BASIC CONCEPS OF NUCLEAR PHYSICS

General Properties of Nucleus

Rutherford suggested a model of the atom in 1910. A beam of -particles

from radium was sent to a thin gold foil and the scattered -particles
were detected.

Schematic diagram of the Rutherford scattering experiment.

Rutherford observed that many -particles went straight through the foil
were deflected by a very small angle. However, a few -particles were
deflected through very large angles, some of them even got back
scattered.
The deflection requires that the positive massive part of the atom was
concentrated in a very small volume at the center of the atom (nucleus).
Atoms consist of a nucleus and an electron shell.
A nucleus consists of nucleons (protons and neutrons).

1
 The size of an atom is roughly
10-10 m. The typical energy
scale of atomic physics is 1 eV
(electron volt) =1.602 10 19 J .
mn m p = 940 MeV
mn m p 2000me
me = 0.511 MeV
The nucleus carries practically all
the mass of an atom. The size of a
nucleus is roughly 10-14 m. The
typical energy scale of nuclear
physics is 1 MeV (Mega-electron
volt) =1.602 10 13 J .

Atomic Physics Nuclear Physics

Size 10-10 m 10-14 m
Force Coulomb (EM) Nuclear (Strong)
Energy eV MeV
Structure Nucleus&Electron Protons&Neutrons
shell

Unlike atomic physics which is explained by electromagnetism, there is

no fundamental theoretical formalism that completely describes nuclei
and nuclear behavior. There is a fundamental theory of the strong
interaction, called QuantumChromoDynamics (QCD), but it describes the
interactions between quarks, not nucleons.

This latter distance is 1 femtometer in SI terms (1 fm=10-15 m), but for

historical reasons is known in nuclear physics as 1 Fermi which is the
typical length scale of nuclear physics.

2
 An atom consists of a massive, positively charged and an extremely small
core surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons.

This core is called the nucleus. The nucleus is

made up of protons and neutrons, collectively
known as nucleons. The negatively charged
electrons move around the nucleus. So the
atom is made up mostly of empty space.

The nucleus contains more that 99.9% of the mass of the atom. Nucleus
consists of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons.
Name Symbol Charge Mass Rest Energy Spin
Proton p +e 1.007276 u 938.28 MeV
Neutron n 0 1.008665 u 939.57 MeV
Electron e -e 0.000549 u 0.511 MeV
The nucleons are not elementary particles. Nucleons are believed to be
made of quarks held together by the strong force.

A nucleon consists of 3 quarks (and

gluons). The size of a nucleon is
roughly 10-15 m. The typical energy
scale of nucleo is 1GeV (Gega-
electron volt) =1.602 107 J .

It is easy to see that the gravitational force is completely negligible inside

the nucleus. Nucleons interact with one another via a strong nuclear
force.
Nuclear physics is the study of the atomic nucleus. Today, nuclear
physics has entered into our modern world in a significant way. It
influences other branches of science: chemistry, biology, archaeology,
geology, engineering, astrophysics and cosmology. It is used widely in
society at large areas.

3
 A particular nucleus defined by A and Z is known as a nuclide (a nuclide
is a specific combination of a number of protons and neutrons).

Nuclei with the same Z but different N are known as

isotopes. Elements with the same A but differing Z
(and N) are known as isobars. Nuclei with the same
N but differing Z are known as isotones

International agreement for the standard of atomic mass is that the mass
12
of one atom of C is exactly 12.0u.
(1u = 1.6605 1027 kg = 931.5 MeV/c 2 )
At present, there are 112 known elements which range from the lightest,
hydrogen, to the recently discovered and yet to-be-named element 112.
All of the elements heavier than uranium are man made. Among the
elements are approximately 270 stable isotopes, and more than 2000
unstable isotopes.

The neutron-proton diagram shows that many stable nuclei of low mass
number have an approximately equal number of protons and neutrons,
but medium weight and heavy nuclei have excess neutrons. The
properties of neutron-rich nuclei appear to be quite different from the
natural isotopes.

4
 Uunstable nuclei decay spontaneously in various ways. Isobars with a
large excess of neutrons gain energy by converting a neutron into a
proton (plus an electron ), while in the case of an excess of protons the
conversion of a proton into a neutron (and a positron + ) occurs. These
reactions are called -decays and are manifestations of the weak
interaction. Other decays include -decays and spontaneous fission.

5
Nuclear Charge Distribution

The charge distribution in nuclei is obtained by analyzing scattering of

high energy electrons from various nuclei (electrons has no structure and
QED is well known). Electron scattering measures the deviations from
the predictions for the scattering pattern assuming a point nucleus.

For scattering of radiation of

wavelength by a circular disc of
diameter D, the first diffraction
minimum should appear at an angle
= sin-1 (1.22 /D) where R = 2 D .
At an electron energy of 420 MeV,
the observed minima are 45o for 16O
and 50o for 12C.

E = 420 MeV>>0.511 MeV E pc

= 2pchc = 2 (197.3 MeV fm )
420 MeV
= 2.96 fm
2.57 fm for 16O
R= 1.22 =
sin 12
2.35 fm for C
R=r0 A1/ 3

6
 If the incident electron and target have If the target has a spherical
no structure (a point-like nucleus), the symmetric density distribution,
differential cross section becomes the effect of an extended nuclear
charge is given by a form factor
4(Ze 2 ) 1
2
d 1
= d d r 2
d Rutherford (4 0 ) 16 K Sin ( / 2)
2
=
2 4
F (q 2 )
d d Rutherford

For spherically symmetric cases, (r ) depends only on the radius. The form
factor is the Fourier transform of the charge distribution
r rr
F(q 2 ) = d 3 r e iqr/h (r) . In principle the radial charge distribution could be
r rr
determined from the inverse Fourier transform, (r) = d 3 r F(q 2 ) e -iqr/h . The
expansion of the form factor becomes

r r r 1 r r 2
F(q 2 ) = d 3r (r) 1 + iq r/h - ( iq r/h ) + .......
2
1
( )
= 1- q 2 /h 2 r 2 + ....
6
r
2 dF(q 2 )
2
where r = 6h is called the mean square radius of charge
dq 2 q 2 =0

distribution r 2 = d3r r 2 (r) and the radius is r 2 R = 1.2 A1/3 fm .

__

7
Radial charge distribution from From many electron scattering
electron scattering measurements, the nuclear charge
distribution can be parameterized
as
0
(r ) =
1 + exp(r R ) / a

where 0 is the proton density

near the center of the nucleus.
The charge density (r) is
normalized so that when
0 decreases slowly with increasing integrated over the nuclear
A. (A/Z) 0 is constant from volume it gives the total charge Z
nucleus to nucleus (the central
value of all nuclei is approximately 4 (r )r 2 dr = Z
the same 0 0.17 fm-3 ).

The nuclear radius (the half radius) R is the value of the radius at which
the charge density has decreased to half of its central value,
R = 1.2 A1/3 fm .

Nuclear surface skin thickness t measures the radial distance over which
the charge density reduces from %90 to %10 of its central value.
0
(r ) = r = R + a ln 0 1
1 + exp(r R) / a

t r =0.1 r =0.9 = R + a ln 0 1 R a ln 0 1 = 4a ln 3
0 0
0.10 0.9 0
All nuclei have a surface region of decreasing density, about 2.5 fm thick.
0
(r ) =
1 + exp 4 ( ln 3) (r R) / t

8
Nuclear Mass Distribution

Nuclear scattering of electrons only gives information about the

distribution of protons. To study the matter (i.e. proton and neutron)
distribution requires more complicated analysis of scattering of -
particles or neutrons which interact through the nuclear force with both
protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

a 4He nucleus (-particle) is scattered a When the incident -particle

much heavier target of 197Au gets close enough to the target
nucleus so that they can interact
through the nuclear force. The
Rutherford formula no longer
holds. The point at which this
breakdown occurs gives a
measure of the size of the
nucleus.

The closest distance is

calculated as
( )
b = ( zZ / 2 K ) e2 / 4 0 Cot ( / 2 )
Using this expression, we find
the closest distance between -
The figure suggests that the Rutherford
particle and the nucleus.
scattering formula fails for 60o scattering
when K=28 MeV
197
The radius of Au
b = (2 79 / 2 28 10 6 eV) 1.44 eV nm Cot(60/2) = 7.037 10 15 m = 7.04 fm
R = 1.2 A1/3 fm = 1.2 fm (197)1/3 = 6.98 fm

The charge and matter radii of nuclei are nearly equal to within about 0.1 fm.
matter (r ) = proton (r ) + neutron (r ) = p (r ) + ( N / Z ) p (r ) = ( A / Z ) p (r )
0 0
(r ) = =
1 + exp(r R) / a 1 + exp 4 ( ln 3) (r R) / t

9
Particle density

(A/V)= A/(4R3/3)= A/(4 ro 3A/3) 1038 particles/cm3

This value is constant, independent of the size of the nucleus.

Density of nuclear matter = (A/V)mp 1017 kg/m3

Density of ordinary matter 103 kg/m3

Masses

Atomic masses can be determined with high precision mass spectrometers or

by nuclear reactions.

We would expect that the mass of a nucleus is the sum of the masses of
nucleons in that nucleus.

M (A, Z) = Zm p + (A Z)m n

However, the measurement of the nuclear masses indicates that

M (A, Z) < Zm p + (A Z)m n

In general, if two or more particles interact to combine together, then the

total mass of the system would decrease to be less than the sum of the
masses of the individual particles (arises from the interaction between
particles). This decrease of the mass is called the mass defect and given by

MassDefect = Zm p + (A Z)m n M (A, Z)

10
Binding Energy and Semi-empirical Mass Formula

The binding energy is the energy that is released when free nucleons (Z
protons and N neutrons) combine to a bound nucleus, or equivalently, the
energy required to separate a given nucleus into its constituent nucleons.
Thus, the mass defect is converted into energy with the mass-energy
equivalence ( E = mc 2 ), called binding energy. The binding energy
contributes significantly (1%) to the mass of a nucleus.

The binding energy of a nucleus AZ X N is given by

B = ( MassDefect ) c 2 = Zm p + ( A Z )mn M nucl ( A, Z ) c 2

( )
= ZM 1 H + Nm n M ( X ) c
A 2

where M ( X ) =M
A
nucl +Zm e is the atomic mass and M(1 H ) m p + m e is the
mass of the hydrogen atom.

Average binding energy per nucleon is defined as B avr = B/A .

Nucleus M(A,Z) in u B(A,Z) in MeV B(A,Z)/A in MeV

2
1
H 2.2 1.1
4
2 He 4.002603 28.3 7.07
12
6C 12.000000 92.2 7.68
133
54
Xe 132.905820 1119.0 8.41
238
92 U 238.050760 1803.0 7.58

The binding energy for massive nuclei grows roughly as A.

11
 The curve is relatively constant, with the exception of very light nuclei.
For low mass nuclei ( A 20 ), B/A oscillates somewhat and increases
rapidly with A.
Nucleus B in MeV B/A in MeV
2
1H 2.2 1
3
1
H 8.5 3
4
2 He 28.0 7
Most of these have binding energies between 7.5 and 8.5 MeV per
nucleon. The nuclides with the largest binding energies per nucleon are
62
Ni , 58 Fe , and 56 Fe (iron peak species). Their values are 8.795 MeV,
8.792 MeV and 8.790 MeV respectively. Saturation of B/A gives the
information about the range of strong interaction (2 fm).
For large mass nuclei, B/A drops very slowly.
Nuclear processes release energy as long as the binding energy per
nucleon of final product(s) exceeds the binding energy per nucleon of the
initial constituents. Consequently, nuclear energy can be released by
fission of nuclei heavier than iron, or by fusion of nuclei lighter than iron.

If a heavy nucleus (mass number A) is separated into two roughly equal

nuclei with mass numbers A/2, ( A X A / 2 Y + A / 2 Y ) the binding energy per
nucleon increases about 1 MeV, it follows that an amount of energy is
released. This is the basis of nuclear fission.

12
 (M A B avr /c 2 A) c 2 = 2 (M A/2 Bavr /c 2 A/2) c 2 + E E = A(Bavr B avr )

238
U 119 Pd +119 Pd
Nucleus with A=238 fissions into
two nuclei with A=119
A = 238 B / A ~ 7.6 MeV/Nucleon
A = 119 B / A ~ 8.5 MeV/Nucleon
B / A increases by 8.5-7.7=0.8 MeV
Total binding energy increases by
~238 0.8 200 MeV

Released energy from 1 kg 238U :

200MeV / atom 6.02 103 Atom / Mole 1000Mole / 238 8 1013 J
This is equivalent to burning 2 million tons of gasoline or explosion of
20.000 tons of TNT.

If two very light nuclei are combined, there is again an increasing in binding
energy per nucleon and a consequent release of energy. This is the basis of
the nuclear fusion.

Understanding the curve of binding energy leads us to the semi-empirical

mass formula. The semi-empirical mass formula was first introduced in 1935
by Weizscker (Weizscker-formula). The binding energy has five terms on
its right hand side. These correspond to the binding of all the nucleons by the
strong nuclear force, a surface energy term, the electrostatic repulsion of the
protons, an asymmetry term (derivable from the protons and neutrons
occupying independent quantum momentum states) and a pairing term.

The Weizsaecker formula is an empirically refined form of the liquid drop

model for the binding energy of a nucleus of mass number A with Z protons
and N neutrons . It is also referred to as the "semi-empirical mass formula"
and the "Bethe-Weizaecker formula". The Weizsaecker formula is

B(A, Z) = a V A a S A 2/3 Z2
a C 1/3 a Sym
(Z N ) a A -3/4
2

P
A A

13
 1 for even - even nuclei
where = 0 for odd - even and even - odd nuclei
+ 1 for odd - odd nuclei

The coefficients in this formula are determined by fitting the experimental

observed binding energies. The exact values of the coefficients depend on
the range of masses for which they are optimized. One possible sets of
parameters are

a V (MeV) a S (MeV) a C (MeV) a Sym (MeV) a P (MeV)

Set 1 15.67 17.23 0.75 93.15 12.00
Set 2 15.835 18.33 0.714 23.20 11.2
Set 3 15.8 17.8 0.71 23.7 34
Krane 15.5 16.8 0.72 23 34

The binding energy per particle becomes

B(A, Z)
= a V a S A 1 / 3 a C Z 2 A -4/3 a Sym
(Z N ) a A -7/4
2

P
A A2

To find the value of Z for which binding energy is maximum (the most
stable nuclei for a given value of A), we must solve dB / dZ = 0 .

14
 Z2
B(A, Z) = a V A a S A a C 1/3 a Sym
2/3 (A 2Z) a A -3/4 2

P
A A
dB(A, Z) Z
= 2a C 1/3 4a Sym
(A 2Z) = 0 Z = A
dZ A A (a C / 2a Sym )A 2 / 3 + 2
In terms of atomic masses we have
( A 2Z )
2
1 Z2
M ( X ) = ZM ( H ) + ( A Z )mn 2
A
Z
1
1 aV A aS A a C 1/3 aSym
2/3
a P A -3/4
c A A
For a given value of A, the most stable nuclide is the one with the smallest
mass. Differentiate the above equation with respect to Z and set the result to
zero. We then obtain

M ( ZA X ) 1 Z ( A 2Z ) = 0
Z = m p mn + c 2 2a C A1/3 4aSym A

A
A 1 + ( mn m p ) c / 4aSym A
2
1
Z=
2 1 + a C A / 4aSym
2/3
2 1 + A 2/3 ( a C / 4aSym )

The mass parabolas for the particular value of A depend on whether A is
even or odd. If A is odd, there is only one parabola. If however A is even,
there can be more than one stable isobar (even Z even N and odd Z odd N).
For an odd-A nuclei, A=101 and an even-A nuclei, A=106, the most stable
Z-values are obtained as

A 1 101 1
Z= = = 43.17
2 1 + A 2/3 ( a C / 4aSym ) 2 1 + 1012/3 ( 0.72 / 4 23)

A 1 106 1
Z= = = 45.09
2 1 + A 2/3 ( a C / 4aSym ) 2 1 + 1062/3 ( 0.72 / 4 23)

15
The unstable nuclei approach stability converting a neutron into a proton or
a proton into a neutron by decay. In the periodic table, 101
44 Ru and 46 Pd are
106

the stable nuclei.

Semi-empirical mass formula allows us to reproduce the measured data for

any given nuclear isotope ZA X N , and make predictions for unknown (i.e. n-
rich) systems. From semi-empirical mass formula we can obtain the valley
of stability.

16
Separation Energy

The binding energy per nucleon is not the energy needed to remove a
particular neutron or proton from the nucleus. The required energy to
remove a nucleon from the nucleus is the separation energy. This is equal to
the difference between the masses of the separated fragments and the
original mass. The neutron separation energy Sn is the amount of energy
needed to remove a neutron from a nucleus AZ X N , equal to the difference in
binding energies between AZ X N and A-Z1 X N-1

The neutron separation energy Sn The proton separation energy Sp

A
Z X N A Z1 X N-1 + n : A
Z X N AZ11YN + p

Sn = [M ( A Z1 X N-1 ) + m n - M ( AZ X N )] c 2 Sp = [M ( AZ11YN ) + m p - M ( AZ X N )] c 2
= B( AZ X N ) B( A Z1 X N-1 ) = B( AZ X N ) B( AZ11YN )

Nucleus Sn in MeV Sp in MeV

8O8
16
15.66 12.13 For a given Z, Sn is larger for nuclei
17 with even N than with odd N. Also,
8O9 4.14 13.78
17 for a given N, Sp is larger for nuclei
F8 16.81 0.60
9
with even Z than with odd Z.
40
20 Ca 20 15.64 8.33 The effect is caused by a property of
41
20
Ca 21 8.36 8.89 nuclear force producing extra
41 binding energy between pairs of
21 Sc 20 16.19 1.09
identical nucleons in the same state

17
Nuclear Stability

Stable nuclei only occur in a very narrow band in the Z-N plane. All other
nuclei are unstable and decay spontaneously in various ways. Isobars with a
large excess of neutrons gain energy by converting a neutron into a proton
(plus an electron ), while in the case of an excess of protons the
conversion of a proton into a neutron (and a positron + ) occurs. These
reactions are called -decays and are manifestations of the weak interaction.
Other decays include -decays and spontaneous fission.

General considerations of stability lead to the expectation that a system of

nucleons will tend to a system of lowest potential energy (highest binding
energy per nucleon).

18
The number of stable nuclei in nature:
A Z N number
even even even 156 even-even nuclei occur most frequently
odd odd even 48
odd even odd 50
even odd odd 5

A nucleus is unstable if it eventually disintegrates in some ways:

1. -decay: AZ X Az42Y + 42 He 238
92
U 23490Th + 42 He
2. -decay:
-decay + -decay
Basic reaction n p + e + e p n + e+ + e
Condition M(A, Z) > M(A, Z + 1) M(A, Z) > M(A, Z 1) + 2m e
Examples A
Z
X Z+1Y + e + e
A A
Z
X ZA1Y + e + + e
14
6
C147 N + e + e 64
29
C 6428 N + e + + e
__

In - -decay, a bound neutron changes into a bound proton, and in +-decay

a bound proton changes into a bound neutron. The basic reaction of + -
decay is only possible inside a nucleus, because the rest mass of the neutron
is larger than that of the proton.

19
3. Electron capture: A proton reach nucleus can capture an atomic electron
and change a proton into a neutron
e + AZ X ZA1Ye + e e + p n + e
There is a finite probability of finding an electron from the atomic shell
inside the nucleus; especially for those from the lowest shell, the K-shell
(electron is captured usually from K-shell). The condition for electron
capture is M(A, Z) > M(A, Z 1) + where is the excitation energy of
the atomic shell of the doughter nucleus.

4. Nuclear Fission: nucleus splits into two roughly equal parts together
with two or three neutrons.
92 U 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3n + Q
236 141 92

235
92
U + n 141
54
Xe+ 3893 Sr + 2n + Q

This neutron-proton diagram shows that many stable nuclei of low mass
number have NZA/2, but medium weight and heavy nuclei have excess
neutrons, because the disruptive effect of the increasing Coulomb forces has
to be balanced by additional attractive interaction.

We want to consider the role of -decay and -decay in determining the

stability. The stable nuclei lie on or near a curve of N against Z as shown in
Figure. What happens to a nucleus not in this region of stability? The
answer is -decay which keeping A constant can step Z to bring the nucleus

20
onto a stable position. We must therefore be interested in the nuclear mass of
isobars (fixed A) as a function of Z.

The mass parabolas for the particular value of A depend on whether A is

even or odd. If A is odd, there is only one parabola. If however A is even,
there can be more than one stable isobar.

1. Light nuclei (Z20) are most stable if they contain an equal number of
protons and neutrons (N=Z). For example: 24 He
2. Heavy nuclei are more stable if the number of neutrons N exceeds the
number of protons Z.
a. As the number of protons increases, the strength of Coulomb
force increases which tends to break the nucleus apart.
b. As a result, more neutrons are needed to keep the nucleus to be
stable since neutrons experience only the attractive nuclear
forces.
3. Certain values of Z and N correspond to nuclei with usually high stability
Z or N: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126
4. The most stable nuclei have even values of A. Furthermore, only 5 have
Z and N numbers that are both odd.

21
Energy of Excited States:

Certain states can be understood as the behaviour of single nucleons moving

in a potential determined by the rest of the nucleons.

The state of lowest energy is known as the nuclear ground state and the
remainder as excited states. Transitions between these states give rise to
electromagnetic radiation, just as transitions in atoms give rise to light. In
nuclei, this radiation is known as gamma radiation. The states of a nucleus
can be represented as a function of increasing excitation energy in an energy
level diagram. These are generally labeled by a set of quantum numbers such
as spin, parity and isospin.

22
Nuclear Spin

Each nucleon r (proton and neutron) in the nucleus has an orbital angular
r
momentum l and a spin angular momentum s . In the quantum mechanics,
r
the spin of the proton is represented by a vector operator sp such that
[ s 2p , s pz ]=0 s 2p sm =s(s+1) 2 sm =1/2(1/2+1) 2 sm
s pz sm = m sm =1/2 sm
and similarly for neutron.
r
For each nucleon, orbital angular momentum l r and spin angular momentum
r r r
s combine to the total angular momentum j = l + s . The total angular
r
momentum of a nucleus I is therefore the vector sum of the angular
r A r r r
momenta of the nucleons I = ji = (li + si ) .
i =1 i

If the quantum mechanical state of a nucleus is represented by a wave

function JM (where M=I, I-1, , -I) then
I2 JM =I(I+1) 2 JM
Iz JM =M JM
which give usual information about the magnitude of the square of the
nuclear spin and its z-component.

Since an odd (even) number of spin particles always combine quantum

mechanically to give a half integer (integer) total spin,
Odd A nuclei have I=1/2, 3/2, 5/2, half-integer
Even A nuclei have I=0, 1, 2, 3, integer.
This agrees with experimental measurements.

In addition, it is found that for even-even (even Z and even N) nuclei the
nuclear ground state spin is always I=0. This means that nucleon couple
together in angular momentum zero (pairs giving a total J=0). Ground state
of an odd-A nucleus has I=j where j is the angular momentum of the last odd
nucleon.
a. The spin of the ground state of all even-even nuclei is zero
b. The spin of the ground state of any odd-A nuclei is that of
the unpaired nucleon.

23
Nuclear Parity
r r r
The nuclear wave function is written as JM ( r1 , r2 ,...rA ) . This is not only
characterized by IM, also characterized by being either even or odd under
reflection of coordinate axes.
r
We define a parity operator P with a property of reflecting each coordinate ri
r r
through the origin ( ri - ri ).
r r r r r r r r r
P ( r1 , r2 ,...rA ) = ( r1 ,r2 ,... rA ) =p ( r1 , r2 ,...rA )
Consider
r r r r r r r r r r r r
PP ( r1 , r2 ,...rA ) =P ( r1 ,r2 ,... rA ) = ( r1 , r2 ,...rA ) =p2 ( r1 , r2 ,...rA )
p2 =+1 p=1 eigen values of parity operator P
r r r r r r
P ( r1 , r2 ,...rA ) =1 ( r1 , r2 ,...rA ) : even or odd parity

Parity can be measured experimentally through a variety of nuclear decays

and reactions. Like the spin I it can be regarded as a global property of the
nucleus. Spin and parity are usually used together to denote a nuclear state

1
as I . Examples: 1-, 2+, ,.
2

Intrinsic property of neutrons and protons are the same (even). Parity of the
orbital motion is (-1)l . The nuclear parity is the product of the parity of all
the single nucleon wave functions,
(1)
A
l

a. The parity of the ground state of all even-even nuclei is even, Jp =0+
b. The parity of the ground state of all odd-A nuclei is that of the wave
function of the unpaired nucleon.
Like I, parity is overall property of the whole nucleus and it can be measured
directly from decays and reactions.

If the nuclear Hamiltonian does not change under coordinate reflection,

r r r r r r
H( r1 , r2 ,...rA ) = H( r1 ,r2 ,... rA )
r r r
= P H( r1 , r2 ,...rA )

then the parity operator P commutes with H, i.e. [P, H]=0. This implies that

24
 a. Parity is a constant of motion (parity is conserved in nuclear processes).
b. Parity and Hamiltonian have simultaneously wave functions.

Note:

1. Parity is conserved in Strong and Electromagnetic interactions,

however, it is not conserved in weak interaction (-decay, 1957).
2. If parity is conserved exactly in the nuclear reaction, any nuclei has no
electric dipole moment.
r r r r r r
| ( r1 , r2 ,...rA ) |2=| ( r1 ,r2 ,... rA ) |2 even function
r r r
D= z i | ( r1 , r2 ,...rA ) |2 d = 0
i

odd even

Expectation value of multipole operator < X >= * X dV = 0 for negative

parity of X. Therefore all odd-parity multipole moments must vanish -
electric dipole, magnetic quadrupole, electric octupole, etc.

25
Nuclear Electromagnetic Moments

The nucleons inside a nucleus represent a charge and current distribution

that produces electric and magnetic fields. Depending on their characteristic
spatial dependence these fields can be classified according to
electromagnetic multipole moments: 1/r 2 - monopole or zeroth moment,
1/r 3 - dipole or first moment, 1/r 4 - quadrupole or second moment, ...

Electromagnetic moments give information about magnetism and charge

distribution throughout the nucleus. The total electric charge gives the little
information about the structure of a subatomic system.

Magnetic Dipole Moment:

Classically, the magnetic dipole moment arises from the motion of charged
particles. The vector potential for an electric current becomes
r r r 1 / 2
r 0 j ( r ' )d 3 r ' 0 v 1 r r ' r '2
A(r ) = r r = j(r ' )d r ' 1 2 2 + 2
3

4 r r ' 4 r r r
r r
0 1 r 1 r r r 3 0 r
= j(r ' )d r ' + 3 j(r ' ) r r ' d r '+... =
3
+ ...
4 r r 4 r
3

r 1 r r
where = r ' j(r ' )d 3 r ' is the magnetic dipole moment of the current
2
r r r r r r e r
distribution. Using j( r ' ) = qv ( r - r ' ) , we then obtain L = L.
2m
For an electron, the orbital and the spin magnetic dipole moments are given
r e r r e r
by L = L and S = g S
2m 2m
where the g-factor is g=2.0023192

The actual value of electron magnetic moment is defined as the eigenvalue

r
of sz (maximum z-projection of is called the value of the magnetic
moment) where the electron is in the spin state ms = 1/2 ;
e 1
= s, m s = 1/2 z s, m s = 1/2 = s, m s = 1/2 - g S z s, m s = 1/2 = B
2m 2
-24
where B=e /2m is known as the Bohr magneton B=9.274x10 J/T.

The spin magnetic dipole moment operators for the proton and neutron are
defined as

26
 r e r 1
p = g p S p p = g p N = 2.7928 N
2m p 2
r e r 1
n = g n Sn n = g n N = 1.91304 N
2m n 2
where N= e /2mp is known as the nuclear magneton N=5.0507x10-27 J/T.

In the atomic nuclei, the spin magnetic moments of proton and neutrons will
contribute to a total magnetic moment and there will be a further
contribution from any orbital motion of the (charged) protons. Thus the
nuclear magnetic moment of a nucleus becomes

r A r r e
= (g il l + g si s )
i =1 2m p
where

1 for proton 5.5856 for proton

g il = and g is =
0 for neutron 3.8261 for neutron

Electric Quadrupole Moment

The distribution of charges within the nucleus produce an electric potential

as
1 / 2
(r ' )d 3 r ' 1 r '2 r'
V(r ) = r r = (r ' )d r ' 1 + 2 2 cos
3

r r' r r r
1 1 1
= (r ' )d 3 r ' + 2 (r ' )r ' cos d 3 r '+ 3 (r ' )r '2 (3 cos 2 1)d 3 r '+...
r r r

The first term under integral gives the total charge q = Ze = (r' ) d 3 r' which
is uninteresting from the point of view of nuclear structure. The second term
will be zero because of parity of odd function ( (r ' ) * (r ' )(r ' ) has even
parity). The interesting term in the multipole expansion is the electric
quadrupole term

Q = (r' ) (3z 2 r'2 ) d 3 r'

The electric quadrupole moment measures the deviation from the spherical
symmetry.

27
Monopole Dipole Quadrupole

E ~ 1/ r 2 , V ~ 1/ r E ~ 1/ r 3 , V ~ 1/ r 2 E ~ 1/ r 4 , V ~ 1/ r 3

In Cartesian coordinates, r 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 .

If the spherical distribution is

For a spherically symmetric deformed into an ellipsoidal
distribution, x 2 = y 2 = z 2 .Thus distribution, r 2 3 z 2 and Q 0 .
r 2 = 3 z 2 and Q = 0 .

Thus a measure of the deviation of the distribution from spherical symmetry

is given by
16
Q = Ze(3 z 2 r 2 ) = (r) (3z 2 r 2 ) d 3 r = (r) r Y2 ( , ) d r
2 0 3

1 2 1 2 1 2
z2 = r Q=0 z2 < r Q<0 z2 > r Q>0
3 3 3

Quantum mechanically, the probability density (r) is replaced by *M =J M =J .

28
Thus, for a single proton (Q=0 for a single neutron because of no charge)
Q = ,JM =J (3z 2 r 2 ) J,M = J d 3 r = J, M J = J (3z 2 r 2 ) J, M J = J
*

Q = 0 if | | 2 is spherical symmetric

Q < r > if | | is concentrated in the xy - plane(z 0)
2 2

Q +2 < r 2 > if | | 2 is concentrated along the z - axis (z r)

To compute the quadrupole moment arising from the single particle,

16 0
Q = J, M J = J (3z 2 r 2 ) J, M J = J , z = r Cos , 3Cos 2 1 = Y2 ( , )
5
16 0 J 2 J
Q = J, M J = J r 2 Y2 ( , ) J, M J = J = J Q 2 J
5 J 0 J
2J 1 2
= r for J > 0
2(J + 1)
where the mean square radius r 2 = R 2nl (r)r 2 dr .

For J=0 For J > 0 For J=1/2 For large J

Q=0 2J 1 Q=0 Q < r2 >
Q= < r2 >
2(J + 1)
The dimension of Q is [Q]=[length]2 =barns
1 barn = 10-28 m2 = 100 fm2

Nucleus 2H 17
O 59
Co 63
Cu 133
Cs 161Dy 176
Lu 209
Bi
Q(barns) +0.003 -0.026 +0.40 -0.209 -0.003 +2.4 +8.0 -0.37

29
General nature of the nuclear force between nucleons

Main properties of nuclear force:

1. Short range, 1.5 - 2.0 fm (from saturation, from high energy nucleon-
nucleon scattering phase shifts analysis, and deviations from the
Rutherford scattering formula)
2. Essentially attractive
3. Repulsive at short distance about 0.5 fm (hard core)
4. Charge independent (independent of whether nucleons are protons or
neutrons)
5. Spin dependent (from low energy n-p scattering and from coherent
scattering of very slow neutrons by the nuclei)
6. Noncentral component, tensor force (from quadrupole moment of the
deuteron and from the observation of polarization in nucleon-nucleon
and nucleon-nucleus scattering).
7. Exchange behaviour (from the angular distribution of high energy n-p
scattering which shows that n and p may exchange identity in the
scattering process).

In order to obtain the nucleon-nucleon interaction potential, there are several

approaches :
At the fundamental level, the nuclear interaction is described in terms
of quark-gluon fields.
At interaction energy below a few hundred MeV, the nucleon-nucleon
interaction is described in terms of the exchange of mesons.
The best practical model of the two-nucleon interaction is provided by
phenomenological potentials containing a number of empirical
constants whose values are obtained by a best-fit analysis of the
experimental data.

30
Such potentials satisfy the conservation theorems and invariance properties
which we know to hold for the strong interaction.

1. Hermiticity
2. Invariance under an exchange of the coordinates VNN (1, 2) = VNN (2,1)
r r r
3. Translational invariance, VNN (1, 2) = VNN (r1 , r2 ) = VNN (r )
r r r
4. Galilean invariance, VNN (1, 2) = VNN (p1 , p 2 ) = VNN ( p)
5. Parity conservation, invariance under space reflection
r r r r r r r r
v(r , p, 1 , 2 ) = v( r , -p, 1 , 2 )
r r r r r r r r
6. Time reversal invariance v(r , p, 1 , 2 ) = v(r , -p, - 1 , - 2 )
7. Rotational invariance in coordinate and spin space
8. Rotational invariance in isospin space

The mathematical structure of a nucleon-nucleon potential based on the

r r
above invariance principles in physics are considered in terms of ( r1 , r2 )
r r r r r r
position, ( p1 , p 2 ) linear momentum, ( 1 , 2 ) spin and ( 1 , 2 ) isospin
r r r r r r r r
coordinates as VNN (r1 , r2 , p1 , p 2 , 1 , 2 , 1 , 2 ) .

Symmetry requirements:
r r r r
Translational invariance that is ri ri + a where a is a constant vector
r r r
requires VNN depends only on relative distance vector r = r1 r2 . Thus
r r r r r r r
VNN = VNN (r , p1 , p 2 , 1 , 2 , 1 , 2 ) .

r r r r
Galilean invariance that is pi pi + p0 where p0 is a constant vector requires
r r r
VNN depends only on relative momentum vector r = r1 r2 . Thus
r r r r r r
VNN = VNN (r , p, 1 , 2 , 1 , 2 ) .

Rotational invariance in isospin space that means isospin scalar and charge
r r r r
independent Vnn = Vnp = V pp , requires possible scalars 12 , 22 or 1 2 . Here
r2 r r r r r r r r r r
i = 3 that is a constant. Thus VNN = v1 (r , p, 1 , 2 ) + v 2 (r , p, 1 , 2 ) 1 2

Rotational invariance in coordinate and spin space:

The generators of rotations are the angular momentum operators. Rotational
r r r r
invariance implies that all terms in v1,2 (r , p, 1 , 2 ) must be constructed to
have a total angular momentum of zero, i.e. they must be scalar in the

31
combined space (coordinate space + spin space). There are several scalar
r r r r
terms that can be formed from (r , p, 1 , 2 ) , for example

Structure parity conservation time reversal invariance

r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r
v(r , p, 1 , 2 )
P
v( r , -p, 1 , 2 ) v(r , p, 1 , 2 )
T
v(r , -p, - 1 , - 2 )
r r
rr rr = r 2
r p forbidden
r r
1 2
r r
i r
r r
i p forbidden
r r r
i (r p)
r r r
r ( 1 2 ) forbidden
r r r
p ( 1 2 ) forbidden forbidden

r r r r
We finally obtain the structure of v1,2 (r , p, 1 , 2 ) are
r 2 f (r )
r r
r r r r 1 2
v1,2 (r , p, 1 , 2 ) ~ r r
i r r r
r ( rr pr ) = L S
i

r r r r
Another possible term f ( r ) ( 1 r)( 1 r) that satisfies the above invariance
principles is the rsecond rank tensor in the coordinate space (it violates the
conservation of l ), but it is a scalar in the total (coordinate+spin) space.
Using this term, the tensor operator is constructed as
3 r r r r
S12 2
( 1 r)(
1 r)-
1 2
r
This tensor operator has the same form of the magnetic dipole-dipole
interaction between nucleons
1 r r r r
2 [
Vmagnetic dipole = 3(1 r)( 1 2 ]
2 r)-
r
Electric quadrupole moment of deuteron (Q=2.82x10-31 m2 = 2.82 mb)
implies that there is a non-central interaction between proton and neutron
which violates conservation
r r r
of the orbital angular momentum. rTensor
operator conserves J = l + s , however, it violates the conservation of l since
it is a tensor in the coordinate space.

32
General form of the nucleon-nucleon interaction becomes as
r r r r r r
H S = [V0 (r) + V (r) 1 2 ] + [V (r)
+ V (r) 1 2 ] s1 s 2
r r 3 r r r r r r r r
+ [VT (r) + V (r) 1 2 ] 2 ( s1 r )( s 2 r ) - s1 s 2 + VLS (r) L S
r

Example:

One-pion exchange potential (OPEP):

In 1937, Yukawa proposed an explanation of the nuclear force using a
meson theory
e r
VY (r) =
r
where 1/ = h/m c is the Compton wavelength of the pion. The asymptotic
form of this potential is determined by the properties of the pion and its
coupling constant to the nucleonic field

r r r r
2
g2 2 e
r
1 1 3 r r r r r r
=
(1 2 )s1 s 2 + 1 + 3 + 3
VOPEP
3hc
mc
r r r r 2 ( s1 r )( s 2 r ) - s1 s 2

Based on the interaction Lagrangian

f 1
LVNN = g VNN N N + VNN N N where = ( )
r r r r
2M V 2i

the vector meson exchange contribution to the NN- interaction becomes

r r
( r r
V = g 2VNN f1 (r) + f 2 (r) 1 2 +f 3 (r)S12 + f 4 (r) L S )

33
Nucleon-nucleon quantum states and wave functions

r r r
r = r1 r1
r r r r r
L s2 p = p1 p2
r r r
r L=rp
2 r r r
r r S = s1 + s2
1 r r r r
J = L+S
r r r r
s1 T = 1 + 2

Spin part of NN wave function in coupled and uncoupled representations are

given by

s1s 2 SM S s1 m s1 s 2 m s 2
S(1) 1 1
;1 1
2 2 (1)(2)
S( 0 ) 1 1 1
;1 0 [(1)(2) + (1)(1)]
2 2 2
S( 1) 1 1
;1 -1
2 2 (1)(2)
A 1 1 1
;0 0 [(1)(2) (1)(1)]
2 2 2

1 r r
Spin exchange operator P = (1 + 1 2 ) operates as P s1s2 SM S = s2 s1SM S .
2
Thus
P s1s21M S = s2 s11M S = + s1s21M S +1 for S=1 spin-triplet
P =
P s1s2 0 M S = s2 s1 0 M S = s1s2 0M S 1 for S=0 spin-singlet

34
Isopin part of NN wave function in coupled and uncoupled representations
are given by

t1t2TM T t1mt1 t2 mt2

T(1) 1 1
;1 1
2 2 p(1)p(2)
T(0) 1 1 1
;1 0 [ p(1)n(2) + n(1)p(2)]
2 2 2
T( 1) 1 1
;1 -1
2 2 n(1)n(2)
A 1 1 1
;0 0 [ p(1)n(2) n(1)p(2)]
2 2 2

1 r r
Isospin exchange operator P = (1 + 1 2 ) operates as P t1t2TM T = t2t1TM T .
2
Thus
P t1t21M T = t2t11M T = + t1t21M T +1 for T=1 isospin-triplet
P =
P t1t2 0 M T = t2t1 0 M T = t1t2 0 M T 1 for T=0 isospin-singlet

By combining the coordinate space, spin space and isospin space, we obtain
the total NN wave function in the couple representation
r
(1,2) = rel. (r) s1s2 SM S t1t2TM T

r
with rel. (r)=R l (r )Ylm ( , ) . Pauli principle requires that two-body wave
l

function must be antisymmetric under nucleon exchange 1 2 ,

P12 (1,2) = (2,1) = - (1,2) where P12 = 1 = Pr P P P = Pr P . The operator
r r r r
Pr is the same as the parity operator Pr = (1)l because r = r1 r2 r under
(1,2) interchange.

35
Using the spectroscopic notation 2 S +1 LJ , a few low-L states of the nucleon-
nucleon system become

P P = Pr P
2 S +1
L S J LJ Parity T Allowed NN
Pr = (1) l
combinations
0 0 0 1
S0 + - + 1 pp, nn, np
1 1 3
S1 + + - 0 np
1 0 1 1
P1 - - - 0 np
1 0 3
P0 - + + 1 pp, nn, np
1 3
P1 - + + 1 pp, nn, np
2 3
P2 - + + 1 pp, nn, np
2 0 2 1
D2 + - + 1 pp, nn, np
1 1 3
D1 + + - 0 np
2 3
D2 + + - 0 np
3 3
D3 + + - 0 np

For deuteron problem, experimentally observed values are J P = 1+ .

36
NUCLEAR MODELS

A nuclear system is a many body system consisting of protons and neutrons.

Since the forces between nucleons are not known, the nuclear problem
cannot be solved exactly and some models therefore are used for nuclear
problem.

Independent Particle Models Collective Models

Nucleons move nearly independent Nucleons are strongly couple to each

in an averaged nuclear potential. other and they move collectively
together.
Fermi Gas Model Liquid Drop Model
Nuclear Shell Model Collective Model

FERMI GAS MODEL FOR THE NUCLEUS

The nucleus is regarded as an ideal gas of fermions

Two independent gases (neutrons and protons)
Neglect the Coulomb interaction in the case of protons
Nucleons move in an attractive average potential as non-interacting
fermions
Two possible spin states in each Fermi gas level
Pauli exclusion principle allows only two particles of opposite spin to
occupy an energy level

Two wells have different shapes, different depths (Coulomb

interaction).
Proton potential has a Coulomb barrier.
Bottom of the proton well is higher than the bottom of the neutron well.

37
Nucleons occupy energy levels to minimize total energy and obey exclusion
principle. Fermi energy and Fermi momentum of a nucleus can be evaluated
in a quantum model.

Number of States filled Fermi Energy Fermi Momentum

V 2mE
N = 2 2F
3/2

EF =
(h )2
3N
2/3
2 N
p F = h(3 )
1/ 3

3h 2m V V

Asymmetry energy grows as N increases (N>Z), however binding energy

decreases as N increases. This then justifies the form of the asymmetry term
in the semiempirical mass formula.

5 (Z - N )
) (Z - N )
2/3
3h 2 3 2
2 2
E sym = = (12.8 MeV
10m 2 9 A A

38
LIQUID DROP MODEL FOR THE NUCLEUS

This model was introduced to explain the binding energy and the mass of
nuclei. It also gives a physical picture of the fission processes.

This model accepts the nucleus as a sphere.

The volume of a nucleus is proportional to the nuclear A,

(4 / 3)R 3 A R A 1 / 3 .
The mass density is constant inside the nuclei, however, it decreases
rapidly zero on the surface
The binding energy per nucleon is approximately constant (the
saturation of nuclear forces)
The nuclear force is identical for every nucleon, in particular it does
not depend on whether it is a proton or a neutron (charge independent
of nuclear force)

The constant average binding energy per particle and the constant nuclear
density imply a high density, incompressible liquid drop. In the liquid drop
model, the nucleus is consider as a drop of incompressible nuclear fluid. The
fluid is made of nucleons, and is held together by the strong nuclear force.

The Weizsaecker formula is

B(A, Z) = a V A a S A 2/3 Z2
a C 1/3 a Sym
(Z N ) a A -3/4
2

P
A A

39
NUCLEAR SHELL MODEL FOR THE NUCLEUS

If either the number of protons or the number of neutrons, or both is one of

the magic numbers, 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126, the nucleus represents the
following properties:

1. more stable
2. more number of isotopes
3. quadrupole moment Q=0 and its sign changes at these magic numbers
4. the first excited states are particularly high
5. the binding energy per particle is higher than their neighbor

Neither the liquid-drop model nor the Fermi gas model can explain these
properties. Shell model is a theoretical model of atomic nuclei
explains the stability of nuclei with magic numbers
specifies spin, parity, and nuclear moments

There are two main assumptions of the shell model:

2. The nucleons in the nucleus move independently in a potential V(r).

This potential shows the average effect to one nucleon from all other
nucleons, and V(r) depends only on radial distance and is the same for
all nuclei (it is called the single-particle potential).
3. All of the energy levels (or shells) are filled by nucleons according to
the Pauli exclusion principle.

The Hamiltonian of a many-nucleon system which includes A nucleons is

r r
A p i2 1 A A p i2 1 A A
H = + U(rij ) = + V(ri ) + U(rij ) V(ri )
i =1 2m i 2 i, j=1 1 i =1 2m i
442443 1444
2 i, j=1 i =1
424444 3
H0 H'

r
where U(rij ) is the interacting potential between nucleons, p i2 / 2m i and V(ri)
are the kinetic energy and a single-particle potential of ith particle,
respectively. The residual interaction H' is called the pairing interaction. If
residual interaction can be neglected, the many-nucleon problem in this
approximation is treated as a single-particle problem in which it is assumed
that the unpaired nucleon moves in a nuclear potential.

A h2 r 2 A
i + V(ri ) tot = E tot tot
i =1 2m i i =1

40
This implies that the total wave function consists of single-particle wave
functions, Slater determinant.
r r r
tot = ( r1 ) ( r2 )..... ( rA )
E tot = E 1 + E 1 + ....... + E A

We then obtain the equations for single particles

h2 2 1 A r r
i + V(ri ) ( ri ) = E i ( ri ) i = 1,2,..., A
2m i 2 i =1

For spherical symmetric potential V(r), separation of variables implies that

(r, , ) = R (r )Ylm (, ) . The radial and angular parts satisfy the following
equations

L2Ylm (,) = l(l + 1)h 2Ylm (,)

L Y m (,) = mhY m (,)
z l l
2
d R 2 dR 2m l(l + 1)
2
+ + 2 [ E V (r )] R(r ) = 0
dr r dr h r2
where for a given l , m takes l m l values.

Infinite square-well single- Infinite harmonic oscillator single-

particle potential particle potential
1
V for r < a V(r) = V0 + m w 2 r 2
V(r ) = 0 2
for r a The radial wave function due to this
The radial wave function due to potential is obtained in terms of
this potential is obtained in Laguerre polynomials
terms of spherical Bessel 1
R(r ) = U (r )
functions r
R n l ( ) = A n l jl ( )
U n l (q) = N n l q l+1 e-q /2 Lln+1/2
2
2
1 (q )

It is not possible to obtain all magic numbers with the square-well potential
and harmonic oscillator potential. The low magic numbers are obtained,
however, the higher ones cannot be obtained. To remove this problem, a
spin-orbit interaction term is considered to the harmonic oscillator potential
as the form
2 (r ) r r
V' = L S
h2

41
42
In this model, the energy levels are characterized by the quantum numbers
n l j , and the single particle states can always be characterized by the
quantum numbers | >=| nlsjm j > with s=1/2 and j =| l 1 / 2 | . The parity of
the system is ( 1)l . For a given nucleus, the single particle states are filled
by nucleons according to the Pauli principle.

The pairing interaction in the nucleus causes the pairs with the angular
momentum zero of the protons (or neutrons) in the same j-shell. Therefore,
the energy of the nucleus is minimum when total angular momentum is zero.
This interaction is attractive.

Protons Neutrons
Z N Angular momentum
Even Even J=0 all neutrons as well as all protons are paired
Even Odd J=j angular momentum of the single neutron. All
protons are paired. Neutrons except odd one are
paired.
Odd Even J=j angular momentum of the single proton. All
neutrons are paired. protons except odd one are
paired.
r r r
Odd Odd J = J1 + J 2 can be arbitrary. One unpaired proton
and one unpaired neutron.

Conclusion:

1. The spins of even nucleons pair as zero. Thus the spin of the ground
state of even-even nucleus I=0.
2. The ground state properties of the even-odd or odd-even nuclei (odd
A) are same with the properties of the single nucleon.
3. In the odd-odd nuclei, the last single neutron and the last single proton
pair in two ways

a)

jp = l p + 1 / 2 and jn = l n 1 / 2

or The spin of ground state I =| jp - jn | " Strong Nordheim rule"
jp = l p 1 / 2 and jn = l n + 1 / 2

b)

43
jp = l p + 1 / 2 and jn = l n + 1 / 2
r r r
or The spin of ground state I = jp + jn " Weak Nordheim rule"

jp = l p 1 / 2 and jn = l n 1 / 2

Magnetic Dipole Moment

1 1
gl j 2 + 2 gs for j = l + 1/2

= N
j j + 3 g 1 g for j = l 1/2
j + 1 2
l
2
s

where j is the angular momentum quantum number of the odd particle

1 for proton 5.5856 for proton

gl = and g s =
0 for neutron 3.8261 for neutron

Electric Quadrupole Moments in the Single Particle Shell Model

2j 1
Q= < r 2 > nl for j > 0
2( j + 1)

where j is the angular momentum quantum number of the odd particle and
< r 2 > is the mean square radius, < r 2 >= Rnl2 (r )r 2 dr . For a uniform charged
3 3
sphere < r 2 > R 2 = r02 A 2 / 3 , and we then obtain
5 5

2j 1 3 2 2/3
Q= r0 A for j > 0
2( j + 1) 5

where unit of quadrupole moments is fm2 (1barn=10-28 m2).

44
DEFORMED SHELL MODEL=NILSSON MODEL
COLLECTIVE MODEL

Although shell model describes the magic numbers and the properties of
many levels very well, it has a number of failures. For example, quadrupole
moment. The large quadrupole moment can be explain within the concept of
a shell model if the closed shell core is assumed to be deformed. Interactions
between outer nucleons and closed shells cause deformation to the spherical
shape of the core. A small deformation of the core causes a large change of
the quadrupole moment since the core contains most of the nucleons and
hence also most of the electrical charge.

Nilsson suggested that the mean field might be deformed. Deformed means
that the oscillator frequencies may be different in the x, y and z directions,
implying that the half axes have different lengths in the three directions.
Most nuclei have rotational symmetry about a fixed axis, conventionally
chosen to be the z axis. The oscillator frequencies in the x and y directions
are the same, but in general (unless the nucleus has a spherical shape)
different from that in the z direction, wx2 = wy2 w2 . The modified harmonic
oscillator potential becomes Vnon spherical (r ) = 12 m w2 ( x 2 + y 2 ) + wz2 z 2 .

In the cylindirical coordinates ( , , z ) , non-spherical potential becomes

( )
Vnon spherical (r ) = 12 m w2 x 2 + y 2 + wz2 z 2 = 12 m w2 2 + wz2 z 2 .

Equipototential surfaces

a
az
z : symmetry axis

The equation of an ellipsoidal in Cartesian coordinate is given by

2
+ cy + az = 1 and its volume is Volume = 43 abc . In the case of axially
2 2
x
2 2 2
b
2
symmetric shapes b = c = a and a = az then + az 2 = 1 and Volume = 43 a2 az . A
2
2
a z

deformation parameter can be introduced in various ways, e.g. ratio of half-

axes of distribution = az / a .

45
Using volume conservation, Volume=constant= 43 R3 = 43 b 2 a .

Two types of collective effects particularly obvious:

1. Vibrations (surface oscillations)
2. Rotations (rotation of a deformed shape)

A spherical liquid drop can undergo surface oscillations and a deformed

nucleus can also undergo rotations with fixed shape. The giant resonance in
nuclear photoelectric effect is understood as a dipole oscillation.

Nuclear Vibrations

For the vibration of a liquid drop at high frequency,

average shape is spherical
instantaneous shape is not spherical

It is convenient to give the instantaneous coordinate R ( t ) of a point on the

nuclear surface at (, ) as an expansion of the spherical harmonics Y (, ) ,

R(t) = R avr + (t) Y (, )
=

where R avr = r0 A . The coefficients in the expansion describe the

1/ 3

change in the volume and they are not completely arbitrary, reflection
symmetry requires that = , - .

46
=0 vibration (monopole vibration):

R(t)=Ravr +00 Y00

This is a wholly radial oscillation without change of shape (breathing mode)

which is only possible in a compressible. Experimentally one finds that the
lowest excitation of this type, which in even-even nuclei carries the quantum
number J = 0 + for ground state (the giant isoscalar resonant state has
J = 0 + ), occurs experimentally in nuclei with A grater than about 40 at an
energy above the ground state
E0 80 A-1/3 MeV
Ordinary nuclear modes have a few energies, however, monopole modes are
high energy modes (for A=216, E 0 80 (216) -1/3 = 13.3 MeV ).

=1 vibration (dipole vibration):

1
R(t) = R avr + 1 Y1 ( , )
= 1
3/2
1 3
=R avr + 10 cos
2 2

One can imagine a proton and neutron fluid oscillate against each other
(protons and neutrons in a nucleus vibrate in anti-phase). It occurs at very
high energies, of the order 10-25 MeV depending on the nucleus. This is a
collective isovector (I = 1) mode. It has quantum numbers J = 1 in even-
even nuclei, occurs at an energy

47
 E1 77 A-1/3 MeV

above the ground state, which is close to that of the monopole resonance. It
was the first giant resonance and is seen clearly in photoneutron production.

=2 vibration (quadrupole vibration):

1
R(t) = Ravr + 1Y1 ( ,)
= 1
1/2
1 5 2
= Ravr + 20 (3cos -1)
4

where 2 = 0 for 0 (for ellipsoidal shape, R is a function of ).

For a general case one can describe the shape of the surface by Y2 m ,
m = 2, 1, 0 . However, for ellipsoidal shape R is a function of and
therefore m=0.

Quadrupole modes are the dominant vibrational feature in almost all nuclei.
These are the first modes available for low-energy excitations in nuclei. In
almost all even-even nuclei we find a low-lying state (at excitation energy of
less than 12 MeV), which carries the quantum numbers J = 2 + , and near
closed shells we can often distinguish the second harmonic states as well
(three states with quantum numbers J = 0 + , 2 + , 4 + ).

A giant isoscalar quadrupole resonance is found an energy

E2 63 A-1/3 MeV

48
 3 vibrations :

Octupole modes (=3) with J = 3 can be seen in many nuclei. In nuclei

where shell-structure makes quadrupole modes occur at very high energies,
such as doubly magic nuclei, the octupole state is often the lowest excited
state.

Nuclear Rotation

In the shell model, core is at rest and only valance nucleon rotates. If
nucleus is deformed and core plus valance nucleon rotate collectively. The
energy of rotation (like a rigid rotator) is given by
R 2
H rot =
2I

49
where I is the moment of inertia about rotation axis. The Schrodinger
equation and its eigensolution will be
R 2
= EJ
2I
R 2 YJM = J(J + 1)h 2 YJM
h2
E J = J(J + 1) J = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
2I
The wave function is the spherical harmonic and its parity is given by (1) J .
From figure, it is obvious that the situation is symmetrical about 12 plane.
This implies that the wave function should not change under reflection from
12 plane. Thus, odd values of J which give odd parity are not acceptable.
The allowed values of J are 0, 2, 4, etc
h2
E J = J(J + 1) J = 0, 2, 4, ...
2I
Let E2 denote the energy of the first excited state. If E2 is known then we get
the energies of higher levels in terms of the first excited state energy as
follows
E0 = 0
h2 h2 h2 1
E 2 = 2(2 + 1) = 6 1 excited energy
st
= E2
2I 2I 2I 6
1
E J = J(J + 1)E 2 J = 0, 2, 4, . . . in terms of first excited energy
6
+
8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.525

+
6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.309

+
4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.148

+
2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.0447
+
0 --------------- 0

Fig: Rotational energy levels of 238U

50