouraging words.
arribada in a very early embryo development stage. Thou- Thank you for everything!
sands of clutches remained buried below the logs. The hu-
midity down the logs, the low temperature by the shade, the
pressure over the eggs, and later, the changes due to de-
composition of the logs, caused for sure the death of the
embryos from all the nests covered by logs.
Considering the losses caused by hurricane Pauline,
we estimated that, from a total of 779,203 nestings occurred
up to the date of the hurricane arrival (October 8, 1997),
115,054 (14.7%) were lost due to its effects.
HURRICANE RICK AND REMOVAL OF DEBRIS IN

THE BEACH.
A month after hurricane Pauline, hurricane Rick hit
the coast, bringing several tons of logs and debris that were
deposited on the beach, completely blocking the path of the
hatchlings to the sea and of the females to the nesting beach.
Between Pauline and Rick no arribadas occurred, only a
few isolated nestings. Local people helped in the task of
removing logs from the beach. Motor chainsaws were used
to cut the logs which were transported to the back part of
the beach, avoiding the hatchlings being trapped and the
death of the embryos due to change in incubation environ-
ment, and allowing the females from subsequent arribadas
to nest successfully. While the cleaning activities were in

15 YEARS OF CONSERVATION EFFORTS BY THE SEA TURTLE LABORATORY IN

MEXIQUILLO BEACH
Laura Sarti, Ninel Garca, Carlos Lpez, Ana Barragn, Francisco Vargas, Cristina Ordoez, Leticia Gmez,
Patricia Huerta, Arturo Jurez, Debora Garca, and Miguel Herrera
Laboratorio de Tortugas Marinas, Fac. de Ciencias, UNAM. Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universtiaria, Mxico D.F: 04510,
Mxico. lsm@hp.fciencias.unam.mx
Mexiquillo beach is one of the 5 major nesting beaches From the beginnigs of the program to 1992, beach pa-
for the leatherback in Mexico and has been considered one trolling was done on foot in the 4 Km with highest nesting
of the most important world wide. This beach has had a density. From 1993 on, ATVs have been used, and due to
continue monitoring program of the leatherbacks since 1982, the low nesting density, patrolling was incremented to the
when the Facultad de Ciencias of the National University total 18 kilometers of the beach.
started a research and training program, tagging females Since 1982 to date, 30,179 leatherback clutches have
and counting nests, relocating eggs and other projects about been recorder from wich 7,635 were protected, represent-
the biology of the leatherback, as part of the undergraduate ing 441,860 eggs. From these, 184,770 hatchlings have been
curriculum for the Biology major in this institution. Since recruited to the population.
that date, there has been 10 annual courses with an average The olive ridley also nests in Mexiquillo. From this
of 25 students per course. These students were trained in all species, 5,059 nesting have been recorded, and 1,472
the aspects of running a project from preparation of the clutches were protected, which means 207,763 eggs that
protocol and search for bibliographic references to analysis produced 75,542 hatchlings recruited to the population.
of collected data and preparation of a technical report. They
also were trained in all the basic field procedures used with
sea turtles. In this way and in good deal groups of students,
with advise from the professors, have maintained the pro-
tection program in this beach for 15 years.
STATUS OF OLIVE RIDLEYS (LEPIDOCHELYS OLIVACEA) NESTING ACTIVITY AT

SPORADIC HABITATS OF NORTHERN ANDHRA PRADESH COASTLINE, INDIA
Raja Sekhar, P.S.

Dept. of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam-530 003 India
The Olive ridleys, Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschcholtz) Vamsadhara). The nesting activities were estimated with
have worldwide distribution, with significant mass nesting the direct evidences, cited in nesting, incidental captures of
habitats at two different geographical locations. The Pa- breeding turtles by local fishermen and accidentally drowned
cific coasts of Costarica, Mexico and the coasts of Northern turtles washed ashore. The crawls made by nesting turtles,
Indian Ocean, India. Most of their nesting activity concen- freshly laid nests and disturbed nests are considered as in-
trated at mahanadi river mouth (Gahirmatha), and direct evidences. For the survey the entire coastline from
Rishikulya river mouth (Ekakulansi beaches) of Northern river Godavari to river Vamsadhara (nearer to Orissa boarder
Indian Ocean. In winter months large number of Olive rid- of Rishilkulya river) has been divided into five zones.
leys migrate from Indian Ocean to Mahanadhi river mouths Inrelation to breeding concentrations with their relative im-
for Mass nesting (Arribada) around January to March, af- portance values of suitable nesting sites are recognised at
ter passing the coastlines of Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh each zone for the protection to conserve as sporadic nesting
and Orissa. While in migration many of the breeding popu- habitats of oliveridleys.
lations selected nearby suitable beaches as their sporadic
nesting activity. In recent years migratory turtles activity
has been increased along the Northern Andhra Pradesh
coastline (16 10' - 18 25' Latitudes and 81 35' - 84 10' Lon-
gitudes) utilized as their breeding and nesting habitats. The
nesting concentrations are mainly at larger river mouths
(Godavari) and at perennial minor river confluence points
along the coastline (Tandava, Gostani, Nagavali and

HAWKSBILL SEA TURTLE NESTING ACTIVITY CENSUS AND RELATED

CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES IN CULEBRA, PUERTO RICO
Teresa L. Tallevast1 and Rosarito Morales2

1
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Culebra National Wildlife Refuge P.O. Box 190, Culebra, PR 00775-0190 U.S.A.
2
Fanduca, Inc., P.O. Box 386, Culebra, PR 00775, U.S.A.
Although U.S. federal and Puerto Rico commonwealth in the Culebra National Wildlife Refuge. Nests located in
laws have been implemented to protect sea turtles and their other sites were subjected to erosion due to unregulated up-
habitat in Culebra, P.R., degradation of habitat qualilty still land land clearing, off-road vehicular traffic, passage of live-
ocurrs due to coastal development and marine activities. stock, and artificial lighting. Documented hatchling mor-
Diurnal surveys of beaches throughout the archipelago were tality occurred due to entrapment in cattle hoof prints.
initiated in 1993 to augment previously sketchy informa- Outreach programs targeting the community, visitors,
tion on hawksbill nesting activity and acquire additional and government personnel have been conducted to provide
information necessary in the formulation of comprehensive opportunities for the local populace to directly benefit from
coastal and marine management plans. conservation and also encourage public support for devel-
Surveys were conducted from August 1993 through opment and enforcement of coastal zone planning to meet
October 1997. More than 280 hawksbill nesting activities current and future needs.
were recorded, 78% of which occurred on beaches located
AN ANALISIS OF PROTECTION TO THE SEA TURTLE AT CAMP MAJAHUAS,

JALISCO, MEXICO.
J.A. Trejo-Robles1, R.E. Carretero-Montes1, F.J. Jacobo-Prez2, and J.C. Rodrguez-Salgado3

1
Centro de Ecologa Costera, CUCSUR. Universidad de Guadalajara. Gmez Faras # 82, San Patricio-Melaque, Jal. C.P.
48980. Mxico. jtrejo@costera.melaque.udg.mx
2
CUCBA-Universidad de Guadalajara.
3
CUCOSTA-Universidad de Guadalajara.
INTRODUCTION
The Majahuas beach has a very low index of human
In the state of Jalisco at the Federal Reserve Zone
corruption, however, it has its natural predation specially
known as Playn de Mismaloya is an important area of nest-
in the winter season where we can observe the attack on the
ing of the marine turtle specially and in a major abundance
turtle eggs nests and in some cases even at their place of
of olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) although they are
incubation. The hatcheries that is initialy 20X20 m and is
registered as Chelonia agassizii, Dermochelys coriacea and
afterwards enlarged in accordance with the need, is located
esporadically Eretmochelys imbricata. In 1997, like every
1 km from the camp being the best place due to the beaches
year since 1982 the Universidad de Guadalajara has in fact
characteristics and for being the zone best suited for the
developed the activities for the protection and conservation
eggs safety.
the sea turtle in this zone.
Majahuas (194953L.N., 105216L.O.) is one of
the four camps that operate on this reserve. The beach that METHODS
corresponds to this camp embrases an extension of 12 km The practices of conservation and protection at
and is characterized for being (50m) wide and varies ac- Majahuas include nightly paths and an occasional one in
cording to the dynamics of the waters as influenced by the the day through the beach in order to realize the activities
tides and the formation of stone walls. This creates small that do correspond to the collection, transportation and plant-
dunes, spinny thicket, low vegetation and palms that bor- ing of eggs on to the protected areas of incubation (hatcher-
der the zone. The nestings in this area are the higest that ies). Daily starting at 21:00 to 06:00 hours of the following
are registered in the Playn de Mismaloya zone. The camp day three alternating groups of persons run though the beach
is limited on the continent end by the Majahuas swamp, loocking for nests and do transport them to the protected
which has an opening with the ocean on the north side and rea where they are then planted. If the gathering is more
is permanent during the nesting season. This creates for the than eigthy eggs they are divided into two parts for their
formation of two hig tides and two low tides. incubation and later through the hatching and release
through the night at 2 to 3 kilometers from the camp.

ACTIVITIES JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

DAYS IN CAMP 15 31 30 31 30 13
PATROLLED DAYS 15 30 28 30 29 12
Table 1. An evaluation of the
PATROLLED HOURS 135 270 252 270 261 108
aplyed effort to the protection
PATROLLED KILOMETERS 1080 2160 2016 2160 2088 864
activities at Majahuas camp
from July- December. EFFECTIVE WORK HOUR 240 480 448 480 464 192
NEST COLLECTED/MONTHS 44 303 240 131 117 17
NEST COLLECTED/DAY 2.93 10.10 8.57 4.37 4.03 1.42
HOURS/NEST 3.07 0.89 1.05 2.06 2.23 6.35
Pertaining to the recently created Quelonius: per day.

Universitary Program of the Conservation of the Marine The evaluation of the aplyed effort in the protection
Turtle, whose main function is to integrate the three uni- activities let us know a value exactly of the work at sea
versity Centers to work in recourse with objetives of jointly
combine efforts and apply them to one final common end. 100
90
RESULTS 80
70
To achieve activities during the season of 1997 (July
HATCH (%)
60
through August) in Majahuas camp, tree branches of the 50
40
University of Guadalajara: The Science Biology Agricul-
30
ture and Livestock Industry Campus, Coast line campus and 20
south coastline campus were together to develop the Sea 10
Turtles Conservation Program: Quelonius. During this en- 0
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
JULY 7-31
DEC-13-19
tire season there were four researchers from differents cam- WEEK
pus, also the participation of Fishery Cooperative Society
of Roca Negra and the City Hall of Tomatln, Jalisco; be-
Figure 3. The hatch average obtaining was 66,12% in the entire season
sides during the season 333 students from diferents high
schools and campus of the same University were volunteers,
turtle camp Majahuas (Table 1).
who dedicated walking and watching the 8 kms of beaches
As results of this working grup (Figure 1) we achieved
100
to move and protect a total of 852 Lepidochelys olivacea
90 nests, besides of 30 that were left in situ. The average was
80
49 nests per week. The figure 2 show us the total eggs trans-
70
60
planted at the hatcheries.
NESTS
50 The hatching appeared on the third week of Septem-

40
ber and the rates were discauraging with 50.52%, however
30
20 during the season, these enhance to reach 88.93% in the
10 last weeks, obtaining 66.12% in the entire season (Figure
0
3). These results could be for high tides during September
WEEK
and October where the hatching corrals was completely
Figure 1. As a results of this working group we achieved to move and under water, some times high tides were twice by day (11:00
protect a total of 852 nests. The average was 49 nests per week and 18:00 hours) (Figure 4).
6000
south of the camp.

5000
In July through December of 1997 they were watch-
ing 144 days, 9 hours per day with a total amount of 72 km 4000
HATCHLINGS
3000
10000
HATCHING EGGS
8000
TRANSPLANTED EGGS 2000
6000
EGGS
4000
1000
2000
0
0
DEC-13-19
JULY 7-31
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
1
JULY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 D
WEEK 7-31 EC-
WEEK 13-
19
Figure 2. The total of eggs hatched were 83,139 with an average of Figure 4. 58,819 hactlings were put in the ocean with an average of
4,156.95 eggs per week. 2,964 per week.

NOURISHED BEACHES AND MARINE TURTLE NESTING IN FLORIDA: AN

EVALUATION OF RECENT PROJECTS.
Robbin N. Trindell1, David Arnold1, Karen Moody1, and Beth Morford2

1
Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Protected Species Management, 3900 Commonwealth
Boulevard, Tallahassee, FL 32399, U.S.A. Trindell_r@epic6.dep.state.fl.us
2
Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Protected Species Management, Tequesta Field Laboratory,
19100 SE Federal l Highway, Tequesta FL 33469, U.S.A.
Beach nourishment is a crucial tool for restoring and marine turtle nesting.
maintaining sandy beaches in Florida under existing sea Where sufficient data were available, SAS statistical
level and sediment transport regimes. Preliminary results procedures, including ANOVA with multiple comparisons
suggest that not all renourished beaches are created equal and Nonparametric Analysis of Variance, were utilized. All
in terms of marine turtle nesting habitat, and utilization of data were first tested for normality and heteroscedascity.
a nourished beach changes with time since fill placement. Parametric statistics, with p = 0.05, were utilized for all
We reviewed information submitted for recent nourishment data but those with gross departures from normality (p<
projects (1987 or later) as a requirement of marine turtle 0.01). Compaction data are discussed but not analyzed sta-
protection conditions in Florida Department of Environ- tistically due to the large variability reported for individual
mental Protection beach nourishment permits. In particu- beaches and the fact that the upper limits of shear resis-
lar, we summarize information on nest numbers, false crawl tance could not be reliably assessed with the cone penetrom-
numbers, nest success, and hatch success for loggerhead eter. Escarpment data were not analyzed statistically be-
(Caretta caretta) nests as well as compaction (measured as cause scarps, although reported, were not quantified suffi-
shear resistance) and escarpment monitoring. Marine turtle ciently over spatial or temporal dimensions to allow for rel-
nest success declined on beaches the nesting season follow- evant comparisons to be made.
ing fill placement. Although hatch success for those nests Analysis of nest success was complicated by discrep-
that were deposited and did not wash away did not appear ancies in data collection and reporting for different projects.
to decline, hatchling production could be reduced due to For example, only 4 projects had nesting information for
nests lost to erosion and to a decrease in nesting success. the year preceding fill placement and the first and second
nesting seasons subsequent to fill placement. These data
METHODS
were treated separately for analysis of nesting patterns after
Information on marine turtle nesting (loggerhead fill placement. To increase sample size, data from different
turtles only) was excerpted from reports prepared by ma- projects were pooled for assessment of nest and hatch suc-
rine turtle permit holders for given project areas. In some cess. Construction activity on the beach during nesting sea-
instances, nesting data for the fill placement site were com- son could also reduce nest success rates independent of sub-
bined in the report with nesting information on adjacent strate suitability. Therefore, nesting information from
beaches outside the project area. Reports in which nesting projects where nourishment occurred during the nesting sea-
information for the fill area alone could not be identified son were omitted from certain analyses as noted.
were not utilized.
Nest success equaled the proportion of nests per num- RESULTS
ber of emergences; hatch success equaled the proportion of
hatched eggs per total clutch. Nest inventories were con- A total of 27 projects was reviewed for information on
ducted after hatchlings had emerged from the nest or, if marine turtle nesting, compaction, and escarpment forma-
there were no signs of hatchling emergence, after day 70. tion (Table 1). Approximately 88% of these projects involved
The numbers of hatched eggs, unhatched eggs, live pipped beach restoration or nourishment, and 11 % were mainte-
egg and live and dead hatchlings were counted. Sand com- nance dredging projects. Nineteen projects involved hydrau-
paction, as inferred by shear resistance, was monitored by lic fill placement; four involved truck-hauled material from
sampling with a cone penetrometer pushed into the sand at upland sand sources; and two were sand by-pass projects.
various locations throughout the project area. Results were Fill placement occurred outside the project site nesting sea-
submitted for three separate layers of the beach fill, 0 to 6", son (66%), during the main portion of the nesting season
6 to 12", and 12 to 18", in values of kilograms per square (18%) and the early and late nesting season (14%). Tilling
centimeter or pounds per square inch (psi). Compaction was was reported for 60% of the projects There was an insuf-
typically provided to DEP in correspondence or an annual ficient number of projects with different fill placement meth-
report format. Fill placement projects must also be surveyed ods to test for the effect of this factor on marine turtle nest-
for the formation of escarpments that could interfere with ing parameters. For two of the truck haul projects, the fill
material had disappeared by the year following placement.

Table 1. Summary of Project Beaches and Marine Turtle Nesting Data after fill placement.
Project Date Nest Success Hatch Success HATCH SUCCESS

NS-1 NS+ NS+ NS-1 NS+ NS+
1 2 1 2
Preliminary analysis of hatch success for in-situ nests
Amelia Island 1994 -- * -- -- X --
Anna Maria Island 1993 -- -- -- X X -- was conducted for 20 projects; nests lost to erosion were
Bonita Beach 1995 X X -- X X X not included. Eight projects reported hatch success infor-
Cape Canaveral 1995 -- X X -- X X
Captiva Island 1996 -- X X -- X X mation for the nesting season preceding fill placement.
Cocoa Beach 1996 -- X -- -- -- -- Twenty projects included hatch success information for the
Delray Beach 1987 -- -- -- -- -- --
Ft. Myers 1996 X X -- -- X --
nesting season following fill placement, and twelve projects
Gulf Pines 1996 -- X X -- X X included information for the second nesting season follow-
Hutchinson Island 1996 X X X X X --
Indian Shores 1993 * * * -- X X ing fill placement.
Knight Island 1994 X X X -- X X Hatch success for pooled data declined subsequent to
Longboat Key 1993 * * * -- X X
Jupiter Island 1995 -- X -- -- X --
fill placement for three projects, and was less than 50%
Marco Island 1991 X X X X X X following fill placement for 6 projects. However, this de-
1995 -- -- -- -- -- --
1996 -- -- -- -- -- --
cline in hatch success was not statistically significant (p =
Midtown Beach 1996 -- -- -- -- -- -- 0.86, F= 0.15, Nonparametric Analysis of Variance). Hatch
Naples 1996 X X -- -- X X success on project beaches prior to fill placement averaged
Parkshore Beach 1996 X X -- X X X
Sanibel 1996 -- X X -- X X 66% (+ 8.85 se, n = 8). Hatch success following fill place-
St. Lucie Inlet 1986 -- -- -- -- -- -- ment averaged 72% (+ 4.4 se, n = 20) for the first and sec-
Sebastian Inlet 1990 -- X X -- X X
1993 -- -- -- -- -- -- ond year post-fill placement (70% + 4.24 se, n = 13).
Vanderbilt Beach 1996 X X -- X X X
Venice Beach I 1994 X X X X X X
Venice Beach II 1996 X X -- X X --
CONCLUSIONS
X = Used in analysis indicated by column heading Placement of fill material during beach restoration im-
-- = Data unavailable or not utilized in analysis
* = Data not utilized due to fill placement during nesting season
pacts nesting marine turtles on all segments of Floridas
NS = Nesting Season coastline. Marine turtle nest success declined on beaches
NEST SUCCESS the nesting season following fill placement. Although hatch
success for those nests that were deposited and did not wash
Prior to fill placement, marine turtle nest success av- away did not appear to decline, overall hatchling produc-
eraged 41.3% (+ 4.15 standard error) for the 10 projects tion could be reduced due to loss of nests as the construc-
with nest survey information for the preceding nesting sea- tion profile of the fill project adjusts to the design profile
son. Nest success after fill placement averaged 30.9% (+ and to a decrease in nesting success. Additional review is
2.08 se) for 15 of 17 projects with post-construction survey needed to determine if a decrease in hatchling production
data. This decrease in nest success occurred for 8 out of the on restored beaches contributes to a decline in regional
10 projects with information on nesting success the nesting
hatchling production.
season before fill placement. By the second nesting season
We were not able to reach significant conclusions about
after fill placement, pooled sample nest success increased
the shear resistance of beaches subjected to sand placement;
to 44% (+ 5.79 s.e.; n=9).
however, high cone penetrometer readings and escarpments
Statistical analyses were conducted for those projects
were reported from many sites. Alternative methods should
with nesting information for all three years (n = 4) and for
be investigated for assessing compaction and substrate suit-
pooled data. Pooled data included all projects with nesting
ability for nesting turtles on beach fill sites. Tilling should
information before and after fill placement; projects with
continue for a minimum of three years on all sites that re-
fill placement activities during the nesting season were ex-
ceive fill.
cluded from the analysis due to the potential for interfer-
ence with nest success due to project construction. Analy-
ses of pooled data confirmed a significant effect of time on
nest success (p= 0.01, F2,35 = 5.06, ANOVA). Nest success
the nesting season following fill placement was significantly
less than the previous year. By the second nesting season
post- nourishment, nest success increased as noted above
and was not significantly different from nest success the
year prior to fill placement. Analysis of four projects with
complete data sets also documented a significant effect of
time on nest success (p=0.04, F2,11= 4.72, ANOVA), as
nest success declined from 51.2% (+ 0.75 se) to 26.2% (+
3.19 se) following fill placement. Nest success for these
projects increased to only 32.7% (+ 9.8 se) the second year

REPORT ON THE KILLING OF DERMOCHELYS CORIACEA IN LAGUNA DE LA

RESTINGA NATIONAL PARK, MARGARITA ISLAND, VENEZUELA
A. Trujillo1, G. Hernndez2, E. Ruiz3, and J. Daz3

1
PROVITA, Apdo. Postal 47.552, Caracas 1041-A, Venezuela, Telefax: (5895) 93707, provita2@telcel.net.ve
2
Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales Renovables, La Asuncin, Isla de Margarita, Venezuela, Telf:
(5895) 420382, Fax: (5895) 420895
3
Escuela de Ciencias Aplicadas del Mar, Universidad de Oriente, Apdo. Postal 147, Isla de Margarita, Venezuela, Telefax:
(5895) 93445
The largest protected area on the Island of Margarita we found a nest that had been dug out, with 30 egg shells
is Laguna de La Restinga National Park (10 50N, 64 17 strewn around. This is the third documented report of D.
W), which has an area of 18,862 ha. The park is noted for coriacea from this beach. Apparently neither turtle meat
its complicated system of lagoons and sublagoons. In the nor eggs had been eaten, indicating that the people involved
north it is separated from the Caribbean Sea by a sand bar, were not from the area, and it is unclear why the animal
or restinga, 21 km long. There have been occasional re- had been tied up, or the eggs dug out. The fact that turtles
ports of sea turtles nesting on this sand bar (Gmez et are killed in the Laguna de La Restinga National Park shows
al.,1996). In October 1997, we found a cardn that the park authorities lack effective means of protection.
(Dermochelys coriacea) skull (13 cm wide), as well as a
juvenile of the same species in an advanced stage of decay. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
On April 28th 1996, after receiving a report from tour-
We would like to thank The David and Lucile Packard
ists, we went to La Restinga where we found a mature cardn
Foundation and TACA Group for providing travel assis-
at the most western part of the sand bar. It was in stage of
tance to the Symposium.
advanced decomposition, so only three morphometric mea-
sures were taken: curved carapace length = 157 cm; total LITERATURE CITED
length = 170 cm; curved carapace width = 112 cm. A piece
of rope was tied to the right front limb. Apparently the turtle Gmez A., C. Romero, M.Albornoz, P. Milln and J.F.
was captured after nesting, when it was trying to return to Penoth. 1996. Notes from Laguna de la Restinga
the sea and it was tied to an enormous rock. About 19 m National Park, Venezuela. Marine Turtle Newsletter.
away from the turtle, and 10 m from the beach vegetation, 72: 19.
SEA TURTLE NESTING AND HATCHING SUCCESS AT MACHALILLA NATIONAL

PARK, ECUADOR
Andrs Vallejo E and Felipe Campos Y.

Centro de Datos para la Conservacin, P.O.Box 17-11-6025, Quito - Ecuador. avallejo@uio.satnet.net
From August 1996 to June 1997, the CDC carried out

a study concerning sea turtle nesting and hatching success
in beaches at Machalilla National Park, at the Ecuadorian
coast. Nesting species registered were Chelonia mydas
agassizi and Eretmochelys imbricata. It is expected that
Dermochelys coriacea also does nest in the area. The most
important nesting beaches were Playa Dorada and La Playita.
During the winter (December, January and February) was
registered the highest nesting activity, but the single month
in which more nests were found was August. This could be
an usual trend, or on the contrary, be an odd year. About
half of the nests found hatched with success, while the rest
were destroyed, spoiled or have an unknown fate. No rela-
tion was found between level of domestic animals and hu-
man presence at the beaches, and the nesting relative fre-
quency on them.

MONITORING OF MARINE TURTLE NESTING IN ISLA HOLBOX, QUINTANA ROO,

MEXICO, 1997 SEASON
Jos Alfredo Villegas Barrutieta

Pronatura Pennsula de Yucatn, A.C., Mxico. pronatyuc@laneta.apc.org
Holbox Island is located north of the Yucatan Penin- ginning of bushy vegetation, which may or may not include
sula in the State of Quintana Roo, between parallels 21 30' the dune. Zone C (vegetation and dune): From the begin-
and 21 37' North and meridians 8724' and 8703' East. It ning of bushy vegetation inland, over the dune and toward
stretches 36 kilometers in length from East to West (Galicia heavier vegetation.
and Garza, 1989); and is bordered on the north and west by Nests found close to tide level and likely to be flooded
the Gulf of Mexico and on the east by the Caribbean Sea were relocated close to the dune, and the new position re-
and the Yalahau Lagoon. The eastern point of the island is corded. Some nests considered in danger of depredation by
separated from Cape Catoche by the Boca de Santa Paula. raccoons were also relocated. The time limit for relocation
According to monitoring carried out over the past eight was maximum six hours after laying.
years, it can be stated that Holbox is the only beach in the After the hatchlings had emerged, the distance from
state with over 200 nests per season spread over 24 kilo- the nest to maximum tide level (NMM for its initials in
meters. This makes it the most significant nesting area in Spanish) was measured. This measurement began at the
the State of Quintana Roo. Cape Catoche also lies adjacent last print visible in the seaweed accumulated by the high
to this beach (approximately 6 km). According to the an- tide. After 58 days of incubation, nests due to hatch were
nual prospective patrols it is estimated that at least one quar- inspected visually each morning. Contents were analyzed
ter of the total number of nests can be located here, as well during the morning inspections once the hatchlings had left
as in past years being the area with the largest number of the egg chamber. Nest size was calculated by adding the
shells found. number of shells, rotten eggs, eggs with no apparent em-
bryonic development, and eggs with dead embryos. The
METHODS number of live and dead hatchlings on the surface, number
Nightly patrols were made of the nesting beach. The of live and dead hatchlings in the nest, and number of live
presence of beach patrols also varied according to nesting and dead hatching were also noted. These last were live
activity, and occurred from 8:00 p.m. to 11:00 a.m. In some and dead hatchlings found breaking or coming out of the
occasions, only one run was made from Mosquito Point to shells in the nest. Any hatchlings found still inside the nest
Sta. Paula, where the inspectors then waited for dawn be- were liberated at this time.
fore returning to the town. Nightly inspections were sched- Any unrecorded nests found with emerged hatchlings
uled to try to coincide with females nesting activities so were analyzed, classified as an unstaked nest, their con-
they could be marked (during or shortly after laying). Three tents analyzed, and then correspondingly staked out. Any
shell curvature measures (described by Pritchard et al, 1983) nests that could not be confirmed as having eggs were re-
were taken using a tailors tape measure. The majority of corded as unconfirmed nests, and inspectors awaited emer-
turtles were marked in the first or second scale of the front gence of hatchlings as confirmation.
right fin. Metal markers were also attached with the series
BA101 to BA200, as well as two markers with the AM se- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
ries from 1996. After the data was recorded, inspectors Hawksbill Turtle
waited until the females returned to the sea after laying. Activities in the nesting beach took place from May 9
The nests left to incubate in situ were staked out with to October 12, 1997. The nesting season began in early April
60 cm. stakes numbered progressively. The stakes were and lasted until October, reaching its maximum density in
placed no further than two meters from the nest, and the June with 101 nests. We worked 24 kilometers of beach,
majority were placed just a few centimeters away to facili- from Punta Mosquito to Sta. Paula, performing nocturnal
tate nest location after emergence. Locations were recorded and morning patrols. Forty nesting females of the Hawks-
in the field notes according to kilometer and zone ecology, bill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), were marked. The num-
using four zones as reference: ber of turtles captured during nesting has increased each
Zone A (area close to the sea): Beginning at wave season. This year a major effort was made with only one
break point to the high-tide line, marked by an accumula- vehicle. As a result, it was calculated that 39.2% of the total
tion of seaweed. Zone B-1 (medium inland area): the bot- females were marked, representing an increase of 13% in
tom half of the middle area corresponding to the entire area relation to last year. The timely arrival of markers contrib-
from the seaweed line to the beginning of bushy vegetation. uted to this significantly. 306 in situ nests were registered;
BS Zone (medium high zone): Top half of the middle area of which 8.3% were affected by raccoons, 2.6% were looted
corresponding to the area from the seaweed line to the be- by humans, and 2% were affected by flooding and high tides.

The nesting density for this season diminished 21% in rela- mydas) were registered, as well as 15 nests in situ and one
tion to last year. At the moment there is no explanation of relocated. In spite of a low registered number of nests for
this decrease in nesting. However, this decrease bears no this specie, a nest content analysis was performed in ten of
relation to the losses suffered this season to robbery (2.6%) them when patrolling was extended in mid-October. It is
since in spite of inspections beginning in May, a large num- probable that there was nesting by this specie after this date,
ber of nests were not recorded at the beginning of the sea- although sporadic. The hatch and emerge percentages are
son. On the other hand, this decrease is proportionally simi- presented in Table 2. Their presence close to the beach has
lar to decreases recorded in other Hawksbill turtle nesting been recorded by comments from fishermen, who state that
camps on the peninsula. Only 7.2% of losses were recorded they have observed numerous green turtles in the area of
due to depredation by raccoons. These predators continue Cape Catoche, principally during the mating season when
to present only a partial threat, since in some nests they eat the so-called encaramados, or male-female copulation, is
only hatchlings that have left the egg chamber and are try- observed. In ten of the first nests we calculated 1133 eggs,
ing to reach the sea. However, it has not been possible to of which 932 hatchlings were liberated. No dead members
estimate how many survived this threat. Of the 14 nests we of this specie were found on the beach.
relocated, three (1.1%) were affected by raccoons.
The average hatch success and emerge success is shown LITERATURE CITED
in Table 1. Hatch and emerge percentages of in situ nests
Galicia, E. and L.E. Garza. 1989. Informe sobre Isla Holbox.
have remained constant each season. We should clarify here
Pronatura A.C. Agosto de 1989. Unpublished ms. 19
that the emerge percentages obtained may not reflect the
pp.
amount of hatchlings actually liberated, considering that
Pritchard, P., P. Bacon, F. Berry, A. Carr., J. Fletmeyer, R.
during the inspection of the nests, all hatchlings found live
Gallagher, S. Hopkins, R. Lankford, R. Mrquez M.,
are liberated, but are not included in the emerge percent-
L. Ogren, W. Pringle. Jr., H. Reichart, and R Witham.
age. In this case, an additional 523 hatchlings were liber-
1984. Manual sobre tcnicas de conservacin de
Table 1. Fecundity, hatchling and emerged percentage and incubation
tortugas marinas Second ed. K.A. Bjorndal and G.H.
period of in situ, relocated in the beach and relocated at corral nests Balazs (Eds). Center for Environmental Education,
of hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) in Isla Holbox, season Washington, D.C. 134 pp.
1997.
Nests in situ n Avarage Std Des Maximum Minimum
Fecundity 242 133.9 19.6 179 81
Hatchling (%) 242 91.2 11.8 100 26
Emerged (%) 242 85.5 19.6 100 0
Incubation period 155 63.5 3.74 73 55
Nests relocated
beach
Fecundity 11 136 27.7 165 86
Hatchling (%) 11 71.8 17.8 98.1 48.5
Emerged (%) 11 63.2 25.1 96.2 38.8
Incubation period 7 58 2.3 62 55
ated.
Of the 33,746 eggs contained in 243 nests, we calcu-
lated that 29,502 hatchlings emerged. This season, beach
patrols were not made to Cape Catoche, due to the fact that
an entrance was dredged for the river from Sta. Paula to the
Table 2. Fecundity, hatchling and emerged percentage and incubation

period of in situ nests of green turtle (Chelonia mydas) in Isla Holbox,
season 1997.
Nests in situ n Avarage Std Des Maximum Minimum
Fecundity 10 113.3 39.8 175 40
Hatchling (%) 10 81.6 19.4 100 46.8
Emerged (%) 10 64.76 38.6 98.0 0
Incubation 6 64.8 1.33 66 63
period
sea.
This year only one dead adult Hawksbill turtle was
observed on the nesting beach, in comparison with last year
when three were found. It still has not been determined if
the turtle deaths are caused by the use of shark nets.
Green Turtle
Three green turtle nesting females of the (Chelonia

A FIFTEEN YEAR REVIEW OF COLD-STUNNED SEA TURTLES IN NEW YORK

WATERS
Eileen Gerle1, Robert DiGiovanni2, and Robert P. Pisciotta, D.V.M.3

1
Suffolk County Cornell Cooperative Extension Marine Program, 3690 Cedar Beach Road, Southold, New York, 11971,
U.S.A. egerle@cce.cornell.edu
2
Riverhead Foundation for Marine Research and Preservation, 431 East Main Street, Riverhead, New York, 11901, U.S.A.
3
North Fork Animal Hospital, 58605 Route 25, Southold, New York, U.S.A.
Cold-stunned sea turtle data were reviewed for the pe- and checked for a heartbeat using a Doppler Monitor before
riod 1982-1997 to evaluate location and number of strandings treatment is discontinued.
per season, species composition, sex, straight line carapace
length (SCL), and percent mortality. Advances in treatment RESULTS
protocol, meteorological data, and sea surface temperatures Since 1980, the New York State Stranding Program
were also reviewed. Data were assessed for trends or changes has recovered 809 turtles. As of 1982, 293 turtles stranded
as compared to the published literature. due to hypothermia, of which 3 stranded cold-stunned a sec-
ond time following rehabilitation and release. Thus 290 in-
INTRODUCTION dividual turtles have stranded cold-stunned to date. Of these,
New York's coastal waters provide juvenile habitat for 83 (29%) were C. caretta, 190 (66%) were L. kempi, and 17
loggerheads (Caretta caretta), Kemp's ridleys (Lepidochelys (6%) were C. mydas (Figure 1). Gender was determined for
kempii), and green turtles (Chelonia mydas), whereas leath- 145 turtles; 72% were female, 28% male.
erbacks (Dermochelys coriacea) frequent offshore waters 80
(Morreale and Standora 1993). Based on stranding data ob-
tained during the study period, these species account for
Number of Turtles
36.2%, 33.6%, 3.8% and 26.3% of marine turtles in the area, 60

respectively. Risks to sea turtles at this latitude include hy-
pothermia, boat collisions, entanglement in fishing gear, and
40
ingestion of marine debris. Sea turtle salvage data for the
New York Bight reveal that hypothermia is the leading cause
of strandings and mortalities of marine turtles, impacting 20
36.2% of all turtles that beach here (Gerle and DiGiovanni,
1998).
0
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97
Season
The New York State Marine Mammal and Sea Turtle
C. caretta. L. kempi C. mydas
Stranding Program maintains data on all marine turtles
stranded in the area. Live turtles receive complete physical
Figure 1. Species by season
exams and, as condition permits, dead turtles are necropsied
to determine gender and cause of death. Species, date, loca-
The largest numbers of turtles were recovered during
tion and cause of stranding, SCL, width, plastron length,
the 1985/86, 86/87, 87/88 and 95/96 seasons, which yielded
weight, sex and condition of turtles are recorded. Recovery
53, 34, 42 and 77 turtles respectively (Figure 1). These to-
of hypothermic turtles is facilitated through a volunteer beach
tals are all well above the trimmed mean of 13 turtles per
patrol network established in 1986.
season. We have defined the cold-stunning season as extend-
Revised treatment protocol, as described by Pisciotta
ing from 1 November through 30 April, however, 89% of all
et al. (1996), has been initiated. Class III and IV animals,
hypothermic turtles were recovered between 21 November
turtles exhibiting little or no response to external stimuli
and 30 December, with a peak between 1 December and 20
(Sadove et al., in review), now receive drug therapy which
December.
includes the administration of Dopram to stimulate respira-
Hypothermic turtles ranged greatly in size. The mean
tion, and epinephrine, atropine and calcium gluconate to
SCL for L. kempii was 29.66 cm (range = 22.1 - 40.3 cm;
stimulate cardiac response. All classes of turtles are warmed
SD = 3.5), for C. caretta, 47.96 cm (33.1 - 61.6 cm; SD =
more aggressively than in the past, using warm enemas and
5.9), and for C. mydas, 31.56 cm (24.9 - 40.1 cm; SD = 4.5).
heat blankets in combination with the standard use of heat
Cold-stunned turtles tend to strand on north facing
lamps to raise the body temperature an average rate of 2.5oC
beaches along the eastern bays of Long Island and Long Is-
every 15 minutes. Class III and IV animals also receive warm
land Sound. The largest concentration of strandings occurs
IV fluids. In addition, non-responsive turtles are intubated
on the easternmost north shore (Figure 2). Sea surface tem-
222 Physiology and Behavior / Poster presentations

stunned turtles for the years 1985-1987. A comparison with

this study shows similar findings with regard to mean SCL,
gender and mortality rate (Table 2). Both studies reveal that
ridleys succumbed to hypothermia most frequently, how-
ever, loggerheads and green turtles accounted for a larger
proportion of turtles over the 15 year study.
The slight, recent decline in mortality rate may be the
result of the initiation of advanced treatments which have
resulted in an increased survival rate of Class III and IV
turtles. Prior to the use of these treatments, no Class IV
animals had ever been revived.
The concentration of strandings on eastern Long Is-
Figure 2
land Sound beaches may be attributed to the tendency for
surface currents in that area to travel in an east to west di-
curs on the easternmost north shore (Figure 2). Sea surface
rection in the fall and winter (Schmalz et al., 1994), a phe-
temperature data for this area is patchy (CTDEP, 1997), as
nomenon that would tend to trap floating, torpid turtles
seen in Table 1. However, with one exception, the 1994/95
within the Sound. Thus hypothermic turtles encountered in
season, temperatures during the peak period were <10oC.
New York waters may be part of a population of animals
This finding concurs with those of Morreale et al. (1992).
that summer within Long Island Sound. The possibility also
Of the 293 cold-stunned strandings, 198 turtles
exists that turtles emigrating from New England waters may
stranded dead, 95 stranded alive, and 54 (56.8%) survived
be swept into the eastern portion of the Sound and strand on
due to rehabilitation efforts. Mortalities totaled 239 or 81.6%
New York shores (S. Morreale, pers. comm.). With one ex-
of all hypothermic strandings. Kemp's ridleys suffered the
ception, turtles tagged and released within the Peconic Bay
highest incidence of mortality, as 83.9% were recovered dead
System were not included in the specimens that stranded
or subsequently expired, whereas loggerheads exhibited
cold-stunned in this area.
Table 1. Sea surface temperatures obtained from a monitoring station
in Long Island Sound. See Figure 2 for location. Shading denotes CONCLUSION
peak period.
As the trends established by Morreale et al. (1992)
SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURES (oC)
remain constant to date, species composition, size class,
Nov. Nov. Nov. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. 31- Jan. male/female ratio, and peak period and location of strandings
SEASON 1-10 11-20 21-30 1-10 11-20 21-30 Jan. 9 10-19
1991/92 - 12.6 - - - - 5.3 -

can be anticipated for any given year. Yet, it is not known if
1992/93 14.1 - - - 8.5 - - 4.4
turtles stranding cold-stunned on New York shores are a sub-
1993/94 14.4 - - - 8.6 - - 2.8 set of the population that summers here, or are of a tran-
1994/95 15.0 - - 10.5 - - 4.7 - sient population. Also, why do some turtles remain in the
1995/96 - - - 9.2 - - - 1.5
Northeast and succumb to hypothermia? Further work is
1996/97 14.4 - - 9.5 - - - -
needed to answer these questions and to continue refining
78.3% mortality and green turtles, 70.6%. medical treatments to increase survivability of Class III and
IV animals.
DISCUSSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Morreale et al. (1992) published a study of cold-
Table 2. A comparison of the present study with the study by Morreale et al.,(1992) for the years 1985-1987.
PARAMETER ASSESSED
Species Gender Mean SCL (cm) Mortality Peak

STUDY Composition Male Female Lk Cc Cm Rate Period
Lk Cc Cm
Morreale 21 Nov. -
et al.(1992) 74% 22% 4% 29% 71% 29.4 49.3 82.3% 30 Dec.
32.7
21 Nov. -
present 66% 29% 6% 28% 72% 29.66 47.96 81.6% 30 Dec.
study 31.56
Poster presentations / Physiology and Behavior 223

biologists, too numerous to list here, who have collected data, Pisciotta, R.P., K. Durham, R. DiGiovanni, S.S. Sadove, E.
and the beach patrol volunteers, local citizens and police Gerle. 1996. A case study of invasive medical techniques
officers who aided in the recovery of turtles. Thanks also to employed in the treatment of a severely hypothermic
the New York State Department of Environmental Conser- Kemp's ridley sea turtle. In: Keinath, J.A., D.E. Barnard,
vation "Return a Gift to Wildlife" Program, which helps fund J.A. Musick, and B.A. Bell, Comps.. 1996. Proceedings
the stranding program. of the Fifteenth Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology
and Conservation. NOAA Technical Memorandum
LITERATURE CITED NMFS-SEFSC-387, 355 pp.
Sadove, S.S., K. Durham, R. DiGiovanni, R. Pisciotta, R.
CTDEP Bureau of Water Management. 1997. Long Island
Miller and D. Spangler. Assessment and initial treatment
Sound Summer Hypoxia Monitoring Program.
of cold-stunned sea turtles. In review.
Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection.
Schmalz, R.A., M.F. Devine and P.H. Richardson. 1994. Long
Hartford, CT.
Island Sound Oceanography Project Summary Report,
Gerle, E. and R. DiGiovanni. 1998. An evaluation of human
Volume 3: Residual Circulation and Thermohaline
impacts and natural versus human induced mortaliity in
Structure. U.S. Department of Commerce,
sea turtles in the New York Bight. Proceedings of the
NOAA National Ocean Service. Silver Spring, MD. 192
Seventeenth Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and
pp.
Conservation. In review.
Morreale, S.J., A. Meylan, S.S. Sadove and E.A. Standora.
1992. Annual occurrence and winter mortality of
marine turtles in New York waters. Journal of
Herpetology. 26(3):301-308.
Morreale, S.J., and E.A. Standora, 1993. Occurrence,
movement and behavior of the Kemp's ridley and
other sea turtles in New York waters. Okeanos Ocean
Research Foundation final report, April 1988 - March
1993. 70 pp.
PATTERNS OF EMERGENCE OF HATCHLING LOGGERHEAD AND GREEN TURTLES

IN NORTHERN CYPRUS, EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN.
Fiona Glen1, Brendan J. Godley1, Annette C. Broderick1, and Robert W. Furness2

1
Marine Turtle Research Group, 2Ornithology Group
1 and 2
Division of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ, U.K.
A.Broderick@bio.gla.ac.uk
INTRODUCTION METHODOLOGY
Emergence of marine turtle hatchlings occurs mainly The temporal emergence patterns of C. caretta and C.
at night for both C. caretta and C. mydas, (Bustard 1967, mydas hatchlings were recorded from July until September,
Gyuris 1993, Hays et al.,1992, Hendrickson 1958, 1997. Upon emergence from the nest, hatchlings were caught
Mrosovsky 1968, Witherington et al.,1990), although diur- using a wire cage placed around each nest. Time of emer-
nal emergence has been reported for both species (Bustard gence was noted upon complete emergence of each hatchling.
1967, Mrosovsky 1968, Witherington et al.,1990). Previous Weight, straight carapace length, straight carapace width and
studies have related emergence of C. mydas and C. caretta transit time (time taken to cross a one metre circle) were
hatchlings to temperature through the sand column, propos- noted for every hatchling observed. Sand temperature at
ing that emergence of hatchlings is triggered by a negative depths 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35cm were recorded through-
temperature gradient occurring at sand depths shallower than out the hatching season in order to give the range of absolute
15cm (Hays et al.,1992). The aim of this project was to study temperatures at each depth through the sand column. Using
the temporal emergence patterns of C. mydas and C. caretta the absolute temperatures obtained, a Dt gradient through
hatchlings on Alagadi, a beach on the north coast of Cyprus the sand column was calculated by subtracting the tempera-
and to compare the patterns observed to relevant temperatures recorded at shallower depths from those deeper. Nests
ture cues. Variation in hatchling phenotype among nights of were excavated 48 hours after the last emergent hatchling
emergence was also studied. was observed. For full details of methodology refer to Glen
(1998).

RESULTS 1000
Temporal pattern of hatchling emergence.
800
Both species were observed to emerge at night (C.
Number of
Hatchlings
caretta: n=24 nests; C. mydas n=12 nests) while a portion of
600
C. mydas hatchlings emerged during the day from some C.
mydas nests (n=6 nests) (figures 5 and 6). Of the 24 C. caretta
nests, 54% completed hatching on night 1 (figure 1). C. mydas 400
hatchlings were observed to emerge from their nests over a
period of 1 to 5 nights (n=12 nests) with 23% of nests com- 200
pleted hatching by night 1 (figure 2). In both species, 80% of
hatchlings had emerged by night 1 (figure 3 and 4). Peak 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
14
Num be r of Nigh ts
12
Number of Nests
Figure 3: The total number of C. caretta hatchlings that emerged on

10 each night.
8
also occurred at Dt15-20. The probability (absolute prob-
6 ability test) of this occurring by chance was p<0.001 in both
4
cases. This suggests that the existence of a negative gradient
at these depths may be the factor which initiates emergence.
2 However, further down the sand column at depths greater
0 than 20cm the probability of hatchlings emerging during a
negative gradient present at these depths was not significant
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(p > 0.05). The emergence of C. mydas hatchlings appeared
Num be r of Nights to be biased towards times when a negative gradient was
Figure 1:The number of nights over which C. mydas nests hatched. present (figure 8), however a proportion emerged during times
when the positive gradient existed.
emergence of C. caretta occurred between 02:00 and 03:29
when 47% of the hatchlings emerged. Emergence of C. mydas VARIATION IN MORPHOLOGY AND VITALITY OF
reached its highest (33% emerged) between 03:30 until 04:59. SIBLINGS ON DIFFERENT NIGHTS OF
A Kruskal-Wallis test revealed that there was no significant EMERGENCE.
difference in either C. caretta (H= 7.23) and C. mydas
Statistical tests were carried out on measurements ob-
(H=6.27) emergence times among nights 1 to 4 (p>0.05).
tained from C. caretta and C. mydas hatchlings to investi-
14 gate whether there were any significant differences in width,
length, weight and transit time among different nights of emer-
12
gence (ANOVA, t-tests and paired t-tests). No significant
Number of Nests
10 difference in the morphology and vitality of C. caretta and

8
6 1000
4 800
2
Number of
Hatchlings
600
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 400
Numbe r of Nights 200
Figure 2: The number of nights over which C. caretta nests hatched.
0
EFFECTS OF SAND TEMPERATURE ON THE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
EMERGENCE PATTERNS OF C. CARETTA AND C.
Nu m be r of Ni gh ts
MYDAS HATCHLINGS.
As can be seen in figure 7, all C. caretta hatchlings Figure 4: The total number of C. mydas hatchlings hatchlings that
emerged on each night.
emerged when a negative gradient existed at Dt10-15, this

250 400
350
200
Number of Hatchlings
300
150 250
200
100
150
50
100
50
0
0
-2 0 2 4 6
De l ta Te mpe rature
Ti m e (Hrs) Figure 7: The number of emerging C. caretta hatchlings related to
10-15.
Figure 5: Emergence times of C. caretta.
C. mydas hatchlings that emerged from the nest on different interesting conservation implications. Results obtained by
nights was found. this study suggest that hatchling emergence by C. caretta is
influenced by a negative temperature gradient through the
DISCUSSION sand column at depths less than 20cm. When subsurface sand
becomes cooler than that beneath, emergence occurs. How-
Over 80% of both C. caretta and C. mydas hatchlings
ever, the relationship between the presence of a negative gra-
emerged on the first night that the nest hatched, which has
dient and emergence for C. mydas was not demonstrated,
250
400
200
350
150 300
250
100
200
50 150
100
0
50
0
-2 0 2 4 6
De l ta Te m pe ratu re
Tim e (Hrs)
Figure 8: The number of emerging C. mydas hatchlings related to
Figure 6: Emergence times of C. mydas. t10-15.

possibly due to a small sample size. No significant differ- Hays, G.C., Speakman J.R. and Hayes J.P. 1992. The pattern
ence was observed in hatchling morphology or vitality on of emergence by loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta)
different nights of hatching. hatchlings on Cephalonia, Greece. Herpetologica, 48:
396-401.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Hendrickson, J.R. 1958. The green turtle, Chelonia mydas
(L.) in Malaya and Sarawak. Proceedings of the
The primary author would like to thank Dr. Graeme
Zoological Society, London, 130: 455-535.
Ruxton for statistical assistance, all members of Glasgow
Mrosovsky, N. 1968. Nocturnal emergence of hatching sea
University Turtle Conservation Expedition 1998 who assisted
turtles: Control by thermal inhibition of activity. Nature,
in data collection, and friends and family for their support.
220: 1338-1339.
LITERATURE CITED Witherington, B.E., Bjorndal, K.A. and McCabe, C.M. 1990.
Temporal pattern of nocturnal emergence of loggerhead
Bustard, H.R. 1967. Mechanism of nocturnal emergence from turtle hatchlings from natural nests. Copeia, 4: 1165-
the nest in green turtle hatchlings. Nature, 214: 317. 1168.
Glen, F. 1998. Temporal emergence patterns of loggerhead
(Caretta caretta) and green (Chelonia mydas) sea turtle
hatchlings on Alagadi beach, Northern Cyprus.
Unpublished Honours Thesis, University of Glasgow.
Gyuris, E. 1993. Factors that control the emergence of green
turtle hatchlings from the nest. Wildlife Reserve, 20: 345-
353.
ENDOCRINAL INSIGHTS INTO THE MALE MATING SYSTEM OF THE GREEN TURTLE,
CHELONIA MYDAS
Tim S. Jessop1, 3 and Colin J. Limpus2

1
Department of Zoology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Q4072, Australia. Tjessop@zoology.uq.edu.au
2
3
Department of Anatomical Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Q4072, Australia
Steroid hormones have been empirically and theoreti- over two consecutive courtship seasons, we attempt to pro-
cally linked with the expression of sexually-selected traits vide a possible framework by which phenotypic variation in
(behavioral, morphological and physical) in various male testosterone may influence various mating strategies of indi-
mating systems. Furthermore, hormones may also adaptively vidual male green turtles. Furthermore, we investigate the
underlie the behavioral tactics and strategies of such mating lability of testosterone (behavioral androgen responses) in
systems. However the mechanistic role of hormones (if any), individual male turtles in response to various breeding be-
namely testosterone in modulating the potential strategies haviors including inter-male aggression.
utilized by male green turtles during courtship is lacking.
Utilizing hormonal and behavioral observations collected
GROWTH AND BEHAVIOR DURING THE FIRST YEAR OF LIFE IN TWO SPECIES OF
SEA TURTLES
Martha Mann1 and 2, Roger Mellgren12, Alejandro Arenas2, and Adriana D'Amiano 2
1
Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, U.S.A. mann@uta.edu
2
Acuario Xcaret, Carretera Chetumal-Pto. Juarez, km 282, Playa del Carmen, Quintana Roo, Mxico
Relatively small numbers of hatchling turtles are kept living tag procedure has given us the opportunity to observe
at the aquarium at Xcaret for a year before being released individual hatchlings across their first year of life. Multiple
into the sea. Larger numbers of hatchlings are given a "liv- measures of physiology and behavior were made in two spe-
ing tag" and released following a brief recovery period. The cies of sea turtles. A summary of our findings for the first six
combination of the one year headstarting program and the months of the project was reported at the Seventeenth An-

nual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation However, those categorized as nonsurvivors weighed sig-
(Mann, Mellgren and Arenas, 1998). Data compiled for the nificantly less than survivors at 67 and 90 days posthatch.
one year period are selectively reviewed below. By 67 days posthatch, nonsurvivors attained 78% of the av-
erage weight of the survivors. By 90 days posthatch,
METHODS nonsurvivors' weights dropped to 68% of that of the survi-
vors.
A total of 36 green (Chelonia mydas) and 36 hawksbill
(Eretmochelys imbricata) hatchlings were given living tags 700
Body Weight (gms)

that identified each individual uniquely: Two of nine mar- 600
ginal scutes were marked allowing for identification by gross 500
y = 0.9898x
inspection of the carapace. The turtles were maintained on 400 2
commercially prepared pelleted turtle chow supplemented 300 R = 0.424
with a gelatin consisting of pureed spinach, lettuce, cod liver 200
and fish oil with yeast and vitamins A, D, E and B complex. 100
At periodic intervals for the first year of development, body 0
length and width and flipper lengths were recorded, the turtles 0 50 100 150 200
Days Posthatch
were weighed and given a set of behavioral tests developed
700
from our prior experiments (e.g., Mellgren and Mann, 1996).
Behavioral indices of physical responsiveness included: time 600
spent struggling after being picked up by a human; latency 500
to exhibit a righting reflex after being inverted; time spent
400 1. Weight Gains of Hawksbill Sea Turtles
Figure
struggling while inverted; latency to initiate feeding follow-
ing the introduction of a novel food; and the latency to learn 300
about the location and delivery of a novel food (see also 200
Mellgren and Mann in this volume). 100
RESULTS 0
1 18 35 52 69 86 103 120 137 154 171
Comparative species data for the righting reflex and
carapace and flipper measurements were reported previously Figure 1. Weight Gains of Hawksbill Sea Turtles
(Mann et al, 1998). Behavioral tests conducted within the
first month of life did not predict survivorship in either of DISCUSSION
the two species. However, it is important in future work to
Preliminary analyses suggest that behavioral markers
repeat these tests in older animals and to develop new tests
such as the righting reflex (obtained at 3-4 week of life in
that will address the biological preparedness of individual
this study) did not predict survivorship in green and hawks-
turtles over development, comparing animals during the so-
bill hatchlings. The development of other tests of
called frenzy and post-frenzy intervals as well as during epi-
biobehavioral maturation is warranted both for captive rear-
pelagic and pelagic phases.
ing situations and for relating phenotypic variation in behav-
Body weight changes over 12 months for green (top
ior in wild populations to other estimates of age and growth
panel) and over 7months for hawksbill (bottom panel) sea
rate such as skeletochronology assessments. Behavioral
turtles are shown in Figure 1. Significant linear trends in
markers that could be used in future research include groom-
weight gains were evident for both green and hawksbill turtles
but growth rates between species differed significantly. Mem-
bers of each species exhibited significant increases in weight 70
at each measurement interval. By 7 months (215 and 220 60 Nonsurvivors
Body Weight (gms)
days posthatch for the greens and hawksbills, respectively)

green sea turtles weighed 33 times their initial body weight. 50 Survivors
By contrast, hawksbill turtles experienced only a 14 fold in- 40
crease from their initial weight.
Figure 2 provides a comparison of weight gains in 30
hawksbill turtles categorized as nonsurvivors or survivors. 20
Nonsurvivors (n = 9) are those animals that died before 220
days posthatch (~ 7 months). Attrition among nonsurvivors 10
was most apt to occur between 90 -142 days posthatch. Sur- 0
vivors (n = 19) are those that could be easily identified by
their carapace marks at 220 days posthatch. The figure shows 24 67 90
that there was no significant difference between the average Days Posthatch
body weights attained by the groups at 24 days posthatch. Figure 2. Weight Differences: Nonsurvivors vs Survivors

ing and play, responses that appear to change reliably with ment of the Maya Zone of Parque Xcaret and the staff and
advances in chronological age (Mann and Mellgren, 1997 administration of the aquarium at Xcaret, particularly Mar-
and unpublished observations). Burghardt (1988) predicted tin Sanchez, Director. We also thank Susan Sterling and Karen
that if play behaviors were to occur among reptiles, well-fed Twohey for their assistance in the preparation of poster ma-
sea turtles in warm oceans would be the likely species given terials, graphics and manuscripts.
the relative energy efficiency of their aquatic habitats and
taking into account their changing energetics during early LITERATURE CITED
development.
Burghardt, G.M. 1988. Precocity, play, and the ectotherm-
Green sea turtles maintained in captivity for a year
endotherm transition: Profound reorganization or
showed pronounced changes in growth and little mortality
superficial adaptation? In: Handbook of behavioral
(i.e., only 4 out of 36 green hatchlings failed to survive to
neurobiology, vol. 9. E. M. Blass (Ed.). Plenum
one year). Hawksbill hatchlings that exhibited deficient
Publishing Corporation, New York.
weight gains at 67 and 90 days posthatch (i.e., 9 out of 36)
Bjorndal, K.A. 1997. Foraging ecology and nutrition of sea
died within the next two months. Therefore, weight per se
turtles. In: The Biology of sea turtles. P. L. Lutz and J.
may be an important factor for survivorship of individuals
A. Musick (Eds.). CRC Press, New York.
of this species. We note, too, that intraspecific aggression
Chaloupka, M.Y. and J.A. Musick 1997. Age, growth and
was apt to occur in hawksbills beginning at 90 days posthatch,
population dynamics. In: The biology of sea turtles. P.
suggesting that this may be a behavioral variable critical to
L. Lutz and J. A. Musick (Eds.). CRC Press, New York.
survival and perhaps of special importance when growth
Mann, M.A. and R.L. Mellgren 1997. Sea turtle interactions
has been compromised. Future work will address the ontog-
with inanimate objects: Autogrooming or play behavior?
eny of intraspecific aggression in this species with the aim of
In: Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Symposium on
remediating rearing situations that cause injury to young
Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. NOAA Technical
turtles.
Memorandum.
As noted by Chaloupka and Musick (1997), there have
Mann, M.A., R. L. Mellgren, and A. Arenas 1998 (in press).
been few longitudinal studies of growth in captive reared
Comparative development of green (Chelonia mydas)
turtles. However, such data are essential for understanding
and hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) sea turtles. In:
the constraints on growth when diet and environmental con-
Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Symposium on
ditions are stable relative to those factors in the wild. Allom-
Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. NOAA Technical
etric analyses (e.g., Reiss, 1989) may prove useful for un-
Memorandum.
derstanding the behavior and ecology of these species. Such
Mellgren, R.L. and M.A. Mann 1996. Comparative behavior
analyses already have been performed to understand some
of hatchling sea turtles. In: Proceedings of the Fifteenth
aspects diet selection and the foraging ecology of sea turtles
Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and
and could be extended to the rehabilitation of turtles recov-
Conservation. J.A. Keinath, D.E. Barnard, J.A. Musick,
ered from degraded foraging habitats (Bjorndal, 1997).
B.A. Bell (Comps.). NOAA Technical Memorandum
NMFS-SEFSC-387.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Reiss, M.J. 1989. The allometry of growth and reproduction.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the generous sup- Cambridge University Press, New York.
port of the Partners of the Center of Sustainable Develop-
DIVING, BASKING, AND FORAGING PATTERNS OF A SUB-ADULT GREEN TURTLE

AT PUNALU'U, HAWAII
Marc R. Rice1, George H. Balazs2, Leon Hallacher3, Walter Dudley3, George Watson1, Kimberly Krusell3, and Brent
Larson3
1
Hawaii Preparatory Academy, 65-1692 Kohala Mt. Road, Kamuela, Hawaii 96743 U.S.A. mrice@hpa.edu
2
Hawaii 96822-2396 U.S.A.
3
Marine Option Program, University of Hawaii at Hilo, 200 W. Kawili Street, Hilo, Hawaii 96720-4091 U.S.A.
INTRODUCTION
Punalu'u is a small sheltered bay on the southeast coast in Hawaii feed primarily on benthic algae in the rocky forag-
of the Ka'u district on the Island of Hawaii. The area is a ing pastures around the eight major Hawaiian Islands. The
county park and a popular tourist stop and has been a green primary food source for green turtles at Punalu'u is an inter-
turtle study site since 1976. Green turtles (Chelonia mydas) tidal red alga, Pterocladia capillacea (Balazs et al., 1994).

Green turtles are known to spend most of their time feeding Turtle 257 was electronically monitored for a total of 249
or resting underwater. Foraging behavior of green turtles is days, and data from 226 days were used in this study (days
well documented and in Hawaii is typically characterized by lost represent time when TDR memory was full). The data
numerous short dives in shallow water (<3 m) with short for the day after each capture/release were not used in this
surface intervals (<5 sec) (Balazs, 1980). Resting periods study as our work elsewhere indicates that capture/release
are characterized by longer dives (>20 min) in deeper water. changes normal behavior for approximately 24 hours. Data
The amount of time that turtles spend foraging versus rest- was downloaded in the field using the Wildlife Computers,
ing is still largely unknown. Previous studies have observed Inc. interface hardware and a Macintosh Powerbook.
foraging and resting behavior over relatively short periods The data obtained showed a depth reading for the turtle
of time (Ogden et al., 1983; Brill et al.,1994; Balazs, 1995).In every minute giving 1440 data points each day. If Turtle 257
addition to feeding and resting behavior, turtles in Hawaii left the water to bask, the total time basking was recorded.
have been exhibiting a new behavior, terrestrial emergence Each day's data were graphed and analyzed as to whether
(basking). Basking behavior, mainly involving adults, has the depth and breath-hold profiles represented resting or for-
been known for many years to occur in the Northwestern aging behavior. Diving profile characteristics were evalu-
Hawaiian Islands (Whittow and Balazs, 1982), but was rarely ated based on observations at Punalu'u and experience from
observed in the main islands until recently (Balazs, 1995). other sites in Hawaii. Diving profiles were characterized as
The reasons for basking behavior in green turtles are un- resting dives (dives to a relatively constant depth for more
known although several theories have been postulated than 20 minutes), and foraging dives (generally short, shal-
(Garnett, 1984; Swimmer et al., 1996). At Punalu'u, several low dives from 0 to 3 M). Terrestrial emergence (basking)
sub-adult and juvenile turtles regularly crawl out onto the behavior was noted as dry periods by the TDR and is repre-
black sand beach and bask. This behavior is normally ob- sented as a negative depth (-4 meters) by the analysis soft-
served during the day, but lack of night-time observations ware. Figure 1 shows a sample 24 hours of data with resting,
makes it difficult to know the frequency of nocturnal bask- foraging and basking periods indicated.
ing. The purpose of our study was to determine the relative
allocation of time given to each of the three major behaviors RESULTS
(diving, basking and foraging) over an extended period of
Resting Dives: Resting dives showed a depth range
time.
from 4 to 38.5 meters. The average depth of resting dives
was 12.9 M. Dives deeper than 14 meters were uncommon
and appeared to be exploratory dives. Resting dives had a
Data were obtained from November 15, 1996 to July mean duration of 59 minutes with a range of 20 to 117 min-
22, 1997 from a sub-adult green turtle hand captured in shal- utes. On the average, there were 12 resting dives per day
low water using snorkeling equipment at Punalu'u, Hawaii. with a range of 2 to 25. Surface intervals during resting dives
This turtle, hereafter known as Turtle 257, was first captured averaged 2.8 minutes (N=84). None of the data indicates
at Punalu'u in July, 1990. Turtle 257 had an apparent 7 year that Turtle 257 made resting dives inside the bay, although
history of residency at Punalu'u. At the time the TDR and we have occasionally observed a few animals resting on the
sonic tag were applied, the turtle measured 72.5 cm in straight bottom in the bay during night observations.
carapace length and it weighed 52.5 kg. Terrestrial Basking:
A Wildlife Computers, Inc. MK5 time-depth recorder, Turtle 257 exhibited basking behavior on 64 days (82
and a Sonotronics, Inc. CHP-87-L sonic tag, were attached incidences) for a total of 176 hours or 3.2% of the observed
to the third lateral scute on the right side of the carapace. To time. The average length of terrestrial basking was 130 min
set the MK5 and sonic tag in place, a two part silicon elas- with a range of 7 to 945 min. Basking has normally been
tomer was first applied to the base of the tags which were observed to occur during the day, but data from Turtle 257
then placed on the sanded and cleaned scute. The tags were showed that terrestrial basking does occur at night. While
safely and securely attached using pigmented polyester resin basking normally began during the middle of the day (me-
and fiberglass cloth. In addition, a small square of fiberglass dian 1100 hours), there were 10 occasions when basking con-
cloth was placed high on the second lateral scute on the left tinued into the night for a total of 44.4 hours or 25% of the
side to facilitate identification during field observations.Two total basking time. Basking was never initiated after dark.
students from the University of Hawaii, Hilo conducted vi- The reason(s) turtles bask is still not understood. It is clear,
sual searches from shore and while snorkeling in the bay on however, that the behavior accounts for a significant portion
23 different days. The observations of the turtle's location, of Turtle 257's behavior.
behavior and activity were noted along with the time and Foraging Behavior:
date. These data were later compared with the TDR data to Dives made in shallow water for short periods of time
associate certain behaviors with specific MK5 data were interpreted as foraging behavior. TDR dive profiles do
profiles.The MK5 sampling protocol was set to record depth not allow ready determination of dive time or surface inter-
every minute. When the tag was out of the water, sampling vals, but direct observations and data from other observers
was suspended and the time of emergence was recorded. give dive times of 4 to 8 min. with a mean of 4.5 min. Forag-

ing turtles normally take one breath between feeding bouts The use of TDR's in the study of green turtle behavior
and are only on the surface for a matter of seconds. Numer- has revealed significant information about their daily diving
ous green turtles can commonly be found feeding in shallow and basking patterns. Continuing work using TDR's at sev-
water at Punalu'u during daylight hours when the tide is me- eral locations in Hawaii will undoubtedly clarify many of
dium to high. Pterocladia capillacea is an intertidal algae the questions raised in this study.
and the tide must be medium to high for the turtles to access
it. Often turtles were observed with their entire carapace LITERATURE CITED:
exposed briefly as they fed in shallow water. Turtle 257 was
Balazs, G.H., W.C. Dudley, L.E. Hallacher, J.P. Coney, and
observed feeding in very shallow water on several occasions.
S Koga. 1994. Ecology and cultural significance of sea
The foraging depth data does not allow us to determine ac-
turtles at Punalu'u, Hawaii. Proceedings of the
tual feeding time and certainly includes other activities.
Fourteenth Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology
and Conservation. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.
Memo.NMFS-SEFSC-351:10-13.
Balazs, G.H. 1980. Synopsis of biological data on the green
turtle in the Hawaiian islands. NOAA Technical
Memorandum NMFS. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-7.
Balazs, G.H. 1995. Behavioral changes within the recovering
Hawaiian green turtle population. Proceedings of the
fifteenth annual symposium on sea turtle biology and
conservation. pp. 16-20.
Brill, R.W., G.H. Balazs, K.N. Holland, R.K.C. Chang, S.
Sullivan, and J.C. George. 1995. Daily movements,
habitat use, and submergence intervals of normal and
Figure 1. Sample 24 hour diving profile for Turtle 257 showing resting tumor-bearing juvenile green turtles (Chelonia mydas
dives, foregin and basking behavior. L.) within foraging area in the Hawaiian islands. J. Exper.
Mar. Bio. Ecol. 185: 203-218.
Data that fits the foraging profile show that most for-
Garnett, S.T., G.M. Crowley and N. Goudberg. 1985.
aging occurs at between 0 and 2 M depth for an average of
Observations of non-nesting emergence by green turtles
8.9 hours/day. The range of foraging time was between 0
in the gulf of carpentaria. Copeia, no. 1. pp. 262-264.
and 20 hours/day. The cause of this variation is unknown but
Ogden, J.C., L. Robinson, K. Whitlock, H. Daganhardt and
could be related to weather, food availability, tides, or any of
R. Cebula. 1983. Diel Foraging Patterns in juvenile green
a number of factors. Before green turtles in Hawaii were
turtles (Chelonia mydas L.) in St. Croix United States
fully protected in 1978, they fed nocturnally at Punalu'u. Since
Virgin Islands. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 66:. 199-205.
that time, they have begun to feed primarily during daylight
Swimmer, J.Y.B., G.C. Whittow, and G.H. Balazs. 1996.
hours. Seventy-two percent of foraging behavior in Turtle
Atmospheric basking in the Hawaiian green turtle,
257 occurred between the hours of 0600 and 1800. This is in
Chelonia mydas : Comparisons of tumored and non-
line with observations of Punalu'u turtles in general and Turtle
tumored turtles. Proceedings of the 15th Annual
257 in particular.
Although this study involved only one sub-adult green
U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-
turtle, all indications are that this particular animal has ex-
SEFSC-387: pp. 318-322.
hibited a consistent behavior pattern over time. Turtle 257
Whittow, G.C. and G.H. Balazs. 1982. Basking behavior of
has been well known by residents and scientists who regu-
the Hawaiian green turtle (Chelonia mydas). Pacific
larly visit the area and has at least a 7 year residency history
Science 36(2): 129-139.
at Punalu'u. On the average, Turtle 257's daily behavior pat-
tern was divided into approximately 12 hours of resting dives,
9 hours of foraging behavior, 1 hour of basking behavior
and 2 hours of surface/travel time. The range of time de-
voted to various activities was very large. There were days
when no foraging behavior was exhibited and the total time
was allocated to resting dives. On other days, the foraging
behavior was nearly continuous for up to 20 hours. Terres-
trial basking occurred approximately every 3.5 days through-
out the monitored period and averaged 130 minutes per emer-
gence. The factors involved in promoting this variability re-
main to be determined. Tidal level, food availability, weather
and other factors undoubtedly influence green turtle behav-
ior.

DIURNAL CYCLING OF CORTICOSTERONE IN A CAPTIVE POPULATION OF KEMP'S

RIDLEY SEA TURTLES (LEPIDOCHELYS KEMPII)
Kathryn Stephenson, Patricia Vargas, David Wm. Owens

Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX. 77843, U.S.A. kstephenson@bio.tamu.edu
INTRODUCTION
Corticosterone (B) is produced by the adrenal cortex stress response. The stress response concurred with B levels
in response to hypothalamic secretion of corticotropin re- reported for Loggerheads, 500-6000pg/mL (Gregory et al.,
leasing hormone (CRH) and subsequent pituitary secretion 1996) and Olive Ridleys 500-7500 pg/mL (Valverde, 1996).
of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). The role of B as a Values of B from samples taken during the inventory ranged
stress hormone in sea turtles and its effect on metabolism is from 138-3957 pg/mL (Figure 1). Although it did not seem
consistent with that of other vertebrates. Corticosterone has like a stressful procedure, the process of removing and re-
been shown to have daily cycles in some organisms, although placing animals housed in the same tank did contribute to
there is little evidence for a daily B cycle in reproductive sea the elevation of B (Figure 4).
turtles. Identifying daily cycles of B will help us to better 450
understand the physiology of sea turtles and interpret B data
collected for a variety of studies. 400
The primary objective of this study was to determine if 350
B levels were relatively constant, or changed with time dur- Corticosterone (pg/ml) 300
ing a 24 hour period. The secondary objective was to see if
any stress response was evident which may be correlated 250
with captivity. 200
150
100
Experiments were conducted from 16 July through 21

July, 1997 at the Cayman Turtle Farm on Grand Cayman 50
Island, B.W.I. The inventory blood samples were collected 0

-400 0 400 800 1200 1600
during daylight hours on 7/16-18, and 7/21. The timed se- Time (hours)
ries was conducted from 2000 h. 7/18/97 - 2000 h. 7/20/97.
Figure 1. Time of day vs. Corticosterone (B) levels
Blood samples from three different animals were taken at 4
hour intervals during a 48 hour period. No animals were
Multiple regression on the plasma corticosterone
sampled twice. The population sampled was kept in a 6.7 m.
levels from the time series experiment showed a significant
round outdoor cement tank filled with 110 cm. of sea water.
change with time (p=.005). As a group, the four other vari-
They were subject to the natural photoperiod which was ap-
ables tested (sex, age and the interactions of time*age and
proximately 14L:10D and were fed commercial Purina turtle
time*sex) did not contribute significantly to the B response
chow three times per day (~0800, 1230, 1630). Blood was
(p>.2). The range of B values for the time series was 25-417
taken in lithium heparin vacutainers with 1.5" 21 gage needles
pg/mL (Figure 2). Although these are lower than many re-
inserted in the dorsal cervical sinus within 0.5-1.5 minutes
ported values indicating a stress response, it could be con-
of capture (Owens and Ruiz, 1980). The blood was kept on
4200
ice for 15 minutes to four hours, separated by centrifuge and
stored at -4 C until later analysis. Plasma corticosterone lev- 3600
els were determined by tritium radioimmunoassay (Valverde,
1996) conducted at Texas A&M University. During sampling, 3000
Corticosterone (pg/ml)
sex was recorded (based on tail length), and individual tag

numbers were used to look up farm records on each turtle. 2400
Statistical analysis of the data included multiple regression

1800
and Duncan's multiple range test using the SAS program
(Figure 3). 1200
The analysis of the samples taken during the Kemps 0

800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
Ridley inventory produced unexpected results. Instead of Time (Hours)
corticosterone (B) levels which could be used as zero time
readings and compared to the time series, we observed a mild Figure 2. Corticosterone (b) levels during Kemps Ridley inventory

450 The implications which this study could have on

400
experimental design are significant. A population of animals
which cycle on a daily basis could inadvertently bias any
350
corticosterone (B) levels recorded. Many experiments mea-
Corticosterone Levels (pg/ml)
300
sure B as a stress indicator, whether or not the stress response
250
is expected. We have shown an area of overlap between the
200 daily peak in B, and a mild stress response observed during
150 the inventory sampling (Figures 1 and 2). The two could be
100
mistaken if there is no relative baseline for comparison.
50
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
The authors would like to thank Joe Parsons and
Time (Hours)
Kenneth Hydes at the Cayman Turtle Farm, Ltd. for their
Figure 3. Corticosterone levels during timed series
cooperation and hospitality. We also thank all of the Turtle
fused for mild stress depending on the cut-off point chosen. Farm staff members, the representatives from Xcaret
This analysis accounts for only 59 % of the variability in B Aquarium and Rhonda Patterson for their assistance. This
levels. There are several other sources of variability which project was made possible by the Texas A&M University
need to be investigated more thoroughly. Feeding patterns Sea Grant College Program Grant No. NA86RG0058 (Project
and activity associated with daylight hours are two which ET/ C-39). This research was conducted under endangered
may have the greatest impact (Figure 3). Correlation analy- species permits from U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, CITES
ses for feeding times and sunrise/set were not performed for import permits from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and
this poster. CITES export permits from Grand Cayman Island
2200 REFERENCES
2000
Gregory, L.F., T. Gross, A. Bolten, K. Bjorndal, and L.
1800
Guillette, Jr. 1996. Plasma Corticosterone concentrations
Corticosterone (pg/ml)
1600
1400
Inventory Timed Series associated with acute captivity stress in wild loggerhead
1200 sea turtles (Caretta caretta). Gen. Compar. Endocrin..
1000 104: 312-320.
800 Owens, D.W. and Georgita J. Ruiz. 1980. New methods of
600 obtaining blood and cerebrospinal fluid from marine
400 turtles. Herpetologica. 36: 17-20.
200 Valverde, R.A. 1996. Corticosteroid Dynamics in a free-
0 ranging population of Olive Ridley sea turtles
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Turtles
(Lepidochelys olivacea Eschscholtz, 1829) at Playa
Nancite, Costa Rica as a function of their reproductive
Figure 4. Comparison of Corticosterone (B) Levels During the
Inventory vs. Timed Series
behavior. Doctoral dissertation, Texas A&M University.
THE BIOLOGY OF BASKING IN THE GREEN TURTLE (CHELONIA MYDAS)
J. Yonat Swimmer1 and George H. Balazs2

1
School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1115 U.S.A.
yswim@umich.edu
2
National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, Honolulu Laboratory, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822
2396 U.S.A.
The green turtle (Chelonia mydas) is the only species serves. Data from both captive and wild populations of the
of marine turtle known to atmospheric bask, whereby large Hawaiian green turtle indicate that basking is correlated with
numbers of turtles remain hauled out on shore. Historic air and substrate temeperature, thereby indicating a role in
records indicate that basking was once a common phenom- thermoregulation. In captivity, only turtles afflicted with green
enon, yet coastal development may have reduced basking turtle fibropapillomatosis (GTFP) were observed basking,
populations to only a few remote areas worldwide. Our study suggesting a relationship between basking and disease.
aims to determine physiological roles that this behavior

Despite significantly increased body temperatures of ing sites, this behavior likely serves a role in reproduction.
basking turtles, metabolic rates of turtles post-basking were The numerous physiological functions served by basking
lower than metabolic rates of turtles post-swimming for the indicate the importance of this behavior in the biology of
majority of turtles. These data suggest that basking serves as green turtles and the necessity in preserving their basking
an energy-conserving mechanism. Furthermore, due to the habitat.
prevalence of nesting females on basking beaches in all bask-
LOGGERHEAD TURTLE RESPONSES TO AQUATIC PREDATION OFF SOUTHEAST

NORTH CAROLINA, U.S.A.
Heather Miller Woodson

University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Department of Biological Sciences, Wilmington, North Carolina, U.S.A.
WoodsonH@UNCWIL.EDU
Due to the perilous status of marine turtles, a great deal (3) hatchlings make evasive action to avoid predation;
of time and money has been spent worldwide to study the and
life history of these animals. While many facets of the life of (4) models can be used to accurately quantify oceanic
the sea turtle have been studied extensively, still other as- predation on live hatchlings.
pects need to be researched more thoroughly. The logger-
head turtle (Caretta carreta) is the most common of the sea A two-part field component of this study, which tests
turtles on the southeastern United States and thus the easiest hypotheses 1 and 2 is still in progress. The following meth-
to study. It is on this species that I focus. odology addresses hypotheses 3 and 4 only.
Oceanic predation is largely a mystery to researchers.
Many terrestrial predators of eggs and hatchlings have been MATERIALS AND METHODS
identified, including raccoons, ants, ghost crabs, foxes, coy- Collections:
otes, pigs, dogs, armadillos, and birds (Van Meter 1992). A total of thirteen live hatchlings were collected at ran-
Incidental accounts of oceanic predation on sea turtle dom as they emerged from the nest cavities of five randomly
hatchlings are scattered through the literature (Randall 1967; selected nests on Bald Head Island, N.C. Hatchlings were
Witham 1974; Frick 1976; Witzell 1981; Dodd 1988). Few used in the study within 24 hours of emergence. Dead
studies have attempted to quantify oceanic predation or iden- hatchlings from nest inventories were also collected for later
tify potential predators. Witherington and Salmon (1992) use as models in this study.
tracked 74 loggerhead hatchlings, of which five turtles were
lost to unidentified oceanic predators. In a study by Gyuris Laboratory experiment:
(1994), 57 free swimming hatchling green turtles (Chelonia Hatchlings were used in experimental prey perception
mydas) were followed by snorkelers. Of these, ten were lost tests. This is necessary to insure that models are being per-
from sight and 44 of the 47 remaining hatchlings were con- ceived by predators in the same way as live hatchlings. Us-
sumed by oceanic predators (93.6%), mostly groupers (ser- ing a 17,000 gallon tank located at the North Carolina
ranids) and snappers (lutjanids). During the course of the Aquarium at Ft. Fisher, perception was tested by simulta-
same study, 1,740 tethered hatchlings were followed by neously offering fish both a live and a fresh dead (model)
snorklers, and predation rates averaged 31% during these hatchling protected within plastic spheres, 30 cm in diam-
trials (range 0-85%). None of the hatchlings took evasive eter. The top 7 cm of both spheres remained out of the water
action to avoid oceanic predation (Gyuris 1994). Clearly, to allow the live hatchling to surface for air. Dead hatchlings
due to the limited body of knowledge regarding oceanic pre- were suspended by monofilament line through the top of the
dation on sea turtle hatchlings, more work needs to be done sphere to allow them to be jiggled slightly to simulate move-
to help determine oceanic predators worldwide and further ment by wave action as is expected in the field trials. The
quantify predation rates. spheres with live and dead hatchlings were placed one meter
apart in the tank, and the position of the live and dead
USING HATCHLINGS OF THE LOGGERHEAD, I hatchlings within the tank was switched prior to each trial.
TESTED THE HYPOTHESES THAT: fish in the tank were classified as predatory or non predatory
(1) predation on the hatchling stage of the loggerhead species, and their responses to the hatchlings were analyzed
sea turtle by fish is high off coastal North Carolina; according to the respective group. Four types of response to
(2) fast moving predators, such as those in the families either one of the hatchlings were recorded by three indepen-
Scombridae, Carangidae, Coryphaenidae, Pomatomidae and dent observers: no response, positive orientation towards
Sciaenidae, are potential predators of hatchling loggerhead prey, approach within 25 cm and contact with the sphere.
sea turtles in this area; Trials were videotaped as well to verify the decisions of the

observers. All trials lasted five minutes. Hatchling behavior ing for my participation at the Sea Turtle Symposium, as did
in response to fish was also noted. New hatchlings, both live UNC-Wilmington's Graduate School, International Programs,
and dead, were used for each trial. Thirteen trials were com- Chancellor's Office and CMSR. Numerous people volun-
pleted between August and October 1997, with no more than teered their time with this project, including Jason Colclough,
three trials being conducted in a seven-day period. Sandy O'Neal, Corrinne Williams, Denise Barnes, Charlie
Kaufman, Tonya Kochick, Johanna Vollenweider, Kristin
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Rauscher, Angie Glendenning and my tolerant husband
Nathan Woodson.
There were no significant differences in the number of
positive orientations, approaches or contacts made by the
LITERATURE CITED
two groups between the live and the dead turtle. This sug-
gests that fish are visually perceiving the live and dead Dodd, C.K., Jr. 1988. Synopsis of the biological data on the
hatchlings in the same way and validates the use of dead loggerhead sea turtle Caretta carreta (Linnaeus 1758).
hatchlings in the field trials. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Biol. Rep. 88(14). 110 pp.
None of the thirteen live hatchlings displayed any de- Frick, J. 1976. Orientation and behavior of hatchling green
tectable anti-predator behavior, despite potential predators sea turtles, Chelonia mydas, in the sea. Anim. Behav.
making contact with the plastic spheres. During every trial, 24: 849-857.
hatchlings were observed swimming in the direction as these Gyuris, E. 1994. The rate of predation by fishes on hatchlings
fish. This is consistent with the behavior reported by Gyuris of the green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas. Coral Reefs 13:
(1994) in green turtle hatchlings. 137-144.
Randall, J. 1967. Food habits of reef fish of the West Indies
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS in Studies in Tropical Oceanography V. pp. 665-847.
Van Meter, V.B. 1992. Florida's sea turtles. FPL Publication.
I would like to thank my thesis committee: Dr. Ileana
60 pp.
Clavijo, Dr. Wm. David Webster, and Dr. Martin Posey,
Witham, R. 1974. Neonate sea turtles from the stomach of a
UNC-Wilmington, and Dr. Charles Manooch, National Ma-
pelagic fish. Copeia 1974(2): 548.
rine Fisheries Service. For their support, I want to thank the
Witherington, B.E. and M. Salmon. 1992. Predation on
Center for Marine Science Research (CMSR), Sigma Xi,
loggerhead turtle hatchlings after entering the sea. J.
North Carolina Wildlife Federation and the Bald Head Is-
Herp. 26(2): 226-228.
land Conservancy. Ruth Boettcher, Sea Turtle Coordinator,
Witzell, W.N. 1981. Predation on juvenile green sea turtles,
North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission, assisted with
Chelonia mydas, by a grouper, Promicrops lanceolatus
permits and "model" gathering, as did Beth Morford, Florida
(Pisces: Serranidae) in the kingdom of Tonga, South
Department of Environmental Protection, and Crawford Hart,
Pacific. Bull. Mar. Sci. 31(4): 935-936.
Holden Beach Turtle Project. Finally, The David and Lucile
Packard Foundation and the Chelonia Institute provided fund-
CLEANING SYMBIOSES BETWEEN HAWAIIAN REEF FISHES AND GREEN SEA

TURTLES, CHELONIA MYDAS
Jill P. Zamzow
Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology and Zoology Dept., University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822, U.S.A.
zamzow@hawaii.edu
Fibropapillomatosis is a debilitating and frequently fa- the turtle-specific skin barnacle Platylepis hexastylos from
tal disease of green sea turtles, Chelonia mydas, in the Ha- the skin of the green sea turtle, (Losey et al 1994). The ob-
waiian Islands. The disease has reached epidemic propor- jective of this work was to gain an increased understanding
tions in green turtle aggregations occurring in foraging habi- of these cleaning relationships and any correlation they may
tats in Hawaii as well as in Florida and several other areas have with green turtle fibropapillomatosis. Reef fishes may
worldwide (Balazs and Pooley 1991). In Kaneohe Bay, Oahu, serve as vectors for the disease as they move between turtles,
Hawaii, the prevalence of afflicted turtles has been severe or, by causing wounds while cleaning, leave the turtle open
for the past 10 years and continues in the present. for infection. Conversely, the cleaning behavior may serve a
Cleaning symbioses between green turtles and various beneficial purpose in controlling ectoparasites and/or ame-
reef fishes that feed on organisms growing on the turtles' skin, liorating tumor tissue. Increased information on these clean-
scales, carapace and plastron have been reported in the lit- ing interactions between fishes and turtles is needed to de-
erature for a number of years (Booth and Peters 1972, Balazs termine if a significant impact exists, positively or negatively,
1994). A cleaning symbiosis was recently reported in which with regard to the fibropapillomatosis.
the Hawaiian saddleback wrasse, Thalassoma duperrey, picks

METHODS Table 1: Observations of Turtle Cleaning Stations in Kaneohe Bay,

Oahu, Hawaii
This study was conducted over a five month period,
from 30 April to 30 October, 1997. Four approaches were Turtle Turtles T. duperrey Tumor bitten Herbivory Total time
condition observed (N) bites (N) (N) duration (s) observed (s)
taken in order to gather information about the symbiosis, as Tumored 8 147 16 1046 5076
follows: Clean
Total
16
24
249
396
N/A
16
3008
4054
15360
20436
1) Six twenty-four hour surveys of turtle cleaning and
resting sites were performed in Kaneohe Bay, Oahu, Hawaii. 2) GPS technology was used to establish an accurate
Two camera systems were used: an underwater real-time relocation of each cleaning site within Kaneohe Bay (Figure
mote video recording system, and an underwater time-lapse 1). In addition, the vicinities of both cleaner stations used in
video recording system. The remote video system was con- the study were mapped in detail to a radius of approximately
tinuously monitored from the surface during daylight hours, 50m (Figures not included).
and video was recorded whenever a turtle was in view. A pan
and tilt mechanism allowed 360-degree monitoring to the lim- Table 2: Observations of Turtle Resting Sites in Kaneohe Bay, Oahu,
its of visibility. The videotape was later analyzed in the labo- Hawaii
ratory utilizing behavioral event-recording software
(BEAST). Reef and Site Turtles Sex Resting Bouts
(N)
Duration (x s.d.) in
seconds
2) Cleaning stations monitored during this study were 42A Male 1 420
329 59
mapped on a finer scale than can be found on nautical charts 42A
42A
Male
Male
8
7 369 75
of the region. Reefs were mapped manually from an eleva- 42B Undetermined 1 751
MA Undetermined 1 694
tion of approximately 12 meters above sea level (utilizing
the mast of a sailboat anchored approximately 5 meters from 3) Comparative cleaning sites yielded a total of 1801 s
the reef edge). of videotape for analysis: 618 s from the Kona Coast, and
3) Two cleaning sites outside of Kaneohe Bay (Hanauma 1183 s from Hanauma Bay. At the Kona site, herbivorous
Bay, Oahu, and Mauna Lani Hotel, Kona Coast, Island of feeding only was observed on at least four individual turtles,
Hawaii) were investigated via SCUBA and hand-held un- none of them tumored. Cleaner species were Acanthurus
derwater videocamera. Videotape was analyzed as above. triostegus, Zebrasoma flavescens, and other Acanthurus spp.
4) A survey of dive tour operators around Oahu as well Fibropapillomatosis is virtually nonexistent along the Kona
as University of Hawaii certified academic research divers coast (Balazs et al 1996). At Hanauma Bay, mainly herbivo-
was undertaken in order to ascertain the number, approxi- rous feeding was observed, by Acanthurus spp. However,
mate locations and seasonality of cleaning sites around Oahu. carnivorous feeding was observed on one individual by C.
RESULTS
1) One hundred forty-four hours were spent in field ob-
servations of turtle resting and cleaning stations. A total of
twenty hours (120,000 seconds) of real-time video and 85 s
of time-lapse video footage were analyzed. The duration of
cleaning interactions totalled 20,436 s and resting interac-
tions totalled 7074 s (Table 1). Of the 29 individual turtles
identified, 24 were from cleaning bouts, 3 from resting bouts,
and 2 were involved in both types of interaction. At least 8 of
these animals were tumored. Eighty-two turtle visits were
analyzed. Thalassoma duperrey, the Hawaiian saddleback
wrasse, was the main cleaner in Kaneohe Bay, with a total of
396 recorded bites. Canthigaster jactator was the only other
carnivorous cleaner, with 2 recorded bites. T. duperrey con-
centrated their efforts on tumored turtles, yet did not selec-
tively clean the tumors themselves. Herbivorous cleaners
spent equal amounts of time on tumored vs. clean turtles (ap-
proximately 20% of total time observed).
Tumors were bitten by T. duperrey 11% of the time
(spent on tumored turtles), and the one observed bite by C.
jactator was on a tumor. Herbivorous fishes concentrated on
the turtles' shell, and did not bite the turtles' tumors.
Eighteen resting interactions were observed, involving
5 turtles (Table 2). None of the resting turtles was visibly Figure 1. Green Turtle Cleaning stations in Kaneobe Bay Oahu,
tumored. Hawai

jactator and T. duperrey. In contrast to Kaneohe Bay, these

fishes focussed on the turtles tumors, apparently biting them
painfully, as the turtle flinched and swatted at the fishes re-
peatedly before leaving the area.
4) Seven dive tour operators and 82 University of Ha-
waii academic research divers were polled in order to ascer-
tain the location and seasonality (if any) of cleaning sites
around Oahu. Five cleaning sites, in addition to the three
known for Kaneohe Bay, were reported (Figure 1). These
stations were primarily described as herbivorous cleaning
stations, similar to Hanauma Bay.
CONCLUSIONS
The unusually low tumor rate (28%) observed in
Kaneohe Bay was probably due to misidentification of very
slightly tumored turtles as "clean". The low rate of tumor
bites by T. duperrey in Kaneohe Bay indicates that the tu-
mors are not targeted by the wrasses. Tumors harbor para-
sites (Balazs 1991) but the fish are ignoring this food source.
This may be evidence that the fishes have learned that turtles
swim away if tumors are targeted, and therefore more food
can be gained by ignoring tumors entirely. Resting data
showed an interesting correlation between sex and time of
rest. This may be due to small sample size.
LITERATURE CITED
Balazs, G.H., Miya, R.K., and M.A. Finn. 1994. In:
Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Symposium on Sea
Turtle Biology and Conservation. NOAA Tech. Memo:
NMFS-SEFSC-341, 281 pp.
Balazs, G.H., Rice, M., Murakawa, S.K.K., and G. Watson.
1996. In: Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual
Balazs, G.H., and S.G. Pooley, eds. 1991. Research plan for
marine turtle fibropapilloma. U.S. Dept. Commer.,
NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS, NOAA-TM-NMFS-
SWFSC-156: 113 pp.
Booth, J. and J.A. Peters. 1972. Behavioral studies on the
green turtle (Chelonia mydas) in the sea. Animal
Behavior 20(4):808-812.
Losey, G. S., Balazs, G. H., and L. A. Privitera. 1994.
Cleaning symbiosis between the wrasse, Thalassoma
duperrey, and the green turtle, Chelonia mydas. Copeia
1994 (3): 684-690.

CONSERVATION AND RESEARCH OF SEA TURTLES, USING COASTAL COMMUNITY

ORGANIZATIONS AS THE CORNERSTONE OF SUPPORT - PUNTA BANCO AND THE
INDIGENOUS GUAYMI COMMUNITY OF CONTE BURICA, COSTA RICA
Randall M. Arauz1 and Isabel Naranjo2

1
Sea Turtle Restoration Project, Earth Island Institute. rarauz@cariari.ucr.ac.cr
2
Asociacion PRETOMA, Programa Restauracion Tortugas Marinas/Costa Rica
The coastal community of Punta Banco is located Table 1. Sea Turtle nesting activity and poaching of nests from
in the South Pacific region of Costa Rica, six kilometers south August to December of 1997, in Punta Banco, Puntarenas, Costa
Rica.
of Rio Claro de Pavones, in the Province of Puntarenas. In
spite of never being reported as an important nesting site for Species #Nests % Number of nests % False crawls
sea turtles, this site supplies the local illegal egg market. Dur- poached
olive ridley 133 97.1 32 24.2 46
ing the 1995/96 nesting season poaching was apparently very Pacific green 4 2.9 1 25 2
close to 100% (personal communication from local repre- Total 137 33 24.1 48
sentatives). The open and illegal harvest of turtle eggs is a
major concern of community leaders. It must be mentioned relocated into one of the three hatcheries, 126 of which
that the site is of outstanding scenic and natural beauty, and (97.28%) were of olive ridley sea turtles, 2 of hawksbills
is currently successfully exploited as an ecotourism destina- (1.8%) and 1 of a Pacific green (0.9%). Poachers took 24
tion. In July, 1995, the Tiskita Foundation, Punta Banco com- nests (18.6%). The average hatching success of the 129 nest
munity members and the Sea Turtle Restoration Project of located in three hatcheries was 73.55%, 78.74% and 75.6%
Earth Island Institute decided to implement a turtle conser- respectively. In the end, 12969 eggs were protected and pro-
vation program in Punta Banco under a joint effort. duced 8029 hatchlings during the 1996 season.
OBJECTIVES 35
Evaluate sea turtle nesting activity in Punta Banco, 30
Costa Rica.
Nests
Evaluate and reduce the pressure induced by egg 25
False crawls
Poached
poachers.
20
Increase hatching success and survival of hatchlings
by relocating nests in a hatchery.
15
Create and foster environmental concern among the

citizens of Punta Banco, through active involvement 10
in the project and activities to be carried out among

the school children. 5
Create a new service for ecotourists who visit the area

(turtle watch). 0
Punta Airport North River South River Bolivar Romain Estrechura
Banco
METHODOLOGY
Figure 1. Number of nests, false crawls and poached nests per
Locals (2 from each community) are hired and trained sector in Punta Banco, Costa Rica, Aug - Dec, 1997.
to be beach monitors. Sea turtles encountered are identified
and measured. All nesting activity is recorded (false crawl, During the course of the 1996 study, the project was
false nest, poached nest), and all clutches possible are counted approached by the local indigenous Guaymi representative
and relocated into a hatchery. Rafael Bejarano, who expressed an interest to involve the
coastal Guaymi community of Conte Burica, 7 kilometers
RESULTS south of Punta Banco, in the sea turtle protection program.
As an initial effort, the Tiskita Foundation recorded 350 As a result, tow Guaymi citizens were hired and trained dur-
solitary olive ridley turtle tracks along a 5 kilometer stretch ing the 1997 season.
of beach from August to October of 1995. Intensive beach In 1997, 185 turtles crawled up the beaches of Punta
monitoring initiated during the 1996 nesting season, from Banco, to lay successfully in 137 of the crawls, and to per-
July to December. During this first effort, 242 turtles crawled form false crawls in 48 cases (Table 1) 104 of the nests
up the beaches of Punta Banco, to lay successfully in 153 of recorded were relocated into one of the four hatcheries.
the crawls (62.22%), and to perform false crawls in 89 cases Poachers took 33 of the nests (24.1%). The average hatch-
(36.77%). 129 (84.31%) of all nests recorded (153) were ing success of the 101 olive ridley nests located in the four
238 Public Education and Participation / Poster presentations

Table 2. Description, neonate production and hatching success of 104 translocated sea turtle nests in four separate hatcheries, Punta
Banco, Puntarenas, Costa Rica, from August 1997 to January, 1998
Hatching
Species # of nests # eggs X SD Min Max AVG days SD Min Max # of neonates
Success
Hatchery 1
Olive ridley 23 2323 101 18.7 56 130 47 4.6 34 55 1075 43.71
Pacific green 1 73 0 0
Hatchery 2
Olive ridley 37 3583 96 20.2 35 137 48 3.3 43 57 2184 61.83
Pacific green 1 100 53 89 62
Hatchery 3
Olive ridley 29 2964 102 20.1 49 124 53 4.2 46 66 1078 33.5
Pacific green 1 94 35 93 98.9
Hatchery 4
Olive ridley 12 1210 101 15.8 70 120 48 2.4 44 51 463 41.4
Total 104 10347 4982
hatcheries was 43.7%, 61.83%, 33.5% and 41.4% respec- The effect of these tides impacted all the hatcheries, but had
tively (olive ridley). Only 3 Pacific Green turtle nests were a greater effect on hatchery number 3, which was the closest
relocated into hatcheries, one of which was destroyed by the to the high tide line. Poaching also took a higher toll in 1997.
high tides (0% hatching success). The other two nests were Finally, dogs took a very high percentage of the two hatcher-
in separate hatcheries, and presented hatching success rates ies that were located closest to the town. Dogs are consid-
of 62% and 98.9% respectively. In the end, 10347 eggs pro- ered a great problem, and since they are pets, a difficult one
duced 4982 hatchlings (Table 2). 17%, 12%, 34% and 16% to solve. Poaching from a hatchery occurred for the first time
loss due to high tides was recorded for each hatchery respec- ever in hatchery 3.
tively. Nesting activity along the 5 km stretch of beach dur-
ing the 1997 season coincides with the general pattern of OTHER ACTIVITIES AND FUTURE GOALS
1996 (Figure 1), however, a greater peak of nesting activity During 1998 the Project will be extended to include
occurs in the zone Bolivar (24 turtles in 1996 and 42 turtles the new station in Caa Blanca, inside the Conte Burica In-
in 1997. digenous Territory. A Guaymi will be the project coordina-
tor, and two local members of the coastal Guaym commu-
DISCUSSION
nity of Caa Blanca will be hired as beach monitors. In Punta
Fewer nests and eggs were protected, and fewer Banco, the project will be coordinated by an international
hatchlings produced in 1996 than in 1997. Several reasons student, who will also periodically visit the project in Caa
have been identified to be the source of the reduced numbers Blanca to assist and advise the Guaym. In order to seek the
for the 1997 season. Very high nest loss due to extremely future sustainability of these projects, we are fostering vol-
high tides was recorded, which obviously impacted the hatch- unteer programs. Funds generated are used to hire locals as
ing success. 1997 was a year in which four year cyclic ex-
tremely high tides occur along the Central American Pacific. 60
45
50
40 1996
#
1997
35 40
Nests o
30 False crawls
f
30
Poached n
25
e
20
s
20
t
s
15
10
10
5 0
II Aug I Sept II Sept I Oct II Oct I Nov II Nov I Dec
0 1st or 2nd half of month
II Aug I Sept II Sept I Oct II Oct I Nov II Nov I Dec
Figure 2. Number of nests, false crawls and poached nests recorded Figure 3. Nesting Activity in Punta Banco, Costa Rica, during 1996
in two week intervals, Punta Banco, Costa Rica, 1997. and 1997.
Poster presentations / Public Education and Participation 239

45
operation with the World Society for the Protection of Ani-
mals (WSPA).
40
1996
1997
35 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
30 The authors would like to thank: Dr. Peter Pritchard
25
and the Chelonia Foundation, The Tides Foundation, the
Tiskita Foundation, and Alvaro Ugalde of the United Na-
20
tions Small Donations Program, whose support make this
15 project possible.
10
0
Punta Banco Airport North River South River Bolivar Rom ain Estrechura
Figure 4. Number of nest recorded during two week intervals, Punta

Banco, Costa Rica, 1996 and 1997
beach monitors. During 1997, 4 volunteers visited Punta

Banco, and we expect this figure to grow during the future
1998 season. Furthermore, we are planning on developing
an environmental education program in the schools, in co-
PROGRAMA MODELO DE PARTICIPACIN INTERSECTORIAL PARA LA

PROTECCIN DE LA TORTUGA MARINA EN PUERTO VALLARTA, JALISCO. MXICO
Oscar Vidal Barragan Cuencas and Juana Adelfa Delgado Quintana

Universidad de Guadalajara, Centro Universitario de la Costa Campus Puerto Vallarta, Mxico
Dadas las adversas condiciones econmicas por las que

atraviesa nuestro pas es necesario buscar vas alternas para
sufragar los gastos producidos en un campamento tortuguero
y no dejar esta responsabilidad solo en el sector oficial
instituciones educativas. En este programa modelo se busca
establecer una cooperacin entre el sector oficial y el privado,
promoviendo su participacin en la conservacin y el
desarrollo sustentable.
Desde 1992 se integr en Puerto Vallarta, Jalisco un
comit proconservacin de la tortuga marina. En 1996 se
integro con una nueva estructura y quedo conformado por
representantes del sector oficial de los 3 niveles de gobierno,
el sector privado, el sector social y el sector tcnico-cientfico
representado por la Universidad de Guadalajara. Las
funciones de este comit son la planeacin, coordinacin y
ejecucin de las acciones del programa de proteccin a la
tortuga, que tiene como objetivos participar en la
conservacin de la tortuga marina en el Pacfico mexicano,
cubriendo aspectos disciplinares como el manejo, la
vigilancia, la proteccin, la investigacin, la educacin y el
desarrollo comunitario.
Este programa se basa en las estrategias y acciones que
se establecen en el Programa Nacional de Tortuga Marina y
particularmente en el programa universitario de la
Universidad de Guadalajara.

INFORMATION EDUCATION CAMPAIGN OF MARINE TURTLE CONSERVATION IN THE

PHILIPPINES
Renato D. Cruz
Pawikan Conservation Project, PAWB-DENR, Philippines 1101. pawb-plan@psdn.org.ph
The Pawikan (marine turtle) Conservation Project ducted by the PCP and the enforcement arm of the DENR
(PCP) of the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB), has yielded not less than U.S. $ 8,000.00 worth of by-prod-
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) ucts in 1996 and 1997 alone. DENR personnel deployed at
was created in 1979 to protect and manage the remaining the international airport have confiscated a number of stuffed
marine turtle populations in the Philippines. Aside from re- turtles and guitars made of turtle carapaces from departing
source management and research, one of the major tasks of foreign tourists. The PCP intends to put up billboards in all
the PCP is to conduct information and education campaigns international gateways of the Philippines, notably Manila,
(IEC) throughout the country to increase the awareness of Cebu and Davao.
Filipinos and to solicit their participation in the conservation T-shirts/baseball caps. The project has conceptual-
activities being implemented by the government. Since 1983, ized t-shirts with seven different turtle designs, and a base-
the Project has been utilizing, one way or the other, all pos- ball cap with an embroidery patch designed with a turtle and
sible and effective means of communications to promote dugong. Along with a Certificate of Appreciation, either of
marine turtle conservation. these products are given to individuals, especially fisher-
Documentary film. The first 20-minute documentary men, who have reported turtles with metal tags or surren-
film produced by the PCP focused on marine turtle biology, dered the turtles to the DENR for tagging and/or for release.
causes of the decline of marine turtle populations in the Phil- In 1994, a manufacturer of popular t-shirts with conserva-
ippines, creation of the Task Force Pawikan (original name tion designs forged an agreement with the PAWB to donate
of the PCP) and Council, and the activities being undertaken 10% of the sales of its marine turtle-designed t-shirts to the
by the project. Besides being often shown in schools and PCP. This undertaking significantly helped in promoting
colleges, copies of the film were also distributed to the re- marine turtle conservation awareness in the people, espe-
gional offices of the DENR and some resorts. Another docu- cially since the t-shirts are widely distributed in major cities
mentary film is currently being produced by the PCP, with a in the country. In addition, many of the PCP's activities were
Filipino version to cater to the larger populace of people financially supported through the donation.
living in the countryside. Stamp Canceller. In 1989, in commemoration of the
Radio Plug. The country, being archipelagic with in- 10th year of the PCP, a stamp canceller with marine turtle
adequate or lacking communication facilities, makes the ra- design was produced in collaboration with the Philippine
dio the most effective media tool that can be accessed. Thus, Postal Corporation; the project lasted a year.
a 15-second radio plug that gave emphasis on the ban to Postcards. Pre-paid postcards depicting the five spe-
collect or kill the endangered sea turtles was produced and cies of turtles found in Philippine waters are distributed to
translated in five common Filipino dialects. This was aired the DENR Regional Offices, concerned individuals, non-
free of charge in the different regions of the country. government organizations, local governments and commu-
Posters. The PCP has so far produced four poster denity schools. Through the data gathered from the postcards
signs for distribution nationwide. The latest design depicts a and Field Action Officers' reports, the PCP has plotted the
turtle and dugong imposed on a collage of dinosaurs, with a distribution of turtles in the entire country.
caption saying, "Are we to let our children inherit only sto- Training-Workshop for DENR Personnel. The
ries?" Project has been fully utilizing the assistance of the DENR's
Primers/brochures. Print materials containing a brief 15 regional offices and branches, 69 Provincial Environment
description of the biology and ecology of marine turtles, as and Natural Resources Offices (PENRO) and 159 Commu-
well as the pertinent laws concerning their conservation have nity Environment and Natural Resources Offices (CENRO).
also been produced for distribution. Mimeographed versions These offices are in the forefront in implementing DENR's
in both English and Filipino are distributed during habitat mandates at the grass roots level. In 1989, DENR Special
surveys and IEC, and more specialized primers are given Order No. 884 was promulgated, designating all Regional
during seminars, lectures and training-workshops. The PCP Technical Directors for Environment and Natural Resources
also distributes these print materials to individuals who reas PCP Field Action Officers (FAO). One of the specific
quest for them. duties and responsibilities of the FAO is to assist the PCP in
Billboards. Billboard signs have been erected in stra- conducting a Conservation Education Program in their re-
tegic locations, such as piers and gates of a complex that spective regions. The Project conducted Orientation-Train-
houses more than 100 native souvenir shops. In spite of the ing Workshops for DENR field personnel to equip them with
ban, local businessmen still engage in the trade of marine the necessary knowledge to conduct IEC and implement other
turtle by-products. In fact, surveillance and confiscation con- PCP activities. The topics of the training workshop include:

Biology and Ecology of Marine Turtles, Tagging and Hatch- than 15 thousand students, 168 teachers and 200 DENR per-
ery Procedures, Existing Marine Turtle Rules and Regula- sonnel from 12 regions have participated in the Dalaw-Turo.
tions, Concepts of Marine Wildlife Conservation and Man- Media Coverage. From 1991 onwards, media cover-
agement, and Identification of Functions and Commitment age was intensified, which have elicited considerable public
of the Participants for Marine Turtle Conservation. From support. The Department of Tourism sponsored a group of
1989-1997, more than 300 DENR personnel were trained journalists from different newspaper and magazine publica-
by the PCP. tions to visit the Turtle Islands, some 1000 km south of Ma-
Seminars/lectures. As a cost-effective strategy, IEC is nila, the country's capital. The Turtle Islands was featured in
integrated with the habitat surveys conducted by the research two leading television programs.
unit of the PCP. The method used is interpersonal-group ap- Exhibits. Many non-governmental organizations
proach consisting of a simple lecture with a slide presenta- (NGOs) had collaborative undertakings with the PCP. In 1994
tion or a film show. In areas with no sources of electricity, and 1997, these NGOs coordinated with the project to set up
flip charts are used as visual aid. About 50-300 people, mostly month-long exhibits on marine turtles and other endangered
children and fishermen, attend each of these lectures. From species in popular shopping malls. Due to their strategic lo-
1992-1996, the PCP conducted IEC in 253 local communication, these projects elicited a number of patrons who con-
ties in 26 provinces. The PCP also gives lectures in schools tributed financial support to the project.
upon invitation.
Dalaw-Turo (Visit and Teach). This is an outreach ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
program of the DENR that employs a non-traditional educa- Kabang Kalikasan ng Pilipinas\WWF-Philippines and
tional participatory communication design of teaching The David and Lucile Packard Foundation for travel sup-
biodiversity and sustainable development. The most inter- port; Dr. Rhodora R. de Veyra for editing the text and the
esting feature of this program is the integration of lectures, PCP staff for their unwavering support.
drama and games as a technique in imparting conservation
of natural resources among its audience. The marine turtle
has become a part of this program. From 1992-1996, more
COMUNIDAD, TORTUGAS MARINAS Y LA RESERVA DE ESCOBILLA, OAXACA,

MEXICO
Carmen Elizalde and Florencio Nataren

Ecologia, Desarrollo y Medio Ambiente, A.C. (Ecodema) A.P. 29 C.P. 79900 Pochutla, Oaxaca
INTRODUCCION
Ecologia, Desarrollo y Medio Ambiente, A.C. es una Considerando esta situacin y comprometidos con el
organizacin no gubernamental con la misin de promover concepto de la sustentabilidad, nos hemos dado a la tarea de
y ejecutar programas y proyectos encaminados a la brindar y generar opciones en la busqueda del desarrollo in-
conservacin de los recursos naturales y al desarrollo de las tegral de las comunidades a travs de procesos productivos
comunidades. alternativos, de educacin ambiental y capacitacin en
Bajo este contexto nuestro mayor quehacer lo ecotecnologas. Algunos de los avances y resultados que
realizamos en la costa del estado de Oaxaca, donde se tenemos en las comunidades son:
localizan poblaciones de tortugas marinas de importancia cursos a maestros y talleres infantiles de educacion
mundial, y donde se tiene la playa de Escobilla, Zona de ambiental con diversas estrategias y tecnicas educativas
Reserva y de mayor anidacin para Lepidochelys olivacea diseadas para cada grupo.
en Mxico. Se ha capacitado a personal docente en el ambito de la
Entre las comunidades humanas donde ECODEMA educacion ambiental, y se han impartido multiples talleres
desarrolla sus trabajos y que estn relacionadas histrica y Infantiles, donde los nios han aprendido sobre
ambientalmente con las tortugas marinas, se encuentran las aprovechamiento y conservacion de recursos naturales, han
asentadas en la cuenca hidrolgica de Cozoaltepec en el realizado acciones de reforestacion composteo, reciclado de
municipio de Tonameca, ro que desemboca a la playa de papel, liberacion de crias de tortuga al mar etc.
Escobilla. De tal manera que las actividades productivas y Capacitacion sobre tecnologias alternativas en 10
cotidianas que realizan los pobladores de estas comunidades comunidades de la cuenca baja cozoaltepec y relacionadas
influyen directamente en los ambientes de las tortugas mari- con el area de reserva la escobilla.
nas y en su conservacin.

Capacitacion y formacion de mas de 16 promotores de financiamiento de la embajada de holanda que se tiene

las 10 comunidades en curso intensivo sobre: apalabrado, para impulsar este proyecto.
BIODIGESTORES El animo del grupo ha decaido al no contar con el
Xochical como sistema alternativo para tratar y reciclar permiso de la sexlarnap y por la destruccion de gran parte de
desechos humanos que eviten la contaminacin de la cuenca la infraestructura que se habia generado antes de ocurrir los
Cozoaltepec. huracanes de 1997. A pesar de esto, los integrantes
AGRICULTURA ORGANICA convencidos de su objetivo y en la medida de sus
Promoviendo obras de conservacin de suelos, control posibilidades y las de ECODEMA continan trabajando
integral de plagas, produccin y aplicacin de abonos elproyecto.
orgnicos vegetales y animales. En barra del potrero Cozoaltepec frente a la playa
NUTRICION ALTERNATIVA escobillase impulsa el procesamiento natural de cultivos y
Por medio de alimentos no convencionales, plantas de la region en conservas, deshidratado de frutas y
econmicos, fciles de preparar y delicioso. medicamentos, como una opcion economica y de autoempleo
local para pobladores de la reserva tortuguera.
ECOTURISMO EN LA RESERVA DE ESCOBILLA Se construye un centro de capacitacion y educacion
Es un proyecto productivo alternativo para alternativa para el desarrollo comunitario.
mejoranfiento de un pequeo grupo de pescadores y amas Desde 1994 se esta promoviendo e impulsando la
de casa, pero al mismo tiempo con la vision de que la apropiacion de biodigestores xochicalli para tratar y reciclar
comunidad de escobilla se vaya apropiando de esta alternativa desechos humanos, habiendo ya 15 de estos sistemas en
para aprovechar sin destruir a las tortugas marinas, las igua- hogares de la comunidad, asimismo el empleo de estufas
nas y sus ambientes. rurales ahorradoras de lea.
Parece ser que los tramites para obtencion del permiso Actualmente se han comenzado con pobladores
para el desarrollo de las actividades ecoturisticas se esta voluntarios acciones para la reforestacion y recuperacion de
burocratizando, pues a dias de un ao de iniciar su gestion, areas naturales y zona poniente de la reserva escobilla
no se tiene una resolucion, lo que ha impedido contar con el afectadas por los huracanes de 1997.
PREHISPANIC MARINE TURTLES IN PERU: WHERE WERE THEY?
J. Frazier1 and Duccio Bonavia2

1
Centro de Investigacin y de Estudios Avanzados del I.P.N. Unidad Mrida, Carretera Antigua a Progreso km 6, A.P. 73
"Cordemex", Mrida C.P. 97310, Yucatn, Mxico. frazier@kin.cieamer.conacyt.mx
2
Laboratorio de Prehistoria, Departamento de Biolga, Universidad Peruana Cayetano, Heredia, Lima, Per
INTRODUCTION
The climate of coastal Peru is ideal for the long-term in a single haul of a beach seine in the Pisco area, and stated
preservation of organic remains; and there is a large and ever- that turtle meat and oil were much appreciated (Cobo, 1964).
growing number of archaeological studies in this region. During recent years, thousands of marine turtles have been
Nearly 11,000 years of coastal habitation, and 3,000 to 4,000 caught off southern Peru, especially around San Andrs,
years of permanent human occupation on the Peruvian coast where their meat has been sold as a special dish (Vargas et
have left a wealth of archaeological evidence. Exploitation al.,1994).
of marine resources has been persistent and conspicuous from Marine turtles are potentially ideal for archaeological
about 5,000 years ago to the present. There are enormous studies, for their bones are numerous, robust and relatively
midden mounds at many coastal sites, showing the degree to easily identified. Thus, remains of these animals would be
which marine resources were harvested. The diversity of expected to be common at many coastal archaeological sites
marine organisms found in these sites is remarkable, includ- in Peru.
ing: algae, sea urchins, tunicates, scores of fishes - large and At the same time, numerous prehispanic Peruvian cul-
small, sea birds, seals and whales. tures are famous for their representations of a wide diversity
Detailed analyses of historic documents show a wealth of animals. There are great quantities of prehispanic ceram-
of information on fishing and other marine activities along ics and textiles, many of which have astonishingly realistic
the Peruvian coast; yet, information on marine turtles is rare depictions of both terrestrial and marine animals, as well as
(Rostworowski, 1981). One document that stands out is Fa- hunting and fishing scenes. Artifacts from Moche and Paracas
ther Bernab Cobo's chronicle of the New World, between cultures are especially notable for their representations of
1613 and 1653. He reported the capture of 80 to 100 turtles animals.

Table I. Summary of information on marine turtle remains at prehispanic archaeological sites in Peru and northern Chile (BP = years before
present).
Site Estimated Age Number of Turtle Source

Remains
Peru
Quebrada de Siches 7980 5605 BP 1 Richardson 1978
Parias 2300 1600 BP 10 Wing 1977
Huaca Prieta 4257 3550 BP 4 Bird et al. 1985
Los Gavilanes 4869 3908 BP 36 Bonavia 1982
Sto. Domingo, Paracas 6000 4000 BP > 30 Engel 1981
Chile
Playa Miller Ceramic few Bird 1943
Los Verdes 1070 - 930 BP Cranium Morales in litt. 1993
Playa Vicente Mena 1000 1400 BP Carapace Morales in litt. 1993-94
PREHISPANIC REMAINS OF MARINE TURTLES IN Turtles occurred, but far out to sea, where people did
PERU not normally encounter them?
Remains of marine turtles have been documented at At least since Colonial times, these animals have been
five prehispanic sites along the coast of Peru (Table I), spread found - occasionally in large numbers - in coastal environ-
out from the extreme north to southern Peru. Although an ments, sometimes in relatively shallow water. Furthermore,
impressive diversity of marine animals has been reported rock paintings from Quebrado el Mdano, Chile, show scenes
from scores of coastal sites, no other reports of prehispanic of harpooning whales, large fishes and turtles; and it is known
marine turtle remains are known from Peru. There are three that prehispanic peoples from this region were capable of
sites in northern Chile were marine turtle remains are docu- lengthy and extended sea voyages.
mented (Table I); these are all ceramic sites, and in two cases Turtles were encountered along the coast, but people
the turtle remains are exceptionally intact. did not have the technology to catch them?
Preceramic peoples had nets, and possibly even small
PREHISPANIC CULTURAL DEPICTIONS OF vessels; furthermore, faunal remains show that large fishes
MARINE TURTLES IN PERU were caught - evidently in beach seines. Faunal remains and
rock paintings show that large, powerful marine vertebrates
Marine turtles were portrayed in Moche ceramics (from (whales, sharks and turtles) were harvested.
200 BC to 700 AD), some of which are remarkably realistic. Marine turtles, although present, and catcheable, were
Although Moche ceramics are numerous and famous for their avoided because of taboos?
naturalism, compared to other animals, marine turtles motifs Turtles are important elements in creation myths and
are very infrequent; Lavalle (1970) studied more than 1,600 legends of many American cultures, but at the same time,
Moche pieces, and stated categorically that turtles were rare. marine turtles are exploited and relished as food by most
Including all Peruvian cultures, we can find only about 20 coastal peoples.
ceramic pieces depicting turtles. A high proportion of these Marine turtles were harvested by prehispanic peoples
have unreliable data, and their cultural affinities are unknown. in Peru, but processed in such a way that the remains have
The case with textiles is similar, and despite a wide variety not been detected by archaeologists?
of animals portrayed in them, turtles are just not found (Pe- Turtle shells and other bones may have been discarded
ters 1991). on beaches, rather than being brought to habitation sites: the
same reasoning is used to explain the paucity of sea lion
WHY IS THERE SO LITTLE EVIDENCE OF bones in prehispanic sites. Also, scavenging by camp dogs
MARINE TURTLES FROM PRE-COLOMBIAN would have destroyed many turtle bones. Nonetheless, given
PERU? the large number of bones in a single turtle, and the fact that
There are several possible explanations as to why there the appendages (neck, limbs and tail) - all of which have
is so little evidence of marine turtles from prehispanic Peru. distinctive bones - might best be processed in habitated ar-
Each of these is discussed in turn: eas, it is still remarkable that so few bones have been re-
Turtles did not occur in Peru until recently? ported.
Remains of marine turtles are known from Peru some Archaeologists have, for some reason, not detected
5,000 to 8,000 years ago; and there are remains in northern or reported marine turtle bones from Peruvian sites?
Chile, at least from ceramic times. There is no reason to as- Given the diversity of faunal remains that have been
sume that marine turtles have not been a regular part of the reported, some of which are much more delicate and diffi-
Peruvian fauna for the past few millennia. cult to identify than marine turtles, it is difficult to under-

stand why there would be a bias against reporting marine Peters, A. 1991. Ecology and society in embroidered images
turtle remains. from the Paracas Necropolis. In: A. Paul (Ed.) Paracas
Art and Architecture. University of Iowa Press, CITY,
LITERATURE CITED Iowa. pp. 240-314.
Bird, J.B. 1943. Excavations in northern Chile. Richardson III, J.B. 1978. Early Man on the Peruvian North
Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Coast, Early Maritime Exploitation and the Pleistocene
Natural History 38, Pt. 4:171-316. and Holocene Environment. In: Early Man in America.
Bird, J., J. Hyslop and M. Dimitrijevic Skinner. 1985. The From a Circum-Pacific Perspective. edited by A.L.
preceramic excavations at Huaca Prieta, Chicama Bryan, pp.274-289. Occasional Papers No1 of the
Valley, Peru. Anthropological Papers of the American Department of Anthropology, University of Alberta.
Museum of Natural History 62 (1):1-294. Archaeological Researches International. Edmonton,
Bonavia, D. 1982. Precermico Peruano: Los Gavilanes: Alberta.
Mar, Desierto y Osis en la Historia del Hombre. Lima: Vargas, P., P. Tello, and C. Aranda. 1994. Sea turtle
Corporacin Financiera de Desarrollo S. A. COFIDE- conservation in Peru: The present situation and a strategy
Instituto Arqueolgico Alemn. for immediate action. In: Proceedings of the Fourteenth
Cobo, P. B. 1964. Historia del Nuevo Mundo. Obras del P. Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and
Bernab Cobo, de la Compaia de Jess Vol. 1. Conservation. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-
Biblioteca de autores Espaoles desde la formacin del SEFSC-351, pp. 159-162.
lenguaje hasta nuestros das. Vol. 41. Madrid: Ediciones Wing, Elizabeth S. 1977. Prehistoric Subsistence Patterns
Atlas. Libro Sptimo. of the Central Andes and Adjacent Coast and Spread in
Engel, F.A. 1981. Prehistoric Andean Ecology II. The Deep the Use of Domestic Animals. Report NSF Soc 74-20634.
South. Humanities Press; Atlantic Highlands, New
Jersey.
Lavalle, D. 1970. Les Reprsentations Animales dans la
Cramique Mochica. Universit de Paris. Mmoires de
l'Institut d'Ethnologie - IV; Muse de l'Homme. Paris.
1996 AND 1997 COURSES ON SEA TURTLE BIOLOGY AND CONSERVATION IN

VENEZUELA
Hedelvy J. Guada1, Ana Trujillo2, Laura Sarti3, Hctor Horta4, Vicente Vera5, Tito Barros6, Lenin Parra6, Alexander
Acua6, and Diego Amorocho7
1
WIDECAST/USB. Apdo. 50.789. Caracas 1050-A. Venezuela. 95-79050@USB.VE
2
PROVITA. Apdo. 47.552. Caracas 1041-A. Venezuela
3
UNAM/INPESCA. Pitgoras 1320, 5to. piso. Santa Cruz Atoyac. Mxico D.F. CP 03310. Mxico
4
Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales. P.P. Box 009066600. Pta. de Tierra Station. San Juan. Puerto Rico
00906-6600
5
PROFAUNA. Edif. Camejo. Mezzanina. El Silencio. Caracas 1010. Venezuela
6
Universidad del Zulia. Museo de Biologa. Apdo. 526. Maracaibo 4010. Edo. Zulia. Venezuela
7
Fundacin FES. Cali. Calle 64 Nte # 5B-146. L26. Cali. Colombia
We have taught seven courses on sea turtle biology and During 1996 and 1997 we have organized and taught 3
conservation since 1992. The goal of the courses have been aditional short "Courses on Sea Turtle Biology and Conser-
to provide the scientific information and basic capacitation vation". The V and VI Courses were done in the Escuela de
in the biology and conservation techniques of the sea turtles. Ciencias Aplicadas del Mar of the Universidad de Oriente,
This strategy will promote the realization of research and Isla de Margarita (July 9-13, 1996 and August 4-8, 1997,
sound conservation efforts, needed in Venezuela because of respectively). The auspicers have been the Universidad de
the five species of marine turtles occuring in the country Oriente, WIDECAST, PROVITA, PROFAUNA,
(green turtle, hawksbill turtle, loggerhead turtle, olive ridley INPARQUES, Conservation International, Departamento de
and leatherback turtle) are endangered by human activities Recursos Naturales y Ambientales (Puerto Rico), Columbus
(killing of females, poaching of eggs, lost of nesting and for- Zoo, SARPA, Pro-Margarita and FENAPESCA. The VII
aging habitats, entangling in fisheries nets, etc.). Course was organized in La Universidad del Zulia (LUZ),

Maracaibo (October 13-17, 1997). The auspicers of this EVALUATION

course were LUZ, WIDECAST, Fundacion FES, Columbus
The courses have resulted very exciting, because a lot
Zoo and SARPA.
of the undergraduates have begun to be interested in to know
The courses have had theoretical, practical (field and
more about sea turtles and, to cooperate with environmental
identification) and video sessions. The theoretical sessions
education activities or with research projects. As example, a
include: taxonomy and geographical distribution, biology and
group of five students of the Simon Bolivar University
ecology, monitoring techniques, conservation strategies,
(Caracas) is organizing several lectures for kids with the sea
among others. In the identification sessions the participants
turtle kit provided through the Columbus Zoo. An under-
work with live sea turtles and preserved materials. The field
graduate working in Peninsula de Paria has improved his
sessions included field surveys during the day. Through the
work protecting nests in a leatherback nesting beach. One
video sessions we present some advanced research techniques
student of the Zulia University, who participated in the course
and international sea turtle conservation programs. A set of
of 1993 and what organized the Sea Turtle Course in Octo-
selected bibliography was provided to the participants.
ber of 1997 will begin the first undergraduare thesis about
sea turtles in the country. Near five of the participants of the
RESULTS
1997 Zulia course will be helping him in the field. This the-
We had a total of 47 participants, including students of sis will complement a study conducted by Diego Amorocho
Biology, Marine Biology, Veterinary Medicine, Oceanology in the Colombian Guajira.
and personnel from several governmental and non-govern- Several participants of the courses are attending to the
mental organizations. Three foreigner instructors came to "18th. Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Con-
Venezuela to proportionate a regional view on the Carib- servation" (Mazatln, Mexico). Once finished the courses,
bean sea turtle conservation issues. The invited instructors participants continue connected through the "Tortuga News",
were: Laura Sarti, from the National Autonomous Univer- a quarterly two-pages bulletin what offer information on the
sity of Mexico (UNAM) and National Institute of Fisheries sea turtle conservation efforts in Venezuela and the world.
(INPESCA); Hector Horta, from the Department of Nature
Resources (Puerto Rico) and Diego Amorocho from FES
Foundation and WIDECAST Country Coordinator in Co-
lombia.
ESTABLECIMIENTO DE UN RANCHO TORTUGUERO EN LA REGIN DE CABO SAN

LUCAS, B.C.S., MEXICO
Melania C. Lpez Castro

Departamento de Biologa Marina. rea Interdisciplinaria de Ciencias del Mar. Universidad Autnoma de Baja California
Sur. Carretera al sur Km. 5.5 A.P. 19-B. La Paz, B.C.S. C.P. 23080., Mxico. mol@lapaz.cromwell.com.mx
Overfishing of sea turtles in the past left all species as

endangered or threatened. Even though a decree in 1986
declared all nesting beaches as sanctuaries protected by law,
there's still egg poaching in nesting beaches. Efforts are be-
ing done to avoid this crime, but the resources are not enough
and the protection programs haven't been completely suc-
cessful. Due to these situation I propose the establishment of
a turtle farm with the involvement of the hotels, conserva-
tion groups and people of Cabo San Lucas regarding that
turtle farms like Rancho Nuevo, Tamaulipas have demon-
strated to be among the most effective methods for the re-
establishment of turtle populations. The main objective of
this turtle ranch is to obtain basic information for the assess-
ment of population size and contribute in the re-establish-
ment of the sea turtle Lepidochelys olivacea through the pro-
tection of eggs and new hatchlings. If we consider that this
region is highly turistic, it's an excellent opportunity to edu-
cate people about the importance of sea turtles as natural
resources. Other studies can be done to the better understand-
ing of the biology of sea turtles.

THE PUPPET THEATRE AS A TOOL FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
Raul Miranda Velasco

Secretaria de Ecologia, Gobierno del Estado de Yucatn; Calle 64 No. 437 X 53 y 47-A, Mrida Yucatn Mxico, Tel.
(99)24 47 98 y 28 13 35, Fax s4 67 69
Since 1990, the Department of Ecology began the pro- population (among the children specially) the conciseness
gram of protection and vigilance for the marine turtle at the of not consuming the turtle products. This job as well as the
State Reserve of 'El Palmar'; a year later this was possible protection, is justified because at the 'Palmar' Reserve the
also at the State Reserve of 'Dzilam'. The mentioned Pro- number of turtles is very low compared to the others, and
gram is based on patrolling walks on the beach shores of that is why the urgency of the actions. In Sisal the fishermen
both Reserves to avoid the capture of turtles in nests and are predators of turtle and turtle eggs, taking advantge of the
change the position of the nests into a safer place for the 36 Kms. of beach that can not be patrolled permanently, plus
correct monitoring and protection. Never the less was miss- the near distance between Sisal and Mrida, where they com-
ing a complementary action to enforce these tasks, so in 1996 mercialize the obtained products. Related to The Protection
the Program 'Puppets Theatre as Tool of Environmental Edu- Program, in the 1997 season, 95 nests were taken to the farm-
cation' begins, based in the experience of 6 continuos years yard, with 14,518 eggs and 9,173 new born turtles were set
protecting and observing the hunting in high indexes. There free, all of them of the 'Carey' species, with a 63.18% of the
for was considerate of primal importance to foment to the total suriviving.
THE BARBADOS SEA TURTLE PROJECT: IMPLEMENTING THE WIDECAST

RECOVERY ACTION PLAN FOR BARBADOS
Anthony Poponi1, Lotus A. Vermeer1, Julia A. Horrocks2, and Patrick McConney3

1
Bellairs Research Institute, St. James, Barbados, West Indies. bellairs@sunbeach.net
2
Department of Biological and Chemical Sciences, University of the West Indies, Barbados
3
Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Barbados
INTRODUCTION
Barbados is the most easterly island in the Lesser Sea turtle conservation activities of the Barbados Sea
Antilles. The island has an area of 430km2, with 44km of Turtle Project (BSTP) have been ongoing since 1987, and
beach utilized for nesting by two species of sea turtle: the actions identified by the WIDECAST Sea Turtle Recovery
hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), the predominant spe- Action Plan (STRAP) for Barbados have been conducted
cies nesting in Barbados, and the less common leatherback over the past 6 years. To date, STRAP activities have largely
(Dermochelys coriacea). Green turtles (Chelonia mydas) and been implemented and sponsored by Bellairs Research In-
the occasional loggerhead (Caretta carreta) forage but do stitute (BRI), with support from the local Fisheries Division.
not nest in Barbados. In 1997, the Columbus Zoo (Ohio) provided funding to ex-
Existing regulatory mechanisms to protect sea turtles tend monitoring to the east coast of the island.
in Barbados are inadequate. Current legislation prohibits the The major STRAP activities conducted are (1) moni-
harvest of turtle eggs, the capture of turtles on the beach or toring of nesting activity, (2) tagging of post-nesting females
within 90m of the shore, and the selling or possession of any and of foraging sub-adults and juveniles, (3) monitoring of
turtle of weight under 14kg. Enforcement of legislation pro- hatching events, (4) responding to strandings and care of sick/
tecting turtles is difficult which is in part due to the diffuse debilitated sea turtles, (5) compilation of a sea turtle data-
and extensive beach areas utilized by nesting turtles in Bar- base, (6) increasing environmental awareness, and (7) pro-
bados, and existing penalties for harvesting turtles (e.g. a motion of the non-consumptive use of sea turtles. Details of
fine of approximately $50US) are an insufficient deterrent. each of these activities currently being conducted and future
All species of turtle are currently harvested in Barbados. initiatives, where relevant, are discussed.
Turtles are caught at sea in entangling nets set offshore, and
are also speared opportunistically. However, most turtles are METHODS
harvested illegally whilst nesting. A complete moratorium The Barbados Sea Turtle Project relies heavily upon
on sea turtle harvest and the harvest of eggs has been drafted the cooperation of the general public, particularly hotel staff
as part of a newly revised Fisheries Act, but has yet to be and guests, and other persons living and working near
enacted. beaches, to monitor nesting and hatching activity during the

turtle season (April to December). The Project provides a Future activities will involve collaboration in a regional
year long, 24-hour "turtle hotline" which the public can use project to track and monitor post-nesting females using sat-
to call in information on sea turtles at any time. In the event ellite telemetry in order to investigate habitat utilization, nest-
of a nesting activity, members of the Project response team site tenacity, inter-nesting movements, and post-nesting mi-
travel to the beach to tag and measure the turtle, to mark the gration behavior. It is hoped that such an activity will also
nest location or move the nest if necessary, and ensure that help to further deter poaching attempts of nesting females in
the turtle re-enters the sea safely. In the event of hatching Barbados.
activity, Project personnel help any disoriented hatchlings to Future initiatives with respect to juvenile turtles will
find the sea, and excavate nests to ensure that all hatchlings involve the implementation of a program to tag, track and
have managed to escape from the nest and to examine nest monitor juvenile green and hawksbill turtles in order to in-
contents. vestigate their offshore behavior, movements, residency, and
habitat utilization in the waters around Barbados. Behavior
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION of turtles at sea, particularly juveniles, is poorly understood;
Monitoring of Nesting Activity inter-reef movement and residency of this important life stage
Between 1987 and 1996, the BSTP relied almost ex- is largely unknown. Tagging of juveniles will be undertaken
clusively on public reports of nesting activities. BSTP staff by trained BSTP biologists at commercial dive sites. Blood
respond to reports to confirm a nesting activity, to document samples from tagged juveniles may also be collected for fu-
the location of the nest, and to translocate the nest if threat- ture genetic studies. Involvement of dive operators and dive
ened by predation (including predation by man), beach ero- enthusiasts in monitoring on a continuous basis will foster
sion, storms or compaction. Public awareness has increased community participation in the conservation of these criti-
substantially over the past few years, and there has been a cally endangered species. A poster will be produced to de-
marked increase in the number of nesting activities docu- scribe the Project and inform Barbadians on how to recog-
mented. In 1997, the BSTP continued to respond to public nize the turtles under study.
reports, but also conducted nightly surveillances between Increased knowledge of the local and international
May and November on two index beaches on the south and movements of turtles will provide the basis for determina-
east coast of the island, and frequently monitored a third high tion of the extent to which Barbados shares its sea turtle stocks
nesting density beach on the west coast. Through these ef- with neighbouring countries, and hence the extent to which
forts, 46 new nesting females were tagged. Despite increased cooperative measures are required to ensure the success of
BSTP efforts, it is interesting to note that more than half local efforts to further the survival of sea turtles in Barba-
(167 of 301) of all documented nesting activities in 1997 dos.
were reported by the public.
MONITORING OF HATCHING EVENTS
Future initiatives will involve the implementation of a
saturation tagging program on the primary index beach on All nests are closely monitored by BSTP personnel.
the south coast of the island (see Woody et al., presenta- Following hatchling emergence, nests are excavated and nest
tion). contents examined to assess hatch success and possible causes
Tagging of Post-Nesting Females and of Foraging of embryo and hatchling mortality. Persons working or liv-
Sub-Adults/Juveniles ing close to nests laid on brightly illuminated beaches are
BSTP personnel provide immediate response to public asked to dim lights and keep a look out for disoriented
reports of nesting turtles. Females are tagged, measured, and hatchlings. Where disorientation is inevitable, thereby lead-
photographed whilst nesting, and their safe return to the sea ing to high mortality, the nest is translocated to a dark por-
following nesting is closely monitored. Titanium tags are used tion of the same beach. If this is not feasible, nests are moved
which bear a number and the following inscription "Bellairs to BRI for hatching and hatchlings are then returned to the
Research Institute, Barbados, Reward". same beach for release. Disoriented hatchlings found during
Preliminary surveys of nearshore marine habitats used the day following hatching are collected and released the
or potentially used by sea turtles along the west coast of same night from the natal beach. Unplanned events such as
Barbados were initiated in 1991. Surveys were conducted to these provide the BSTP with an unique opportunity to stage
increase the number of non-nesting turtles tagged annually, hatchling releases for local residents and visitors, with em-
in order to define important feeding and refuge areas, quan- phasis placed on involving school children and youth com-
tify species diversity, monitor population trends, and to iden- munity groups.
tify adverse impacts on important foraging and refuge habi-
tats. In 1997, more extensive surveys were conducted RESPONSE TO STRANDINGS AND THE CARE OF
islandwide by BSTP personnel and through assistance from SICK/DEBILITATED TURTLES
local dive enthusiasts, dive shop operators and commercial
Strandings of dead or injured sea turtles are reported to
charter boats. Surveys were conducted over a 5-month pe-
the BSTP or the Fisheries Division. BSTP personnel collect
riod (August-December) which yielded 180 turtle sightings
the turtle and bring it to BRI. Dead turtles are identified to
at more than 60 different locations.
species, measured and necropsied for possible cause of death.

Stomach contents and tissue samples are preserved. Injured coastal construction companies, architects and landscape
turtles are typically those that have partially drowned in nets, architects in attempts to mitigate potential adverse impacts
but human-induced injuries have also included embedded of coastal developments. Project personnel give talks on sea
fish hooks, spear and bullet wounds, and injuries caused by turtle biology and conservation to schools, governmental and
dynamite blasts and boat propellers. BSTP personnel and 2 non-governmental agencies, and organise formal presenta-
veterinary surgeons treat sick and injured turtles. BRI main- tions at a variety of public fora. Environmental programs
tains several seawater tanks for rehabilitation. implemented by governmental and non-governmental
Sea Turtle Database organisations in collaboration with the BSTP have furthered
Data collected through monitoring efforts of sea turtle the active participation of the general public in monitoring
nesting activity (e.g. numbers and locations of nests, num- turtle activities and maintaining turtle habitats.
bers of poached nests and turtles, numbers of disoriented Non-consumptive Use of Sea Turtles
hatchlings, post-hatchling emerge data from excavated nests) In 1997, a coastal fishing community created a popular
and data obtained from sea turtle strandings are compiled tourist attraction by capturing, raising and releasing 6 green
and maintained at BRI. Fisheries Division and other inter- turtles. These animals are hand-fed daily and can be predict-
ested governmental and non-governmental agencies are pro- ably seen by dive boats, glass-bottom boats, snorkellers and
vided with compiled data upon request. sea bathers. Although neither WIDECAST nor the BSTP
encourage the rearing of sea turtles, these animals have proved
INCREASING ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS to have considerable educational value in that local people
BSTP personnel are actively involved in conducting can see the attraction that tourists have for live turtles. Prob-
extensive public education programs on sea turtles and pro- lems with this type of non-consumptive use may occur if
moting increased awareness about conservation efforts in appropriate guidelines are not put in place that will deter too
Barbados. The frequent beach site visits by Project person- many other persons creating similar attractions.
nel has resulted in an increased spread of information re-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
garding the status and conservation of sea turtles in Barba-
dos. Prior to the beginning of each turtle season, notices and The authors would like to thank Kimberly Woody,
articles are put out by the Project in local newspapers, re- Steven Herzlieb, Vicky Copeman for their dedication
questing assistance from the public in monitoring and con- throughout the nesting season. Our appreciation goes out to
serving turtles. Flyers and pamphlets are sent out to all William Bertalan, the Barbados general public, dive opera-
beachfront hotels and restaurants and coastal property man- tors, hotel staff, and Bellairs Research Institute for their con-
agement agencies. Direct consultations are made with hotel tinued support in our efforts. The authors would like to thank
managers, hotel staff, coastal property managers, beach clean- the Chelonia Institute and the Symposium Travel Fund for
ers, beach vendors, and enforcement officers in the interest providing a travel grant.
of enlisting their support for turtle protection. Information
on maintenance of turtle nesting habitats is disseminated to
PHOTO-IDENTIFICATION OF HAWAIIAN GREEN SEA TURTLES
Austin Richardson1, Lawrence H. Herbst2, Peter A. Bennett3, and Ursula Keuper Bennett3
1
Grade 6, Sir John A MacDonald Middle School, Brampton, Ontario, Canada
2
Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, U.S.A.
3
Turtle Trax http://www.turtles.org (Canada) howzit@turtles.org
Our study demonstrated that use of facial markings is a

reliable way to identify individual green sea turtles. Dr. Herbst
and I had to compare 25 turtles appearing on videotape with
93 images representing 30 animals. We correctly matched
21 animals to their photos and weren't fooled by the remain-
ing four whose photos were intentionally withheld from us.
The basic use for facial photo records is for underwa-
ter fieldwork where turtles either don't have tags or you will
disturb them if you have to read the tags. Reading faces lets
you stay farther away and observe them more naturally. -
possibly for their entire lives.

HATCHLING DISORIENTATIONS ON ST. GEORGE ISLAND, FL: PAST, PRESENT, AND

FUTURE..
Tammy M. Summers, Teresa J. Calleson, George O. Bailey, and H. Lee Edmiston

Apalachicola National Estuarine Research Reserve (ANERR), Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 350 Carroll
St., Eastpoint, Florida 32328. calleson@digitalexp.com
INTRODUCTION
Under natural conditions, hatchlings find the sea by
Number of Disorientation Incidents

40
crawling toward the brighter, lower oceanic horizon and away 35
from the darker, elevated silhouettes of vegetation and dunes 30
that usually border the landward edge of the beach (Lutz and
25
Musick, 1997). Artificial light sources in proximity to nest-
ing beaches produce highly directed light fields that misdi- 20
rect hatchlings (Witherington, 1995). Disoriented hatchlings 15
are usually guided away from the water and are attracted to 10
artificial light usually leading to death by dehydration, ex- 5
posure, predation, or vehicular mortality.
0
There are several strategies for minimizing the effects
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
of artificial lighting on sea turtles. These include 1) educa-
Year
tion--informing the public and making them aware of the
problems and possible solutions, 2) legislation--implement- Figure 2. Sea turtle disorientation incidents by year on St. Gorge
ing light management laws, 3) prevention and enforcement- island, Fl.
-issuing warnings before nesting season to resolve problems
before they happen (Witherington and Martin, 1996). PRESENT
Impacts of artificial lighting on sea turtles has not al- During the 1997 nesting season, it became evident that
ways been a significant problem on St. George Island beaches. St. George Island did indeed have a light pollution problem
Between 1990 and 1996, a total of 19 sea turtle hatchling with Reserve staff documenting a total of 37 hatchling dis-
disorientation incidents were recorded. Approximately half orientation events (Figure 2). These incidents were attrib-
of these incidents occurred in front of commercial areas with uted to multiple light sources including commercial areas,
numerous lights such as motels, condominiums, and public street lights, and beachfront rental home porch/carport lights.
beach accesses. However, St. George Island in northwest Approximately 29 of these disorientations were attributed to
Florida (Figure 1) experienced almost a ten-fold increase in rental home porch/carport lights leading us to believe that
hatchling disorientations from 1996 to 1997, and with the the major source of our problem was not commercial areas
threats imposed by increasing development and a local (as was the case in previous years) but seasonal renters/va-
economy whose base is switching from seafood to tourism, cationers. ANERR staff began taking steps to educate the
area biologists must turn to the above mentioned strategies public of the lighting problems on St. George Island. Sea
for sea turtle protection. turtle informational brochures ("Attention Beach Users")
provided by the Center for Marine Conservation were dis-
tributed to local real estate offices and were then posted in
rental houses along the beach. Several reporters represent-
ing local papers and newsletters wrote articles concerning
the sea turtles and the lighting problem on the island. In ad-
dition, a local radio station, WOYS radio, sponsored several
public radio announcements devoted to protecting sea turtle
hatchlings by reducing light pollution. Preliminary discus-
sions had also begun with local officials on the subject of a
light ordinance for St. George Island.
FUTURE
Future plans include several ideas for public education
and community involvement. A light switch cover has cur-
Figure 1. Location 0f 1997 hatchling disorientation events rently been produced (Figure 3) and will be placed by real
documented on St. George Island in Franklin Country, Florida. estate and Reserve personnel in each beach facing house and
condo prior to the 1998 sea turtle season. A light switch cover

Island and, as a result, the artificial light pollution problems

that accompany these environmental pressures. However,
with increased public awareness, community involvement,
and the adoption of light ordinance legislation, the number
of disoriented hatchlings can be significantly reduced to pre-
serve otherwise suitable nesting habitat for both endangered
and threatened sea turtle species for years to come.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to extend their appreciation to
Wayne Vonada for his help recovering disoriented hatchlings,
recording problem lights on St. George Island, and his hu-
mor. A special thanks to Cindy Clark (Bay Media Services)
for designing the light switch cover and to Florida Power for
their cooperation in turning off street lights and for purchas-
ing the light switch covers for the 1998 season. Sincere thanks
to Barbara Sanders and the St. George Island Civic Club for
their help in making a light ordinance an attainable goal.
Thanks to Martha Maglothin for the use of her camera. Spe-
cial thanks to the residents and vacationers of St. George
Island for turning your lights off!
LITERATURE CITED
Lutz, P.L. and J.A. Musick (Eds.). 1997. The Biology of Sea
Turtles. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida. 432 pp.
Witherington, B.E. and R.E. Martin. 1996. Understanding,
Figure 3. Light switch cover design. assessing, and resolving light-pollution problems on
sea turtle nesting beaches. FMRI Tech. Rep. TR-2.
poster unveiling its design, along with sea turtle information Florida Marine Research Institute, St. Petersburg,
brochures were presented at the ANERR education booth Florida. 73 pp.
during the 34th Annual Florida Seafood Festival held in Witherington, B.E. 1995. Hatchling Orientation. Pp. 577-
nearby Apalachicola. A community-funded billboard warn- 578 In: K.A. Bjorndal, (Ed.) Biology and Conservation
ing of the effects of lights on hatchlings is in the works for of Sea Turtles. Smithsonian Institution Press,
placement on the causeway leading to St. George Island. The Washington, D.C.
St. George Island Civic Club, in cooperation with ANERR
staff, are also currently soliciting support for light ordinance
legislation. With community support, a lighting ordinance
will be in place by the 1998 nesting season. These preventa-
tive measures, combined with the continued placement of
educational brochures in rental houses and the use of the
local media, will target the island's primary beach users. The
ultimate goal is to educate every resident and visitor of St.
George Island of the plight of sea turtle adults and hatchlings
and to accomplish this by working closely with the local com-
munity.
St. George Island is unique in that most of the popula-
tion during the summer is made up of weekly or monthly
renters from other areas. To date, it has been difficult if not
impossible to educate each new group of tourists concerning
the dangers of porch/carport lights to sea turtle hatchlings.
St. George Island is also unique in that the street lights are
privately owned. Therefore, ANERR staff had to obtain the
property owners' permission to have the local power com-
pany, Florida Power, turn off these street lights for the dura-
tion of the hatching season. In addition, the amount of de-
velopment and tourism is rapidly increasing on St. George

SHORT-RANGE REPRODUCTIVE MIGRATIONS OF HAWKSBILL TURTLES IN THE

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS AS DETERMINED BY SATELLITE TELEMETRY
Denise M. Ellis1, George H. Balazs2, William G. Gilmartin3, Shawn K. K. Murakawa1, and Lawrence K. Katahira4
1
Joint Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, 2570 Dole Street, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822-2396 U.S.A.
Denise.Ellis@noaa.gov
2
Hawaii 96822-2396 U.S.A.
3
Hawaii Wildlife Fund, P.O. Box 70, Volcano, Hawaii 96785 U.S.A.
4
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, P.O. Box 52, Hawaii National Park 96718 U.S.A.
Five hawksbill turtles, Eretmochelys imbricata, nest- across the North Pacific (19N, 155W to 28N, 178W)
ing in the Hawaiian Islands during 1995-97 were tracked by and is among the most isolated of all island groups. Prior to
satellite using the Argos system. The purpose of this study the satellite tracking reported herein, distant migrations by
was to locate resident foraging pastures utilized by the turtles, hawksbills to destinations both within the archipelago, and
and to determine the routes taken to reach these sites. The to international areas beyond, were considered as possibili-
hawksbill is a rare and endangered species in the Hawaiian ties.
Islands where it has recently been the focus of increased re-
search and recovery efforts. Nesting is confined to only a
few beaches on the islands of Oahu, Molokai, Maui and Ha-
waii in the southeastern segment of the archipelago. Sightings Ha ma
ku a C
by ocean users of immature or adult hawksbills are uncom- o ast
mon in marine habitats of the Hawaiian Islands. In contrast, 20N
green turtles, Chelonia mydas, are numerous and routinely
encountered by divers and tour operators promoting the un-
derwater viewing of sea turtles.
HAWAII Hilo
Cape Kumukahi
Ha
m KAMEHAME
ak
ua NESTING
20N Co
as 19N
t
22134
HAWAII Hilo 156W 155W

Cape Kumukahi
Figure 2. 1995 post-nesting migration of Hawksbill 22134 from
Kamehame Beach 135 km in a counter-clockwise direction to
Honomu on the Hamakua coast.
KAMEHAME
NESTING
ST3/ST14 one-watt UHF satellite-linked transmitters
19N made by Telonics (Mesa, Arizona U.S.A.) were safely and
22126 securely attached with polyester resin and fiberglass cloth to
the carapaces of four hawksbills nesting at Kamehame on
156W 155W the island of Hawaii (two in 8/95, two in 8/96) and one nest-
ing at Kealia, Maui in 9/97. The three turtles tracked in
Kamehame beach 180 km in a counter-clockwise direction to Honoka
1996-97 were also equipped with Telonics MOD-225 VHF
a on the Hamakua coast. transmitters to allow auxiliary monitoring using a portable
receiver and antenna at nearby coastal sites.
A knowledge of the marine habitats used by Hawaiian Three of the turtles tracked from Kamehame and the
hawksbills, especially adult females, is essential for effec- one tracked from Kealia migrated to the nearshore waters of
tive protection and management. The flipper tagging of 38 the Hamakua Coast, a windswept shoreline of cliffs on the
nesting hawksbills since 1991 has only yielded resightings island of Hawaii that is inhospitable for recreational use (Fig-
on or near the beaches where the turtles were originally ures 1-4). The routes taken were mainly coastal involving
tagged. The Hawaiian Archipelago extends for 2450 km estimated distances of only 135-255 km traveled in 7-10 days.
252 Telemetry and Migrations / Poster presentations

The fourth turtle tracked from Kamehame migrated to

Kahului Bay on the windward side of Maui, a distance of 21N
315 km (Figure 5). The route of this migration was again
mainly along the coastline taking an estimated 18 days. Kahului 25695
MAUI
Ha
m
ak
Paauilo ua Ha
20N Co ALENUIHAHA ma
as kua
t CHANNEL Co
ast
HAWAII Hilo 20N
HAWAII
KAMEHAME
NESTING
19N
KAMEHAME
24191 NESTING
156W 155W

19N
Kamehame Beach 255 km in a clockwise direction to Paauilo on
the Hamakua Coast.
156W
Upon completion of the post-nesting movements to a Figure 5. 1996 post-nesting migration of Hawksbill 25695 from
coastal area, satellite transmissions continued to confirm each Kamehame Beach 315 km Kahului Bay on the Island of Maui.
turtles presence for periods of 71-204 days prior to trans-
mitter signal deterioration. VHF coastal monitoring of the Results presented in this paper constitute the most suc-
turtle that traveled to Kahului Bay (Figure 5) confirmed its cessful satellite tracking of hawksbills reported to date. Fu-
presence there for at least 184 days. Sufficient data were ture research in the Hawaiian Islands will be directed at un-
therefore obtained to reasonably presume that foraging ar- derwater habitat assessments and censusing of hawksbills in
eas had been reached where extended residency occurs, pos- the areas identified by satellite tracking.
sibly until the turtle embarks upon its next reproductive mi-
gration.
21N
4802
KEALIA MAUI
NESTING
ALENUIHAHA CHANNEL
Ha
ma
kua
Co
a st
20N
HAWAII
157W 156W 155W
Figure 4. 1997 post-nesting migration of Hawksbill 4802 from Kealia

Beach, Maui 240 km to Kuku Point on the Hamakua Coast of the
Island of Hawaii.
Poster presentations / Telemetry and Migrations 253

USE OF EPOXY IN TELEMETER ATTACHMENT
Sarah V. Mitchell
NOAA, Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary, 10 Ocean Science Circle, Savannah, GA 31410, U.S.A.
smitchell@ocean.nos.noaa.gov
SITE BACKGROUND AND OVERVIEW OF STUDY OBJECTIVES

Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary is one of the objectives of this project are to monitor: Migratory
largest nearshore live-bottom reefs of the southeastern United pathways during the inter-nesting period, diving behavior,
States. As such it is an important habitat for sea turtles in- offshore reef utilization, inshore spatial use (identification
cluding the threatened loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta). of preferred water areas), seasonal and daily habits, forag-
The ledges and overhangs of the reef provide the loggerhead ing patterns, of log-
sea turtle with protected resting spots, a bountiful resource gerhead sea turtles in
of food, and close proximity to nesting sites on barrier is- the South Atlantic
land beaches. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- Bight.observations
ministration (NOAA) manages Gray's Reef and the other by sanctuary staff
national marine sanctuaries to protect their natural resources. have documented
For each sanctuary, a management plan is developed to en- the presence of vari-
courage compatible public uses, and to promote scientific ous size and age
understanding and public awareness of the marine environ- groups of logger-
ment. Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary is located 32 head sea turtles
kilometers (17.5 nautical miles) off Sapelo Island, Georgia within the sanctuary
and encompasses 58 square kilometers (17 sq. nautical miles) and along the South
of live-bottom habitat.'s Reef is a submerged hard bottom Atlantic Bight, little
(limestone) area that, as compared to surrounding areas, con- is known about the
tains extensive but discontinuous rock outcropping of mod- turtle's daily and sea-
erate (3 meters) height with sandy, flat-bottomed troughs be- sonal behavior or their use of the ocean habitats, especially
tween. The series of rock ledges and sand expanses has pro- off the coast of Georgia. Many studies have focused on nest-
duced a complex habitat of caves, burrows, troughs, and ing behavior and post nesting movement of adult females,
overhangs that provide a solid base for the abundant sessile while little work has been conducted on adult male and juve-
invertebrates to attach and grow. This rocky platform with nile behavioral patterns and spatial use of coastal waters.Sea
its carpet of attached organisms is known locally as a "live Turtle Satellite Tagging Project utilizes backpack satellite
bottom habitat". This topography supports an unusual as- tags to monitor adult and juvenile loggerhead sea turtle be-
semblage of temperate and tropical marine flora and fauna. havior and movement in the South Atlantic Bight. Specifi-
Algae and invertebrates grow on the exposed rock surfaces: cally, parameters including turtle's position, time, and depth
dominant invertebrates include sponges, barnacles, sea fans, are electronically collected and transmitted via satellite to
hard coral, sea stars, crabs, lobsters, snails, and shrimp. researchers at GRNMS. The data will allow scientists to:
Satellite telemeter tracking of male loggerheads cap- 1) help explain movement and dive patterns of logger-
tured at GRNMS, off the coast of Georgia, U.S.A., necessi- head sea turtles.
tated a method of attachment that reduced the time of trans- 2) develop a biological model to increase the predict-
mitter attachment and the risks to the animal. The length of ability of these patterns.
time for the adhesive to cure, potential thermal reaction in 3) obtain information concerning loggerhead behavior
the adhesive mixture and reliability of transmitter attachment and activity off the coast of Georgia.project methods include
to the carapace were examined.of several methods of tele- turtle capture, weight measurement, blood analysis, satellite
meter attachment led to the finding of a two-part epoxy as a tag attachment, and release of turtle. To capture a turtle, a
viable alternative to fiberglass. Use of epoxy significantly loggerhead is directed by divers into a hand held net, carried
reduces the length of time of telemeter application compared to the surface, and lifted onto a boat. Turtles are returned to
to fiberglass. The attachment procedure typically requires the capture site following a blood sample and the attachment
less than 20 minutes when using epoxy as the adhesive. Fi- of a satellite transmitter and identification tag.this study sat-
berglass attachment of telemeters usually obligates several ellite transmitters are attached to the turtle using a new method
hours (the time will vary and is dependent on environmental that emloys a 2-part adhesive.
conditions such as temperature and humidity, as well as the Transmitters are placed on the highest part of the
ratio of catalyst added to the adhesive). animal's carapace, the second vertebral scale. As the turtle
and transmitter are exposed to air, the data collected while

underwater is transmitted via satellite. The transmitted in- RESULTS

formation provides specific information concerning turtle Two-part epoxy method of attachment for satellite trans-
position, time intervals between surfacing, migration behav- mitters has proven successful in this study. Transmitters at-
iors, day/night swimming patterns, and inshore/offshore pre- tached with this method have remain attached, transmitting
ferred water ranges through near real-time data readout of satellite tracking information from the turtles for seven
the loggerhead sea turtle's behavior patterns.this study, nest- months.
ing female loggerhead sea turtles were captured on Wassaw
and Blackbeard Island beaches. Both islands are part of the RESEARCH AT GRNMS
U.S. Department of the Interior National Wildlife Refuge
System. NOAA vessels are utilized to capture adult male sea Gray's Reef National Marine Sanctuary recognizes the
turtles at GRNMS. To capture a loggerhead offshore, a turtle importance of long term monitoring to understand and rec-
is directed by divers into a hand held net, carried to the sur- ognize the health and status of the significant resources found
face, and lifted onto a boat (boat lift and net were designed in the sanctuary. Long term monitoring of the resources also
by S. V. Mitchell, GRNMS). The turtle is returned to the serves the management concerns of other state and federal
capture site after the transmitter has been attached and the agencies as Gray's Reef is one of the largest natural live-
adhesive has set.time satellite data from the three logger- bottom reefs in the South Atlantic Bight and serves as a good
head turtles, "Isabelle", "Annie", and "Ariel", tagged by indicator of overall live bottom health in this region.:carapace
GRNMS staff can be seen on the Whale NET server: http:// for transmitter attachment. If the bottom surface of the trans-
whale.wheelock.edu/whalenet-stuff/loggerhead_cover.html. mitter is smooth it is preferable to score opposing diagonal
lines into the bottom surface of the transmitter with a semi-
OF EPOXY IN TELEMETER ATTACHMENT sharp object such as a screw driver or metal putty knife.up
and prepare supplies:chalk gun loaded with 2-part Foil Fast
Fast Epoxy (The Rawlplug Co. Inc.) is a 2-part struc- epoxy, and secure nozzle in place on gun.mix 2 oz of Sonic-
tural epoxy available in a specially designed compartment Weld by hand.the Sonic Weld into 1 cm coils the following
cartridge. The epoxy is odorless, produces minimal thermic lengths ( these figures are formulated for transmitters that
reaction, and is a high strength epoxy which has a proven measure 7 X 14.5 cm on the bottom surface):coils that are
track record. The Foil-Fast cartridge can be dispensed from each 18 cm in lengthcoils that are each 7 cm in lengtha 1 cm
manually operated injection tools. Each tool has a dual pis- diameter by 18 cm in length coil of thoroughly mixed Sonic
ton design which applies even, consistent pressure to the Weld around the edge of the bottom of the transmitter such
cartridge to insure proper mixing, eliminating the possibility that it covers 1/3 of a long side, the entire short side and 1/3
of measuring errors. The two components: Base Resin and of the following long side, as shown in the drawing below.
Hardener, are mixed in a 1 to 1 ratio using the manual tool This coil will form a lip on the transmitter when it is mounted
system and mixing nozzle. To insure complete and proper on the turtle. Repeat with the other 1 cm diameter by 18 cm
mixing of the epoxy components, the Foil-Fast Systems use long coil of Sonic-Weld to the opposite end of the bottom of
a static mixing nozzle. This reduces the possibility of mixing the transmitter (again 1/3 long side - entire short side- 1/3
errors which are common with hand mixed materials. The long side). Attach one coil 7 cm in length (1 cm in diam-
nozzles have been designed with a unique series of station- eter) to each of the 4 coil ends that you have just placed on
ary components called mixing elements. The elements are the transmitter. Leave these ends hanging free at this point.
motionless and remain in a fixed or static position as the Completely cover the entire bottom of the transmitter with a
epoxy components are pumped through the nozzle. As the generous amount of Foil Fast. Place the transmitter in the
components are pumped through the nozzle, they are pro- correct position on the turtle and press the transmitter firmly
gressively divided and recombined by the stationary mixing against the carapace. Excess Foil Fast will discharge as the
elements to insure precise automatic mixing of the compo- transmitter is placed on the turtle from the 2 openings on the
nents. Weld is used as a physical barrier to hold the Foil-Fast long sides in areas where there is an absence of Sonic-Weld.
in place, as a means to level the space between the carapace If Foil Fast does not flow outside from the bottom of the
and transmitter, and as a secondary adhesive. This two part transmitter, remove the unit and apply additional Foil Fast to
epoxy is designed to be mixed by hand and is easily mal- transmitter and reapply onto carapace. Press the lip coils of
leable. Mix the contents of one entire tube of Sonic-Weld for Sonic Weld securely in place against the carapace. Press the
the application of each transmitter. An additional benefit of 4 loose pieces of Sonic Weld into the carapace forming a
mixing the full tube is the elimination of measuring errors. triangle on each side on the transmitter as shown in the draw-
Sonic-Weld must be applied before hardening begins, usu- ing (The transmitter forms one of the sides of the triangle,
ally within two minutes.working with these two epoxies, the the other two sides are formed by the 7 cm long coils.)in the
researchers have found Foil-Fast and Sonic-Weld to be non- triangle formed by the Sonic-Weld on each side of the trans-
irritating to human skin, although either may cause a reac- mitter with Foil Fast. epoxies will set in approximately 7 to
tion to sensitive skin, and may be harmful if swallowed. 8 minutes.
Poster presentations / Telemetry and Migrations 255

USE OF A MINIATURE DATA STORAGE TAG ON A JUVENILE HAWKSBILL TURTLE

(ERETMOCHELYS IMBRICATA) AT BUCK ISLAND REEF NM, U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS
Mitchell M. Sisak1, Zandy Hillis-Starr2, Brendalee Phillips3, Roy A. Pemberton Jr.4, and John W. Crow5
1
Lotek Marine Technologies Inc., 114 Cabot Street, St. John's, NF A1C 1Z8. mitch.sisak@lotek.com
2
National Park Service, Buck Island NM, St. Croix, VI
3
U. S. Geological Survey, Biological Resource Division, Buck Island NM, St. Croix, VI
4
The College of William and Mary, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Glouster Pt., VA
5
Computer Support Services, St. Croix, VI
ABSTRACT
Data is presented for a juvenile hawksbill turtle (Eret- land to provide location data on instrumented juvenile hawks-
mochelys imbricata) instrumented with a miniature data stor- bill turtles in the area around the Monument (Figure 1). This
age tag (LTD_100) equipped with transducers for depth, tem- information, together with in-water observations, will be
perature and photoperiod. The three week deployment marks employed to identify zones of activity toward a better under-
the first use of the miniature data logger on marine turtles. standing of the developmental habitat, habitat utilization and
The small size of the instrument (16 mm x 52 mm, 16g ) foraging ecology of juvenile hawksbill turtles around Buck
permits use of a time depth recorder on smaller individuals Island.
than was previously possible, gaining insight into the activi- While telemetry data is invaluable in monitoring the
ties of individuals in these size classes. The five year battery general activity of animals in the wild, the attachment of data
life and 1 Mbytes of on-board memory permit long-term storage tags provides the possibility of providing physical
deployment yielding data with extensive spatial and tempo- data of unrivaled spatial and temporal resolution. In the past,
ral resolution. data storage tags were quite large in size and the memory
Dive time and duration are presented. The restricted capacity was limited. Recent advances in micro-electronics
geographic area over which the test animal ranged during have addressed these issues, resulting in a new generation of
the attachment period precluded the use of photoperiod to data storage tags which are small and long lived. The re-
determine geographic position, but the utility of the tech- duced size of the tag permits the use of data storage tags on
nique is discussed. The attachment method employed per- the smaller size classes of marine turtles, particularly smaller
mits the attachment and removal of the datalogger with mini- subadults and juveniles.
mal stress to the individual. In conjunction with the ongoing biotelemetry studies
being undertaken at BUIS which are based on radio and
INTRODUCTION acoustic telemetry techniques, a newly developed data stor-
age tag was deployed to permit the monitoring of diving
The hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), a ma-
behaviour in juvenile hawksbill turtles. The small size of the
rine turtle with a circumtropical distribution, was identified
unit and its large data capacity and autonomy permit the col-
as endangered in 1970 and is listed under the Endangered
lection of detailed information on small juvenile turtles. The
Species Act of 1973. It's status has not changed. While one
temporal resolution of the data was previously only avail-
of the most commonly observed species in Caribbean and
able in larger instruments unsuitable for use on the smaller
tropical Australia, these individuals are almost entirely made
size classes. With an air weight of 16 g the tag is usable on
up of subadults, and few nesting colonies exist (NMFS,
a 320 g turtle if the 5% rule is followed. The size class distri-
1995). Hawksbill turtles occupy the pelagic environment as
bution for all the juvenile hawksbills tagged to date at BUIS
posthatchlings and reenter coastal waters when they reach
ranges from 1.5 to 49.5 kg., and as such, the data storage tag
approximately 20-25 cm carapace length (Lutz and Musick,
is applicable in all cases.
1997). Coral reefs are widely recognized as the resident
foraging habitat of juveniles, subadults and adults, and the
MATERIAL AND METHODS
hawksbill sea turtle recovery program has identified the con-
servation of these areas as critical for the protection of the Turtle number QQD-622, a juvenile male hawksbill
species (NMFS, 1993). turtle was captured on December 16, 1997, off the East end
In 1988 the National Park Service began conducting of Buck Island using a hand capture technique (Figure 1).
research on the nesting biology of the hawksbill sea turtle at This individual was first captured on June 6, 1995, as part of
Buck Island Reef NM (BUIS) (Photo 1). The program was the NPS/BUIS long term foraging study. He has been re-
expanded in 1994 to include the study of juvenile hawksbill captured 18 times since and at the last capture measured 54.2
turtles resident and foraging in the coral reef habitat surround- cm CCL and weighed 14.0 kg. The 40-50 cm size class rep-
ing BUIS (Philips, 1996). In December 1997, as part of the resents 35.1 % of the population of juvenile hawksbill turtles
study under the NPS/VIMS Cooperative Agreement, an au- tagged at BUIS to date.
tomated biotelemetry system was established on Buck Is-

A miniature data storage tag ( Model LTD_100, Lotek DATA RECOVERY

Marine Technologies Inc.) was deployed on QQD-622 for a
The animal was re-captured in the general vicinity of
period of 23 days (December 16, 1997 through January 8,
initial capture on January 8, 1998, utilizing the hand cap-
1998). The deployed unit had a depth range of 100 m and
ture technique. The data storage tag was recovered and the
an accuracy of 0.2 m. Weighing 16g in air (1 g in water),
carrier removed. Raw data was downloaded using the sup-
the data storage tag was cylindrical in shape, measuring 18
plied tag reader and TAGTALK software into a comma sepa-
mm x 57 mm. The sensor suite consisted of temperature,
rated text file (i.e. csv). Each record consisted of date, time
light and pressure and total memory capacity for the unit
and pressure. The tag held 59,740 pressure records. Light
was 1 Mbyte. The sampling interval was programmed to
and temperature data were also stored in the tag. Light and
30 seconds for pressure and 1 minute for light and tem-
temperature data were examined, but not analyzed as the
perature. Memory utilization with this sampling regime
subject remained within the area of BUIS during the course
resulted in a life of 3 months for the unit before the memory
of the deployment. As such, geolocation information was
was filled. Memory employed is of a FLASH type, guaran-
not required, and the isothermal environment encountered
teeing data retention for 20 years in the event of battery
within the reef area demonstrated minimal variation with time.
exhaustion prior to recovery. The light sensor enables
The pressure records in the data were transformed into
changes in ambient light to be recorded. This information,
meters of sea water, and the data were entered into a cus-
employed with the precise time information recorded at the
tom software program (DIVELOG developed by Computer
moment of sample acquisition, enables the use of algo-
Support Services of St. Croix, Virgin Islands), and parsed
rithms which permit geolocation to be determined to an
into dive events. DIVELOG permits the user to set a depth
accuracy of approximately 40 km (Klimey and Mangan,
at which a surface event is recognized by the program, and
1994).
setting the surface detection threshold at 0.43 meters cap-
The unit was attached to the left postmarginal scutes
tured most surface events which had been previously iden-
(#9 and #10) using 2 mounting holes (0.6 mm) drilled dor-
tified by manually scanning the raw data. Over the 23 day
soventrally through each scute through the non-living tis-
deployment period, DIVELOG identified 693 dive events.
sue. The holes were drilled approximately 10 mm and 30
Data files generated using the depth information were
mm inboard of the outer margin of each scute. The data
output listing dive event number as well as its duration,
storage tag was secured within a carrier (PVC tube) which
average depth, maximum depth and surface interval. Dives
was in turn attached between the mounting holes using ep-
were grouped into day and night dives to permit analysis
oxy as a bedding material (Photo 2). Additionally, nylon
for any diel differences either in dive duration or depth.
cable ties and stainless steel locking wire were passed around
Day dives were classified as any which took place between
the unit and through the mounting holes. Fiberglass resin
the hours of 06h00 and 18h00, while night dives were dives
and Bondo were filleted between the tag carrier and the
which took place between 18h00 and 06h00.
carapace to improve adhesion. The design of the mount was
such that the contained data storage tag could be recovered
without the need to remove the carrier, facilitating the ex-
ecution of long-term studies. While the small sample size and relatively long sam-
Part of a long-term telemetry study, the animal was pling interval combine to prohibit fine-scale analysis of the
also instrumented with a coded acoustic transmitter, cylin- dive data, preliminary analysis has revealed several inter-
drical in shape, measuring 16 mm x 51 mm, weighing 31 g esting findings. Table 1 summarizes the collected dive data
in air (16.6 g in water) which was mounted on the right for QQD-622.
post marginal scute in a similar fashion. A specially adapted
coded radio frequency transmitter measuring 80 mm x 56 DIVE BEHAVIOUR
mm, weighing 109 g in air, and incorporating an abrasion Figures 2 and 3 illustrate dive profiles generated from
resistant vertical antenna was mounted high on the apex of raw data downloaded from the storage tag over a 2.5 day
the carapace on the #2 vertebral scute (Photos 3 and 4). An period immediately after the animal was released and over
automatic data logging station installed on the summit of a 3 day period 10 days following his release .
Buck Island continuously monitors the activity of radio The subject was released at approximately 14h51 on
transmitter equipped turtles upon surfacing in the area sur- December 16, 1997. Visual observations made at the time
rounding the island, while the acoustic transmitter permits of release confirm that QQD-622 made his way gradually
the manual re-location of instrumented submerged animals. out toward deeper water, as is supported by the dive profile
Well within the established norms, the total attached in- (Figure 2). Subsequent dive profiles suggesting transitional
strument mass did not exceed 1 % of the mass of QQD-622. activity are seen on December 26, 1997, particularly evi-
Photo 5 illustrates the animal swimming following its re- dent between 06h00 and 08h00 and again on December 27,
lease. The normal in water posture suggests minimal in- 1997 between 06h53 and 09h00 (Figure 3). This transition
strument induced effects. Four subsequent sightings by the from resting to higher activity occurs as the night dive pat-
researchers of QQD-622 in the same general areas of BUIS, tern is replaced by a day pattern. The data is supported by
along with continuous radio tag monitoring suggests no long term field observations of turtles resident in the BUIS
obvious change in demonstrated behaviour.
257
December 16, 1997 Figure 3: Diving Behaviour of Turtle QQD-622

December 26, 1997
Local Time Local Time
10:27
11:30
12:32
13:35
14:38
15:40
16:43
17:46
18:48
19:51
20:54
21:57
22:59
14:30
14:55
15:21
15:46
16:11
16:37
17:02
17:27
17:53
18:18
18:43
19:08
19:34
19:59
20:24
20:50
21:15
21:40
22:06
22:31
22:56
23:21
23:47
0:00
1:03
2:05
3:08
4:11
5:13
6:16
7:19
8:21
9:24
0.00 0.00
2.00 2.00
Depth (meters)
Depth (m eters)
4.00
4.00
6.00
6.00
8.00
8.00
10.00
10.00
December 17, 1997
December 27, 1997
Local Time
10:38
11:42
12:46
13:50
14:54
15:57
17:01
18:05
19:09
20:13
21:16
22:20
23:24
Local Time
0:00
1:04
2:08
3:12
4:16
5:19
6:23
7:27
8:31
9:35
10:26
11:29
12:32
13:34
14:37
15:40
16:42
17:45
18:48
19:51
20:53
21:56
22:59
0:00
1:02
2:05
3:08
4:11
5:13
6:15
7:18
8:21
9:24
0.00
0.00
2.00
Depth (meters)
2.00
Depth (m eters)
4.00
4.00
6.00
6.00
8.00
8.00
10.00
10.00
December 18, 1997
December 28, 1997

Local Time
Local Time
10:27
11:30
12:32
13:35
14:38
15:40
16:43
17:46
18:48
19:51
20:54
21:57
22:59
0:00
1:03
2:06
3:08
4:11
5:13
6:16
7:19
8:21
9:24
10:32
11:35
12:38
13:41
14:44
15:47
16:51
17:54
18:57
20:00
21:04
22:07
23:10
0:00
1:03
2:06
3:09
4:13
5:16
6:19
7:22
8:25
9:28
0.00
0.00
2.00
2.00
Depth (meters)
4.00
Depth (m eters)
4.00
6.00
6.00
8.00
8.00
10.00
10.00
12.00
12.00
Figure 2: Diving Behaviour of Turtle QQD-622 December 16-18, Figure 2: Diving Behaviour of Turtle QQD-622 December 26-28,
1997 1997
dive showed no diel differences. The deepest dives recorded

area. took place during day dives and registered 14.1 meters. The
Of the total 693 dives recorded over the 23 day pe- deepest night dive was to a depth of 12 m.
riod, 446 were day dives, with the remaining 247 dives be- Direct observation of the BUIS population of resident
ing made at night. Figures 4 and 5 present frequency distri- hawksbill turtles suggests that they typically utilize a restricted
butions for dive duration and average depth, for day and night geographic range and that their activity during daylight hours
dives. Depth of dives undertaken during the day tended to is split between the relatively shallow (depth = 4 m) back
be more variable than dives at night, the latter tending to be reef area and the deeper (depth = 8 m) forereef area.. Though
more regular as to depth and duration. the tag data is lacking with respect to geographic position,
Referring to Table 1, the mean dive duration for day the apparently bimodal distribution depicted by the day time
dives was shorter than for night dives. Average depths of
Dive Duration Dive Depth Maximum Depth Recorded

(minutes) (meters) (meters)
mean SE mean SE
min - max min - max
Table 1: Summary of data collected by the data Period n
storage tag for QQD-622 for Day and Night Dives.
Day 446 39.9 1.2 5.6 0.1 14.1

1.1 - 134.8 0.5 - 13.7
Night 247 61.0 1.1 6.9 0.1 12.0

2.8- 126.5 3.0 - 11.8
258
Day Day
70
70
60
60
50
50
Frequency
40
Frequency
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
0
0.46
1.72
2.98
4.24
5.50
6.77
8.03
9.29
10.55
11.81
13.08
1.10 20.19 39.29 58.38 77.47 96.56 115.66 More
Minutes Depth (meters)
Night Night
60 60
50 50
40 40
Frequency
Frequency
30 30
20 20
10
10
0
0
0.46
1.72
2.98
4.24
5.50
6.77
8.03
9.29
10.55
11.81
13.08
1.10 20.19 39.29 58.38 77.47 96.56 115.66
Minutes Depth (meters)
Figure 4: Frequency Distribution of Dive Duration Figure 5: Frequency Distribution of Average Dive depth
frequency distribution of average dive depth (Figure 5) sup- anic migration. With options which include increased memory
ports these observations. Further, though visual observations size and 20 m, 1000m, and 3000 m depth capability, the tag
are not feasible through the night, tag data for this period is an extremely versatile tool. Though presently in beta ver-
suggests that this time is spent in deeper water, with activity sion, the Divelog program promises to enable researchers to
showing less variation with respect to time. Although the more easily handle the huge quantities of data amassed by
radio telemetry data base is still undergoing construction, the tag, which can then be easily imported into analytical
once developed, the correlation of the data storage tag depth packages for further manipulation.
data with concurrently recorded relative position estimates The availability of robust, dependable electronics pack-
will permit the testing of this hypothesis. ages and powerful software holds great promise for the field
Future projects include the re-deployment of the of sea turtle research.
LTD_100 (or possibly an LTD_20) programmed so as to en-
able only the depth sensor. This configuration will enable ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
the tag to sample pressure at 5 second intervals and yield a The authors would like to thank all of those involved in
tag life of one month. Increased spatial resolution will per- this study for their much appreciated contributions, particu-
mit more accurate recording of dive duration and particularly NPS Volunteers Rick Starr and David "Corky"
larly surface interval, which was difficult to assess with any Houghton. We would also like to thank CellularOne, St.
precision given the 30 second sampling interval employed Croix, Virgin Islands for helping to support this research.
in the initial deployment.
The first deployment of this new generation of data REFERENCES
storage tag on a marine turtle has revealed the instrument
to be well-suited to the application. The combination of small Klimey, A. P. and Mangan, W. J., 1994. Optimizing
size, large memory capacity and extended battery life result positional accuracy of archival tags with irradiance and
in a package ideal not only for coastal studies, but also for magnetic sensors. Proceedings 45th Annual Tuna Confer-
size classes and species which demonstrate large-scale oce- ence. Eds. Kleiber, P. and Rasmussen, R. 115 pp.
259
Lutz, P.A. and Musick, J. A., 1997. The Biology of Sea

Turtles. CRC Press, Florida. 432 pp.
NMFS, 1993. National Marine Fisheries Service and
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Recovery plan for
Hawksbill Turtles in the U.S. Caribbean Sea, Atlantic Ocean,
and Gulf of Mexico. National Marine Fisheries Service, St.
Petersburg, Florida.
NMFS, 1995. National Marine Fisheries Service and
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1995. Status Reviews for Sea
Turtles Listed Under the Endangered Species Act of 1973.
National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Springs, Maryland.
Phillips, B., 1996. Buck Island Reef NM, Hawksbill
Foraging Ground Survey, Annual Summary Report-1996.
NPS Resource Management Report. unpublished, 19 pp.
van Dam, R. and Diez, C. E.,1996. Ecological and
populational aspects of Hawksbills inhabiting the nearshore
areas of Mona and Monito Islands, Puerto Rico. (research
conducted under permits by US NMFS permit no 962 Au-
thorization No. SA 94-22 and DRNA Permiso DRNA-EPE
95-51. January 1996. 35 pp.
260
INCIDENTAL CAPTURE OF TURTLES WITH PELAGIC LONGLINE
Federico Achaval, Yamand H. Marn, and Luis C. Barea

Facultad de Ciencias. Seccin Zoologa Vertebrados. Tristn Narvaja 1674, 11200 Montevideo Uruguay.
achaval@genetica.edu.uy
Data concerning incidental catch of several Turtle spe- used bait was Squid (Illex argentinus), combined with Macke
cies by longliners in SouthWest Atlantic are presented. Data rel (Scomber japonicus). Species of captured turtle were
were collected on board by two longliners, which operated Caretta caretta and Dermochelys coriacea, in a general fre-
between 1994 and 1996. Their target species were Sword- quency of 1,8 ind./1000 hooks. 1,9 % of captured turtles
fish (Xiphias gladius), Tuna (Thunnus obesus) and other re- resulted died, while 98,1% were released alive but with the
lated species. Each vessel used a different rigging of the fish- hook still in the mouth.
ing gear called Spanish system" and "Florida system", with
differences in the materials, bait, presence of chemical light
sticks, and presence of wire in the ga ngions. Collected in-
formation includes set and haul geographic position, surface
water temperature, number of hooks and catch composition
separated by species and number of individuals. The main
TRENDS IN SEA TURTLE STRANDINGS, U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS: 1982 TO 1997
Ralf H. Boulon, Jr.

Division of Fish and Wildlife, 6291 Estate Nazareth 101, St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands 00802-1104, U.S.A.
ab309@virgin.usvi.net
The U.S. Virgin Islands have three species of sea turtles carapace or deep cuts from a propeller. Fishing gear includes
that frequent our waters, green (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill entanglement in nets or fishing line or spear. Turtles found
(Eretmochelys imbricata) and leatherback (Dermochelys on shore with evidence of having been butchered are con-
coriacea). Virgin Island waters support relatively large popu- sidered to be poached. "Other" causes of stranding include
lations of juvenile green and hawksbill turtles which have identifiable reasons for the stranding that were not frequent
increased significantly since protection was afforded them enough to be in their own category. Unknown reasons are
under the U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973. Hawksbill those for which no external cause of mortality was evident
turtles are the most common nester on the many small pocket and for which, if a necropsy was performed, no internal cause
beaches of the Virgin Islands. Green turtles also nest but in of mortality was determined.
fewer numbers and mostly on St. Croix. Leatherbacks mi-
grate from the north Atlantic to nest on a few beaches in the RESULTS
Virgin Islands with individual internesting intervals of two
Turtle stranding records for the U.S. Virgin Islands have
or more years. The largest nesting aggregation of leather-
documented at least 122 turtle strandings from 1982 through
backs in the United States occurs on Sandy Point, St. Croix.
1997. We know of a few other reports but sufficient infor-
Only one or two nests per year are reported from St. Thomas
mation was not available to record them. During this period,
or St. John.
annual reported strandings have ranged from one to 25 turtles
Since 1982, the Division of Fish and Wildlife has main-
with a trend showing a gradual increase in reported strandings
tained records of all reported strandings of turtles in the Vir-
(Figure 1). Strandings have included 79 green, 38 hawksbill
gin Islands. Strandings are generally reported by citizens and
and five leatherback turtles (Figure 2). Of the reported
followed up on by Division personnel. A stranding is de-
strandings, 56 (46%) were from St. Croix, 46 (38%) from
fined as any turtle which is found dead for any reason or is
St. Thomas and 20 (16%) from St. John (Figure 3). Green
recovered from a compromised situation and released back
turtles were the most commonly stranded species on both
to the wild. Only three strandings have resulted in turtles
St. Thomas and St. Croix, while St. John had equal numbers
being released. No stranding records were maintained for
of greens and hawksbills reported (Figure 3). St. Croix had
hatchlings.
the greatest number of hawksbills reported and also had all
Strandings were categorized into five categories. Boat
of the leatherback strandings (Figure 3).
strikes were generally obvious by the presence of a crushed
Poster presentations / Threats and Protective Measures 261

Figure 1. Number of turtle strandings per year: 1982 to 1997, U.S. Figure 3. Annual strandings by island and species: 1982 to 1997,
Virgin Islands (n= 122). U.S. Virgin Islands.
Boat strikes account for the greatest number of the DISCUSSION

strandings (34.43%) followed by undetermined causes
The numbers of stranded turtles reported here certainly
(29.51%), poaching (13.11%), "other" (12.3%) and fishing
do not include all of the strandings for the Virgin Islands
gear entanglement (10.66%) (Figure 4). Most green
during this period. As we rely on reporting by individuals,
strandings are due to boat strikes while hawksbill strandings
many stranded turtles may be observed without being re-
are mostly from undetermined causes and leatherbacks are
ported. Many others may never be observed. However, the
from poaching (Figure 5). The primary cause of strandings
reported strandings are probably very reflective of the spe-
in St. Thomas and St. John is from boat strikes while for St.
cies composition, distribution and relative causes of strand-
Croix it is unknown with poaching being the second great-
ing for sea turtles in the Virgin Islands.
est cause (Figure 6). During the period from 1982 to 1997,
numbers of reported boat strikes per year has increased (Fig-
ure 7). The data was looked at for seasonality of strandings
by species. There were no indications of any seasonality with
the exception of leatherbacks which were all adult and
stranded during the nesting season.
Figure 4. Causes of turtle strandings: 1982 to 1997, U.S. Virgin

Islands.
The increase in reported strandings from 1982 to 1997

may be due to a number of factors. Our turtle populations
have certainly increased since 1973 when the ESA was en-
acted. This would numerically allow for a greater number of
strandings. Increasing human populations with its resultant
increase in environmentally damaging activities also produces
Figure 2. Annual strandings by species; 1982 to 1997, U.S. Virgin more strandings as contact with these activities has become
Islands.
262 Threats and Protective Measures / Poster presentations

Figure 7. Number of boat strikes per year: 1982 to 1997, U.S. Virgin
Figure 5. Species specific causes of strandings: 1982 to 1997,
Islands.
U.S. Virgin Islands.
more unavoidable. An example of this is the increase in boat Fifteen of the strandings reported here were placed in
strikes reported. Increasing numbers of turtles and high speed the category of "other" causes. Some of these were the result
power boats has resulted in increased numbers of unfortu- of shark attack, some were necropsied and found to have
nate encounters. Additionally, general public awareness of had internal problems that resulted in death, some died as a
problems with our natural environment has increased, re- result of entanglement in cables and in one case a lawn chair.
sulting in more people likely to report a stranded turtle. One turtle fell into an open construction pit which led to
Causes of stranding tend to follow certain logical sup- changes in permitting requirements for coastal construction
positions. More greens strand due to boat strikes because in the V.I. Of great concern are the four green turtles found
they are more likely to be found in shallow bays where boats in 1997 with papillomas. One was operated on and released
are more commonly operated. More boat strikes occur on after removal of the tumors, recovery of vision in one eye
St. Thomas because there are more boats there. More hawks- and restoration of healthy feeding behavior. One turtle was
bills are poached because they are the most common nesting euthanized due to its extreme condition. The other two had
turtle in the VI. More turtles have died due to encounters small papillomas that were not related to the cause of strand-
with fishing gear in St. Thomas because there is more fishing. As only a few turtles have been observed before in the
ing activity there. Leatherbacks all stranded on St. Croix Virgin Islands with tumors, it is strongly hoped that this in-
where nearly all of the nesting takes place. crease in 1997 is not indicative of a general increase in this
disease in Virgin Island green turtle populations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many people have contributed to this stranding data-
base over the years. On St. Croix I would like to thank Toby
Tobias, Zandy-Marie Hillis-Starr, Amy Mackay, Brendalee
Phillips, Mike Evans and DPNR Enforcement. On St. Tho-
mas, I would like to thank DPNR Enforcement and Dr. Andy
Williamson for necropsies. On St. John I would like to thank
Tom Kelley, Elmo Rabsatt and Vonnie Small-Zullo as well
as other NPS personnel. I also owe thanks to the many citi-
zens who took their time to report stranded turtles and pro-
vide me with the information on them.
Figure 6. Causes of strandings by island: 1982 to 1997, U.S. Virgin

Islands.
Poster presentations / Threats and Protective Measures 263

GREEN TURTLE (CHELONIA MYDAS) CAPTURE BY ARTESANAL FISHERMEN IN LA

BLANQUILLA ISLAND, VENEZUELA
A. Fallabrino, A. Rodrguez, A. Trujillo, and J. Marcano

PROVITA, Apdo. Postal 47.552, Caracas 1041-A, Venezuela. provita2@telcel.net.ve
La Blanquilla Island, in the Caribbean Sea (11 50 N, In spite of the presence of the Venezuelan Navy Base
6435 W), has an area of 52 km2. There are no permanent on La Blanquilla, as well as periodic inspections of
residents on the island, but there is a permanently occupied fishermens boats and camps, the problem of capture and
Naval Base. Between April and September every year, fish- trade of sea turtles persists. We recommend the application
ermen establish seasonal camps on the Island, staying mainly of more effective and stricter patrolling and law enforcement,
at La Muerte and Cao Martn beaches. to be carried out by personnel from the Navy Base, as well
We have made expeditions to La Blanquilla yearly since as educational and sensitization programs for the fishermen.
1995, and have frequently found large quantities of sea turtle
bones and shells near fishermens camps. They often con- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
sume green turtle (Chelonia mydas) meat while they are We thank AEREOTUY and Armada de Venezuela for
camping on the Island, and we have reports that this meat is their cooperation to work in La Blanquilla. We received fi-
also sold on Margarita Island, from where most of the fish- nancial support from The David and Lucile Packard Foun-
ermen originate. Turtle shells are used on La Blanquilla as dation, CONICIT and TACA Group for travel to the Sym-
receptacles, both for salting fish and for cooking food, and it posium. For all of this aid we are very appreciative.
is common to observe burnt shells for this reason.
Most fishermen know that the capture and consump-
tion of sea turtles is forbidden by Venezuelan law, but when
we have asked them about this, most of them reply that cap-
tures are incidental. They report that most turtles are caught
on longlines, hooked mainly in their limbs and neck.
THE TURTLE EXCLUDER DEVICE AS A TOOL TO OPTIMIZE THE SELECTIVITY OF

SHRIMP NETS AND THE MEXICAN NORMS CREATED FOR ITS OBLIGATORY
APPLICATION
P. Eduardo Gonzlez J., Dionisio Ziga L., Alejandro Gonzlez C, Aurelio Ramrez V., and Eulalio Rodrguez A.
Centro Regional de Investigaciones Pesqueras Tampico-Tamps, (Instituto Nacional de la Pesca)Mxico. Apdo. Postal 197
Mxico. criptam@tamnet.com.mx
The ecological implications of the extraction of shrimp tive devices in the shrimp nets, and whose norms have estab-
and the incidental capture of benthonic communities with lished the obligatory use of these devices in the shrimp nets
trawl nets have originated diverse developmental and tech- in the Gulf of Mexico as well as the Mexican Caribbean and
nological innovations. At a worldwide level, in the sixties, Pacific, allowing with its results, going from using soft TEDs,
institutions from France, Iceland, Norway, Belgium, the to using hard TEDs.
Netherlands and the United States, trying to increase the se-
lectivity in the capture by trawling system, included in the
nets mesh panels in different sections of the body so that in
relation to their behavior when faced with being captured,
the species could be collected in different containment bags
or expelled out of the net. In this sense, institutions from
Mexico have carried out research studies on fishing selec-
tivity with Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs), incorporated
with the clear objective of optimizing the shrimp capture as
well as preventing incidental capture of these chelonians. In
this study, we describe the juridic-normative development
that our country has achieved with the application of selec-
264 Threats and Protective Measures / Poster presentations

THE PHENOMENON OF COLD-STUNNED SEA TURTLES ALONG THE NORTHEAST

ATLANTIC COAST
Phillip E. Allman
University of Maryland at Baltimore County, Department of Biological Sciences, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A.
PAllman@aol.com
INTRODUCTION
Sea turtle migrations to the North Atlantic have been due to fluctuations in the number of sea turtles in this area or
well documented and seem to be an annual event for four variations in effort between the years among the different
species, including the fragile L. kempii (Lazell 1980; stranding centers. The number of stranding reports each year
Morreale et al.,1992; Evans et al.,1997). The turtles mi- shows that it is critical for standing programs to rescue and
grate into the shallow coastal areas during the late summer rehabilitate the animals back to health. The time distribu-
for foraging purposes (Lutcavage and Musick 1985). As tion of the stranding events show December to be the most
winter approaches, water temperatures drop below those active month. By January, water temperatures may fall be-
tolerated by sea turtles (Witherington and Ehrhart 1989). low the critical tolerance limit for sea turtles, causing death.
In captivity, sea turtles have been reported to suffer from All C. caretta individuals were of juvenile or sub-adult size,
cold-stunning, or extreme hypothermia, at temperatures based on categories by Lutcavage and Musick (1985). The
below 9 C (Schwartz 1978). Each year in the Northeastern L. kempii size distribution fell within the range for sub-adults
United States, cold-stunned sea turtles are found on the (ccl = 20-60 cm), described by Ogren (1989).
shoreline. If rescue and rehabilitation measures are taken Because populations of sea turtles have become de-
immediately, the turtles can be treated with success. This
paper reports stranding data from 1993-1997 in the North- Table 1. Number of cold-stunned turtles reported from New York to
Virginia between 1993 and 1997.
east United States.
RESULTS Species 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Total
Stranding reports for 1993-1997 were obtained from

C. caretta 0 1 42 2 2 47
the Virginia Science Museum (Virginia), National Aquarium
in Baltimore (NAIB) (Maryland), Marine Mammal Strand- C. mydas 0 2 4 2 1 9
ing Center (New Jersey), Riverhead Foundation (New York)
and Mystic Aquarium (Connecticut). Over the last five years, L. kempii 3 8 33 6 12 62
118 sea turtles, consisting of three species (C. caretta, C.
mydas and L. kempii) were reported cold-stunned in this Total 3 11 79 10 15 118
area. Six of these turtles were found onshore in Virginia,

Maryland and Delaware, and 112 were found in New York pleted, it is important that each individual turtle receive the
and New Jersey. best treatment possible. The first step in the treatment pro-
The stranding events to occurred primarily in late fall cess is an initial health assessment. This involves a physical
and early winter (96.6%). Collectively, twenty turtles were and visual examination which will indicate the severity of
reported in November and 94 were reported in December. the animal's condition. This examination may include eye-
The earliest report of a cold-stunned sea turtle in this area touching, nose-touching and observing head lift (Riverhead
occurred on October 10 in Delaware. Only two turtles were Foundation). The appearance of a sunken neck may indi-
reported in January (n = 1) and February (n = 1). cate dehydration which can result from the turtle's inability
All nine of the stranded C. mydas were found in New to osmoregulate after becoming cold-stunned. This inabil-
York and New Jersey. A total of 62 L. kempii and 47 C. ity is evident from the elevated concentrations of ions in-
caretta were reported during this time (Table 1). The mean cluding phosphorous, magnesium, sodium, chlorine, potas-
yearly number of stranding reports over the past 5 years sium, and calcium. Blood samples are taken to identify any
was 23.6 turtles with a range of 3 to 79. The straight cara- secondary bacterial infections and electrolyte levels that re-
pace lengths from L. kempii ranged from 22.7 cm to 40.3 sult from cold-shock.
cm (n = 62, mean = 29.7 cm) with one unknown length. Initially, the turtle is placed in low salinity water with
Fifty five percent (n = 34) of these animals were below 30 a temperature approximately 4-6 C above the ocean tem-
cm. The straight carapace lengths of C. caretta ranged from perature from which it came. This low saline water allows
33.1 cm to 61.1 cm (n = 47, mean = 50.3 cm). the ion concentrations to drop as osmoregulation begins to
stabilize. Heat lamps placed above the holding tank may
DISCUSSION serve useful in heat absorption. When treating a cold-
The wide range of turtles reported each year may be stunned turtle it is important that constant care and frequent
Poster presentations / Veterinary Medicine and Disease 265

observations are made. Initially, the animal may refuse to Marine Turtles. Copeia 1980: 290-295.
eat, but as body temperature increases feeding should slowly Lutcavage, M. and J. Musick. 1985. Aspects of the biology
increase as well. of sea turtles in Virginia. Copeia 1985: 449-456.
Morreale, S., A. Meylan, S. Sadove and E. Standora. 1992.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Annual Occurrence and Winter Mortality of Marine
Turtles in New York Waters. Journal of Herpetology
A special thanks to Dr. Brent Whitaker (NAIB), David
26: 301-308.
Schofield (NAIB), Wendy Walton (VMSM), Rob Digiovanni
Ogren, L. 1989. Distribution of juvenile and sub-adult
(Riverhead Foundation), Rob Nawojchik (Mystic Aquarium)
Kemp's ridley turtles: preliminary results from 1984-
and Bob Scholkopf (Marine Mammal Stranding Center)
1987 surveys. In: Proc. First Int. Symp. Kemp's Ridley
for the data. I thank the Chelonia Institute and The David
Sea Turtle Biol. Cons. Manag., pp. 116-123. Texas
and Lucile Packard Foundation for their financial support.
A&M Publ. TAMU-SG-89-105.
I am grateful to Beth Richardson at the University of Mary-
Schwartz, F. 1978. Behavioral and tolerance responses to
land at Baltimore County for all the help.
cold water temperatures by three species of sea turtles
LITERATURE CITED (Reptilia, Cheloniidae) in North Carolina. Florida Mar.
Res. Publs. 33: 1-18.
Evans, J., A. Norden, F. Cresswell, K. Insly and S. Knowles. Witherington, B. and L. Ehrhart. 1989. Hypothermic
1997. Sea Turtle Strandings in Maryland, 1991 Through stunning and mortality of marine turtles in the Indian
1995. The Maryland Naturalist 41: 23-34. River lagoon system, Florida. Copeia 1989: 696-703.
Lazell, J. 1980. New England Waters: Critical Habitat for
PRESENCE OF PSEUDOMONA AERUGINOSA IN A BLEPHAROCONJUNCTIVITIS

OUTBREAK IN CAPTIVE HAWKSBILL TURTLES (ERETMOCHELYS IMBRICATA)
Adriana DAmiano1, Alejandro Arenas1, and Roberto Snchez2

1
Acuario Xcaret, Carretera Chetumal-Puerto Jurez km 282, Playa del Carmen, Quintana Roo, Mxico
acuario@cancun.rce.com.mx
2
Via Delphi, Carretera Chetumal-Puerto Jurez km 282, Playa del Carmen, Quintana Roo, Mxico
During the month of june 1997 at the Eco-Archeologi- every 72 hours in a period of four weeks, making a total of 8
cal park Xcaret, 50 Hawksbill turtles from a total of 115 doses and topic oxitetracycline was used O.I.D. in a period
organism were observed with signs of reddish conjuctive, of one month. Improvement of lesions were observed two
increased size eyelids and purulent discharge. Bacteriologi- weeks after initial treatment. The problem was solved one
cal cultures were made and Pseudomona aeruginosa was week later.
detected. Ceftazidime IM was used in a dose of 20 mg/kg
TEMPORAL CAPTIVITY OF TURTLES IN REPRODUCTION PERIOD IN MARINE

CORRALS IN ISLA MUJERES QUINTANA ROO, MEXICO
Fernando Fernandez-Marthen, Rolando Figueroa-Paz, Favio Figueroa-Paz, Gonzalo Chale-Velazquez, Carlos

Aguilar-Cardozo, Juan de Dios Martinez-Aguilar, Marco Tito Coba-Ros, Gabriel Felipe Escobedo, and
Buenaventura Delgado-Gomez.
Estacion de Investigaciones Pesqueras de Isla Mujeres Q. Roo. Apartado postal 45; Cp 77400; Isla Mujeres Q. Roo.
Centro Regional de Investigacion Pesquera de Puerto Morelos Q. Roo. Apartado postal 580; cp 77501; Cancun, Q. Roo.
Instituto Nacional de La Pesca.
An implemented method in the Mexican Caribbean is adapted easier to the captivity, in comparison with the over-
described in order to protect to diverse species of marine head turtle (locally called cahuama) (Caretta caretta). Di-
turtles in times of reproduction. The advantages of the same verse information on aspects of reproduction, survival and
are discussed, considering the probable impact in the han- mortality of the eggs and neonat in several seasons is given
dling of the organisms reproducers to the captured being in this poster.
and transferred the net corrals with artificial beaches in
Isla Mujeres. It was found the green turtle (Chelonia mydas)
266 Veterinary Medicine and Disease / Poster presentations
DIETARY REGULATION OF PLASMA CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS VALUES IN

VIRGINIA MARINE SCIENCE MUSEUM SEA TURTLES
Kimberly E. Goldman, Robert H. George, and W. Mark Swingle

Virginia Marine Science Museum, 717 General Booth Blvd., Virginia Beach VA 23451, U.S.A. vmsm@norfolk.infi.net
INTRODUCTION
Although research exists on diet and nutrition of wild
sea turtles, very little information is available on nutrition of
sea turtles in captivity. Of primary concern for exhibit sea
turtles are plasma calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) values.
Abnormally low Ca and high P levels may, over time, cause
metabolic bone disease with resulting decalcification of bone
(Boyer 1996). Plasma Ca and P levels, in sea turtles, are
usually expressed as a ratio. Studies have shown wild, log-
gerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) to have Ca:P ratios of
1:1 (George 1996) or less than 1:1 in juveniles (Bellmund
1988). There are no data reported for exhibit sea turtle Ca:P
ratios; however, we have assumed that healthy turtles should
have Ca:P ratios similar to those measured in wild turtles. In
order to monitor their general health, the Virginia Marine
Science Museum (VMSM) husbandry and veterinary staff
regularly take blood samples from our sea turtles. In analyz- Figure 2. Calcuim and Phosphorus Ratios of Exihibit Turtles before
and after diet change.
ing the plasma profiles from the exhibit loggerheads, we
found that the Ca:P ratios, and plasma Ca and P levels, dif-
til analyzed. Analyses were performed within 24 hours em-
fered from those reported for wild sea turtles. One way to
ploying a Hitachi 737 autoanalyzer. Full plasma profiles of
affect plasma Ca and P levels is through diet. At present,
each loggerhead were reviewed. Subsequent blood samples
there are no dietary guidelines, specifically, for exhibit sea
were taken at six to eight month intervals after the initial
turtles. By reevaluating and modifying the VMSM sea turtle
sampling. Mean plasma Ca and P levels were determined
diets we were able to alter the plasma Ca and P levels. This
for the loggerhead sea turtles (n=7) (Figure 1). Ca to P ratios
study was conducted to evaluate VMSM exhibit sea turtle
were determined before and after dietary changes for each
diets, to correct the abnormal plasma Ca and P levels, and to
sea turtle (Figure 2). Utilizing a study of wild loggerheads
improve the loggerheads Ca:P ratios.
from Chesapeake Bay, mean plasma Ca and P values were
used to calculate a normal Ca:P ratio for wild loggerheads
(George 1996) (Table 1). Nutritional information on squid
and other seafood items included in VMSM sea turtle diets
was researched. We noted the Ca and P levels of these food
items (Table 2). Dietary modifications were made after ob-
taining this nutritional information in attempt to correct the
plasma profiles of the exhibit turtles.
Table1. Plasma Calcium and Phosphorus Values in Healthy, Wild

Loggerhead Sea Turtles (Caretta caretta).
Range Mean
Calcium (mg/dl) 6.4-9.0 7.7
Phosphorus (mg/dl) 4.6-7.2 5.9

Adapted from George, R.H. 1996. Health Problems and Diseases of Sea Turtles, in The
Biology of Sea Turtles, Lutz, P.L., Musick, J.A., Eds., CRC Press, New York. 363-384.
Figure 1. Mean Calcium and Phospherus levels for exhibit sea turtles
(n=7).
RESULTS
METHODS AND MATERIALS The plasma Ca and P levels for VMSM loggerhead
sea turtles were determined to be abnormal following blood
Initial blood samples were taken in June 1996. Turtles
samples taken in June and December 1996. Mean Ca levels
were removed from the aquarium and blood was drawn from
were low and mean P levels were high as compared to the
the dorsal cervical sinus. Blood was collected in Lithium
mean values of healthy, wild loggerheads (Figure 1). The
heparin tubes, the plasma was removed and refrigerated un-
June 1996 Ca:P ratios for all the loggerheads were lower

Seafood Item Calcium (mg/100g) Phosphorus (mg/100g)

Squid (unspecified) 27 193
Shrimp (aztecus sp.) 89 258
Table2. Calcium and Phosphorus Levels of Sea Turtle Smelt (Osmeridae family) 567 534
Diet. Herring (harengus sp.) 20 280
Mackerel (scrombus sp.) 8 307
Adapted from Sidwell, V. D. 1981. Chemical and Nutritional Composition of Finfishes, Whales, Crustaceans,
Mollusks, and their Products, U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS F/SEC-
11. 432pp.
(i.e. <1:1) than the wild turtle Ca:P ratio of 1.3:1(Figure 2). lizing methods of dietary adjustment with VMSM logger-
The sea turtles diets consisted of 80% squid, 20% teleosts, heads, we could modify their diets with positive changes in
and vitamin supplementation at the time of these samplings. Ca and P levels. By decreasing the amount of squid, increas-
Calcium supplements (calcium gluconate tablets) were added ing foods high in Ca such as crabs and mussels, and adding
to the turtles diets and resulted in Ca levels rising towards Ca supplements in the tablet form, we were able to improve
the normal mean Ca level for wild turtles (Figure 1, Table all turtles plasma profiles. This was evident in plasma pro-
1). Nutritional examination of the sea turtle dietary compo- files following the dietary modifications. This study indi-
nents showed squid to have exceptionally low Ca levels and cates that the revised VMSM sea turtle diet maintains the
high P levels (Table 2). Additionally, P levels in various te- animals in good physical condition. It also indicates that this
leosts were all relatively high in P (Table 2). Based upon this diet results in plasma profiles which closely mimic wild turtle
information, VMSM sea turtle diets were modified to 20% plasma profiles. Regular blood sampling is crucial to the
squid and 80% teleosts. Regular supplements of crabs and health of exhibit turtles and is beneficial in developing proper
mussels were also added to the diets. After dietary adjust- nutritional protocols.
ments were made, blood samples taken in August 1997 and
January 1998 showed plasma Ca and P levels were stabi- REFERENCES
lized near the normal means and Ca:P ratios continued to
Bellmund, S.A. 1998. Assessing Environmental Stress on
climb toward a normal, mean ratio of wild loggerheads (Fig-
the Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta) in Virginia
ure 1, Figure 2).
Waters, MS thesis, School of Marine Science, College
of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA.
DISCUSSION
Boyer, T.H. 1996. Metabolic Bone Disease, in: Reptile
Exhibit sea turtles diets often include seafood items Medicine and Surgery, D. R. Mader ed. W.B. Saunders
which differ greatly from the items found in natural diets of Co., Philadelphia, PA. 385-392.
wild sea turtles. Sea turtles are not discriminating in what George, R.H. 1996. Health Problems and Diseases of Sea
foods they will eat, and therefore, it is often easiest to feed Turtles, in: The Biology of Sea Turtles Lutz, P.L., Musick,
those items which are already on hand for other aquatic ani- J.A., Eds., CRC Press, New York. 363-384.
mals in a facilities collection. Routine plasma profiles pro- Sidwell, V. D. 1981. Chemical and Nutritional Composition
vide a relatively simple method for monitoring these aspects of Finfishes, Whales, Crustaceans, Mollusks, and their
of the nutritional health of captive sea turtles. Plasma Ca and Products, U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA
P levels can be abnormal in exhibit sea turtles whose diets Technical Memorandum NMFS F/SEC-11. 432pp.
are not correctly balanced for these important elements. Uti-
A DESCRIPTION OF THE PROCESS TO MAINTENANCE AND ADAPTATION OF SEA

TURTLES AT THE NATIONAL MEXICAN TURTLE CENTER
Martha Harfush Melndez, Elpidio Marcelino Lpez Reyes, and Porfirio Hernndez Saldaa
Instituto Nacional de la Pesca. Centro Mexicano de la Tortuga. P. O. Box 16, Puerto Angel 70902, Oaxaca, Mxico
cmtharfu@angel.umar.mx
INTRODUCTION
The change of habitat that the sea turtles have when ity process, since the same instant in which an individual is
they are placed in a lodging with different conditions which extracted from their natural environment.
finds at their natural environment it is a fact which requires a The ways which a turtle is joined to the population of
process for adaptation. The answer every species exhibits in captive organisms at the CMT are two: the subtraction of
the face of their transfer in a new home is different, motive their natural environment in an age at which is logical sup-
which it is necessary improve investigations which allow to pose it is already perfectly adapted to this, and their recruit-
know the particular features of the adaptation to the captiv- ment before reach the sea, to being collected since the be-

ginning of their incubation inside an egg. In both cases, nev- Frequently it is required make labors of maintenance,
ertheless the ways access to the captive life form are dif- so inside the aquariums as well as in the facilities hydraulics
ferent, a common factor exists whose importance is certain: and electric, due to the quick deterioration on the equipment
everyone the individuals possess genetic information makes which is in direct contact with the salt water. When it is nec-
them be distinguished by behavior characteristics of its spe- essary, cleans deeply or if needed is replaced.
cies a group of attributes it commonly called instinct. The
instinct involves nutritious characteristics, answer to stimuli, NUTRITION
conduct dive and a lot other aspects whose knowledge is
The turtles are fed minimum once a day; however baby
indispensable tool in the management of organisms in cap-
turtles are fed four times in the same period. Sea turtles diet
tivity.
is mainly composed by fish (specially tuna fish and sail fish),
In addition, two elements are fundamental to the main-
mollusks and crustaceans, depending on what produce is
tenance of captive organisms, on one hand, the provision of
available in the regional market; fresh water and tortoises
appropriate, sufficient and opportune feeding, and in other
are fed by fruits, vegetables and legumes. Food supplements
hand, the design of medical preventive and curative treat-
such as vitamins and calcium are periodically supplied as
ments, based on the continuous monitoring to the water con-
needed. The feeding routine is strictly coordinated with that
ditions, cleaning of aquariums and tanks, assessment of
of cleaning works hence immediately after the feeding time
haematic parameters and continuous observation to the con-
we continue with the cleaning of the large pools using water
duct of the individuals, which on the whole they act to re-
pressure and doing a total replace of water in the fiberglass
duces the risks of manifestation of illnesses.
and concrete small tanks.
In this work are shown the main features of the labor of
CMT that carries out to the knowledge the maintenance and HEALTH CONTROL
adaptation of sea turtles at a life style different: the captivity.
When any sign of disease or any unusual behavior in-
FACILITIES dicating some broken health is detected, the individual is put
aside from other turtles for observation and treatment. Most
The facilities of the CMT, which were built for adapt-
common illness or disease here are skin infection, lung ill-
ing and maintaining turtles in captivity, include 18 aquarium
ness and enteric occlusion. The veterinarian treatments are
exhibition pool windows, 13 of which are filled with sea
following go from prescription of special medicine to sur-
water, 3 with fresh water and there are also 3 more terrarium
gery. On the later we would refer the recent surgery made to
type exhibition windows, besides 96 fiberglass tanks, 8 con-
a green turtle Chelonia mydas presenting enteric problem
crete small pools and 2 large concrete tanks for storage of
which was successfully removed.
more than 15,000 liters; all of these within a covered area.
The Center also has 2 sections of cactus botanical gar- RESEARCH
den intended for the exhibition of all Mexican type of xero-
philous and next to it the tortoises can be seen. Most important research projects made at the Center
In view of the conditions mentioned above, the Center have been:
complies with the necessary requirements for the study of all Nutrition.
sea turtles species found in Mexico, as well as other turtle Tattooing tags in some individual as an identification
breeds from fresh water and terrapins. technology which works conveniently in some kind of turtles.
Sea water supply flows from a pumping system that Population in tanks. Optimum number of individuals.
has a capacity for a million liters a day and which flow by Sexual reversion study.
gravity to all sea water ponds, aquarium and pools but the
stream passes first through a mechanical filter and ultravio- INFORMATION RELEASE
let rays treatment. Basic objectives and goals for which the Center was
Thanks to the system described above it is possible to created and in which the captivity maintenance play an im-
have a constant water supply that also allows to have ap- portant role, is the exhibition of live turtles as a mechanism
proximately 30% of daily change of all the water contained of conscience for people. Consequently CMT is yearly vis-
within the complex, unrelated of all other water replacements ited by approximately 70,000 persons from all over the world
made during cleaning works. and Mexico.
MAINTENANCE AND CLEANING WORKS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

All ponds are daily washed using stream water pres- To the staff of the Centro Mexicano de la Tortuga. At
sure and brushing the walls of the pond. For the concrete the same time to Mrs. Betty Harfush for her help in transla-
and fiberglass tanks cleaning work is done once or twice a tion.
day; once a week for the aquarium exhibition windows and
for the ponds of concrete, every two weeks.

OLIVE RIDLEY SEA TURTLE STRANDED IN PUERTO RICO. A GOOD EXAMPLE OF

OUR NEW REHABILITATION PROGRAM
Hctor C. Horta1, Debra Moore2, Robert Matos1, Rosaly Ramos1, Marelisa Rivera3, Jos Rivera4, Stephanie Stielow5,
Sandra Tripp5, and Ernest R. Williams5
1
Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental Resources, Sea Turtle Rehabilitation Program
2
Caribbean Center for Marine Studies, U.S.A.
3
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Caribbean Field Office, U.S.A.
4
National Marine Fishery Service, Miami laboratory in Puerto Rico, U.S.A.
5
University of Puerto Rico, Department of Marine Science, U.S.A.
On August 30, 1997, an olive ridley sea turtle was found muscle injury. This supports the diminished heath status and
on the northwest coast of Puerto Rico, 2 miles offshore be- emaciated muscles of the animal. The hyperphosphatemia,
tween Aguadilla and Rincn. The animal was entrapped in a hyperglycemia, hypercalcemia, hypercholesterolemia, and
floating net and was unable to free itself from its confines. hyperkalemia, were most probably elevated due to the intra-
Two sports fishermen rescued the animal and transported it coelomic administration of lactated ringers with a 5% dex-
to the local police who then contacted the Department of trose drip and a recent fish/squid gruel tube feeding.
Natural and Environmental Resources Rangers. The animal The lacerations were treated with bethadine solution 2
was then transported to the University of Puerto Rico, De- or 3 times daily and healed with no further consequence. Dr.
partment of Marine Sciences, Sea Turtle Rehabilitation Fa- Sam Dover, veterinarian at Sea World of Florida, was con-
cility for emergency veterinary assessment, care, and reha- sulted and both veterinarians agreed that a lactated ringer
bilitation under the direction of Dr. Debra Moore, from the solution with 5% dextrose solution should be administered
Caribbean Center for Marine Studies, Programs Chief Vet- because of the severe dehydration status of the animal. The
erinarian, under permit # DNRA: 97-EPE-28. animal was subsequently fed a fish/squid gruel, then force
The only other reported case of an olive ridley sea turtle fed with fish and squid pieces. On the ninth day the animal
in Puerto Rico occurred in 1969 and is thus considered very began eating squid willingly. The animal showed no interest
rare (Caldwell and Erdman, 1969). The species is well in pieces of sardines placed in the pool. Her diet steadily
known in northeast South America (Pritchard, 1966, 1967; increased and she was maintained on 3-5 lbs. of squid daily.
Carr, 1967), and has been occasionally reported in the Greater On day 47 the animal began to dive and stay submerged
Antilles (Aguayo, 1953; Carr, 1957). It is more commonly on the floor of the pool. She steadily improved and main-
found throughout the Eastern Pacific. tained her dietary consumption of squid. Her weight increased
Physical examination revealed the animal to be a 20.4- to 29.5 kg and blood was taken for reassessment. All values
kg female olive ridley sea turtle, Lepidochelys olivacea, where improved and most were within normal range.
(Pritchard, P. et al 1983). The standard carapace length was On day 187, February 6, 1998, the animal was released
58.5 cm, and total carapace length was 60.0 cm. The animal approximately 40 miles South of the Island of St. Croix USVI,
was dehydrated and extremely emaciated with a distinct pro- by a USCG Helicopter, assigned to Air Station Borinquen,
tuberance of the occipital bone. The eyes were severely de- Aguadilla P.R., after a full recovery and general health as-
pressed into the orbital bone and there was a general malaise sessment. Her weight had increased to 40 kg. Tag numbers
in behavior. The animals carapace was indented and scarred DRN 473/474, were placed on the frontal flippers at the time
from the net or rope entrapment, and superficial lacerations of release.
were found on the caudal flippers and plastron.
The animal was unable to dive and radiographs revealed ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
air throughout the coelomic cavity. A substantial amount of The Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environ-
air was removed from coelomic cavity using a vacationer mental Resources would like to thank the U.S. Fish and Wild-
and 60cc syringe. life Service, Caribbean Center of Marine Studies, National
The remaining air was absorbed internally and the ani- Marine Fishery Services, University of Puerto Rico, U.S.
mal was later able to dive and submerge normally. Blood Coast Guard, Dr. Pedro Fronteras, from the Animal Medical
was collected for a complete blood count (CBC) and bio- Hospital, and all volunteers, for their assistance in rescue,
chemistry. The hemogram specifically the red blood cells rehabilitation, and release of this animal.
revealed a blood parasite identified as Hemoproteus spp. This
parasite is apparently often nonpathogenic and is often seen LITERATURE CITED
in sea turtles. The animal had a leukopenia.
Biochemistry data showed a hyperglycemia, elevated Caldwell D.K. and Erdman D.S.1969. Pacific Ridley sea
BUN, and LDH, hypercalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, hyper- turtle, Lepidochelys olivacea, in Puerto Rico. Bull. So.
cholesterolemia, hyperkalemia and low ALT. Increased se- Calif. Acad. Sci. 68(2): 112.1969.
rum LDH activity occurs with degenerative or necrotizing

Carr, A. 1957. Notes on the zoogeography of the Atlantic Pritchard, P., P. Bacon, F. Berry, A. Carr, J. Fletmeyer; R.
sea turtles of genus Lepidochelys. Rev. Biol. Trop. 5:45- Gallagher, S. Hopkins, R. Lankford, R. Mrquez M., L.
61. Ogren, W. Pringle, Jr., H. Reichart and R. Witham.
Carr, A. 1967. So excellent a fish. Garden City, New York: 1983. Manual sobre tcnicas de investigacin y
The Natural History, Press 248 p. conservacin de tortuga marinas, Segunda Edicin.
Pritchard. P.C.H. 1966. Sea Turtle of Shell Beach. British K.A. Bjorndal y G.H. Balazs (Eds). Center for
Guiana. Copeia, 1966:123-125. Enviromental Education Washington, D.C.
Pritchard. P.C.H. 1967. To find the ridley. Internal. Turtle
and Tortoise Soc. (4) 30-35. 48.
ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT IN SEA TURTLE EMBRYOS
Yakup Kaska1, Roger Downie2, and Robert W. Furness2

1
2
Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, U.K..
INTRODUCTION
Few studies are available on embryonic development green turtle embryos, collected in three consecutive seasons
of sea turtles and the best embryonic descriptions are for (1994 to 1996) on the beaches of Northern Cyprus and Tur-
Chelydra s. serpentina (Yntema, 1968) and Chrysemys picta key. The percentage of abnormalities was calculated as a
belli (Mahmoud et al., 1973). Crastz (1982) described 31 proportion of the total number of eggs observed.
stages for Lepidochelys olivacea, and Miller (1985) described
the embryonic development of six marine turtle species. Em- RESULTS
bryonic staging alone contributes little to the understanding The most common form of abnormality was supernu-
of a species or to its survival, but in the context of other merary and /or subnumerary scutes (8 % of all embryos) on
studies on managerial problems and the effects of human the carapace among normally pigmented embryos as well as
intervention, basic embryological information can remove among the albino forms. Albino forms were 1% of the total
some of the guess work from decision making. embryos. Malocclusion of jaw, lack of nostril, caruncle, eye
All marine turtle eggs normally have pliable, parch- and limb and head deformities (2 % of the embryos) were
ment-like shells and are typically spherical although not tur- among other common forms.
gid at oviposition (Bustard, 1972; Ewert, 1979). Odd-shaped Twins (0.1 % of the embryos) of equal size and twins
and yolkless eggs are occasionally reported (Bustard, 1972; of unequal size were also detected. Twins of equal size were
Miller, 1985). When laid, the eggshell is creamy-white. Dur- of normal pigmentation and of late stage (26-29), but each
ing the first one to two days, the heavy yolk settles down- was smaller in carapace length than a normal single embryo
ward, and the eggshell at the top starts chalking as the mu- of the same stage. Unequal sized twins had one member which
cus dries and the egg absorbs water (Blanck and Sawyer, was much smaller than the other. Both were fully pigmented.
1981; Miller, 1985). Early stage twins were also detected. Siamese embryos were
Although some abnormalities have been mentioned also detected. These embryos show a single body with two
(Ewert, 1979; Blanck and Sawyer, 1981; Miller, 1985), there heads. Head and scute abnormalities were much more com-
was not detailed work showing the frequency of abnormali- mon in albino embryos in comparison with non-albinos, be-
ties in sea turtle embryos and hatchlings. Therefore we aimed cause all the albino embryos showed abnormalities in their
to calculate the frequency of abnormalities in the embryos head, jaw, eye and nostril, whereas only 9.6% of the non-
of sea turtles in the Eastern Mediterranean. albinos showed head and scute abnormalities (Table 1).
MATERIALS AND METHODS DISCUSSION

We used eggs from partly predated nests, of which the Abnormalities of the scutes of the carapace and cepha-
date of laying was known, to describe the stages of develop- lic deformations are very common in our samples and have
ment in field conditions and identified the stages of dead-in- been reported elsewhere previously (Bustard, 1972; Ewert,
shell embryos i.e. those found to have died at some time 1979; Miller, 1985; Kaska, 1993). Twinning among turtle
after laying. The post-ovipositional development of logger- embryos has also been reported (Yntema, 1970, 1971; Ewert,
head and green turtle embryos were described from a total 1979; Fowler, 1979; Blanck and Sawyer, 1981; Miller, 1985;
1882 (75 eggs sampled, 270 partly predated eggs and 1537 Whitmore and Dutton, 1985; Eckert, 1990; Peters et al.,
dead in shell embryos) loggerhead turtle and 1169 (35 eggs 1994; Tucker and Janzen, 1997). The percentage of twin-
sampled, 105 partly predated eggs and 1029 dead in shell) ning reported in these studies is between 0.01 % and 0.05 %.

Table 1. The number and frequency of the abnormalities observed in sea turtle embryos.
Caretta caretta Chelonia mydas

Abnormality % Sampled Predated Dead-in shell Sampled Predate Dead-in-shell
observed N:75 N:270 N: 1537 N:35 d N:1029
N:105
supernumerary 4.0 12 30 35
subnumerary 4.0 5 42 29 49
Head abnorm. 2.1 5 20 10 28
Jaw,nostril,eye 1.6 17 33
Albino 1.0 9 22
Twining 1.0 13 1 16
Our result, at 0.1 %, is well above these, although there is no Peters, A., Verhoven, K.J.F., and Strijbosch, H. 1994.
obvious reason for this difference. Albino embryos have also Hatching and emergence in the Turkish Mediterranean
been reported previously (Bustard, 1972; Miller, 1985). In loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta: natural causes for egg
this study, head and scute abnormalities were more common and hatchling failure. Herpetologica, 50(3);369-373.
in albino embryos than in non-albino ones. The abnormali- Tucker, J.K., and Janzen, F. J. 1997. Incidence of twinning
ties observed among sea turtle embryos may be because of in turtles. Copeia 1997(1); 166-173.
incubation conditions as well as genetical factors, but this is Whitmore, C.P., and Dutton, P.H. 1985. Infertility, embryonic
still unknown. Some malformations, such as albinism, cleft mortality and nest site selection in leatherback and green
plate, and even absence or reduction of one flipper are not sea turtles in Suriname. Biol. Conserv., 34; 251-272.
necessary lethal. Many aberrant embryos die in early stages Yntema, C.L. 1968. A series of stages in the embryonic
in development. Of the aberrant turtle embryos which do development of Chelydra serpentina. J. Morph., 125,
develop, most are unable to break out of their eggs as a re- 219-252.
sult of their deformities. Probably, because of this, many ab- Yntema, C.L. 1970. Twinning in the common snapping turtle,
normal embryos were found dead in shell. The frequency of Chelydra serpentina. Anat. Rec., 166; 491-498.
abnormalities is almost certainly higher in dead-in-shell em- Yntema, C.L. 1971. Incidence of survival of twin embryos
bryos than in randomly sampled eggs (Table 1). of the common snapping turtle, Chelydra serpentina.
Copeia 1971(4); 755-758.
LITERATURE CITED
Blanck, C.E. and Sawyer, R.H. 1981. Hatchery practices in
relation to early embryology of the loggerhead sea turtle,
Caretta caretta (L.). J. exp. mar. Biol. Ecol., 49; 163-
177.
Bustard, H.R. 1972. Sea turtles: their natural history and
Crastz, F. 1982. Embriological stages of the marine turtle
Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz). Rev. Biol. Trop.,
30; 113-120.
Eckert, K.I. 1990. Twinning in leatherback sea turtle
(Dermochelys coriacea) embryos. J. Herpetol., 24; 317-
320.
Ewert, M.A. 1979. The embryo and its egg: development
and natural history. In: M. Harless and H. Morlock (Eds.).
Turtles: Perspectives and Research. Wiley, New York,
pp. 333-413.
Fowler, L. 1979. Hatching success and nest predation in the
green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas, Tortuguero, Costa Rica.
Ecology, 60; 946-955.
Kaska, Y. 1993. Investigation of Caretta caretta population
in Patara and Kizilot. M. Sc. Thesis. Dokuz Eylul
University, Izmir.
Miller, J.D. 1985. Embryology of Marine Turtles. In: C. Gans,
R. G. Northcutt, and P. Ulinsky, (Eds.). Biology of the
Reptilia. Academic Press, London and New York, Vol.
14:269-328.

PCR CONFIRMS ABSENCE OF PAPILLOMAVIRUS FROM SEA TURTLE

FIBROPAPILLOMAS.
Joel K. Lackovich1, Daniel R. Brown2, and Paul A. Klein3

1
Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology; University of Florida, Gainesville FL 32610, U.S.A.
2
Department of Pathobiology; University of Florida, Gainesville FL 32610, U.S.A.
3
Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville FL 32610, U.S.A.
drbrown@biotech.ufl.edu
The etiologic agent of sea turtle fibropapillomatosis is agarose gels, and visualized by photography under shortwave
unknown. Similar fibropapillomas are caused in many ver- ultraviolet illumination. While the positive control yielded
tebrates by papillomavirus, a DNA virus of the family the expected PCR products, no fibropapilloma was positive
Papovaviridae. A possible association of papillomavirus with for papillomavirus. The ability of homogenized
sea turtle fibropapillomas has not been thoroughly investi- fibropapillomas to induce new fibropapillomas in experimen-
gated. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) molecular di- tally inoculated Chelonia mydas has been shown to be abro-
agnostic test can detect minute amounts of papillomavirus. gated by exposure of the homogenate to chloroform, to which
Two pairs of consensus degenerate PCR primers (MY09 + papillomavirus are insensitive. Absence of papillomavirus
MY11 and CP-I + CP-IIG), and one pair of non-degenerate from sea turtle fibropapillomas examined by electron mi-
primers (GP5 + GP6), have a combined efficiency of detec- croscopy, immunohistochemistry, or a nucleic acid probe,
tion of human papillomavirus (HPV) greater than 70%. To- has been reported previously. The current finding extends
tal DNA was purified from 26 fibropapillomas from 10 Che- those observations by applying the most sensitive molecular
lonia mydas and 1 Caretta caretta, and assayed for diagnostic test available to a large number of sea turtle
papillomavirus by PCR using the 3 pairs of primers. The fibropapilloma samples, and leads to the conclusion that
positive control was cloned HPV type 31. The PCR prod- papillomavirus are not the etiologic agent of sea turtle
ucts were electrophoresed through ethidium bromide-stained fibropapillomatosis.
ASSOCIATION OF A NEW CHELONID HERPESVIRUS WITH FIBROPAPILLOMAS OF

THE GREEN TURTLE, Chelonia mydas, AND THE LOGGERHEAD TURTLE, CARETTA
CARETTA
Joel K. Lackovich1, Daniel R. Brown2, Bruce L. Homer2, Richard L. Garber 3, Douglas R. Mader4, Ritchie H. Moretti 4,
Amy D. Patterson4, Lawrence H. Herbst5, Jorge Oros6, Elliott R. Jacobson6, and Paul A. Klein7
1
Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology (College of Medicine), University of Florida, Gainesville FL 32610,
U.S.A.
2
Department of Pathobiology (College of Veterinary Medicine), University of Florida, Gainesville FL 32611, U.S.A.
3
Pathogenesis Corporation, Seattle WA 98119, U.S.A.
4
The Turtle Hospital, Hidden Harbor Marine Environmental Project, Marathon FL 33050, U.S.A.
5
The Institute for Animal Studies, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx N.Y., 10461, U.S.A.
6
Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences (College of Veterinary Medicine), University of Florida, Gainesville FL
32611, U.S.A.
7
Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine (College of Medicine), University of Florida, Gainesville,
FL 32610, U.S.A.
Fibropapillomatosis (FP) is a growing threat to the sur- coastline. Eleven scar tissue samples from sites where
vival of green turtle, Chelonia mydas, and loggerhead turtle, fibropapillomas had been removed from 5 green turtles were
Caretta caretta, populations worldwide. Successful transmis- also collected. By using primers targeted to a highly con-
sion experiments with filtered cell-free tumor homogenates served region within the herpesviral DNA polymerase gene,
have shown FP to be caused by a chloroform-sensitive sub- 93 cutaneous and visceral tumors and 45 normal skin samples
cellular infectious agent. A chelonid herpesvirus is a candi- were tested individually. Over 95% of the fibropapillomas
date for the etiology of this disease. Consensus primer PCR and only 7% of the normal skin samples from FP-affected
methodology was used to determine the frequency of asso- turtles tested positive. Scar tissue tested positive in 1 out of
ciation of the chlelonid herpesvirus with individual 11 samples. Eleven normal skin samples from 3 FP-unaf-
fibropapillomas of green and loggerhead turtles in Florida. fected turtles all tested negative. To determine if the same
Fibropapillomas and normal skin samples were obtained from virus infects both turtle species, an interior region of the her-
20 green and loggerhead turtles stranded along the Florida pesvirus DNA polymerase gene was sequenced from 6 log-

gerhead and 2 green turtle samples. Results predicted that similar to the corresponding sequence of alphaherpesvirus.
loggerhead and green turtle viral sequences differ by only 1 The data indicate the candidate chelonid herpesvirus has high
of 61 amino acids. Phylogenetic comparisons showed that prevalence only among turtles with FP, and that the same
the partial sequence of the chelonid herpesvirus was most virus infects both green and loggerhead turtles.
NECROTIC LIMBS: AMPUTATION AND TREATMENT
Gail Schofield, Harikleia Kopsida, Dimitrios Dimopoulos, and Dimitris Margaritoulis

The Sea Turtle Protection Society of Greece, 35 Solomou St, GR-10682 Athens, Greece. stps@compulink.gr
INTRODUCTION
Loggerhead turtles, which inhabit the Greek seas fishing line was entangled around its right front flipper, which
throughout the year, are frequently found entangled in fish- was held to the body by two millimetres of tissue. The flip-
ing nets and lines. Usually the fore flippers are caught, re- per was swollen, but there were no visible signs of second-
sulting in necrosis of the flipper, which may require amputa- ary pathogenic infection. The flipper was removed due to
tion procedure. The case histories of six loggerhead turtles necrosis.
(Caretta caretta), with necrotic flippers, are discussed, con- The case of Ioanna indicates the possibility to save
cerning their treatment and rehabilitation. The survival of part of a flipper, if the necrotic region is localised. The left
turtles following amputation when returned to the wild is front flipper was injured from entanglement in plastic mate-
uncertain and may prevent successful mating, nesting and rial. Necrosis was present at the tip of the dermal layer of the
survival strategies. flipper leaving the carpel and metacarpel bones exposed. Two
The Sea Turtle Rescue Centre (STRC) in Athens was operations were successfully completed, removing only the
established in 1994, by the Sea Turtle Protection Society of localised necrotic regions, allowing the recovery of most of
Greece with the support of the Municipality of Glyfada. In- the flipper.
jured and sick sea turtles are brought to the STRC from all This treatment was applied to the case of Alanis, as
over Greece, in co-operation with the Port Authorities, Olym- both fore flippers contained areas of necrotic bone and tis-
pic Airways, the Greek Railway Organisation, the bus and sue. The amputation of both flippers would have proved fu-
ferry companies, who provide complimentary transportation. tile for the survival of the turtle. The left front flipper was at
The STRC has been receiving injured sea turtles since 1994. an advanced stage of necrosis as a result of fishing line en-
In that time, seventy sea turtles, mostly loggerheads (Caretta tanglement, whereas the necrotic region of the right limb was
caretta), have been admitted to the STRC. Of these, twenty- localised to the epithelial tissue of the flipper. The tissue of
four have suffered from flipper injury as a direct result of the right front flipper was scraped away until healthy tissue
fishing net and line entanglement, of which twenty-one have was reached (Kapalko, 1997). The left fore limb was ampu-
recovered. tated, but due to incorrect wound management, i.e. the bone
Volunteers, from Greece and abroad, under the super- was left exposed, correctional operative treatment was re-
vision of trained staff and associated veterinarians treat sea quired to cut back the bone and cover it with surrounding
turtles at the STRC. The successful rehabilitation and re- tissues (Kapalko, 1997).
lease of the turtles is the main objective of all those working Oedipus had extensive pathogenic infection and ne-
at the STRC. As a result of increasing knowledge and advice crosis of his right front flipper. The secondary pathogenic
from sea turtle experts worldwide, the medical care provided infections had caused the loss of facial, carapace and plas-
by the STRC is in a constant state of improvement. tron scutes as well as surrounding epithelial tissue, so much
that bone was visible. The virulence of the pathogens, in com-
DIAGNOSIS, TREATMENT AND PATHOGENIC bination with Oedipus weakened immune system, indicate
INFECTION that death resulted from the rapid spread of septicaemia.
On arrival Themistokles had already lost most of the
The vast change in treatment can be observed in the six
left front flipper, leaving the humerus bone and surrounding
cases of loggerhead turtles discussed below.
tissues exposed, following fishing line entanglement. This
Name Admitted Released Died CCL/cm Weight/kg Sex was at an advanced stage of gangrene infection. He was also
Leonardos 22/11/1995 31/12/1995 22.8 1.15 Unknown
Ioanna 13/7/1996 10/9/1996 21.5 1.12 Unknown
suffering from an acute pathogenic infection of the jaw, fa-
Oedipus 14/1/1997 16/1/1997 52.0 15.0 Unknown cial and carapace scutes, skin and eyes. The humerus bone
Alanis 6/7/1997 5/9/1997 70.0 35.0 Female
Themistokles 22/10/1997 20/12/1997 78.0 55.0 Male
was cut back, to stop the spread of gangrene. After the first
Krystina 18/11/1997 STRC 42.0 8.0 Unknown operation the bone was left exposed allowing gangrene to
recur. A second operation was performed, but the bone and
Leonardos, was one of the first loggerhead turtles to tissues still could not be properly sealed from the environ-
be admitted to the STRC requiring flipper amputation. A ment as there was very little remaining tissue masses, and

that which was present was infected with an epithelial ne- DISCUSSION
crotic pathogen (Kapalko, 1997).
Physical and biological factors contribute in determin-
Krystina suffered from a swollen right front flipper,
ing if a sea turtle will survive from a flipper injury. These
which was severed to the humerus bone by fishing lines. There
include sea turtle age, size, stress, health, including state of
was a region of localised necrotic tissue on the flipper, which
nutritional and immune system, and season, sea temperature
caused a progressive loss of sensitivity over the days previ-
and pollution (George, 1997; Campbell, 1996).
ous to the operation (Kapalko, 1997). The injury was further
If necrotic regions of bone and tissue on a flipper are
complicated with the presence of a secondary pathogenic
localised, and not complicated by the presence of virulent
infection on the flipper and surrounding body epithelial sur-
pathogenic attack and a weak immune system (Campbell,
faces. On admittance to the STRC, Krystina was in a state of
1996), the turtle is likely to be able to combat the flipper
severe malnutrition, with a soft carapace and shrunken plas-
injury resulting in the healing or loss of the limb. It is known
tron covered in an ectoparasitic algal colony. This may have
that sea turtles lose flippers in the wild, without needing hu-
resulted from her body converting its resources to attack in-
man aid for rehabilitation, because sea turtles with lost front
vading pathogens. This depressed state would have also in-
and hind limbs have been observed emerging onto nesting
creased her vulnerability to such invasion, inhibiting her natu-
beaches (pers. comm. STPS), or are admitted to the STRC
ral biochemical and histological defense mechanisms, pre-
for other reasons. Four cases of flipper loss, without human
venting recovery (George, 1997; Campbell, 1996). The right
interference, have been recorded at the STRC to date. How-
front flipper was amputated, under anaesthetic, close to the
ever, some sea turtle injuries may be complicated, by the
humerus joint, and the bone was sealed with a triple layer; of
entry of secondary virulent pathogenic infections via
muscle, inner soft tissue and epithelial tissue, and secured
wounded tissues or epithelial surfaces (Campbell, 1996). If
with a layer of Superglue, to prevent entry of pathogens
gangrene occurs, immediate amputation is necessary, other-
(Kapalko, 1997).
wise the spread of septicaemia through the blood stream is
inevitable, leading to the gross destruction of internal and
RECOVERY
external epithelial surfaces (Wiles, 1987), possibly resulting
Sea turtles with amputated fore and hind limbs are suc- in fatality.
cessfully rehabilitated and released into the wild by the STRC. The recovery of sea turtles admitted to the STRC for
Leonardos, Alanis and Krystina on arriving at the STRC flipper damage is about 88%. The success rate is high, how-
used their injured flippers as an aid to swimming, buoyancy ever this cannot compensate for the number of sea turtle en-
and balance. Following amputation, their ability to swim and tanglements. Sea turtles with flipper injuries already repre-
dive was initially hindered. After about five days all three sent about 35% of sea turtles admitted to the STRC. The
turtles were observed to swim, dive and rest on the bottom release of such sea turtles to the wild with lost flipper may
like a healthy turtle. With Krystina and Leonardos it was not actually help to maintain the viability of the Mediterra-
observed that the hind left flipper in both cases was used to a nean loggerhead population, due to potential reproductive
much greater extent to facilitate the loss of the front right difficulties. Their subsequent release to a wild population is
flipper. Following partial amputation of the flipper, Ioanna preferable to a lifetime in captivity. To just treat and reha-
found it hard to move both fore flippers at the same time bilitate turtles to the wild with the best medical care avail-
resulting in recurring rolling and yawing actions. able is not the long term solution to handle or reduce the
Themistokles may have been without his left front flipper incidence of this problem, action needs to be taken to pre-
for a period of time before being found. This is because from vent entanglement in fishing nets and lines.
arrival he had already adjusted to swimming and diving in The rescue, rehabilitation and release of each sea turtle
water without the front left flipper. His swimming behaviour from the STRC makes people become aware of the plight of
was very distinct; the tail and hind right flipper were used to the sea turtle and its plight in todays anthropogenic domi-
help steer him about the pool. He used the hind left flipper to nated environment. The combined effort of the work of the
a much lesser degree. STPS and STRC public awareness and education schemes,
On release, it was observed that the larger turtles, Alanis with the development of the Sea Turtle Stranding Network,
and Themistokles, had much greater difficulty in moving on will influence children, the fishermen and the general public
land, and passing through the wave breakers. Sea turtle feed- all over Greece to protect the sea turtle and its environment.
ing, migratory and breeding success after release remains
uncertain and incidence of survival is thought to be low LITERATURE CITED
(Moein et al., 1996). No sea turtle with this type of injury
Campbell, T.W. 1996. Clinical Pathology. In: Mader, D. R.
have been reported dead or returned to the STRC suffering
Reptile Medicine and Surgery. W.B. Saunders Co.,
from exhaustion and malnutrition (turtles are tagged on re-
Philadelphia, PA, U.S.A..
lease for future identification). These observations indicate
George, R.H. 1997. Health problems and diseases of sea
the need to intensively study the feeding, migratory and breed-
turtles. In: The Biology of Sea Turtles, ed. P.L. Lutz and
ing success, of released sea turtles with lost flippers, to
J.A. Musick. CRC Press pp. 365-385.
find their actual success in a free state.

Kapalko, R. 1997. Found in: Report on the Sea Turtle Rescue Wiles, M. 1987. Integumental and ulcerative disease in a
Centre, Glyfada, Greece. Spring 1994 - Winter 1997. loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta, at the Bermuda
(Unpublished manuscript). Aquarium: microbiology and histopathy. Dis. Aquat.
Moein, S.E., Keinath, J.A. Barnard, D.E., and Musick, J.A. Org. 3 (2) pp 85-90.
1996. How long does it take released turtles to
reacclimate? In: Keinath, J.A., Barnard, D.E., Musick,
J.A., Bell, B.A. (Comps.). Proceedings of the Fifteenth
Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and
Conservation. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-
SEFSC-p. 209-210.
EPIBIOTA AND LOGGERHEAD HEALTH STATUS
M. Andrew Stamper1, Ellery Foster2, Sheryan P. Epperly3, Joanne Braun-McNeill3, and David W. Owens4
1
College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, U.S.A.
2
Duke University Marine Laboratory, Beaufort, NC 28516, U.S.A.
3
NOAA/National Marine Fisheries Service, Beaufort, NC 28516, U.S.A.
4
Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, U.S.A. sepperly@hatteras.bea.nmfs.gov
A heavy epibiota load on sea turtles generally has been sampled to enable subsequent identification, and turtles were
interpreted as an indicator of the compromised health of the photographed and shell and epibiota patterns were analyzed
individual. Such turtles have been referred to as "Barnacle with image analysis. Blood samples were drawn at capture
Bills". However, no evidence has been presented to link and 29 blood parameters were analyzed. Hypotheses tested
epibiota load and health status conclusively. During Novem- included (1)epibiota load does not increase as a function of
ber 1997, 56 loggerhead sea turtles, 50-70 cm SCL, were turtle length, (2)epibiota load does not vary between sex in
sampled from Pamlico and Core Sounds, N.C., U.S.A. Turtles juveniles, and (3) epibiota load is not an indicator of the
were measured, barnacles were counted, epibiota were health of the turtle.
FIRST ASSESSMENT ON TUMORS INCIDENCE IN NESTING FEMALES OF OLIVE

RIDLEY SEA TURTLE LEPIDOCHELYS OLIVACEA, AT LA ESCOBILLA BEACH,
OAXACA, MEXICO.
Javier Vasconcelos, Ernesto Albavera, Elpidio M. Lpez, Porfirio Hernndez, and Cuauhtmoc Peaflores
Instituto Nacional de la Pesca, Centro Mexicano de la Tortuga. P. O. Box 16, Puerto Angel, Oaxaca 70902, Mxico.
cmtvasco@angel.umar.mx
La Escobilla beach, located in the central region of the For this reason and having the orientation of the staff of the
coast of Oaxaca, houses the most important sanctuary for NMFS Laboratory in Hawaii, some surveying of the general
the nesting of the olive ridley sea turtle in Mexico, and stands characteristics of the tumors were carried out, in order to
out as one of the beaches in which they come the most spec- give form to a project which explain more to detail the main
tacular and numerous arribadas of the planet (Vasconcelos implications of the phenomenon.
and Albavera, 1995). Here they come the results of the initial stage of the
In the recent years on this beach has been detected the work, in which the presence of tumors in olive ridley sea
presence of turtles with tumors similar to the papilomas found turtle were analyzed, in nesting females corresponding to
in other species. The frequency of sea turtles observed with the fifth arribazn of the season 1997 in La Escobilla beach,
this characteristics has been increasing apparently. In the face from August 23rd to 28th.
of this stage, a new task has arisen: identify the kind of tu-
mor, quantify and evaluate their incidence in the nesting popu- GENERAL OBJECTIVE
lation.
The first observation of tumors in this beach took place To obtain a general view about the magnitude and
in the last 1980s; however these were not published neither characteristic of the tumors present in nesting females of ol-
reported. It was up to 1997 when we realized on the neces- ive ridley sea turtle Lepidochelys olivacea, at La Escobilla
sity of beginning a more sufficient revision of the problem. beach, in Oaxaca, Mexico.

PARTICULAR OBJECTIVES The frequency of turtles with tumor were located in

values between 1 and 496. The value frequency of sighting
To evaluate the incidence of turtles with evident tu- value was 69.18 (standard deviation 77.34).
mors in those females that come to nest during an Table 1 shows a summary of the tumors distribution
arribazn. located in the different anatomical regions of the turtle.
To identify the anatomical external areas of the olive
ridley sea turtle in which it register the presence of Table 1. Distribution of tumors in the different anatomical regions of
tumors with highest frequency. the olive ridley sea turtle.
To know the frequency distribution of the tumor sizes REGION FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
located in olive ridley sea turtles. Right eye 8 5.71
Left eye 7 5.00
Pick 2 1.43
METHODS Neck 48 34.29
Fin front right 90 64.29
At the beginning of the arribazn in La Escobilla beach Fin front left 89 63.57
were carried out surveys along the whole zone of arribazn Fin back right 12 8.57
Fin back left 2 1.43
looking for turtles with evident tumors in the anatomical
Cloaca-tail 0 0
external areas. These surveys were carried out walking to- Shield 29 20.71
ward both sides of the arribazn zone covering both high Scar mating area 4 2.86
zone and the humid zone of the beach, during all night, ev-
The dimensions of the seen tumors also varied. The
ery night of arribazn. Every time that a female was found
categories with the high frequency were C2 and C1, noting
with tumor, we proceeded to fill the field record carefully.
that C3 and C4 has frequencies clearly low (Figure 2).
The anatomical areas revised in each turtle were the
following: eyes, pick, neck, front fins, back fins, cloaca-tail,
DISCUSSION
shields and the area where the male catch the female with its
nails during the mating (where frequently a scar is marked). The accomplished sampling points out an incidence of
Every located tumor was measured with metric flex- tumors in nesting females of olive ridley sea turtle about
ible ribbon, in order to locate it in any of the following cat- 1.44% at this beach. At the current terms is not possible to
egories in accordance with Balazs (1991): C1, less than 1 presume which is the real magnitude of the problem, because
centimeter; C2, between 1 and 4 centimeters; C3, between 4 of the ignorance about the biological, ecological and etho-
and 10 centimeters and C4, more than 10 centimeters. logical implications of this illness in populations of olive
Every turtle checked was counted, writing in the field ridley sea turtle. Taking the incidence of fibropapilomas in
record how many female seemingly healthy were observed green turtle Chelonia mydas as reference, species for which
before finding one with tumor. This value was denominated populations have been reported with up to 92% of infected
frequency of sighting. In this way the estimate of the per- turtles (Balazs, 1991 and George, 1997), the problem does
centage of the population which presents tumors was ob- not seem to be very severe. However, considering the size of
tained, being the total checked turtles the sample size. the population of turtle olive ridley which nests in The
Escobilla, besides presently work was only revised external
RESULTS tumors in adult females exclusively, the matter should be
taken with reserves.
The sample size for six nights of arribazn was 9,201
and it was located among them to 133 with tumor. Corre- 100
sponding to this, the 1.445% of the revised turtles presented 90
80
at least one tumor at any size (Figure 1). Considering the 70
total nesting esteemed (155,000) during the arribazn in 60

50
which the sampling was done (Centro Mexicano de la frequency 40
Tortuga, 1998), this work covered the 5.9% of the nesting 30

20
females in that period. 10
0
C1 C2 C3 C4
With infection evidence
(1.45%) Categories
Figure 2. Fr equency tumors by size category.
The anatomical areas in which identified the high num-

n= 9,201 ber of tumors was the front fins, noting that in more than the
No infection evidence
(98.55%)
60% of the cases this illness was located at this region. Also,
the neck was one of the areas with high frequency (34%).
Figure 1. Percentage of turtles with evidence of tumors, to the total This shows that the anterior portion of the turtles body had
turtles checked during the survey. the high level of manifestation of the illness. Immediately,

the frequencies seen in shields, back fins and eyes were those George, R.H. 1997. Health problems and diseases of sea
that they followed in order of importance, with values about turtles. In: Peter L. Lutz and John A. Musick editors,
20.7, 8.5 and 5%, respectively. Remains scar mating area The Biology of sea turtles. Chapter 14, pp. 363 - 385.
and the pick with very small values, and the tail with zero Boca Raton, Florida.
appearances. Vasconcelos, P.J. and E. Albavera P. 1995. El Centro
It is important to note that only the 7.8% of the turtles Mexicano de la Tortuga: Objetivos y Perspectivas.
with tumors did not have any in the front fins and neck, what Noticiero de Tortugas Marinas No. 74. p 16.
suggest these is probably the first areas for infection, start-
ing from where the illness begin to spread on the rest of the
body.
Finally, the size of the tumors is another factor which
requires more research, because like it is shown in graph
number 3, the tumors with measurement between 1 and 4
centimeters were the most abundant, followed by the tumors
less than 1 centimeter. The frequency decreases significantly
at the tumors between 4 and 10 centimeters, even swooping
more the frequency tumor size over than 10 centimeters.
CONCLUSIONS
It is significant to find that more than one percent
of the nesting females which arrived at La Escobilla
beach reveals the presence of this illness. Because of
this witnesses of tumors in olive ridley sea turtle is a
fact that will study and thoroughly pay attention in
order to know better and try to control this illness.
The areas of the turtle body with high affectation at
this initial stage of the study were: previous fins, neck
and shields. It will be useful to consider this fact in
the search of the probable routes of infection and
spread of the illness.
The tumors size minor than four centimeters are
the most abundant in the nesting females that they
came to nest during this arribazn, probably because
the problem is still in the beginning.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work had the valuable collaboration of the doc-
tors George Balazs and Alonso Aguirre from the National
Marine Fisheries Service, in Honolulu Laboratory. Also, the
contribution during the surveying process at La Escobilla of
the Camp staff, with the special intervention of Aarn Olivera,
Luz Mara Rodrguez, Margarita Alvarado and Yaritza
Hernndez.
LITERATURE CITED
Balazs, G. 1991. Current status of fibropapillomas in the
hawaiian green turtle, Chelonia mydas. U.S. Dep.
Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-SWFSC-156, 47
p.
Centro Mexicano de la Tortuga. 1998. Reporte de
anidaciones de tortuga golfina durante la temporada
reproductiva 1997-1998 en la playa de La Escobilla,
Oaxaca. (In press). Technical Report of Instituto
Nacional de la Pesca.

SATELLITE TRACKING OF HAWKSBILL TURTLES NESTING IN THE HAWAIIAN

ISLANDS
George H. Balazs1, Lawrence K. Katahira 2, and Denise M. Ellis3

1
Hawaii 96822-2396 U.S.A.
2
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, P.O. Box 52, Hawaii National Park, Hawaii 96718 U.S.A.
3
Joint Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, c/o 2570 Dole Street, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822-2396 U.S.A.
Few studies have been undertaken using satellite telem- of hawksbills. Satellite telemetry using the Argos system
etry to determine post-nesting migrations of hawksbill turtles, was initiated at Kamehame in 1995 to accomplish this goal.
Eretmochelys imbricata. Additionally, none of the work re-
METHODS
ported to date has taken place in the Pacific region (Byles
and Swimmer, 1994, Groshens and Vaughn, 1994). In the Telonics ST-3 transmitters were attached to two nest-
Hawaiian Islands the hawksbill, known as honu'ea, is a rare ing hawksbills during late August 1995. Deployment was
and endangered species (Balazs, 1978; Balazs et al. 1992; scheduled to coincide with the latter part of the nesting sea-
1994). An estimated total of not more than 30 females nest son. Transmitters were programmed with a duty cycle of six
in the best of years at 10 beach sites found exclusively on the hours on, six hours off. The units were turned on at a time
islands of Hawaii, Maui, Molokai and Oahu. Hawksbills are computed for the latitude and longitude of Hawaii to syn-
not known to reside or nest in the Northwestern Hawaiian chronize with optimum satellite overpasses. Each 765 g trans-
Islands, where green turtles, Chelonia mydas (honu), sea- mitter was safely and securely attached to the carapace using
sonally migrate to breed from throughout the archipelago Silicone Elastomer and thin layers of fiberglass cloth soaked
(Balazs, 1976). with polyester resin. The turtles were harmlessly confined
Kamehame, a small remote beach at 19 8.8'N, 155 in a prone position inside a portable plywood pen during the
28.2'W on the southeastern coast of the island of Hawaii, attachment process. The same procedure successfully used
hosts a major portion of all hawksbill nesting in the Hawai- to satellite-track the reproductive migrations of green turtles
ian Islands. Since 1989, females
arriving here have been moni-
tored, tagged, and protected by bi-
ologists from the nearby Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park
A
B
(Katahira et al., 1994). However,

8h
10 33 9h
95 A
1
1
23
04
14 4h
t
no tagged turtles have been reas
96
Co
A
2
07
h
96
a
38
02
ku
01
corded away from the nesting

13
ma B
02
95
h
Honoka'a Ha
30
28
beach. In addition, there are al-

12
12
96
A
most no reports of adult hawks- 20

03
h
h
44
35
01
23
11
bills being sighted by divers any-

96
96
03
05
01
02
where in coastal waters. Knowl- Honomu

edge of the whereabouts of ma-
Latitude N
rine foraging habitats occupied by

Hawaiian hawksbills is essential Hilo
to adequately understand, protect,

and manage this local population. Cape
The principal objective of the on- Kumukahi
B
going study reported here is to

h
07
04
locate the resident feeding areas

95
09
09
3
h
35
11
95
22
Kamehame
08
Beach
Figure 1. Post-nesting migration of
hawksbill 22126 from Kamehame
Beach to the Honokaa region of the 19
Hamakua Coast, Island of Hawaii. A Hawksbill 22126
minimum distance of 200 km was Island of Hawaii
traveled. The month, day, year, time,
and LC designation as supplied by 156 155
Argos are listed for each position.
Longitude W
16th Symposium Proceedings Supplement 279

Proceedings of the 18th International Sea Turtle Symposium
B
1 h
B
5
11 1 79 239 234 234 420 00 042
h
*
57
16
01 0 996 95 95 6 1 95
6 0h 2h h B h
3
96
21 21 006 01 122
02 B h B 11 1 5 2 01 5 2 95 57 51 B 1 *
Hamakua Coast
15
*
01
3 1 3 0 A h2
B
16 159 B B
11 A 00 A B
h
1 01
96 10 h 1h
B
0
B 22
7h
9 5 0 3
1
h
2
h
h 04
01 2h 4h 33h796 45h 10
15 0
58
52
0
Honoka'a
12
31 5
9
5
0
95 09
0 4
6
6
1
28 02
09
27 00
0
12 1
20
B
0
h
48
0
2
30
12
9
0
B
47 04 09 39 28
3 65
1 23 02 16 21 3h h B 17h B
6
A
19
13 0 123 122 11
23 2 8 0 h
04 12 5 0 322
1
5 5
B
Honomu
22 2 96 96 59 2
Figure 2. Post-nesting migration of
h
10 09 112 096
50
00
1
B
1
03 hawksbill 22134 from Kamehame
h 5
h
96
09
A
14
A
h
Hilo
23
Latitude N
02 101 217 12h 129 47h h
23
B
07 6 96
7h
10 269 895 95 0 6 2 A
Beach to Honomu on the Hamakua
00
96
h
03 03
01 09 04
31
51
06
1 3
95
B
23
95 03 0
19 6
Coast, Island of Hawaii. A minimum
01
9
30
h
A
58
95
09
6
0
02
04
01 96 1 14 h B
02
coastal distance of 135 km was
h
06 95 1 11 8h
10
12 29 1 127 h Z
33
0
03 017 95 00 11
01 1 96 64 h B
00
1 25 6 1
96 5 164 h A B
traveled. The month, day, year, time,
5
09
4
20 3h 0
95
29
12
h A
13 3 h
29
11
13 7
7
09
and LC designation as supplied by
1
Cape
Argos are listed for each position.
B
17 99 Kumukahi
h
58
04
96
01
02
Kamehame
Beach
19
Hawksbill 22134
Island of Hawaii
156 155
Longitude W
in the Hawaiian Islands was carried out with hawksbills in gration involved a coastal distance of about 180 km. Two of
the present study (Balazs et al., in press). the eight positions were during February 1996, thereby dem-
onstrating an extended residency by the turtle along the
RESULTS Hamakua Coast.
Hawksbill 22134- A transmitter was deployed on
Hawksbill 22126- This turtle was equipped with a trans- hawksbill 22134 on 8/24/95 after an unsuccessful nesting
mitter on 8/22/95 after an unsuccessful nesting attempt. She attempt. During the previous month this 83 cm SCL female
measured 88 cm in straightline carapace length (SCL). Ear- had been flipper-tagged (B773/B774) at Kamehame when
lier in the season she had been recorded at Kamehame on encountered there for the first time. On 8/29/95, five days
four occasions. Flipper tags (N439/N440) showed that she after transmitter attachment, the turtle emerged again to suc-
had originally nested at this same site in September 1991 cessfully nest at this same site. During the next eight months,
and was resighted nesting there again in 1993. On 8/24/95, over 100 transmissions were relayed by Argos, 50 of which
two days after being released with the transmitter, she came included positions of varying levels of usefulness (Fig. 2).
back ashore at Kamehame and successfully nested. Three of the reports were locations of high accuracy (LC 1
During the following seven months 90 transmissions or LC 2) occurring during December 1995 and January and
were relayed by Argos from hawksbill 22126; however, only April of 1996. These data, used in combination with many
eight supplied location data of latitude and longitude (Fig. of the other positions, conclusively demonstrated that the
1). The remaining reports were limited to diving data show- turtle had also traveled to the Hamakua Coast and, like the
ing that the turtle was usually surfacing only 9-12 times dur- other hawksbill, had taken the shortest route around the is-
ing each 12-hour period computed by Argos. Individual dives land. The LC 1 and LC 2 positions placed the turtle in the
frequently lasted more than 50 minutes. The eight positions nearshore waters of Honomu, a minimum coastal distance of
were minimally sufficient to show that the turtle had traveled about 135 km from Kamehame. The infrequent surfacing
to the windswept northeastern side of the island known as intervals revealed by Argos for this turtle were similar to those
the Hamakua Coast. A position on 9/9/95 off the eastern recorded for hawksbill 22126.
point of Cape Kumukahi indicated that the turtle had taken Positions shown in Figures 1 and 2 illustrate that Argos
the shortest route around the island. This post-nesting mi- data must be carefully interpreted when tracking sea turtles,
280 16th Symposium Proceedings Supplement

especially in studies where only short movements result. Fourteenth Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology
Positions received from Argos designed as LC 1, 2, and 3 and Conservation. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.
are defined as quite accurate. However, no definitions of Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SEFSC-351, p. 10-13.
accuracy are given by Argos for LC 0, A, B, and Z positions. Balazs, G. H., H. Hirth, P. Kawamoto, E. Nitta, L. Ogren, R.
For these data the responsibility rests with the researcher to Wass, and J. Wetherall. 1992. Interim recovery plan
judge reliability and usefulness. Positions supplied may be for Hawaiian sea turtles. Honolulu Lab., NMFS,
reasonable and acceptable in one transmission, and totally Southwest Fish. Sci. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-92-01, 76 p.
unacceptable for the same LC designation when received at Byles, R. A. and Y. B. Swimmer. 1994. Post-nesting
other times. The positions shown in the interior of the island migration of Eretmochelys imbricata in the Yucatan
in the accompanying figures are clearly inaccurate, hence Peninsula. Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual
serve to emphasize this important point. Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation.
U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-
LITERATURE CITED NMFS-SEFSC-351, p. 202.
Groshens, E. B. and M. R. Vaughn. 1994. Post-nesting
Balazs, G. H. 1976. Green turtle migrations in the Hawaiian
movements of hawksbill sea turtles from Buck Island
archipelago. Biol. Conserv. 9:125-140.
Reef National Monument, St. Croix, USVI. Proceedings
Balazs, G. H. 1978. Terrestrial critical habitat for sea turtles
of the Thirteenth Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle
under United States jurisdiction in the Pacific region.
Biology and Conservation. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA
Elepaio 39(4):37-41.
Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SEFSC-341, p. 202.
Balazs, G. H., R. K. Miya, and S. C. Beavers. In Press.
Katahira, L. K., C. M. Forbes, A. H. Kikuta, G. H. Balazs,
Procedures to attach a satellite transmitter to the carapace
and M. Bingham. 1994. Recent findings and
of an adult green turtle, Chelonia mydas. Proceedings
management of hawksbill turtle nesting beaches in
of the Fifteenth Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology
Hawaii. Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual
and Conservation. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.
Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SEFSC.
U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-
Balazs, G. H., W. C. Dudley, L. E. Hallacher, J. P. Coney,
NMFS-SEFSC-351, p. 69.
and S. K. Koga. 1994. Ecology and cultural significance
of sea turtles at Punaluu, Hawaii. Proceedings of the
SATELLITE TELEMETRY OF MIGRANT MALE AND FEMALE GREEN TURTLES

BREEDING IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS
George H. Balazs1 and Denise M. Ellis2

1 National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, Honolulu Laboratory, 2570
Dole Street, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822-2396 U.S.A.
2 Joint Institute of Marine and Atmospheric Research, c/o 2570 Dole Street, Honolulu, Hawaii
96822-2396 U.S.A.
Satellite telemetry using the Argos system was con- METHODS

ducted during 1995 for the first time on adult male green
Telonics ST-3 backpack transmitters were placed on
turtles, Chelonia mydas (honu), breeding in the Hawaiian
two adult males during early June 1995 and on a nesting fe-
Islands at French Frigate Shoals (24N, 166W). In addi-
male in late September 1995. The deployment schedules
tion, a nesting green turtle was satellite-tagged in 1995 to
were planned to coincide with estimated departure times from
expand upon data obtained during 1992 and 1993 when five
French Frigate Shoals for periods of mating and nesting. The
other migrant females were successfully tracked by satellite
transmitters were programmed with a duty cycle of six hours
to their resident foraging pastures (Balazs, 1994; Balazs et
on, six hours off. The units were turned on at a time of day
al,. 1994).
computed to synchronize with optimum satellite overpasses
The goal of this work is to develop detailed maps of the
for the region of deployment.
specific routes taken by males and females between breed-
The transmitters were safely and securely attached to
ing and foraging areas and to determine swimming and div-
the carapace using thin layers of fiberglass cloth and polyes-
ing behaviors during the migrations. When viewed in con-
ter resin. The transmitters measured 17 x 10 x 3.5 cm with
junction with environmental, geomagnetic, and other factors,
the antenna extending 13 cm from the top. At special re-
these data will provide insight into the navigational mecha-
quest to the manufacturer, the full length of the antenna was
nisms of green turtles in the Hawaiian Islands. The satellite
sheathed in tubing to provide added protection against dam-
telemetry studies of green turtles by Liew et al. (1995) and
age. Silicone Elastomer, a two-part quick curing-rubber prod-
Papi et al. (1995) in Malaysia, and Schroeder et al. (in press)
uct, was also incorporated to properly mount the transmitter
in Florida, constitute parallel lines of important research.
24 French Frigate Shoals

10 Necker Male 22125
Male 22133
23 Nihoa Female 22132
Kaua'i
22 Ni'ihau
Latitude N
Kaula Oahu
Moloka'i
21 Maui
Lanai
Kaho'olawe
20
Hawai'i
19
166 165 164 163 162 161 160 159 158 157 156 155
Longitude W
Figure 1. Post-reproductive migratory routes of adult male and female green turtles from French Frigate Shoals to Molokai,
Maui, and Oahu in the main Hawaiian Islands.
against the carapace before applying the fiberglass. During turtle for an extended distance across the high seas.
the attachment process turtles were harmlessly confined in a
prone position using a shaded portable plywood pen. Step- Male 22125
by-step directions for the entire attachment procedure are set A transmitter was attached to this 86 cm SCL turtle at
forth in Balazs et al. (in press). East Island after it was captured while basking ashore on the
afternoon of 6/8/95. Four days later on 6/12/95 the turtle
RESULTS departed on a 1050 km migration to the southeast that lasted
Detailed satellite tracking was successfully accom- 26 days. On 7/8/95 the turtle arrived in coastal waters of
plished for the post-reproductive open ocean migrations of Panahaha on the southern shore of the island of Molokai.
the two males and one female, as shown in Figure 1. The This area is known as prime foraging and underwater resting
results are summarized as follows: habitat for green turtles. The journey of male 22125 also
occurred against prevailing winds and currents over deep
Male 22133 water and mainly without benefit of visual contact with the
This turtle was equipped with a transmitter on 6/7/95 Hawaiian Islands. Also, like male 22133, the turtle followed
after being found basking ashore during the daytime at East a route around the north shore of the island of Oahu before
Island, French Frigate Shoals (see Whittow and Balazs, 1982). continuing eastward. The average swimming speed was 1.7
The turtle measured 87 cm in straightline carapace length km/hour, identical to male 22133. During the migration, the
(SCL). A flipper tag (6038) revealed that the turtle had been Argos system relayed 21 positions judged acceptable for the
originally identified 13 years earlier on 6/8/82 while basking purposes of this research. After arriving at Molokai the trans-
at this same site. The turtle was seen there again on 6/4/84. missions sporadically continued for nearly six months be-
On 6/19/95, 12 days after transmitter deployment, the turtle fore terminating in late December 1995.
departed French Frigate Shoals and traveled 1200 km to the As illustrated in Figure 1, exceedingly similar oceanic
southeast on a journey lasting 30 days. On 7/19/95 the turtle pathways were taken by both males, even though they were
arrived at Kahului Bay, an important foraging and underwa- never in contact with one another, and their final destina-
ter resting areas for green turtles on the northern coast of tions were different.
Maui (see Balazs et al,. 1987). The voyage mainly occurred Female 22132- A transmitter was deployed on this 98
over water thousands of meters deep, out of sight of land, cm SCL turtle after she came ashore to nest at East Island on
and against prevailing winds and currents. The turtle's swim- the night of 9/22/95. A flipper tag had been applied three
ming speed averaged 1.7 km/hour. After reaching Kahului months earlier during a previous nesting on East Island. Fe-
Bay, satellite transmissions continued for only 12 days be- male 22132 departed on 9/26/95 traveling 1050 km to the
fore terminating on 8/1/95. During the migration the Argos southeast taking 23 days at an average swimming speed of
system relayed 33 positions deemed suitable for tracking a 1.9 km/hour. The trip was completed on 10/19/95 with her

arrival along the Ewa coastline near the entrance to Pearl Preliminary assessment of habitat utilization by
Harbor on Oahu's southern shore. The Argos system relayed Hawaiian green turtles in their resident foraging
28 positions of relatively high quality during the migration. pastures. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo.
After reaching the Ewa coastline, transmissions continued NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-71, 107 p.
on nearly a daily basis for over six months, thereby clearly Balazs, G. H., R. K. Miya, and S. C. Beavers. In Press.
demonstrating the turtle's extended residency to this area. Procedures to attach a satellite transmitter to the carapace
The migratory pathway of female 22132 was substan- of an adult green turtle, Chelonia mydas. Proceedings
tially farther to the south than the routes followed by the two of the Fifteenth Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology
male turtles. However, the route of female 22132 was very and Conservation. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.
similar to three of the four post-nesting females satellite- Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SEFSC.
tracked in past years migrating from French Frigate Shoals Balazs, G. H., P. Craig, B. R. Winton, and R. K. Miya. 1994.
to Oahu (Balazs, 1994; Balazs et al., 1994). Satellite telemetry of green turtles nesting at French
Frigate Shoals, Hawaii, and Rose Atoll, American Samoa.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Symposium on
Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. U.S. Dep.
Appreciation is expressed to the following individuals
Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-
and organizations for contributing to the success of this study:
SEFSC-351, p. 184-187.
S. Barkley, K. Berger, E. Flint, W. Gilmartin, R. Justman, J.
Liew, H. C., E. H. Chan, and P. L. F. Papi. 1995. Satellite
Kendig, K. McDermond, S. Murakawa, N. Palaia, M. Rice,
J. Swimmer, K. Takimoto, A. Viggiano, M. Webber, Sea Life tracking data on Malaysian green turtle migrations. Rend.
Park Hawaii, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Dr. Fis. Acc. Lincei 1995 (6):329-246.
Archie Carr is remembered for his inspiration and encour- Papi, F., H. C. Liew, P. Luschi, and E. H. Chan. 1995. Long-
agement to track the ocean migrations of green turtles using range migratory travel of a green turtle tracked by
earth-orbiting satellites. satellite: Evidence for navigational ability in the open
sea. Marine Biology 1995 (122): 171-175.
LITERATURE CITED Schroeder, B. A., L. M. Ehrhart, and G. H. Balazs. In Press.
Post-nesting movements of Florida green turtles:
Balazs, G. H. 1994. Homeward bound: satellite tracking of Preliminary results from satellite telemetry. Proceeding
Hawaiian green turtles from nesting beaches to foraging of the Fifteenth Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology
pastures. Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual and Conservation. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.
Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SEFSC.
U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM- Whittow, G. C. and G. H. Balazs. 1982. Basking behavior
NMFS-SEFSC-341,p. 205-208. of the Hawaiian green turtle (Chelonia mydas). Pacific
Balazs, G. H., R. G. Forsyth, and A. K. H. Kam. 1987. Science 36 (2):129-139.
GROWTH RATES AND RESIDENCY OF IMMATURE GREEN TURTLES AT KIHOLO

BAY, HAWAII
George H. Balazs1, Marc Rice2, Shawn K.K. Murakawa 3, and George Watson2
1
Hawaii 96822-2396 U.S.A.
2
Hawaii Preparatory Academy, P.O. Box 428, Kamuela, Hawaii 96743 U.S.A.
3
Joint Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, c/o 2570 Dole Street, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822-2396 U.S.A.
Long-term studies of green turtles, Chelonia mydas males and females residing throughout the chain migrate to
(honu), in nearshore waters of the Hawaiian Islands have been breed at isolated French Frigate Shoals (23 47N, 166
underway to obtain comprehensive information on growth 12W) situated at the mid-point of the archipelago (Balazs,
rates, food sources, habitat use, developmental and repro- 1976, 1980, 1983). Systematic monitoring at this site for 23
ductive migrations, underwater behaviors, health status, and consecutive seasons (1973-95) has documented an approxi-
population trends (Balazs, 1980, 1982, 1991, in press; Balazs mate threefold increase in the number of nesting females (Fig.
et al., 1987, 1993, 1994a, 1994b; Russell and Balazs, 1994). 1). This encouraging sign of population recovery is attrib-
The Hawaiian Archipelago includes 132 islands and reefs uted to protection extended in 1978 under the U.S. Endan-
extending for 2400 km across the North Pacific. However, gered Species Act. Similar increases have been seen for
the eight main islands at the southeastern end of the chain immature turtles inhabiting nearshore waters of the main is-
account for nearly all coastal benthic habitats suitable for lands, such as reported here for Kiholo Bay.
foraging and resting by post-pelagic green turtles. Adult
METHODS
Kiholo Bay and the adjoining 2 hectare mixohaline la-
goon known as Wainanalii Pond are located at 19 52N,
155 55W on the western coast of the island of Hawaii (Kay
et al., 1977). This site constitutes one of 16 resident areas
for green turtles under investigation throughout the Hawai-
ian Islands. Kiholo Bay has been periodically visited for
tagging since 1980 involving 27 expeditions lasting from 1
to 4 days. Since 1987, students and science instructors from
the Hawaii Preparatory Academy have served as essential
field assistants in the accomplishment of this work. Turtles
have been harmlessly hand-captured while snorkeling at night
or by using large-mesh tangle nets carefully tended to pre-
Figure 2. Mean growth rates, standard deviations, and number of
vent injury from forced submergence. Turtles have also been growth increments for nine size classes of green turtles at Kiholo
intensively monitored by sonic telemetry at selected inter- Bay, Hawaii. The mean rate of growth for 528 increments (202
vals to determine daily foraging and resting schedules (Laber turtles) was 1.7 1.0 cm/year.
and Waller, 1994).
captures consisted of 32% being recaptured once, 27% twice,
35% 3-5 times, 6% 6-8 times, and one turtle recaptured 13
times (over 7.3 years). The 528 increments, shown in Figure
RESULTS
2 by 5-cm size classes, resulted in an overall mean growth
As of December 1995, 313 green turtles of immature rate of 1.7 1.0 cm/yr. The 50-55 cm size class exhibited
sizes ranging from 33.2 to 71.5 cm in straightline carapace the highest mean growth rate (2.0 1.1 cm/yr). When only
length have been captured and tagged at Kiholo Bay. Nearly one growth increment was used for each of the 202 recap-
all of the turtles were caught by hand while they were resting tured turtles (i.e., growth between initial and most recent cap-
on the bottom within Wainanalii Pond or by net while they ture) the overall mean growth rate was 1.5 0.8 cm/yr.
were passing through the ponds narrow entrance channel. Only four turtles (1.3%) tagged at Kiholo have been
The number of turtles captured on each trip during recent recaptured elsewhere. Two were found at Kahaluu Bay 35
years has increased considerably. For example, during the km to the south, one at Keawa Nui Bay 12 km to the north,
late 1980s 11 to 37 turtles were captured on each visit. Dur- and one at Puako 16 km to the north. The turtle resighted at
ing the 1990s, from 40 to 85 turtles have been captured each Puako was recaptured later back at Kiholo Bay. None of the
time with equal or reduced capture-effort. On recent trips, it turtles captured at Kiholo over the 14.4-year period were
has sometimes even been necessary to terminate netting be- found to have been tagged elsewhere. This is in spite of the
cause too many turtles were being caught, thereby exceeding fact that 236 green turtles have been tagged since 1990 at
the capacity to expeditiously handle them. Besides green other study sites within 16 km to the north, and 50 km to the
turtles, three juvenile hawksbills have been captured, tagged, south, of Kiholo Bay. In addition, 217 green turtles have
and resighted within Wainanalii Pond. been tagged at Punaluu Bay since 1976 on the east coast of
Of the 313 turtles, 210 or 67.1% have been recaptured the island of Hawaii (Balazs et al., 1994b). Considered to-
one or more times, and 202 (64.5%) provided growth incre- gether, these data provide strong evidence in support of ex-
ments ranging from 3 months to 14.4 years. Multiple recap- tended residency for turtles inhabiting discrete coastal sites
tures of the same turtles yielded 528 growth increments. Re- on the island of Hawaii. Similar findings have resulted from
work conducted elsewhere in foraging pastures throughout
the Hawaiian Islands.
Sonic telemetry of 10 green turtles involving 500 hours
of monitoring (270 hours diurnal and 230 hours nocturnal)
revealed extremely limited movements in the turtles daily
cycles at Kiholo Bay. Nights were spent inside Wainanalii
Pond where the turtles are known to rest under submerged
lava rock ledges or on the silty bottom where the maximum
depth is less than four meters. During the early morning,
usually just before sunrise, the sonic-tagged turtles would
leave the pond to feed on Gelidium and other benthic algae
in the adjacent nearshore waters of the bay.
None of the turtles captured at Kiholo Bay or anywhere
Figure 1. Historical trend for 23 nesting seasons, 1973-95. East else along the western coast of the island of Hawaii have had
Island accounts for 50% or more of all green turtle nesting at French
Frigate Shoals. *1988-92 counts based on saturation tagging tumors indicative of fibropapillomatosis or evidence of any
throughout the nesting season. other disease. However, since 1988, nine carcasses have been

recovered suggestive of fatalities from gillnet fishing that 26(7):392-394.

commonly occurs at Kiholo Bay. Balazs, G. H., R. K. Miya, and M. A. Finn. 1994a. Aspects
Terrestrial emergences by green turtles are occurring of green turtles in their feeding, resting, and cleaning
with increasing frequency on the smooth lava rock bordering areas off Waikiki Beach. Proceedings of the Thirteenth
Wainanalii Pond (see Balazs in press). All turtles examined Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and
ashore engaged in this behavior have been healthy and vig- Conservation. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo.
orous. Terrestrial basking by green turtles has been known NOAA-TM-NMFS-SEFSC-341, p. 15-18.
for centuries in the remote Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Balazs, G. H., W. C. Dudley, L. E. Hallacher, J. P. Coney,
(Whittow and Balazs 1982). However, until recently, emer- and S. K. Koga. 1994b. Ecology and cultural
gence of this nature has been exceedingly rare in the main significance of sea turtles at Punaluu, Hawaii.
islands, and never before recorded at Kiholo Bay. Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Symposium on
Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. U.S. Dep.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-
SEFSC-351, p. 10-13.
We thank the following individuals and organizations
Kay, E. A., L. S. Lau, E. D. Stroup, S. J. Dollar, and D. P.
for their valuable contributions to the success of this work:
Fellows. 1977. Hydrologic and ecologic inventories of
the Earl Bakken family, the Robert Hind family, D. Akaka,
the coastal waters of West Hawaii. Technical Report
D. Ellis, W. Gilmartin, D. Gulko, J. Kendig, Mauna Lani
No. 105, Sea Grant Cooperative Report UNIHI-
Resort, R. Morris DVM (Makai Animal Clinic), M. Traub,
the State of Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Re- SEAGRANT-CR-77-02, 94 p.
Laber, M. and C. Waller. 1994. Diel movement patterns of
sources, and the numerous students past and present of the
green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) at Kiholo Bay, Hawaii.
Hawaii Preparatory Academy for their enthusiasm, talents,
Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Student
hard work, and good company.
Symposium on Marine Affairs. The Hawaiian Academy
LITERATURE CITED of Science, p.36-45.
Russell, D. J. and G. H. Balazs. 1994. Colonization and
Balazs, G. H. 1976. Green turtle migrations in the Hawaiian utilization of the alien marine alga Hypnea musciformis
archipelago. Biol. Conserv. 9:125-140. (Wulfen) J. Ag. (Rhodophyta: Gigartinales) in the
Balazs, G. H. 1980. Synopsis of biological data on the green Hawaiian Islands. Aquatic Botany 47(1994):53-60.
turtle in the Hawaiian Islands. U.S. Dep. Commer., Whittow, G. C. and G. H. Balazs. 1982. Basking behavior
NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-7, 141 of the Hawaiian green turtle (Chelonia mydas). Pacific
p. Science 36 (2):129-139.
Balazs, G. H. 1982. Growth rates of immature green turtles
in the Hawaiian archipelago. In: K.A. Bjorndal (ed.),
Biology and conservation of sea turtles, p. 117-125.
Smithson. Inst. Press, Washington, D.C.
Balazs, G. H. 1983. Recovery records of adult green turtles
observed or originally tagged at French Frigate Shoals,
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. U.S. Dep. Commer.,
NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-36, 42
p.
Balazs, G. H. 1991. Current status of fibropapillomas in the
Hawaiian green turtle, Chelonia mydas. In: G. H. Balazs
and S. G. Pooley (eds.), Research plan for marine turtle
fibropapilloma. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech.
Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-156, p. 47-57.
Balazs, G. H. In Press. Behavioral changes within the
recovering Hawaiian green turtle population.
Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Symposium on Sea
Turtle Biology and Conservation. U.S. Dep. Commer.,
NOAA Tech. Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SEFSC.
Balazs, G. H., R. G. Forsyth, and A. K. H. Kam. 1987.
Preliminary assessment of habitat utilization by
Hawaiian green turtles in their resident foraging
pastures. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo.
NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-71, 107 p.
Balazs, G. H., R. Fujioka, and C. Fujioka. 1993. Marine
turtle faeces on Hawaiian beaches. Mar. Pollution Bull.

PLASMA TESTOSTERONE DYNAMICS IN THE KEMPS RIDLEY SEA TURTLE
Michael S. Coyne and Andr M. Landry, Jr.

Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences Texas A&M University College Station, Texas 77845, U.S.A.
Testosterone (T) radioimmunoassay techniques, used LITERATURE CITED

successfully in sexing green and loggerhead sea turtles (Bolten Bolten, A. B., K. A. Bjorndal, S. Grumbles, and D. W. Owens.
et al., 1992; Wibbels et al., 1991), were evaluated in deter- 1992. Sex-ratio and sex-specific growth rates of immature
mining plasma T concentration of 149 Kemps ridley sea green turtles, Chelonia mydas, in the Southern Bahamas.
turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) captured along the upper Texas Copeia 1992:1098-1103.
and Louisiana coasts during 1993-95. Thirty-nine of these Ogren, L. H. 1989. Distribution of juvenile and sub-adult
ridleys were laparoscoped as a control on this sexing tech- Kemps ridley turtles: preliminary results from the 1984-
nique. Plasma T concentrations of the laparoscopied indi- 1987 surveys. In: C. W. Caillouet, Jr. and A. M. Landry,
viduals were < l2 pg/ml for females (n = 19) and > 18 pg/ml Jr. (eds.), Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium
for males (n = 20). Applying these criteria to the entire cap- on Kemps Ridley Sea Turtle Biology, Conservation and
tured lot of 21.6 to 64.6 cm (SCL) ridleys produced 75 fe- Management, pp. 116-123.
males, 69 males, and 8 indeterminates. Males less than 40 Wibbels, T., R. E. Martin, D. W. Owens and M. S. Amoss.
cm SCL and all females exhibited no significant variation in 1991. Female-biased sex ratio of immature loggerhead
plasma T across carapace length. However, these smaller sea turtles inhabiting the Atlantic coastal waters of
males did exhibit significant variation in plasma T across Florida. Canadian Journal of Zoology 69:2973-2977.
capture month (Students t = 2.0066). Males greater than 40
cm SCL exhibited a significant exponential increase in plasma
T concentration (ANOVA: F = 39.1666, p < 0.0001). Ob-
served differences in plasma T dynamics amongst male rid-
leys suggest that Ogrens (1989) definition for Kemps rid-
ley age classes be redefined in terms of physiological devel-
opment as juveniles < 40 cm SCL, Subadults 40 - 60 cm
SCL, and adults > 60 cm SCL.
FOURTEEN YEARS OF NESTING AT THE ARCHIE CARR NATIONAL WILDLIFE

REFUGE
Ehrhart L.M., D.A. Bagley and L.T. Uong

Dept. of Biology, University of Central Florida, P.O. Box 162368, Orlando, FL 32816
At 16,918 nests, loggerhead nest production set a new storms that lasted until mid-September. Effects of tropical
record for the Brevard County portion of the Archie Carr weather systems are usually not felt on the Brevard coast
NWR in 1995. This total exceeded the previous high, seen until about Labor Day, after most loggerhead nests have
in 1994, by 15% and constitutes an overall density of 606 hatched. Erin came a full month earlier, while 60% of the
nests/km. It exceeded the comprehensive average of the past nests were still incubating. The storms of August washed
13 years (1982-1994) by 6,200 nests (57%). Comparisons out many study nest markers, making it difficult to quantify
with another good nesting beach of similar extent, nearby in the loss, but available data suggest that somewhat more than
central Brevard County (6,037 nests; 309 nests/km), provide 8,000 nests were washed out or exposed and then destroyed
perspective on the relative magnitude of nesting at ACNWR. by predators. Acquisition of lands for the Carr Refuge is
Green turtles adhered to the well-known pattern of biennial about 80% complete but commercial and residential devel-
"highs" and "lows" and, following the record high in 1994 opment are rampant in the area. Procurement of the remain-
(1107 nests), deposited only 103 nests at ACNWR in 1995. ing lands needs to be expedited if the quality of this critical
There were two leatherback nests within the ACNWR bound- nesting habitat is to be preserved. We thank the U.S. Fish &
aries and one other just to the north in central Brevard County. Wildlife Service and the Richard King Mellon Foundation
The Carr Refuge took a direct hit by Hurricane Erin on the for their support of our research on the Carr Refuge nesting
night of 1-2 August and that was followed by a procession of beach.

ESTIMATING THE TIME BETWEEN HATCHING OF SEA TURTLES AND THEIR

EMERGENCE FROM THE NEST
Matthew H. Godfrey1,2, and N.Mrosovsky1.

1
Department of Zoology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G5 CANADA
2
Current address: Projeto TAMAR, Caixa Postal 2219, Salvador, Bahia 40210-970 Brazil
(fax: 55-71-876-1067; email: godfrey@zoo.utoronto.ca)
The interval between when sea turtles hatch from their ture of eggs of loggerhead (Caretta caretta) turtles, both in
eggs and actually emerge from the nest is thought to be sev- the lab and in nests in situ. By comparing incubation period
eral days long. It is an important period for the hatchlings, in the laboratory (time until hatching) to incubation period in
for they must synchronize their efforts to escape the nest. natural nests (time until emergence from the nest), at similar
Previous descriptions of the hatch to emergence interval have temperatures (i.e. similar developmental rates), we assumed
relied on manipulation in some way, including introducing that the differences between lab and natural nests would be
some kind of recording device into the nest or placing a glass the hatching to emergence interval. From our calculations,
plate against the side of the egg mass. In an effort to de- the mean hatching to emergence interval was 4.1 days, which
scribe this interval more accurately, we looked at the rela- is similar to previously published studies.
tionship between incubation period and incubation tempera-
DO BEACH UMBRELLAS AFFECT SEX RATIO?
Matthew H. Godfrey1,2, R. Barreto3,4, and N. Mrosovsky1

1
Department of Zoology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G5 CANADA
2
Current address: Projeto TAMAR-IBAMA, Caixa Postal 2219, Salvador, Bahia 40210-970 BRAZIL (Fax: 55-71-876-
1067; email: godfrey@zoo.utoronto.ca)
3
Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3 CANADA
4
Current address: IUCN/SSC Sustainable Use Initiative, 1400 16th Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20036 U.S.A.
BACKGROUND Mrosovsky, 1994). The data were compared using repeated

measures ANOVA and Tukey-Kramer post tests.
The direction of sexual differentiation of turtle
hatchlings is affected by the sand temperature prevailing dur- RESULTS
ing incubation. Human practices which alter sand tempera-
ture can potentially affect sex ratio. For instance, shade from For both beaches, there was a small but significant mean
condominiums (Mrosovsky et al., 1995) and exotic trees daily sand temperature reduction caused by umbrella shade
(Schmelz and Mezich, 1988), smoke from oil well fires only at the 30 cm depth. There was no difference at 60 cm.
(McCain et al., 1993), and exotic sand used for beach
renourishment (Schulman et al., 1994), all may reduce beach IMPLICATIONS
sand temperature. It has been suggested that shade from 1) The results indicate that the effects of shade from
beach umbrellas may also reduce sand temperature and there- beach umbrellas on sex ratio would only come into play for
fore affect sex ratio (e.g. Poland et al., 1995; Broderick and very shallow nests. Therefore, eggs from turtles which tend
Godley, 1993). to have deeper nests (e.g. leatherbacks, green turtles) would
be less affected than those from shallow nesters (e.g. rid-
THE STUDY leys).
We studied the effect of a beach umbrella on sand tem- 2) Even at 30 cm depths, the cooling effect of the beach
perature on two nesting beaches in South America. The first umbrella was small, on the order of 0.5 C. Therefore, sex
study site was on Matapica beach in Suriname, which runs ratio would be affected only if beach temperatures were al-
east-west. This beach is primarily used by leatherbacks and ready close to the pivotal sand temperature (that temperature
green turtles, and is not frequented by tourists. The second at which 50% of each sex is produced).
site was Praia do Forte, Bahia, Brazil. It runs north-south, is
primarily a loggerhead nesting beach, and is popular with RECOMMENDATIONS
tourists. For both beaches the methodology was the same. This study suggests that the effects of beach umbrellas
We measured sand temperatures at 30 and 60 cm depths, on sex ratio would be limited. However, this work is based
both directly under the umbrella and at an adjacent control on small sample sizes. It would be useful to perform a simi-
site in full sun. Mean daily temperatures over a number of lar but more extensive study on a nesting beach where um-
days were recorded using digital thermistors (Godfrey and brellas and turtles often mix.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Bulletin, 27: 79-83.

Mrosovsky, N., C. Lavin, and M.H. Godfrey. 1995. Thermal
We thank STINASU and TAMAR for facilitating the
effects of condominiums on a turtle beach in Florida.
fieldwork in Suriname and Brazil, respectively. Adriana
Biological Conservation, 74: 151-156.
DAmato kindly provided the umbrella in Brazil. Funding
Poland, R., G. Hall, and L. Venizelos. 1995. Sea turtles and
came from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research
tourists: The loggerhead turtles of Zakynthos (Greece).
Council of Canada and the Sophie Danforth Conservation
In: Healy and Doody (Eds.) Directions in European
Biology Fund of the Rhode Island Zoological Society.
Coastal Management. Samara Publishers Ltd.:
Cardigan. pp. 119-128.
REFERENCES
Schmelz, G.W. and R.R. Mezich. 1988. A preliminary
Broderick, A.C. and B.J. Godley. 1993. Glasgow University investigation of the potential impact of Australian pines
Turtle Conservation Expedition to Northern Cyprus on the nesting activities of the loggerhead turtle. In: B.
1993: Expedition Report. Peoples Trust for Endangered Schroeder (Comp.) Proceedings of the 8th Annual
Species. 31 pp. Workshop on Sea Turtle Conservation and Biology. pp.
Godfrey, M.H. and N. Mrosovsky. 1994. Simple method of 63-66.
estimating mean incubation temperatures on sea turtle Schulman, A.A., S.L. Milton, and P.L. Lutz. 1994. Aragonite
nesting beaches. Copeia, 1994: 808-811. sand as a nesting substrate and its effects on Caretta
McCain, J.C., D.W. Beard, and Y.H. Fadlallah. 1993. The caretta beaches. In: Bjorndal, K., A. Bolten, Johnson,
influence of the Kuwaiti oil well fires on seawater and P. Elizar (Comps.) Proceedings of the 14th Annual
temperature in the Western Gulf. Marine Pollution Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation p.
134.
THE MALAYSIA/PHILIPPINES TRANS-BOUNDRY MARINE PARK: A MONUMENTAL

STEP TOWARD TURTLE RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION
Nicolas J. Pilcher1 and Datuk Lamri Ali2

1Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak,
East Malaysia
2
Sabah Parks, P.O. Box 10626, 88806 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, East Malaysia
Thousands of marine turtles nest on the small, coral- worldwide and to collaborate on research into efficient man-
fringed islands straddling the Malaysian / Philippine border, agement guidelines. Since that time, legislature in the Phil-
40 km north of Sandakan, East Malaysia. Data collected by ippines that now limits the number of eggs collected from
Sabah Parks personnel on the Malaysian islands indicates natural nests has contributed significantly to local conserva-
continuous nesting throughout the year with a peak during tion.
June to August. Although nesting is predominantly by greens Recent DNA-study findings by Australian biologists
(Chelonia mydas), hawksbills (Eretmochelys imbricata) are
also found, and to a lesser extent Olive Ridleys (Lepidochelys
P. Lihiman
olivacea).
Under the auspices of Sabah Parks Department, con- N P. Langaan
P. Bakungan
P. Selingan
servation of marine turtles in Sabah has been active since P. Bakungan
P. Gulisan Kecil
1966. Sabah Parks has operated hatcheries at the three is-
lands of the Turtle Island Park since then, and have released TIHPA P. Taganak
more than 6 million hatchlings to the surrounding waters since
then. The number of nesting adults, which had declined dras-
tically since the 1920s, has slowly increased since the Parks Sulu Sea
inception.
Due to the proximity of the neighboring Philippine is- Malaysia / Philippine Border
lands, and the knowledge that many of the eggs one these
islands were being sold legally in the Philippines and ille-
gally in Malaysia, a joint marine park, encompassing both
turtle rookeries, was proposed and will finally be gazetted in
1996 (Fig. 1). One of the primary goals in the establishment Sandakan
of the trans-boundry park is to support research into further
conservation and management measures. Conservation mea-
sures are now being implemented on both sides of the border Fig. 1. Proposed Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area off Sabah,
in an effort to curb the decline of the nesting populations East Malaysia.

confirmed that the turtles nesting on these islands were in- conditions, with particular regard to incubation temperatures.
deed of similar origin and it has been suggested that they Where possible, methods to enhance hatchling survival are
represent an Evolutionary Significant Unit (ESU). Current being implemented.
research by the Universiti Malaysia Sarawak is aimed at en-
suring conservation measures by the Park Rangers in the
hatcheries are in keeping with natural nesting activities and
A MODEL FOR SALT GLAND SECRETION IN THE GREEN SEA TURTLE, CHELONIA
MYDAS
Richard Reina
Division of Botany and Zoology, Australian National University, A.C.T. 0200 Australia
Very little is known about the control of salt gland se- and the period of inhibition increased with doses up to 500
cretion in sea turtles. In vivo and in vitro techniques were g.kg-1. When secretion recovered, it resumed at control rates
used to investigate the role of cholinergic and adrenergic and did not display any residual inhibition.
stimulation as possible control modifiers of salt gland activ- Adrenalin did not affect the oxygen consumption rate
ity. The in vivo technique measured salt gland response to of salt gland cells in vitro, but it did increase the rate of con-
injection of methacholine and adrenalin in salt loaded turtles. sumption by turtle cardiac cells. Cells from both active and
In vitro techniques included measurement of oxygen con- inactive salt glands consumed oxygen at about 15 l.min-1.g
sumption of salt gland cells and immunohistochemical wet weight-1.
localisation of adrenergic nerves. The presence of adrenergic nerves within the salt gland
There was a dose dependent inhibition of the salt gland was shown by the presence of tyrosine hydroxylase. Adren-
in vivo by methacholine, with duration of inhibition increas- ergic nerves were found to be present around the main col-
ing with dose from 1 to 10 mg.kg-1. In addition, some re- lecting area of secretory fluid, and also running between lobes
sidual inhibition was evident after secretion had commenced, of the gland.
with the total rate of secretion reduced in comparison to con- The role of adrenergic and cholinergic influences on
trol animals. salt gland activity will be discussed in the context of a model
Adrenalin also exerted a profound, dose dependent infor regulation of salt gland function. They do not appear to
hibitory influence on salt gland activity in vivo. The mini- fit the typical sympathetic/parasympathetic antagonistic
mum dose effective in inhibiting secretion was 25 g.kg-1 model generally seen in exocrine glands.
ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC ANALYSIS OF VASCULAR CARTILAGE CANALS IN THE

HUMERAL EPIPHYSIS OF HATCHLING LEATHERBACK SEA TURTLES,
DERMOCHELYS CORIACEA
Johannes A.G. Rhodin1, Anders G.J. Rhodin2, James R. Spotila3

1
Department of Anatomy, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612 U.S.A.
2
Chelonian Research Foundation, Lunenburg, MA 01462 U.S.A.
3
Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104 U.S.A.
Cartilage canals in the growing humeral epiphysis of sis, a condition apparently unique to the leatherback and not
leatherback sea turtle hatchlings, Dermochelys coriacea, were previously reported in other vertebrates. Many fibroblastic
investigated using a combination of light microscopy and cells, rich in granular endoplasmic reticulum, as well as mac-
transmission electron microscopy. Canals contained large rophages, monocytes, and occasional multinucleated
interconnected vascular sinusoids near the leading tip, sup- chondroclasts, occupied interstitial space in the tip of the canal
plied by several feeding arterioles and drained by multiple between sinusoids and cartilage matrix. Near the base of the
venules. Individual capillary sprouts were not found. The canal, surrounding cartilage matrix was calcified and
metachromatic staining of the cartilage matrix was reduced chondrocytes hypertrophic and disintegrating. Involvement
in a marginal zone in front of and on the sides of the canals. of the sinusoids and the cells near the tip of the canal in the
Epiphyseal matrix was not calcified in front of and near process of cartilage resorption and canal formation is dis-
the leading tip of the growth cone, but many chondrocytes in cussed in relation to the rapid growth of leatherback turtles.
these regions showed signs of cell death and nuclear pykno-

BETWEEN A ROCK AND A HARD PLACE: COASTAL ARMORING AND MARINE

TURTLE NESTING HABITAT IN FLORIDA
Barbara A. Schroeder1 and Andrea E. Mosier 2

1
Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Florida Marine Research Institute, 19100 SE Federal Highway, Tequesta,
FL, 33469, U.S.A. (Current Address: National Marine Fisheries Service, Office of Protected Resources, 1315 East West
Highway, Silver Spring, Maryland, 20910, U.S.A)
2
Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Florida Marine Research Institute, 100 Eighth Avenue, SE, St. Petersburg,
FL, 33701, U.S.A. (Current Address: Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Florida Marine Research
Institute, 100 Eighth Avenue, SE, St. Petersburg, FL, 33701, U.S.A.)
The deliberate armoring or hardening of the ocean sloping barrier along the shore. Bulkheads and seawalls may
shoreline, with the sole purpose of protection of upland struc- be combined with a rock revetment forming a combination
tures is rapidly degrading marine turtle nesting habitat in structure. An example of this type of structure, and one that
Florida. Development of the coastal strand and the resulting is not uncommon is a steel sheetpile wall, with a concrete
placement of structures on the primary and secondary dune cap, and a toe scour revetment, placed lower down against
(or equivalent), are the first steps toward coastal armoring. the wall with the purpose of preventing undermining of the
Coastal armoring is exhibited in many different forms. For seawall at its lowest vertical extension.
the purpose of this paper, and with marine turtles specifi- The third category of armoring includes sandbags and
cally in mind, we offer the following definition of coastal geotextile tubes. These structures are sand filled fabric bags
armoring. Coastal armoring is any rigid or frangible struc- and are generally installed in a sloping configuration. Large
ture placed parallel to the shoreline on the upper beach with sandbag installations usually include tie-straps that connect
the sole purpose of protecting upland structures or property. bags together with the goal of helping to hold the loose bags
Other structures (i.e., groins, jetties) also present threats to in place. The straps are back into the dune in a deadman-
marine turtles and their nesting habitat, but are outside the type system. Geotextile tubes are elongated sandbags that
scope of this paper. may stretch the entire length of a coastal armoring project
We define five categories of coastal armoring: (1) bulk- with multiple tubes installed one on top of the other in a slop-
heads and seawalls; (2) revetments; (3) sandbags and ing configuration. The fourth category of armoring is soil
geotextile tubes; (4) soil retaining walls; and (5) dune recon- retaining walls, which are considered less permanent than
struction. The first category, bulkheads and seawalls, is the the aforementioned types. They are frangible, primarily con-
most common type found in Florida. These structures are structed of vertically placed wood panels (boards) and are
vertical, non-permeable, and are
most commonly constructed of con-
crete or steel sheetpile with a con-
crete cap. Regardless of the con-
struction material, both designs ex-
tend several meters above the beach
surface and are anchored well be-
low grade. The second category of
coastal armoring, revetments, are
structures that are sloping in design
(negative slope toward the ocean)
and may be semi-permeable or non-
permeable. These types of struc-
tures have a negative slope toward
the ocean and extend many meters
above grade and generally extend
below grade as well. Semi-perme-
able structures include rock revet-
ments and construction rubble re-
vetments. Non-permeable revet-
ments primarily include soil-cement
step revetments and concrete
waffle-type structures. These types Figure 1. Percentage shoreline armored in the State of Florida
of revetments form a solid fused

designed to fail under certain storm conditions. It is impor- backs in Florida.

tant to note however that failure generally means that sedi- There are four recent landmarks relative to coastal
ment will pass through or under the structure with the retain- armoring regulation in Florida. The first, in December 1990
ing wall remaining in place. The fifth and final category of was the issuance of a FDNR policy on armoring, which pro-
armoring is dune reconstruction. We consider this as vided criteria by which armoring applications would be evalu-
armoring, in our analysis, because some dune reconstruction ated, provided general protection to marine turtles, and con-
projects consist of large mounds of compact sediment, often tained specific language prohibiting armoring within the
sacrificial in nature, which when placed on narrow, eroded Archie Carr National Wildlife Refuge and within critical habi-
beaches, serve as impenetrable barriers to beach users, in- tat if designated under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. This
cluding turtles. We note that many dune reconstruction policy was an outgrowth of the Governor and Cabinets di-
projects are beneficial, when conducted properly and for the rective to the FDNR to report on the status of armoring and
purposes of actually re-building a functioning dune. to develop a policy to guide permit review. The policy was
There are four broad consequences to the beach/dune in effect until July 1994, when it was determined to be no
system that can result from coastal armoring. Coastal longer applicable or enforceable, primarily as a result of the
armoring structures cause a reflection in wave energy which merger of the states two principal environmental agencies
can increase erosion seaward of these structures, the inten- to form the Florida Department of Environmental Protection
sity of longshore currents can be increased, moving sand away (FDEP) as an agency solely under the Governor and not un-
from the site more rapidly and in greater quantities, the natu- der the Governor and Cabinet. In October 1995, a new Florida
ral exchange of sand between the dune and beach is prevented, Statute addressing coastal armoring structures, enacted by
and wave energy is concentrated at the ends of armoring struc- the Legislature, became effective. This legislation was a di-
tures which can exacerbate erosion at adjacent, unarmored rect result of lobbying by developers, beachfront property
beach. Any factors which affect the beach/dune system have owners, and their advocates. The Statute sets the stage for
the potential, either directly or indirectly, to affect nesting more permissive armoring rules and includes a provision for
turtles, incubating egg clutches, hatchlings, and their habitat. emergency armoring without prior permitting. The determi-
Coastal armoring structures can affect marine turtles in nation of emergency is left to local governments. This Stat-
a variety of ways including: prevention of access to suitable ute led to the drafting of a coastal armoring rule by FDEP,
nesting sites; the permanent loss of nesting habitat; abandon- the draft rule is currently under review and is expected to be
ment of nesting attempts due to interaction with the struc- published as a proposed rule in the near future. There are no
ture; interference with proper nest cavity construction and hearings currently scheduled and it will be up to those inter-
nest covering; increase in clutch mortality resulting from fre- ested in the rule and its consequences to call for public hear-
quent inundation and/or exacerbated erosion. In addition, ings.
armoring structures can impede and/or trap nesting females Coastal armoring threatens the recovery and long-term
and hatchlings. These impacts are witnessed regularly at viability of marine turtles in the southeast U.S. at a level on
nesting beaches where coastal armoring structures are in the scale of that posed by commercial fisheries. The effects
place. of coastal armoring on marine turtles are however more in-
Coastal armoring in the state of Florida, USA, is not sidious - carcasses are not evident on the beach to draw pub-
an isolated occurrence. In 1990, at the direction of the Gov- lic attention to the problem. Beachfront property owners are
ernor and Cabinet and as a direct result of a permit applica- closely following and advocating a permissive armoring rule,
tion for armoring in the heart of the globally important log- and local governments are following the issue closely also.
gerhead rookery on the east coast of Florida, an analysis of The placement of structures on the shoreline eventu-
existing and potential coastal armoring was conducted by ally creates an erosion problem which often leads to coastal
the Florida Department of Natural Resources (FDNR) Divi- armoring. Armoring primarily protects the private interests
sion of Beaches and Shores (Clarke, 1992). This analysis, of a very few, at a very high public environmental and recre-
which does not include soil retaining walls or sandbags and ational cost. Alternatives to this destructive practice include
geotextile tubes, showed that existing armoring was concen- continual beach nourishment (an expensive activity which
trated in five areas of the state (Fig. 1). The total armored can also threaten nesting turtles, hatchlings, and habitat) or
coastline currently encompasses 22.7% of the east coast and retreat (Pilkey et al., 1984). It is imperative that the State of
13.9% of the west coast, with existing armoring concen- Florida adopt a more thoughtful policy, which seriously takes
trated in five areas of the state, three on the east coast, one in into account the beach/dune ecosystem including the non-
southwest Florida, and one in the panhandle. The potential negotiable need that marine turtles have for intact nesting
for armoring was based on calculations using models of vari- habitat and which recognizes the long-term effects of shore-
ous storm frequency and intensity, and even the most conser- line manipulation not only on the ecosystem but on the rec-
vative model (from the standpoint of turtles), produced alarm- reational value of beaches as well. Unfortunately, this is cur-
ing results. The most potential for additional armoring en- rently not the case (Schmahl and Conklin, 1991). The long-
compasses most of the southeast and southwest coasts of the term impacts of coastal armoring on marine turtle recovery
state. This same area includes virtually all of the primary should alarm and serve as a call for action to all marine turtle
nesting beaches for loggerheads, green turtles, and leather- researchers and managers.

LITERATURE CITED Pilkey, O.H. Neal, and B.L. Gruver. 1984. Living With
the East Florida Shore. Duke University Press, Durham,
Clark, R.R. 1992. Beach conditions in Florida: A statewide
North Carolina. 259 p.
inventory and identification of beach erosion problem
Schmahl, G.P. and E.J. Conklin. 1991. Beach erosion in
areas in Florida. Beaches and Shores Technical
Florida: A challenge for planning and management. In:
Memorandum 89-1, 4th Edition. Florida Department of
Magoon, O.T., Converse, H., Tipple, V., Tobin, L.T., and
Environmental Protection, Division of Beaches and
Clark, D. (Eds.) Coastal Zone 91 Volume I: ASCE, pp.
Shores, Tallahassee, Florida. 208 p.
261-271.
Pilkey, O.H., J.R. Sharma, D.C. Wanless, H.R. Doyle, L.J.
DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A SEXING TECHNIQUE FOR HATCHLING SEA

TURTLES
Thane Wibbels1 and Robert LeBoeuf2

1
Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294-1170, U.S.A.
2
Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, U.S.A.
The primary focus of many sea turtle conservation pro- are very low or nondetectable in females (Hudson et al.,
grams is the protection of turtles and eggs on the nesting 1990).
beach (Magnuson et al., 1990). A possible problem associ- The production of a MIS assay for sexing hatchling sea
ated with these efforts is the fact that a sea turtles sex is turtles requires recombinant turtle MIS and an antisera which
determined by the incubation temperature of the egg specifically binds turtle MIS. Therefore we initially cloned
(Mrosovsky, 1983). This aspect of sea turtles biology has the cDNA for turtle MIS. To accomplish the cloning, we
the potential of producing highly biased sex ratios which could adopted a PCR-based strategy. Degenerate primers based
significantly alter the effectiveness of nesting beach programs on the structure of chicken and mammalian MIS were used
(Mrosovsky and Yntema, 1980; Morreale et al., 1982; in the PCRs. RNA was isolated from embryonic testes for
Mrosovsky, 1983; Wibbels et al., 1989; Mrosovsky et al., the production of cDNA template. 5' and 3' RACE were
1992). The effects of such biases on reproduction in a popu- used to isolate the 5' and 3' noncoding regions of the cDNA.
lation would not be evident for many years, since sea turtles Sequencing was performed on a Perkin Elmer Applied
require a prolonged period to reach sexual maturity. Thus, Biosystems 377 automated sequencer. The turtle MIS clone
there is a need to monitor hatchling sex ratios. Unfortunately, was inserted into a pET vector expression system in order to
there is no external indication of the sex of hatchling sea produce the MIS protein (i.e. the hormone). The MIS pro-
turtles. tein was used to test four different MIS polyclonal antisera.
Previous studies suggests that hatchling sex ratios can The results indicate that two of the four antisera specifically
fluctuate seasonally, yearly, and even interclutch differences bind turtle MIS. These two antisera were used to develop
in pivotal temperature (temperature producing a 1:1 sex ra- enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) for turtle
tio in reptiles with temperature-dependent sex determination) MIS. Two direct ELISAs for turtle MIH were developed.
have been noted (Mrosovsky et al., 1984; Mrosovsky, 1988, Each of these two indirect ELISAs utilizes a single antis-
1994; Etchberger et al., 1991; Ewert et al., 1994; Lang and era. Since two antisera specifically bind MIH, we are also
Andrew, 1994). Therefore, accurate estimation of hatchling developing a sandwich ELISA which utilizes both antis-
sex ratios from a given nesting beach may require a compre- era. Sandwich ELISAs are significantly more sensitive than
hensive approach. A prerequisite to conducting such studies indirect ELISAs and should thus optimize the sexing tech-
is a practical and nonlethal technique for accurately sexing nique.
large numbers of hatchlings. We are currently validating the MIS assay using blood
We are currently developing a hatchling sexing tech- samples from hatchling sea turtles. Over the past two years
nique based on the hormone mullerian inhibiting substance we have evaluated blood sampling techniques for hatchling
or MIS (Cate et al., 1986; Donahoe et al., 1987). In verte- sea turtles (Wibbels et al., submitted). Hundreds of blood
brates, both male and female embryos develop mullerian ducts samples were routinely taken from blood sinuses located in
which form the oviducts in females (i.e. fallopian tubes and the necks of hatchlings. The bilateral cervical sinus (Owens
uterus). Male vertebrates begin producing MIS during late et al., 1978; Owens and Ruiz, 1980) was the primary loca-
embryonic development and this hormone stimulates the de- tion used to obtain blood. No change in the behavior of the
generation of the mullerian ducts. Previous studies indicate hatchlings was noted following the sampling, and no mortal-
that MIS levels are high in young males, but not in females. ity was associated with the sampling. This included a study
For example, in humans, MIS in males is extremely high at in which over 100 hatchlings were held for several days after
birth and remains high for six years or more, whereas levels hatching.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 70:1920-1925.
Mrosovsky, N., Hopkins-Murphy, S.R., and Richardson, J.I.
This research was conducted under Florida Department
1984. Sex ratio of sea turtles: Seasonal Changes. Science,
of Environmental Protection permit TP #089 and U.S. Fish
225: 739-741.
and Wildlife permit PRT-795456. This research was spon-
Mrosovsky, N. and Yntema, C.L. 1980. Temperature
sored in part by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad-
dependent sex determination in sea turtles: implications
ministration, U.S. Department of Commerce, and the Mis-
for conservation practices. Biol. Cons.18: 271-280.
sissippi-Alabama Sea Grant Consortium under Grant #
Owens, D. W., Hendrickson, J.R., Lance, V. and I. P. Callard,
NA56RG0129.
I.P. 1978. A technique for determining sex of immature
REFERENCES Chelonia mydas using radioimmunoassay. Herpetologica
34: 270-273.
Cate, R.L., Mattalino, R.J., Hession, C. Tizard, R. Farber, Owens, D. W. and Ruiz, G.J. 1980. New method for obtaining
MacLaughlin, D.T., and Donahoe, P.K. 1986. Isolation blood and cerebrospinal fluid from marine turtles.
of bovine and human genes for Mullerian inhibiting Herpetologica 36:17-20.
substance and expression of the human gene in animal Wibbels, T., Hanson, J., Balazs, G., Hillis-Starr, Z-M., and
cells. Cell 45: 685-698. 1986. Phillips, B. (submitted). Blood sampling techniques for
Donahoe, P.K., Cate, R.L., MacLaughlin, D.T., Epstein, J., hatchling chelonid sea turtles. Herpetol. Rev.
Fuller, A.F., Takahashi, M., Coughlin, J.P., Ninfa, E.G., Wibbels, T., Morris,Y.A., Owens, D.W., Dienberg, G.A.,
and Taylor, L.A. 1987. Mullerian inhibiting substance: Noell, J., Leong, J.K., King, R.E., and Marquez, R. 1989.
gene structure and mechanism of action of a feta Predicted sex ratios from the international Kemps ridley
regressor. In: Recent Progress in Hormone Research, sea turtle headstart research project. Texas A&M Sea
Volume 43. Academic Press, Inc. New York, NY. Grant College Publication 89-105.
Etchberger, C.R., J.B. Phillpis, M.A. Ewert, C.E. Nelson, and
Prange, H.D.. 1991. Effects of oxygen concentration
and clutch on sex determination and physiology in the
red-eared slider turtles (Trachemys scripta). J. Exp. Zool.
258:394-403.
Ewert, M.A., Jackson, D.R., and NELSON, C.E. 1994.
Patterns of temperature-dependent sex determination in
turtles. J. Exp. Zool. 270:3-15.
Hudson, P.L., Dougas, I., Donahoe, P.K., Cate, R.L., Epstein,
J., Pepinsky, R. B., and MacLaughlin, D.T. 1990. An
immunoassay to detect human Mullerian inhibiting
substance in males and females during normal
development. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 70: 16-22.
Lang, J.W., and Andrews, H.V.. 1994. Temperature-
dependent sex determination in crocodilians. J. Exp.
Zool. 270:28-44.
Magnuson, J.J., Bjorndal, K. A., Dupaul, W.D., Graham, G.L.,
Owens, D.W., Peterson, C.H., Pritchard, P.C.H.,
Richardson, J.I., Saul, G.E., and West, C.W. 1990.
Decline of the Sea Turtles. National Academy Press,
Washington, D.C.
Morreale, S.J., Ruiz, G.J., Spotila, J.R. and Standora, E.A.
1982. Temperature-dependent sex determination: current
practices threaten conservation of sea turtles. Science
216: 1245-1247.
Mrosovsky, N. 1983. Conserving Sea Turtles. The British
Herpetological Society, London.
Mrosovsky, N. 1988. Pivotal temperatures for loggerhead
turtles (Caretta caretta) from northern and southern
nesting beaches. Can. J. Zool. 66:661-669.
Mrosovsky, N. 1994. Sex ratios of sea turtles. J. Exp. Zool.
270:16-27.
Mrosovsky, N., Bass, A., Corliss, L.A., Richardson, J.I., and
Richardson, T.H. 1992. Pivotal and beach temperatures
for hawksbill turtles nesting in Antigua. Can. J. Zool.

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NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-436

NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-436

PROCEEDINGS OF THE EIGHTEENTH

3-7 March 1998

NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION

NATIONAL MARINE FISHERIES SERVICE

Correct citation of this report is:

Abreu-Grobois, F.A., R. Briseo-Dueas, R. Mrquez, and L. Sarti, compilers. 2000. Proceedings

Copies may be downloaded free from the Internet at:

Technical Editor: W.N. Witzell

Copies of this report can be obtained from:

National Marine Fisheries Service

National Technical Information Service

EIGHTEENTH INTERNATIONAL SEA TURTLE SYMPOSIUM

F. Alberto Abreu-Grobois President

PART I. ORAL PRESENTATIONS

I. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

2 David Owens. Reproductive problems in captive and wild sea turtles.

3 Jeanette Wyneken. Sea turtle locomotion.

II. CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT.

19 Ren Mrquez Milln. The ridley sea turtle populations in Mexico.

19 Rod Mast. Common sense conservation.

III. DEVELOPMENTAL HABITS AND HABITATS.

IV. GENETICS AND EVOLUTION.

39 G. Espinosa, A. Robainas, G. Bordn, E. Garcia, M. Ramos, G. Hernndez, and M. Rodrguez. Contribu-

V. METHODS IN CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT.

VI. MODELING AND POPULATION BIOLOGY.

55 Milani Chaloupka. Sea turtle growth dynamics: A review.

VII. NESTING AND FORAGING BEHAVIOR.

VIII. NESTING BEACHES.

IX. PHYSIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR.

X. PUBLIC EDUCATION AND PARTICIPATION.

84 Celia Gutierrez. Diagnostico socioeconomico en las comunidades.

85 Anna Kremezi-Margaritouli. Creation of talented animators for environmental education.

XI. TELEMETRY AND MIGRATION.

97 J. Frazier. Chelo-telemetry: More on great chelonian taboos.

caretta) into the Adriatic Sea.

XII. THREATS AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES.

105 Deborah Crouse. After teds: Whats next??.

XIII. VETERINARY MEDICINE AND DISEASE.

PART II. POSTER PRESENTATIONS.

I. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

II. CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT.

129 A. L.Cruz Flores, R. Snchez Trejo, R. Mrquez-Millan, and R. Castro Melendez.

III. DEVELOPMENTAL HABITS AND HABITATS.

IV. GENETICS AND EVOLUTION.

V. METHODS IN CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT.

VI. MODELING AND POPULATION BIOLOGY.

VII. NESTING AND FORAGING.

VIII. NESTING BEACHES.

Table of Contents xiii

xiv Table of Contents

IX. PHYSIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR.

X. PUBLIC EDUCATION AND PARTICIPATION.

XI. TELEMETRY AND MIGRATIONS.

254 Sarah V. Mitchell. Use of epoxy in telemeter attachment.

XII. THREATS AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES.

XIII. VETERINARY MEDICINE AND DISEASE.

PART III. 16th SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGS ADDENDUM

xviii Table of Contents

Table of Contents xix

COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF RETINAL DESIGN AMONG SEA TURTLES: