TRANSFER FUNCTION MODELS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS 2.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter differential equations are derived to describe the dynamic behavior of mechanical, electrical, thermal, and fluid systems, These are used to obtain transfer functions between selected variables. The same differential equations can also be formulated into state-space models. This alternative, mentioned in Section 1.5, is discussed in Chapter 12 The chapter will concentrate on subsystem blocks, with attention to the restrictions that must be observed when separating a system into blocks. Block diagram reduction can then provide overall system transfer functions. For many systems that include feedback control, the division into blocks is far from obvious. Such systems, in which all system equations and the block diagram are derived dirccily, are discussed in Chapter 4, Frequently, the precise nature of the feedback may be evident only from this block diagram. It is useful to note that a model should not be expected to be evident “by inspection.”" Rather, it usually will emerge gradually from equations written for parts of the syst 2.2 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS Figure 2.1 shows common elements of mechanical systems with linear and rotational motion, together with the equations used to describe them. It is noted that in . 2.1 and diagrams to follow, the arrows identify the positive directions of the associated variables.Sec. 2.2 Mechanical Systems 31 : : ro. oj} r—fn el iL i Fabs Freliy~ ip) [ot T=e(6\- 6) = damping ‘constant ‘coctfilent 0 Sping €2) Damper 6 Ine a : 4 = daly O25 Oyn ng jn eae — ta eet aes ee ay Bee ees = diameter meet eee) (@) Lever (3) Gears Figure 2.1 Mechanical system elements. 1. Springs: These occur in many design configurations and materials. For linearized models the force F (torque 7) is taken to be proportional to linear deflection x (angular deflection 6), but for larger variations of deflections the behavior can sometimes be very nonlinear. Note that in lincarized models F and x represent the variations of force and deflection about the operating point values, and that the spring constant & for nonlinear springs changes with the operating point. Dampers or daskpots: These generate a damping force F (torque T) pro- portional to the difference i, — iz (6, — 6.) of the velocities across the damper, and in the opposite direction. In practice, the friction in mechanical systems may differ greatly from the viscous friction of this linear damper model. For dry friction, or Coulomb friction, the force or torque is opposite the velocity difference but independent of its magnitude. The approximate linearization of such behavior is a subject in the study of nonlinear systems. 3. Mass and inertia: By Newton's law, force F (torque T) equals mass m (inertia J) times acceleration 2 (8).32 ‘Transfer Function Models of Physical Systems Chap. 2 4, Lever mechanism: For small enough angles from horizontzl, the total motion y equals the sum of the motion due to x; with x, = and that due to ay With x, — 0. It isguseful to observe that the lever is a mechanical imple- mentation of a summing junciion in a block diagram, and is in fact often used for this purpose. Ifa = 6. then y = 0.5 (x, — ¥%) if the direction of 1 is reversed. If input and output are available in mechanical form and are applied! 10 x, and xs, respectively, the linkage with a = } and x; opposite implements the feedback loop as well as providing the system error & 5..Gears: This very common element ratio 7 often identified in terms of its gear speed of driving gear _o _ Af _ 4) Sh speed of driven year 8” du) Cy where w, — 0, is the angular velocity (rad/sec) of the gear with diameter d;. The relation 7; = nT, between the torques arises because the two gears have a common contact force, and the torque equals this force times the gear radius. ng these elements are considered next. Examples incorporat Example 2.2.1. Spring-Mass-Damper System By Newton's law, m2 equals the resultant of all external forces on m in Fig. 2.2 im the downward direction, Te help in decetmining the signs of the terms iar such problems, ils useful fo make any 2sstmption concerning the motion: for example, that the mass is moving downward from.x = 0, Ta that case the spring is streiched, so «pring force kvis upward, and hence opposes downward acceleration. It therefore receives @ minus sign on the right side of the equation for mé. Since the mass moves down, the damping force ct is upward, and this tetm must also have a minus sign, ‘The external force fle) helps downward acceleration, and theretore has a plus Sian. The resulting equation is mt ~kr ok + Reurranging gives the differential equation of motion in the usual form: mt bck + ke = 910 ea Ir may have been observed that the effects of gravity do not appear, so that turn the system upside down will not affset the equation. This is done by choosing igure 2.2. Spring-mass-damper fio system’‘Seo, 22 Mechanical Systems = 5 = Oat the position of static equilibrium, where the weight mg is counterbalanced hy a spring foree. Fora transfer function model, assume that the response x(1) 10 f(t) is desired. With zero initial condition, the transform of (2. (os? Fes + DX) = FO) and the transfer function of —— » Fs) “mst FE Ce Example 2.2.2 Two-Mass System ‘The system in Fig. 23 can represent a dynamic absorber, where a relatively small sass isattached to a main mass m via spring ky and damper cto reduce vibrations due to force f. Assume, say, that and re; both move to the right from the zero positions, m farther and faster thar ml. Then spring force ky (x — 4) “opposes” mand “helps” my, and damper force ¢, tt — ¥)) has the same effect, Hence the differential equations of motion become = ke ~ hile ay) — ek — tf iy = ke 4) hele =) i + og b+ ae = ech + hans of ea miki, + ook + any = 04k 1 ie Fora transfer lunction model, the effect of fon x would be of interest. This requires the elimination of «4, an algebraic operation if (29) are hrst transformed: One oye + AKG) = (8 + KIX) + FO) a (igs! + 648 + AIAG) = Cos FAIA) Solving X(s) ftom the second equation, substituting i into the fist. and rearranging Would give the vansfer funetion X/F eS Rotating Drive System 2.3 Dynamic absorber Example 2, Figure 2.4 indicutes a drive system, with ¢ representing a friction coupling, and torsion spring & the twisting of a tong shatt due to torque. Angle @ is taken to be the input and 4, the ouput, Any other vuriables may be introduced to facilitate J I Sale) ele at Figure 2.4 Rotating drive system34 ‘Transfer Function Models of Physical Systems — Chap. 2 the writing of the equations, such as @,, the angle to the right as well as the left of he “The approach of the preceding examples could be used, but an alternative is often comvenient, Equations are written in order, starting at the input. To kelp visualize signs, assume thet 0, ‘y. The shaft torque A(@, ~ ¢s) accelerates inectia J, and supplies the damping torguct MO, — 9) = Sis 4 Oe ~ Bd Ie is the damping torque which in wrn accelerates inertia Je: (dy — &) = abs Rearranging yields the differential equations Sis + 0B, + 40, = CBs + A, 26 1h + cb) = and the transformed equations Us? + 65 + RAK) = BG) + KOG) Us" + o9ni6a) = e880) where Os) is the transform of (0) From the second equation 146) = é bs + as) Substituting this into the first and rearranging gives the transfer function een Bd Gar Fy = sae + k/els Example 2.2.4 Systems with Gears “Although not necessary, it is often convenient for analysis to replace a system with gears by a dynamically equivalent system without gears, Figure 2.5 shows the an T= iy i ate easle a r= hey mn neat face Figue 25. Equivalent eystems without gearsSoc. 2.3 Electrical Systems: Circuits 35 derivation of the equivalent inertia, spring, ané damping, identified as J., k, and on the first shaft which can replace J, &, and c on the second shat, In addition to the relation Tz = a7; from Fig. 2.1, (2.1) is used, and the fact that @ = a, Note that in each cffse the eculvalent element is obtained by dividing the original element by the square af the speed ratio n. Example 2.2.5 Nomgeared Equivalent System ‘Using Fp. 25, the system in Fig. 2.4) canbe replaced immediatly by is moageared cquivalent in Fig. 2.6(0}, where J,, &,, and ¢, arc as given in Fig. 2.5. Ta x ee LT. a Tee fer ere % & x ar “ Fiewe 26 Trample 22. 2.3 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS: CIRCUITS Figure 2.7 summarizes some important res tor the modeling of electrical _ Figure 2.7(a) gives the voltage-current relations of the basic elements in the time domain and the Laplace domain, assuming zero initial conditions In the general transformed relation V = IZ, Z is the impedance. In an ideal voltage source, the voltage ditference across the terminals is independent of the curreat through them. In a real voltage source, the voltage v, across the terminals decreases with increasing current due to the voltage drop across the internal impedance of the source, which may be a resistance R. ‘The usc of these results and those in Fig. 2.7(b) and (¢) will be illustrated by application to the examples shown in Fig, 2.8. The trunsfer funetions EWE) between inputs ¢,(@) and outputs ¢,(?) are desired. The current through the output terminals must be assumed to be negligibly small, because otherwise its value would affect ¢,, and £,/E, would not be uniquely defined. In such # case 9 luansfer function can be derived from differential equations written for the com. bination of the circuit and its load. This illustrates a key condi a system [nto subsysiem blocks: The division of systems into blocks must be such that cach block docs not loud, that is, affect the output of, the preceding block.36 Transfer Function Models of Physical Systems Chap. 2 Resitance, & Ccapscninee, © aucun, £ voy th to I> Re vee: Pam t=cb¥ wath ve 28 Zio Zals ee Parte) wed fire gent haeis ren Bantytaye deta at Eat 2 PRE Ib) Cecuis Vonage equtias Curent equation: Som of vottge drops Sum of coment at eee (e) Kketorrs aw | circuit fundamentals, Figure 2.7 Blectic: Example 2.3.1 Common Electrical Circuits (Fig. 2.8(0) to (€ ‘These circuits are used catensively us controllers w improve the performance of feedback control systems. The transfer functions £,/£, can be tound by use of the results in Fig, 2.7(b), With no current through the output terminals all are in effect voltage dividors, in which ¢, is a fraction of the voltage e,, determined by the current through the input teaninals caused by e;. Consider each in turn:Sec. 23 Electrical Systems: Cirevits 37 © © © Bea ole ) R o Hgure 28 Electrical network: (2) simple lg; (6) ousient lend Ce) phase Ing (4) phase lead; (e)lag-lead (notch fF bridged-T network, ig) AL lager network Figure 28a): B= iZ= WZ, +6) ees) _ a) c Fiure 28) eared Res 2 Bo Rest) 24%) B= IR28 Transfer Function Models of Physical Systems Chap. 2 Figure 2.8¢): 1 afaere ) : re Ep, 541 1 EB Giasst °* pee) > wherer = RC @ > Figure 28(d) 1 Be hom rat") since from Fig, 2.7(b) the equivalent impedance Z, of the parallel impedances Z, = Ryand Z, = |/(Cs) is given oy /G+3). RE RE RRC p= (PR EAR) sh T+RCs wot! an B= IR R where RG a= ge Figure 28 Bag Bost DetD gay &.__Os+ ISD nag awe ent tae Pl z,=1(r, +4) : id = RC where 7) = RiCy Example 2.82 Bridged-T Network (Fig. 2.80] Tails network is often uscd in ae eoatol systems, that i, systems in which signals are represented by modulation of an ac carer. With e, occuring insice a loop, it may be seen that the voliage-divider approach used above docs not apply ie ‘equally straightforward fashion. Rut F,/, can be obtained by the use of Kirchhof's lowes in Fig. 2.7(e), which could also have been used in Example 2.3.1. &/2, ill bbe derived by both the loop and aode methods (a) Loop method: KirchholT voltage equations are written for each closed loop in terms of loop current variables:Soc. 23 Electrical Systems: Circuits oop 1) i 2) , (vop2) Since £, — E, ~ Iz Rz, this set is solved for J; by use of Cremer’s rule: 1 1 1 Pigae = ae ee a ie al ae 12) 1+ OR, FR ICE + RRO “Ge "ts Gs ‘Then, from E, - E, — bk, E 14 28iCs +R TF GR, PRICE + R RCE Get (0) Node meshod: Here the Kirchhoff current equations are written in terms of voltage vanables at each of the circuit nodes. In Fig. 2.8(f) the unknown nade voltages are E, (=E,) and £,, and the equations are ie) * 17 * Rearransing yields ' ens (beagle Solution for £, (~E,) by Cramer's rule yields E,/E, 2s in part (a), and in the case of this example in a somewhat more direct fashion, Example 2.3.3 Ladder Network (Fig. 2.8(g)} Using the cde method, current equations are written for the circuit nodes @ and by ey Lega, Solution for E, = £, gives Riky TIS SLR + Lk. + ERs + RRa0 Transfer Function Models of Physical Systems Chep, 2 2.4 ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS: TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF MOTORS AND GENERATORS ‘Schematic diagrams of several arrangements of motors and generators are shown, in Fig. 2.9, In all cases the motor load is assumed to consist of an inertia J and ‘adainper with damping censtant 2, Motor shaft position @ and developed motor torque Tare then related by Ti) = Joie) + Bi) TIS) = 9(ds ~ BYOS) 29) ed in the time and Laplace domains. For convenience, the same variables are ‘The identifier (1) or (s) Will generally be omitted if it is evident from the context. turn, Each of the systems in Fig. 2.9 will be considered (OH LoH = Gris DS : & Beth E Jen peace is | S IQAH Figure 2.9 Motors end generators: (a) feld-contelled d= motor: (by armatare-cemtalled de mater; () tworphase te se1vornteF; (Ue genetator, |e) motor-peneratr st.Sec. 2.4 Electromechanical Systems: Motors end Generators a Example 2.4.1. Filé-Contrlted NC Motor Fig. 2.9a)) “The equation for the Held Icop is Ripe tly By Ry byl With constant armature voltage, the developed motor iorqus 7 in (2.9) can be taken to be proportional 9 feld current T= Ky TKK, = motortorque constant Eliminating and T between these transformed equations and (2.9) yi the denied transfer function between applied feld voltage eared shall position 8 6 K/0n Ep 8(Tqs + ITS + 1) ae where T, = 4/8 = motor time constant T= [Ry = feld time constant Ty aud & satisfactory approximation in the operating range of interest 8 Rilo = Ens + D aa Note thot the transfer function was derived for the combination of the motor and its load. ‘This lond affeets motor speed (ic. it leads the moto), so a seves conection ‘of ovo blocks with individual transfer functions would be incorrect. ‘The factor ¢ in the denominator of (2.10) and (2.11) should be noted. Fram Table 1.6. dividing FG) by s 8 equivalent 10 integrating fl). ‘Thus the Facto s represents the fhct that a motor is basically an integrator. For a constant inptit¢, it has u shaft angle 0 which increases ata constant rite, so 0 is proportional to the integral of imple 244.2 Armature-Controlled UC Motor [Fig. 2.9b]) “The aruature loop is described by te Rit biettn =U Here the counter em* (electromotive force) voltae to shalt speed, + LO + Ey he taken to be proportional t= KO Es K8 and the developed loraue proportional te current i. T=Kh T= Kid, Bliminating J,, £4, and T between these equations and (2.9) permits the eesired ransfer funcrion 10 te arranged in the common form 6 UK. Ede = On + ys Fy where T= JR, /(K.K,) = motor time constant 1, = L,/R, = aruwature lime constant y > BRAK,X,) = damping factor en2 ‘Transfer Function Models of Physical Systems Chap. 2 Example 24.3. Two-Phase AC Servomour (Fi. 2.01 Fixed and varabe magaitude ac voltages are applied tothe relerence and contol fields, respectively, A 90° phase shift atanged between these voltages is made Peutive oe eau dependag on the desied direction of roion, The corral fell described by ec7 Ben thle BR + hae 1» The developed motor torque T can be taken to be proportional {oj nd "0 decrease proportionally with increasing speed. and is described by ’ T= Ki KD Kel ~ Kast ef T42) “This dependence on speed is assumed to bs the same under dynamic conltons 26 for the steady-state torque speed motor characteristic curves indicated in Fig, 2.10. Timinating 7 and /, between those equations and (2.9) and reasranging gives the transfer function @ Ks E,” 37.5 + MTs + where Ty = J/(B + Ky) = motor time constant T. = L,/R, = elecirival time constant K = K,/(R(B + Kl] = motor constant Ofen simplification to the form (2.11) is again satisfectory: K/fs{Tas + D]- 15) r Inewasing Figure 2.10 Ac stor characteristics. Example 24.4 DC Generator (Fig 2.9(di] ‘The feld loop equation is c= Rip + lyly B= B+ Les ‘The developed generator voltage ¢, can be assumed o be proportional to fied ‘current: Kh ee = Bile The voltage ¢, seross the load is given by Ey = Zi, Z. = load impedance and the gemerator loop is deseribed by tet Rint Liter Eps + Ret LilleSec. 25 Thermal Systems a Hence cE es Rdg Se eee E Ist f, Esthp ta, by Hxample 245 Motor-Generator Set (Fig. 2.90] “The gencralor serves asa rotating power amplier. 0/t ~ (0/E,XE, /E;)is obtained irocily by appropriate substitutions in (2.12) ard @216). 0.16) 2.5 THERMAL SYSTEMS |AS in the preceding sections, thermal system elements are discussed first, ‘Thermal resistance (Fig. 2.11fal]. A well of area A separates regions with temperatures 7, and T;. ‘The heat flow rate q, in units of heat per unit of time, say Btu/see, is proportional to the temperature difference T, — T, and to the area A, and flows toward the lowest temperature. The constant of propor- tionality is the heat transfer coefficient A. In the case illustrated, this is an effective cocflicient which combines the effects of heat convection at the surface: ‘and heat conduction through the wall. The equation would also represent heat convection across a single surface. «| v=votune 1 As wes ‘amass dey Iho hea earser (= esi best ot cent 1) gravest t a2dar, TD (6) Resisance (09 Copaatonce Figure 2:b1 (a) Thermal resistance; () thermal capacitance For beat conduction through a wall with surfeco temperatures 7, and T; the hest flow is proportional to the temperature gradient KAT, ~ Ts) re fT Figure 2.12, Process tow ‘The tank is fled and the fuid incompressible, so f, ~ f,, and che mass flow rate entering and leaving is jip. Ulence the heat inflow rate is fpeT,, the outflow rate fipeT, and the net inflow rate fipe(T) ~ T). As explained, this must equal VpeP", the rate of change of heat VpeT stored in the tank. VaeT = fipe(T, = 1). v Yrerer 2. i 2.20) ‘The transform is (V/A) 8 + 1N2) ~ 7s), so that the following siuple leg transfer function relates Zane 7: mw), 1 To) ~ Wife +1 oe Example 2.5.2 Space Heating In Fig. 2.13, let Te the difference with a constant ambizut temperature. By (2.18) the heat loss 9, to ambient can be modeled by 4, = T/R,, where R, is the thermal resistence. If gis the heat inflow rate from an electrical heater, the et inflow (a, ~ T/R,) mast equal C7, where C, is the thermal capacitance. Hence the hehavior is modeled by the differential equation ROT + T= RgSec, 2.6 Thermal Systems 6S lay <5 Goi \ petra ce ‘Therefore, the effect of heat flew qian the temperature luansfer function approximated by the Ts) ___& O07 REI ‘As in Example 25.1 and the electrical XC circuit in Example 2.3.1, the behavior is described by a simple lag transfer funetion Example 25.3 Thres-Capactance Spstan Extending Fig. 2.12, in Vig, 2.4 allowance is made for Feat loss to the ambient temperature 7, via surface area A, with heat transfer coefficient fi, anci for the heating up, vid surface Ay with heat transfer coefficient fy, oF an internal spuce ‘or maictial with capacitance C, and uniform temperature Tm. This temperature is measured by a sensor with a significant capacitance C,, Neated via a surface of avea A, and heat transfer coefiient /,. 223) a lesb Figure 2.14 Three-capacitance system. Phe must convenient approach is to equate the net heat flow rate to the rate ‘of change of heat for each capacitance in lui: Coby = fatFi ~ Te) ~Adhu(Ty ~ Te) = Anht Lo = To) Calin = Ah(To — To) 25 (224 Ch, > Ada — TH ‘The second of these equations does not include the heat loss term ~ A/T, to the sensor, on the assumption that itis relarively negligible. The [ast equation immediately gives the tansfer function relating Ty and its value as measured by the seasor ied ee TG) s+ 2.25)‘Transfer Function Mode's of Physical Systems Chap, 2 “This is again ¢ simple lag transfer function, as is that relating 7, and Ty from the second of equations (2.24): Ta) TA) aed ‘Substituting this for Ty, in the frst of equations (7.24), its transform, on brining forse 409 0h (t-te un = meran + Ansan Ee im oo rae brat + Wr.6oTAS} + Asta LISN. Cra + UPPuly © ASM +E, + Cult + Sabo + Ado G26, aan r19) a} Foor ¢ be nw Figure 2.15 Tworinoet system. It should also be observed, however, that if ambient temperature variations are known to be small or slow, T, = 0 can be assumed in the orginal equations (2.24). This is because in a linearized model the variables ceprescnt vaciations fiom ‘operating point values, so that constant variables are zero. Tor 7, ~ 0, the overall transfer function 7()/Ti(3) can now be written from (2.25) to @27), or represented by the series connection of biocks in Fig. 2.16. which also identifes the responses TJs) and Ta(S). Reape 8) igure 2.46 Block diagram for Fig. 114 freee | of 2.6 FLUID SYSTEMS Fluid system elements are defined in Fig, 2.17, again in terms of their electrical equivalents. 1. Fluid resistance &,: This exists in flow otifices, valves, and fuid lines. ‘With pressure Urop py — pa equivalent to voltage drop and flow rate q 10 current, i; is equivalent to electrical resistance, Commonly, the actualSee. 2.6 Fluid Systems 4 5 a Aten eee 4 4S z eee - nea as ae ae v i: Fe lagi Bs Py Ba aR rope a= Gb GE % R= Cay alla tel Wa Gb: G = HlinkT) £ (a) Restnenss (0) ees 6 Compmsitiity igure 2.17 hid system elements. relation is nonlinear, and Fig. 2.17(2) shows a linearized model, with pr, pz, and g being variations about the values at an operating point used (0 calculate Ky. Ry may be obiained by calculation or experiment, and the Uniis may yield either volume or mass flow rates, 2. Fluid inertia Jj: The mass of fluid of mass density p in a line of length 1 ‘and cross-sectional area A is pAl. The pressure drop p, — p; generates a force (p, — p))A to accelerate this mass, Fluid velocity v and volumetric flow rate g are related by q = Av, so the acceleration & can be expressed as # = @jA. Newton's law then yickls (my — y:)A = pAld/A), which reduces to the equation in Fig. 2.17(b). It is equivalent to v = Ei for an electrical inductance. 3. Fluld compressibility Cy, Cyt In Fig. 2.17(@), pressure and mass density in volume V are p and p, The mass in Vis pV, and its rate of change dpV)/dt must clearly be equal to the mass flow rate W entering V. With Vconstant, therefore, W= Vp (2.28) Liquids and gases are considered in turn. wuids. In high-performance hydraulic systems it is necessary w include the effect of oil compressibility. At constant temperature, near an operating point po, py, 2 bulk modulus B is defined by bo by p= Bip po) a= P 2.29) P- m= gir Po) bo Bh ‘A value f° = 200,000 psi is possible theoretically, but air entrainment usually makes 100,000 psi more realistic. Substiiuting (2.29) into (2.28) gives Vou w - %2y, (2.30) ae ) In hydraulics, volume flow rate q ~ W/p9 is more commonly used: v capacitance Cy = 3)4“ ‘Transfer Function Models of Physical Systems Chap. 2 This is equivalent to i = Cé for an electrical capacitance, The flow rate g causes a larger rate of change of pressure if the volume V is simaller or the oil stiffer live., 8 larger). Gases, For x polytropic process in a gas described by the ideal gas law P = pRI (Y= absolute temperature; R = gas constant) the p-p relation is p=Cp" (np = inC + ning) 232) where z 1 for isothermal processes "=| k= foradiabatie tictionless processes For the latter, where ¢, and c, are the specific heat values st constant pressure and constant volume, there is no heat exchange with the environment. Taking the derivative of (2.32) gives Batt te _ nde mS; Boe and substituting into (2.28) yields or 6 fe 2.33) By comparison with (2,30), this shows that = np = balk modulus for gases (2.34) ‘The form more common for gases v ¥=C,p capacitance C, = 2. WC, pacitanes Cy = pe (2.35) a pRT Example 2.6.1 Hydraulic Tank (Fig. 2.18) ‘This was the process in the level control system of Section 1.3. ‘The net volumettic inflow rate is (g, ~ y,). This is the volume entering per unit time, so must equal the change per unit time (ie, the rate of change) of the volume Ah in the tank: Ah = a: ~ 4, 2.36) The outflow , depends on the pressure drup across the valve, ‘The pressure p at depth # below the water level is the force per unit areu due to the weight of water, so equals the weight of @ column of water of unit area cross section and height b= poh. Here p is mass density and ¢ the acceleration due 10 gravity. The valve resistance R is often expressed in terms of the heud 4 instead of the pressure p- I: isothermal; 1 ~ k = cy/e,: adiabatic) results by substitution of p= fe E 2.8 Tank levelSec. 2.6 Fluid Systerns ica The actual relation between ft and gy is nonlinear, but it is approximated by the linearized model Btn 37 with te variables representing the variations about operating-point values. R is determined as in Fig. 1.5 from the slope of the nonlinear characteristic of h versus 4g. at the operating poiet. Transforming these equations and substituting the second into the first yields (ARs + HH(s) RO) and the transfer function Hs) R OG) ~ ARs 4 [Note that this again has the form of a simple lag tr in electrical and thermal systems Example 2.6.2 Two-Tank System with Control Valve (Fig. 2.19) A control valve ¥, with valve opening x controls flow rate qu into the first tank from a supply with constant pressnre P,. From (2.38), the following tramsfer functions can be written immediately His) RH) Quis) ARs +1 Outs) 2:38) isfer function, already encountered 239, ky Figure 219° Two-tnk system. To express q and gj:, different linearized model control valve: may be used for R, and the y= Gey dn = KX (2.40) “The input to the valve made ix the valve opening x, which in effect controls the valve resistance parameter. The transfer functions corresponding t0 (2.40) are DAs). Gels) Xs) Hs) Ry ‘Transfer functions (2.39) and (2.41) can be combined into the block diagram shown in Fig. 2.20. It should be noted that this subdivision into blocks would not apply if in Fig. 2.19 the outflow of the fist tank fed into the bottom of the second tank. The net trad on Ay Would then be Jy, ~ fs, so the second tank Would affect the @st)