Network

Layer

IPV4,
CIDR
NAT,
IPV6,
ARP, RARP,
ICMP, IGMP,
DHCP,
OSPF, BGP
 IPv4 ADDRESSING SCHEME

An IPv4 address has fixed length of 32 bits.

Consisting of four fields of 8 bits each.

It is divided in two parts Netid & Hostid.

Netid : Network id defines the network of the

Host. All host in one Network will have same
Netid.

Hostid: It defines the Host

2
 A Router routes a packet with Netid to reach
the network
Then using Hostid to actual Host.

So a Router routes a packet seeing only the

Netid. Thus reducing the length of Routing
Table.

3
 According to its use IP address is of two types
Private IP address:
Given to nodes in the local area network, private for the
organization.
These are not to be known by the outside world.
Some range of IP address in Class A, B, C are reserved for
private use:
Class A - 10.0.0.0, Class B- 173.16.0.0 to 173.31.0.0 Class C-
192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255

All other IP address in Class A, B, C can be used as Public IP

address.
Used by organization to be recognized to the outside world
through WWW.
Generally these addresses are mapped to domain name.

4
 IP address contains three parts
Class Type Netid Host id

IP address is divided into five classes

A,B,C,D,E
Identified by most significant bit.
Class A,B,C are used in LAN/ WWW.

Class D is used to support IP Multicasting.

Class E is reserved for future use and research.

5
 Seven bits for Netid- 126 different Networks
24 bits for Hostid- 16 million hosts/network
The address starts from 0.0.0.0-127.255.255.255

14 bits for Netid 16,000 different networks.

16 bits for Hostid- 60,000 hosts/network
The address starts from 128.0.0.0-191.255.255.255

6
21 bits for Netid 2 million different networks.
8 bits for Hostid- 254 hosts/network
The address starts from 192.0.0.0-223.255.255.255

The address starts from 224.0.0.0-239.255.255.255

The address starts from 240.0.0.0-255.255.255.255

7
 A Host ID with all 1s means packet has to broadcast to
all host of the network.

This is the broadcast address

e.g. 126.255.255.255 192.9.200.255

A Host ID that contains all 0s means for the same

network or Base address
e.g. 126.0.0.0 192.9.200.0
So these two types of address can not be given to any
machine.

8
 IP addresses are represented by dotted decimal
notation.

IP address of the form 127.X.Y.Z is a loop back address

When a packet is sent to this address it is returned back to the host.
This can be used for inter process communication.

This type of IP address is called as Classful IP

addressing, established for the first time September
1981.
9
 Subnetting
In 1985, RFC 950 defined a standard procedure to
support the subnetting, or division, of a single Class A,
B, or C network number into smaller pieces.
Subnetting was introduced to overcome some of the
problems that users of the Internet were beginning to
experience with the classful two-level addressing
hierarchy:

Internet routing tables were beginning to grow.

Local administrators had to request another network
number from the Internet before a new network could
be installed at their site.

10
 Both of these problems were attacked by adding another
level of hierarchy to the IP addressing structure.

Instead of the classful two-level hierarchy,

subnetting supports a three-level hierarchy.

In subnetting the standard classful host-number field is

divided into two parts - the subnet-number and the host-
number on that subnet.
11
Suppose a packet for 141.29.12.176 arrives.
The Router should decide where it will route in which subnet
Needs to find the Netid

For this it takes help of Masking.

A mask is a 32-bit binary number that gives the first address in the block (the
network address)
when bitwise ANDed with an address in the block.
But Subnetting is always not present.
So this method should work either subnet is present or not.

12
 If a network has a subnet it extracts Subnet address else
Network address.

This is extended network prefix

Extended-Network-Prefix

Internet routers use only the network-prefix of the

destination address to route traffic to a subnetted
environment.
Routers within the subnetted environment use the
extended-network- prefix to route traffic between the
individual subnets.

13
The extended-network-prefix is composed of the classful
network-prefix and the subnet-number.

For Unsubnetted Network :

Class Mask Address Network

address
A 255.0.0.0 15.33.56.8 15.0.0.0
B 255.255.0.0 141.39.44.8 141.39.0.0
C 255.255.255.0 192.10.200.42 192.10.200.0

14
For Subnetted Network :

Class Mask Address Network

address
A 255.255.0.0 15.33.56.8 15.33.0.0
B 255.255.255.0 141.39.44.8 141.39.44.0
C 255.255.255.192 192.10.200.43 192.10.200.0

15
 Masking is of two types
1) Boundary Level masking :
Masking numbers are 255 and 0
And the mask address with the IP address
to get the subnetted address.
e.g.
45. 33. 41. 9
AND 255. 255. 0. 0
45. 33. 0. 0
Non Boundary Level Masking
Masking numbers are 255,0 and any other
numbers.
e.g.
45. 123. 41. 9
AND 255. 192. 0. 0
45. 64. 0. 0

16
 from 64 to 127 it will give 64 which is the
starting address of this network

so this network is divided into four subnet

0-64,64-127,128-191,192-255.
The standards describing modern routing protocols
often refer to the extended-network-prefix- length
rather than the subnet mask.
The prefix length is equal to the number of
contiguous one-bits in the traditional subnet mask.
This means that specifying the network address
130.5.5.25 with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 can also
be expressed as130.5.5.25/24, The /<prefix-length>
17
 This notation is more compact and easier to
understand than writing out the mask in its
traditional dotted-decimal format. As illustrated in
Figure

18
 Subnet Design Considerations :
The deployment of an addressing plan requires careful
thought on the part of the network administrator.
There are four key questions that must be answered
before any design should be undertaken:
1) How many total subnets does the organization need
today?
2) How many total subnets will the organization need in the
future?
3) How many hosts are there on the organization's largest
subnet today?
4) How many hosts will there be on the organization's
largest subnet in the future?

19
 The All-0s Subnet and The All-1s Subnet
When subnetting was first defined in RFC 950, it
prohibited the use of the all-0s and the all-1s subnet.
The reason for this restriction was to eliminate situations
that could potentially confuse a classful & classless
router at the same time.

For example, the routing advertisements for subnet

193.1.1.0/27 and for network 193.1.1.0/24 will be
identical - 193.1.1.0.
Without knowing the prefix-length or mask, a router
cannot tell the difference between a route to the all-0s
subnet and the route to the entire network

20
 Regarding the all-1s subnet,
A router requires that each routing table entry include the
prefix-length so that it can determine if a broadcast
(directed or all-subnets) should be sent only to the all-1s
subnet or to the entire network.
For example, confusion can occur because the same
broadcast address (193.1.1.255) is used for both for the
entire network 193.1.1.0/24 and the all-1s subnet
193.1.1.224/27. This is illustrated in Figure

Kousik Dasgupta Kalyani Govt.

21
Engineering College
IPv4 Address Exhaustion
Though the 32-bit address space of IPv4 supports
about 4 billion IP devices,
The IPv4 addressing scheme is not optimal.
And exponential growth of the Internet has
resulted to switch over some scheme that could
overcome this exponential growth by expanding
size of IP addresses.
VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask)
The same network can be configured with different
masks.
Can have subnets of different masks.
Allows better utilization of available resources.
Example:
Consider we are given a class C network
192.203.17.0
We have the requirement to divide it into three
subnets corresponding to three departments.
The specific requirements are D1=110, D2=45,
D3=50.

23
VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask)
192.203.17.0
Default subnet mask = 255.255.255.0
But a subnet mask of 255.255.255.X can be used
to divide it into more subnets.
Options of X can be:
But this is X X in binary No. of No. of
subnets hosts.
not satisfying
128 10000000 2 128
our
192 11000000 4 64
requirement of 224 11100000 8 32
110, 45, 50 240 11110000 16 16
248 11111000 32 8
252 11111100 64 4
24
VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask)
Solution
First using X=128 (255.255.255.128) we get two
subnets of 0-127 (and 128-255). 256
Thus our specification of
110 addresses can be taken 128 128

care by first subnet (0-127).

Then in the second subnet (128-255) we can use a
different subnet mask of 255.255.255.192 (X=192).
Thus creating two subnets of 64 each. 256

128 128

64 25 64
VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask)

192.203.17.0

256

128 128

192.203.17.0 to .127 192.203.17.128 to .255

64 64

192.203.17.128 to .191
192.203.17.192 to .255

26
Still Running out of address:
Severe strain on classfull model due to wastage of
address.

Solution
CIDR.
IP version 6
Private IP address and NAT.

27
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
No concept of Class A,B,C network.
Reduce load on routers.
Every IP address is represented by
Prefix-Actual IP address.
Followed by a slash (/) and a number M.
M: No. of left most contiguous bits used to
define the network mask.
Example: 144.16.192.57/18
Thumb rule that should be taken care of:
Each block should be a multiple of 2.
Beginning address of each block must be divisible
by number of address in the block.
28
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
Example:
Consider an organization is given a block
144.16.192.24/29
So how many address in the block?
Starting address
144.16.192.24- 10010000.00010000.11000000.00011000
/29 - 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111000
End address- 10010000.00010000.11000000.00011111
144.16.192.31
It means there are 8 address in the block.
Existing classfull networks can be represented as
Class A: x.y.z.w/8 Class B: x.y.z.w/16 Class C: x.y.z.w/24

29
 NAT-Network Address Translation
NAT is a way to conserve IP addresses
Hide a number of hosts behind a single IP address
Expand IP address space by deploying private address
and translating them into publicly registered addresses
First described in RFC 1631.

Private IP network is an IP network that is not directly

connected to the Internet
IP addresses in a private network can be assigned
arbitrarily.
Not registered and not guaranteed to be globally
unique
 NAT-Network Address Translation
Generally, private networks use addresses from
the following experimental address ranges (non-
routable addresses):
10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255

H1 H2 H3 H4

10.0.1.2 10.0.1.3 10.0.1.2 10.0.1.3

10.0.1.1 10.0.1.1
Private network 1 Private network 1
Internet
R1 128.195.4.119 128.143.71.21 R2

213.168.112.3

H5
 NAT-Network Address Translation
NAT is a router function where IP addresses (and
possibly port numbers) of IP datagrams are
replaced at the boundary of a private network

NAT is a method that enables hosts on private

networks to communicate with hosts on the
Internet

NAT is run on routers that connect private

networks to the public Internet, to replace the IP
address-port pair of an IP packet with another IP
address-port pair.
 Basic operation of NAT

NAT device has address translation table

 Pooling of IP addresses
Scenario: Corporate network has many hosts but only
a small number of public IP addresses
NAT solution:
Corporate network is managed with a private address
space
NAT device, located at the boundary between the
corporate network and the public Internet, manages a pool
of public IP addresses
When a host from the corporate network sends an IP
datagram to a host in the public Internet, the NAT device
picks a public IP address from the address pool, and binds
this address to the private address of the host

34
 Pooling of IP addresses
Private Internet
network

Source = 10.0.1.2 Source = 128.143.71.21

Destination = 213.168.112.3 Destination = 213.168.112.3

private address: 10.0.1.2 NAT

public address: 213.168.112.3
public address: device
H1 H5

Private Public
Address Address
10.0.1.2

Pool of addresses: 128.143.71.0-128.143.71.30

35
 Supporting migration between network service
providers
Scenario: In CIDR, the IP addresses in a corporate network are obtained
from the service provider. Changing the service provider requires changing
all IP addresses in the network.
NAT solution:
Assign private addresses to the hosts of the corporate network
NAT device has static address translation entries which bind the
private address of a host to the public address.
Migration to a new network service provider merely requires an
update of the NAT device. The migration is not noticeable to the hosts
on the network.
Note:
The difference to the use of NAT with IP address pooling is that the
mapping of public and private IP addresses is static.

36
 Supporting migration between network service
providers

37
 IP masquerading
Also called: Network address and port
translation (NAPT), port address translation
(PAT).
Scenario: Single public IP address is mapped to
multiple hosts in a private network.
NAT solution:
Assign private addresses to the hosts of the corporate
network
NAT device modifies the port numbers for outgoing
traffic

38
 IP masquerading

Source = 10.0.1.2 Source = 128.143.71.21

Source port = 2001 Source port = 2100

private address: 10.0.1.2

NAT 128.143.71.21
H1 Private network Internet
device
private address: 10.0.1.3

H2 Source = 10.0.1.3 Source = 128.143.71.21

Source port = 3020 Destination = 4444

Private Public
Address Address
10.0.1.2/2001 128.143.71.21/2100
10.0.1.3/3020 128.143.71.21/4444

39
 Load balancing of servers
Scenario: Balance the load on a set of identical servers,
which are accessible from a single IP address

NAT solution:
Here, the servers are assigned private addresses
NAT device acts as a proxy for requests to the server from
the public network
The NAT device changes the destination IP address of
arriving packets to one of the private addresses for a
server
A sensible strategy for balancing the load of the servers is
to assign the addresses of the servers in a round-robin
fashion.

40
 Load balancing of servers

41
 Concerns about NAT
Performance:
Modifying the IP header by changing the IP address
requires that NAT boxes recalculate the IP header
checksum
Modifying port number requires that NAT boxes
recalculate TCP checksum
Fragmentation
Care must be taken that a datagram that is
fragmented before it reaches the NAT device, is not
assigned a different IP address or different port
numbers for each of the fragments.

42
 Concerns about NAT
End-to-end connectivity:
NAT destroys universal end-to-end reachability of
hosts on the Internet.
A host in the public Internet often cannot initiate
communication to a host in a private network.
The problem is worse, when two hosts that are in
a private network need to communicate with each
other.

43
 Concerns about NAT
IP address in application data:
Applications that carry IP addresses in the payload
of the application data generally do not work
across a private-public network boundary.
Some NAT devices inspect the payload of widely
used application layer protocols and, if an IP
address is detected in the application-layer header
or the application payload, translate the address
according to the address translation table.

44
IPv6

Why IPv6?

Shortage of IPv4 addresses .

New devices like phones/Gadjets need IP address
The routing information were not inherent in addresses.
Some aspects of IPv4 were problematic :
Option headers and fragments etc
type of service [TOS] which people never used.
IPv6

IPv6 Address

IPv4: 32 bits or 4 bytes long

4,200,000,000 possible addressable nodes

IPv6: 128 bits or 16 bytes

3.4 * 1038 possible addressable nodes
IPv6 is the "next generation" protocol designed by the
IETF (The Internet Engineering Task Force)
IPv6

IPv6 Header Format

IPv4: 20 Bytes + Options IPv6: 40 Bytes + Extension Header
IPv4 Header IPv6 Header
Type of
Version IHL Total Length Traffic
Service Version Flow Label
Class
Fragment
Identification Flags
Offset
Next
Time to Live Protocol Header Checksum Payload Length Hop Limit
Header

Source Address
Destination Address
Options Padding Source Address

Destination Address
IPv6
IPv6 Header Format
Type of Traffic
Version IHL Total Length Version Flow Label
Service Class
Fragment
Identification Flags Next
Offset Payload Length Hop Limit
Header
Time to Live Protocol Header Checksum

Source Address
Source Address
Destination Address
Options Padding
Destination Address

Version number. Previously it was 4 but now it is 6.

Class: This is used to assign service class for real time networking.
If we are doing some real time networking that can be indicated
here.
IPv6
IPv6 Header Format
Type of Traffic
Version IHL Total Length Version Flow Label
Service Class
Fragment
Identification Flags Next
Offset Payload Length Hop Limit
Header
Time to Live Protocol Header Checksum

Source Address
Source Address
Destination Address
Options Padding
Destination Address

Flow: Given one particular source and another destination then for
this particular source and destination pair there is a flow level.
Means these two are likely to send large number of packets and
all of them would belong to the same flow.
For example, there may be class of service or all kinds of quality
of service requirements for one particular flow that may require
bandwidth reservation in between.
IPv6
IPv6 Header Format
Type of Traffic
Version IHL Total Length Version Flow Label
Service Class
Fragment
Identification Flags Next
Offset Payload Length Hop Limit
Header
Time to Live Protocol Header Checksum

Source Address
Source Address
Destination Address
Options Padding
Destination Address

Payload Length: Only include the payload and not the 20-byte Header.
This is of 16-bits for that so packets are once again less than or equal to 64 k.
Next Header: This gives rise to the possibility that there may be more
than one header.
If there are not any more IPv6 Headers then, at least the higher layer headers
like TCP or UDP Headers.
IPv6
IPv6 Header Format
Type of Traffic
Version IHL Total Length Version Flow Label
Service Class
Fragment
Identification Flags Next
Offset Payload Length Hop Limit
Header
Time to Live Protocol Header Checksum

Source Address
Source Address
Destination Address
Options Padding
Destination Address

Hop Limit. This is really the TTL (Time to Live) which was present
earlier in IPv4 but was used to just keep the count of the Hop and
this is just renamed as Hop Limit.
Source Address
Destination Address
IPv6
IPv6 Address Types
Unicast
Address for a single interface.
A packet sent to a unicast address is delivered to the interface
identified by that address.
Anycast
Multiple devices share the same address.
A packet sent to an anycast address is delivered to one of the
interfaces identified by that address (the "nearest" one,
according to the routing protocols' measure of distance).
Multicast
One-to-many
Enables more efficient use of the network
Uses a larger address range
IPv6
IPv6 Address Types
Multicast
An identifier for a set of interfaces (typically belonging to
different nodes).
A packet sent to a multicast address is delivered to all
interfaces identified by that address.

There are no broadcast addresses in IPv6, their

function being superseded by multicast
addresses.
IPv6

IPv6 Address Scope

Link-local: The scope is the local link (nodes on the same

subnet)

Unique-local: The scope is the organization (private site

addressing)

Global: The scope is global (IPv6 Internet addresses)

IPv6

IPv6 Address Representation

x:x:x:x:x:x:x:x, where x is a 16-bit hexadecimal field, so 8
16 bit blocks each represented by 4 hexadecimal digits.
Leading zeros in a field are optional:
2031:0:130F:0:0:9C0:876A:130B
Successive fields of 0 can be represented as ::, but only
once per address.

Examples:
2031:0000:130F:0000:0000:09C0:876A:130B
2031:0:130f::9c0:876a:130b
FF01:0:0:0:0:0:0:1 >>> FF01::1
0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1 >>> ::1
0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 >>> ::
IPv6

IPv6 Address Representation

Leading zeros in a field are optional:
2031:0:130F:0:0:9C0:876A:130B
Successive fields of 0 can be represented as ::, but only
once per address.

Examples:
1080:0000:0000:0000:0008:08A0:200C:417A
Leading zeros can be omitted, but one zero remains if all 4
hexadecimal digits are zero.
1080:0:0:0:8:8A0:200C:417A
One string of single colon separated zeros can be abbreviated
to a :: (Not more than one)
1080::0008:08A0:200C:417A
IPv6

IPv6 Address Representation: Link Local

Hosts on the same link (the same subnet) use
these automatically configured addresses to
communicate with each other.

The prefix for link-local addresses is FE80::/64.

IPv6

IPv6 Address Representation: Unique Local

IPv6 unicast unique-local addresses are similar

to IPv4 private addresses.

The scope of a unique-local address is the

internetwork of an organizations site. (You can
use both global addresses and unique-local
addresses in your network)

The prefix for unique-local addresses is

FC00::/8.
IPv6

IPv6 Address Example

[root@vsnlproxy ~]# ifconfig

eth0 Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:18:71:E5:47:82

inet addr:172.31.1.227 Bcast:172.31.255.255 Mask:255.255.0.0

inet6 addr: 2001:df0:92:0:218:71ff:fee5:4782/64 Scope:Global

inet6 addr: fe80::218:71ff:fee5:4782/64 Scope:Link

 Address Resolution Protocol
Although IP address identifies a host, the packet is physically delivered by an
underlying network (e.g., Ethernet) which uses its own physical address (MAC
address in Ethernet). How to map an IP address to a physical address?

H1 wants to learn physical address of H3 -> broadcasts an ARP request

H1 H2 H3 H4

150.100.76.20 150.100.76.21 150.100.76.22 150.100.76.23

ARP request (what is the MAC address of 150.100.76.22?)

Every host receives the request, but only H3 reply with its physical address
H1 H2 H3 H4

ARP response (my MAC address is 08:00:5a:3b:94)

 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
Reverse of ARP. A host knows its MAC address but not IP address. It broadcast a
packet with its MAC address all host in a network sees it but only server responds
with IP address.

H1 knows physical address wants to know its IP address -> broadcasts an RARP request

H1 H2 S H4

150.100.76.21 150.100.76.22 150.100.76.23

RARP request (what is the IP address of 07:01:6b:b3:89?)

Every host receives the request, but only Server S reply with an IP address
H1 H2 S H4

RARP response (IP address of 07:01:6b:b3:89 is 150.100.76.4 )

 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

RFC 792; Encapsulated in IP packet.

Handles error and control messages.
If router cannot deliver or forward a packet, it sends an ICMP
host unreachable message to the source.
If router receives packet that should have been sent to another
router, it sends an ICMP redirect message to the sender;
Sender modifies its routing table.
ICMP router discovery messages allow host to learn about
routers in its network and to initialize and update its routing
tables.
ICMP echo request and reply facilitate diagnostic and used in
ping.
 ICMP Basic Error Message Format
0 8 16 31

Type Code Checksum

Unused

IP header and 64 bits of original datagram

Type of message: some examples

0 Network Unreachable; 3 Port Unreachable
1 Host Unreachable 4 Fragmentation needed
2 Protocol Unreachable 5 Source route failed
11 Time-exceeded
Code: purpose of message,
IP header & 64 bits of original datagram
To match ICMP message with original data in IP
packet
 Echo Request & Echo Reply Message Format
0 8 16 31

Type Code Checksum

Identifier Sequence number

Data

Echo request: type=8; Echo reply: type=0

Destination replies with echo reply by copying data in request onto
reply message
Code =0 for both
Sequence number to match reply to request
ID to distinguish between different sessions using echo
services
Used in PING
Tracing a Route: Another example of ICMP
A helpful program that is based on ICMP is traceroute
traceroute traces a route from one host to another
Shows the intermediate routers on the route
Windows version is tracert
Determines the route by sending a series of IP packets
Send a packet that has a TTL of one
Afterwards, send a packet that has a TTL of two
This repeats until a packet is sent that reaches the
destination
 Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)

l Used in unicasting and multicasting communication.

l Unicast: One to one communication.
l Multicast : One to many communication.
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

Provides configuration parameters to Internet hosts [RFC

2131].

DHCP consists of two components

1. Mechanism for allocation of network addresses to
hosts
2. Delivering host-specific configuration parameters to
hosts
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

If a host does not have an IP address, sends DHCP

request
Broadcast message Can I have an IP address?
DHCP server responds with the appropriate IP address
Smells like RARP? What is the difference?
DHCP goes beyond RARP by providing
IP address leases
Additional network configuration information like
DNS, gateway etc.
 DHCP Operation

1Host connects to the network by sending DHCPDISCOVER.

Request for IP address from DHCP server(s)
How does the host know the address of the DHCP
server?

2. Server responds with DHCPOFFER

Contains IP address and configuration parameters
Contains the IP address lease time
What is the IP address of the host?
3. Host responds with DHCPREQUEST , confirming the offer
from the server
may receive multiple offers
 DHCP Operation

4. Server responds with DHCPACK

Configuration parameters (committed network
address)
5. Once the host is done sends DHCPRELEASE to server
Relinquishing network address and cancelling
remaining lease

DHCP is used for laptops on campus. As a result, is it

possible to run a web-server (or any other type of server)
as a host on these networks?
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
The Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol defined in
RFC 2328 is a link state routing protocol.
Every node independently computes the shortest paths to
all the other nodes by using Dijkstra's shortest path
algorithm.
The link state information is distributed by flooding.
OSPF introduces the concept of areas in order to control
the flooding and computational processes.
An OSPF area is a group of a set of networks within an
autonomous system.
The internal topology of an OSPF area is invisible for other
OSPF areas.
The routing within an area (intra-area routing) is
constrained to that area.
 Border Gateway Protocol (RFC 1771)
The Border Gateway Protocol version 4 (BGP-4) exchanges
reachability information between autonomous systems.

BGP-4 peers construct AS connectivity graphs to detect and prune

routing loops and enforce policy decisions.

BGP peers generally advertise only routes that should be seen

from the outside (advertising policy).

The final decision on which set of announced paths is actually

used remains a local policy decision.

BGP-4 runs over a reliable transport (TCP) and uses the well-
known port 179.