Academic Writing

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 Academic Writing
What is Academic Writing?
- Writing in College
- Not literary, journalistic, business
- Audience, tone and purpose
- Scientific articles
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Writing Process:
- Prewriting step 1: Choosing and narrowing a
topic
- Prewriting step 2: Brainstorming
Listing
Grouping
Topic sentence
Simple outlining
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Writing an Essay:
- Introductory paragraph
- Concluding paragraph
- Essay outlining
- Transition signals between paragraphs
- Revising essay
- Final version
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Writing and revising draft:
- First rough draft
- Revising content and structure
- Proofreading for grammar and mechanics
- Final version
 What is a paragraph?
- Topic sentence: main idea, limit topic to one
or two areas: Topic and controlling idea
- Supporting sentence: explain topic sentence
(facts, stats, reasons)
- Concluding sentence: signal end, leave readers
points to remember
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Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important
characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is
resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelery,
coins and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be
polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a
Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it
was minted twenty-three centuries ago. Another important
characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science.
For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial
applications. The most recent use of gold is in astronauts
suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection
outside the spaceship. In conclusion, gold is treasured not
only for its beauty but also for its utility.
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Unity: discuss only one main idea in a paragraph
Coherence:
- Supporting sentence is logical
- Ideas connected by appropriate transition
signals
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Coherence: means together with cohere
hold together
- Repeat your key nouns frequently in
paragraph
Transition signals: first, second, next, therefore,
however, in conclusion, on the other hand, as a
result, similarly, moreover, furthermore, in
addition, in contrast
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- Sentence connectors
- Conjunctive adverbs
- Clause connectors
- Subordinating conjunctions:
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Sentence structure:
- Clauses: Independent, dependent, clause
connectors
- Types of sentences: Simple, compound, complex,
compound-complex
- Noun Clauses
- Adverbial clauses
- Relative clauses
- Participles and gerunds
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Independent clauses: S+V (+Complement)
- Student normally spend four years in college
- I will declare my major now, but I may change
it later.
Dependent clauses: begins with subordinators
such as when, while, if, that, who followed by
subject, verb, and complement. Not express a
complete thought and cannot stand by itself.
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Clause connectors:
- Subordinators (subordinating conjunctions)
After, although, as, as if, as soon as, because,
before, even though, how, if, since, so that, that,
though, unless, until, what, when, whenever,
where, wherever, whether, which, while, who,
whom
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Coordinators (coordinating conjunctions)
- for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Conjunctive adverbs:
Accordingly, besides, consequently,
furthermore, hence, however, indeed, instead,
likewise, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless,
nonetheless, otherwise, therefore, thus, for
example, in addition, in contrast, on the other
hand
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Simple sentences: one independent clause
- I enjoy playing tennis with my friends every
weekend
- I enjoy playing tennis and look forward to it
every weekend
- My friends and I play tennis and go bowling
every weekend
Note: compound verb, compound subject
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Compound sentences: two or more independent
clauses joined together like two adults joined in
a marriage
- I enjoy playing tennis, but I hate playing golf
- I enjoy playing tennis; however, I hate playing
golf.
- I enjoy playing tennis; I hate playing golf
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Complex sentences: contains one independent
clause and one or more independent clause.
Like a mother with one or more children
depending on her.
- Although women could own property they
could not vote
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Parallelism: sentence structures should be
grammatically balanced
- A student needs textbooks, notebooks, and he
needs pens
- A student who does well in exams attends
class, reads the textbook, and he reviews the
notes
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Noun Clauses:
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How to write an effective essay?
- Think about topic: correct interpretation!
- Research topic: any sources possible
- Plan your essay: what position or argument?
- Write your essay: Patience and put down
thoughts
- Revise your essay: have answered correct
questions
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How to write an effective essay?
- Interpret the Topic:
(i) Command: tells you what to do
(ii) Topic: general area of discussion
(iii) Specific area of discussion

Universities should not be run like businesses.

Discuss in 350 words.
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How to write an effective essay?
Universities should not be run like businesses? Discuss

Topic Focus Topic Command

- Make topic easier to get it!

Should universities be run like businesses?
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How to write an effective essay?
Suggested key words: account for, analyze,
assess, comment on, compare, criticize, define,
describe, evaluate, examine, explain, generate,
hypothesize, illustrate, interpret, justify, outline,
prove, relate, review, state, summarize
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Opening sentences are broad

and general, gradually focusing
Essay structure
the reader on the topic and
Introduction
finally onto the proposition
Argument paragraphs
Paragraph 1
First supporting statement
(SS1)
Definition, explanation,
evidence, illustration

Paragraph 2
SS2 plus explanation
Paragraph 3 plus
explanation
Summarize arguments
Conclusion leading to final broad
statement on implication
or significance of your
argument
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Introduction and thesis statements:
- Begin with a broad opening statement
establishing context
- Ask yourself: who, what, when, where, how,
why?
- Literature on topic?
- Tell reader what is coming up in your essay
- Narrow focus down to Thesis statement
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Introduction structure

Broad opening

More focused middle

Thesis statement
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Essay topic: Do the advertisements targeting speeding drivers work?
Sample intro:
Every teenager is thrilled at the prospect of sitting behind the drivers wheel of a car.
At some stage, though, the excitement turns into complacency and bad habits are
often formed. Many of these bad habits have little effect on safety. A few, however,
such as drunk driving and speeding, are dangerous and a great deal of time and effort
is put into getting people out of these habits. Many campaigns, though, are not
successful because they are easily ignored. This has not been the case with the
campaign against speeding drivers. Although the number of speeding drivers will
never be reduced to zero, the advertisements targeting them are having a positive
effect because people are taking notice of the gruesome consequences of excessive
speed.

Thesis Statement
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Thesis Statement notes:
- Specific
- Clear
- Brief: 1-2 sentences
- Realistic and not ridiculous or fanciful
- Significance
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Paragraph: revisit last class
Transition signals:
- Highlight: importantly, more importantly, it is also important to highlight, Indeed,
furthermore, in fact, moreover
- Changing direction: However, nevertheless, rather, compared to, In contrast, on
the contrary, on one hand, on the other hand, in comparison, conversely,
unfortunately, another perspective holds that
- Adding points: In addition, secondly, further, thirdly, another point to consider is,
alsosimilarly, likewise, again
- Summarizing: finally, to conclude this, in sum, lastly, to summarize, overall, in
conclusion, in summary, the three main points are
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Transition signal examples:

Incorporation offers several advantages to businesses and their

owners. For one thing, ownership is easy to transfer. The business is
able to maintain a continuous existence even when the original owners
are no longer involved. In addition, the stockholders of a corporation
are not held responsible for the businesss debts. If the XYZ
corporation defaults on a $1 million loan, for example, its investors will
not be held responsible for paying that liability. Incorporation also
enables a business to obtain professional managers with centralized
authority and responsibility; therefore the business can be run more
efficiently. Finally, incorporation gives a business certain legal rights.
For example, it can enter into contracts, own property and borrow
money.
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Conclusion: Round off your essay. Remind readers of all main points and mark
significance of arguments.

Include:
- A narrow statement relating to the conclusion to the preceding paragraph
- A restatement of the proposition or thesis statement
- A brief summary of main points
- A final, broad statement on the significance of argument and its implications, if any
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By promoting a caring atmosphere in schools, teachers can reduce the
likelihood of bullying. Above all, teachers need to inform themselves
and the rest of the school community so that together they can
develop a policy to discourage bullying. By educating themselves about
bullying, teachers and parents have the knowledge to set up effective
programs and structures both within the classroom and for the whole
school. Furthermore, by removing the opportunity for children to bully,
providing children with a stimulating environment, and giving them the
tools to deal with conflict appropriately, teachers can reduce childrens
inclination to bully. Although bullying will never be fully eradicated
and must be dealt with as soon as it occurs, increasing awareness of
the problem is making schools a safer and more enjoyable
environment in which children can learn.

Broad Closing Statement

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Sentence structure
- Independent clauses: S+V+ (C )
Ex. Students normally spend four years in
college*I will declare my major now, but I may
change it later*Foreign students suffer from
culture shock when they come to the United
States*Because the cost of education has been
rising, many students are having financial
problems.
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Dependent clause:
- Begin with subordinator: as, when, while, if,
that, who followed by a subject, verb, and
complement.
- Subordinator+Subject+Verb +(Complement)
Ex. When the semester was over*who was
accepted by the university..*if you leave your car
unlocked*because I had a job interview*that
the experiment was a success
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Dependent and independent clauses:
1. Jet lag affects most long-distance travelers
2. Which is simply the urge to sleep at inappropriate times
3. During long journeys through several time zones, the bodys inner clock is
disrupted
4. For some reason, travel from west to east causes greater jet lag than travel from
east to west.
5. Also, changes in work schedules can cause jet lag
6. When hospital nurses change from a day shift to a night shift, for example
7. Although there is no sure way to prevent jet lag
8. There are some ways to minimize it
9. Because jet lag is caused at least partially by loss of sleep, not just a change in
the time of sleep
10. The traveler should plan to arrive at his destination as late as possible
11. Upon arriving, he or she should immediately go to bed
12. Then the traveler should start to live in the new time frame immedilately
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Clause connectors:
- Subordinators (subordinating conjunctions)
After*although*as*as if*as soon
as*because*before*even
though*how*if*since*so
that*that*though**unless*until*what*when*w
henever*where*wherever*whether*which*whi
le*who*whom.
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Coordinators (coordinating conjunctions):
Ex. For*and*nor*but*or*yet*so
Conjunctive adverbs:
Accordingly*besides*consequently*furthermore
*hence*however*indeed*instead*likewise*mea
nwhile*moreover*nevertheless*nonetheless*ot
herwise*therefore*thus*for example*in
addition* in contrast*on the other hand
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Kinds of sentences:
1. Simple sentences: one independent clause:
Ex. I enjoy playing tennis with my friends every
weekend*I enjoy playing tennis and look
forward to it every weekend*My friends and I
play tennis and go bowling every weekend*
Note: enjoy and look forward to. What is that?
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Compound sentences: Two or more
independent clauses joined in a marriage
Ex. I enjoy playing tennis, but I hate playing
golf*I enjoy playing tennis; however, I hate
playing golf*I enjoy playing tennis; I hate playing
golf
Note: structure: IC+Coord+Ind.C
Only seven coordinators: for, and, nor, but, or,
yet, and so (FAN BOYS).
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Ex. Japanese have the longest life expectancy of any other
people, for their diet is extremely healthful. (the second
clause gives the reason for the first clause)*The Japanese
consume a lot of rice, and they eat more fish than red
meat. (both clauses express equal related ideas.)*Many
Japanese men smoke, yet the Japanese have long life
expectancies*Many Americans, on the other hand, do not
eat a healthy diet, nor do they get enough exercise. (Nor
mean and not.* In the last twenty years, Americans
have reduced their smoking, but Europeans seem to be
smoking more than ever. (The two clauses express
contrasting ideas.)
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Ex. Students can attend day classes and
..*Students can live in dormitories
or.*I have finished my math homework
but*I have studied English for six years
yet*My advisor suggested a typing class
for*Some students do not like to write
term papers nor.*The instructor gave us
eight weeks to write our term papers
yet.*Most students had not even chosen a
topic nor.*the instructor was very upset
for..* My roommate scored very high on the
English placement test so
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Finite, non-finite, and verbless clauses:
John has visited New York (finite)*Having seen
the pictures, he.(non-finite)*Although always
helpful, he(verbless)*John, then in New York,
was.(verbless)
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Infinitive with to:
- Without subject: The best thing would be to tell
everybody
- With subject: The best thing would be for you to
tell everybody
Infinitive without to:
- w/o s: All I did was hit him on the head
- w/s: Rather than John do it, Id prefer to give the
job to Mary
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-ing participle:
w/o s: leaving the room, he tripped over the mat
w/s: Her aunt having left the room, I declared
my passionate love for Celia.
- ed participle:
w/o s: Covered with confusion, I left the room
w/s: We left the room and went home, the job
finished
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More on Verbless clause:
Dozens of people were stranded, many of them
children*whether right or wrong, he always
comes off worst in an argument*Too nervous to
reply, he started at the floor*With the tree now
tall, we get more stable*When ripe, these
apples will be delicious*His gaze travelled
round, irresolute
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More on subordinators:
Compound subordinators: in that*such that* so
that**except that*in order that*now
(that)*provided (that)*supposed
(that)*considering (that)*seeing (that)*as far
as*so long as*as soon as*as long as*
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Commas: introducers*coordinators (compound
sentences*inserters*Linkers
Recently, the legislature banned smoking in
public places. Introducer: Main Clause.
Many people opposed to the new law, but it
finally passed

Coordinating
Main Clause Conjunction
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Inserter:
Smallpox, once a widespread disease, is under
control.
Main
Inserter

Main clause
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Linker:
1. The word color is spelled color in British
English, for example.

Main clause
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Semicolons:
1. Between two sentences that are closely
connected in idea.
2. Before conjunctive adverbs and some
transitional phrases.
3. Between items in a series if the items already
contain commas.
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Between sentences:
1. Alice is going to Harvard; she isnt going to
M.I.T
2. Computer use is increasing; computer crime
is, too.
3. The meeting adjourned at dawn; nothing had
been accomplished.
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Between connectors: before conjunctive adverbs:
however, therefore, nevertheless, moreover,
furthermorebefore transitional phrases: for
example, as a result, that is, in fact etc.
Skiing is dangerous; nevertheless, hundreds of
people ski.
Stefi Craf is great tennis player; moreover, she is
attractive.
Boris Becker played well; however, he lost the
match.
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Between Items in a Series:
I cannot decide which car I like best: the Ferrari,
with its quick acceleration and ease of handling;
the small, conventional Ford, with its reclining
bucket seats; or the uncomfortable Volkswagen,
with its economical fuel consumption.
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Colon (: ): Introduce a list* Long quotations (As
Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable state in their
book, The History of the English Language: There is
no such thing as uniformity in language. Not only
does the speech of one community differ from that
of another, but the speech of different individuals
of a single community, even different members of
the same family, is marked by individual
peculiarities.*Subtitles (A popular book on
nonverbal communication is Samovar and Porters
Intercultural Communication: A Reader*Time Helen
left the class at 12:30