Powder Metallurgy Science by Randall M. German METAL POWDER INDUSTRIES FEDERATION Princeton, New JerseyPretace and Introduction £ to the Author Dr. Randall M. German sully qualified to write his text om the Sens ‘ot Ponder Metallurgy. He ws dusted at San one State Uninet) (8S) ‘nd Obi Sate Unites (MS) sndearned his PRD atthe Univery of Cairns, Davis Hebegin iP) Maret in powder metallurgy a Batlle CColambss in 1968, Aller ears wit he Sandia National Laboratories. Livermore, he gined more praca expesence at Mot Metalic in Conneticut echose th academic environment in 980 when bejoiod the Material Engineering acuy at RemcaerPosteshnk Us, lng know othe P. Mommanity through the pionceringetfonts ol Dr. tev. Lene Here, “Rand German contributed substantial to both the taining of powder calli serving this nde today and ao othe techn erature through show of papers deiered a P/M confers and pubis in journals throughout he world, many sponsored bythe American Powder Metallurgy Insttuteand he Meal Powder Indstres Federation. Daring this cet petod he earned the Society of Atomotve Engine’ Ralph Testor Engineering Edvetor Awad, the Eastern New York Amercan Sovety for Metal Ae Ges Awad the Renselaer Polytech Inst tute ary Carer Award and hasbeen ected to he Interationa eat for the Science of Sintering. Tesaltogethe iting that thistexton these of powder metallrgy be written by Professor German. Its tine too, because it dls withthe inodern science that has evolved fer a mysterios past. An art no long, porwr metallurgy san accepted modern chology ha inthe fortron ‘tthecreatio of sew concepts in materia crgneering and inthe wince of ‘aban stalworing With hi text, Profesor German givesasranee ‘hat the technology upon which he hurgnning P/M industry band, «stable on the principles af since a hat tes a ot onl exhale Senden Lou Metal Powder Inditris FoteratonCarol, Bie and Garth FOREWORD Poser metallurgy ia processing approach which consis a subi sono he general metalworking tecnologis, The vantages and atac- tions of pomder metallurgy orgnate rom erralatibutes. The bi Shane pours directo final component orm sa mor attraction, Ths shaping canbe performed in aneconomical manner with conierble laitade inthe mater properties, cers, ea eaten and mits ture, The procese invohed in tasforting powders nt consliated producscante viewed oncither the echoslogicaorscintiesele, On the emer scl, the emphasis onthe fabrieation prosdure for specie ‘atrils and components The sceieupproach views powder metas ‘Sacombiation of base sf thertodynami, mechanics and Kinet, aspes of powder metalurgy. The application and spi enpinering 10 atoms mat electron char = 1.60% 10” cours Planck constant = 642% 10°15 Sefan-Botiman constant = 67 10" Je? KY CHAPTER 4 Introduction to Powder Metallurgy ‘Summary Ths introductory bape provide an inal perpen othe bjt. The recvance and history of powder metallurgy ae ty deserted Yo semon ‘tate the ope and breath f the techelog. The wei and enol «alae of he subjet ae contrasted with respect tothe asf thie Outline Definition ©. Bie History D, Reason for Using Powder Metallurgy E. The Future of Powder Metalargy G. Stay QuestionsPowder Mataliugy Seinoe Introduction to Powder Metallurgy A. Frame of Reference Among the various metalworking techno, powder metallurgy ithe ‘mow dvene manufacturing approach. One traction to power metals {P, Myisitsabty co fabccate igh quality. complex parts ocloseteerances ‘naneconomical manner Te proces elective iss automat operations sitnow energy consumption, high material uization andow captalconts Thess characteris make P/M wel lig with caren concees about routs enery and raw materia, Consequently teil isexpercning {rowth tthe expense of ematve metallorming operations ts the purpose ofthis book to provide an intoduction to the basi seine principles behind he powder meaty ecology. The pena Sins intend oe the stadent snl becoming suited with Masa proceing sence Aeratiesthenpner nv in powder tally can abo benefit rom hisex. Frequently. empial observations 20 uneplained and processes vemai inefficient ecase ofan inadequate "derstanding, Hence its intede ha ths book provide alo preset ‘ion undrsing Rass witht vein on the tchnoloical specs ‘covered in deta ehewheres = The PM proses reson a diferent philosophical approach 0 compo- ent abiation han sencountered in tadtinal alworkng. Specialy the versity of PM gen a expanded lattade to tbe proces of mate "aks No aly the matral chemistry, bet treatment ad mirstture “aval bata the dstnbuion of phases apd microns ens icin Poros) conta “The fi of powder metals ging throuph major arowthand ives cation. The we of powder mealies quite exten. Several examples sl be develope touphout this text However, a an intoucion, tit futfice to point out the siverse intrest ths ik. Consider the we of tungsten Lamp filament, ies hearing, automotive ransnison gas ftir piting projec, ceria contacts, mace power ul eleen ‘rhopedc plats, business mache pars, hightempertare tes, eon ‘atria, turbine component and det amalgams ssations ofthe ‘iver Furthermore, metal powdes find wes in such prods 3 pain ‘uments printed cet boars, eich four, explsites, welding eo ‘ove rocket ful prtng ns, bates, brazing compounds aa Table | provider cecton oth more common ses or meal powers ‘ermsofthe indus. Examples ses nd theists inven these es Srendiatedforseserlindusties Athos erty growth the Intreaueton to Power Metaluray AKL AGS a PM field abo makes he study of powder meal as 2 teebooogy Sitiea Consequently, hs text empires the hase principles without ‘elig onthe specie applications for metal powders B. Definitions There ar afew terms neces to understand efor egninga dscusion ‘of powder eealurg, Fis «powder i defied sw ely dade sla Svat han | minis maxinor damesion. neste, the powdery il bemetal, hough int tance thy ae combined with abe phases Sich as cefamis or polyner Am important character of poder ‘eaves highsuraeateato volume tin, Powder meal he sud of the proesing of metal powders, nladng the fabio, charactention and conversion of metal powder into uel einen Sommponents: The Pocesing sequence voter the appli of ss aso, work and Seformation to the pode. the processing which chaste saps‘intone o powder tale gen Append The thee main tepsto the chem of powder nally ast in gure. Fints the general are abel powder techs. Within the realm of powder technaogy are the concert withthe nature of powder Comeau emphasis given tthe fabicaton, casio, character ‘ation and handing of powder. Secondary concerns ae withthe sampling ‘sles, packaging and trnspoition. Aloe examination ofthe pow’ sts for size and shape ae common and important atts in hee Powder technology, Next cometh ada powder meal avis such as compaction apd sintering, The concen thi stage are With the ‘Shaping forming ad desfeation of the pawdere Finally the compa ‘ow turns to an emphasis onthe properties, wih congo tention mirostuture. Teste atte ea ot espa in raining poet microstructure, chemistry( powder shape friction obrieation sinter forge rocessin a ‘9 hot press: press, roll extrude density, auetty(” properties )eondctvty magnetic microstructure strength metallurgy sadn. Desians concerning powder ypeand its abrieaton infaens the eat of compaction and sitting Ukense te pea como Aion sequen applied toa powder wil tet he nal compact pope This book follows the fw chat it Figure 1.1 Emphasis wl be hen dsribng thefts ofthemany process arab, Accoediy the elation, ‘lhe poder characteris to the ee of consalidation an ina compact _roperies willbe ie close stein, C.A Brief History he verycry wef metal powders have been aol tse prs ofthe ‘orl For example gold powder was red ono fey by the Ines nd Fyypian wes ton powder dat ark o M80 BC: Aner example the Dethicolamnin Inia whih dates from about 300 AD, Thisolumn is made from approximately 63 tone fred iron pom Duing the 5D the sof omer metal techniesbeganin earnest. Th ed or patina laboratory apparais led tothe development of chemaly pcp onde an new consolidation routes which aided high tempeatines Such Stites oes in oth Rusia and England where press sa hot worked powders were ued to overcome inadequate temperature eapabten The modern raf ponder metals traced to Cole who deepal tungsten amp filament for Edson. Gate provides ete desertion o ‘heey ses and deelopenet in he story of PN hina imerestin poder metals roma expanding materia be frmingthe common elements Hk copper anditon by ne lamer cost 'esinologs. Saequentsdiverscton ito the ss raitoal mate "a nti, te avaaby of powders data the evolution he apps ‘ions for powder metlugy, Since the 140, several common materials aeteing proces from powder. Tis inode total othe eeactory tals and their alloys (NB, W. Mo, Zr Th and Re). Additionally he strutural metalshaxeeome rough major rowth ntisat tine eto, The majriy ofthe structural powder proded prs are hase oe However, thre are several muctear material ad eteal an maga ompostios ao being protsed by PM techie Probably mor exciting has bene evolution nappiaions Thesprtn sonlying P/M has undergone a reset change, nal. powder bel om onentsweresekcte ipl fr thee low ints. Mon see the as fo ‘electing powder metallurgy cout hasbeen du to improved ult, homogeneity. or properties, couple with anata costand practi The hightemperature nickel-based superalloy an onde dapsone "oneal fer good examples oth ceoluton, Not ony ca ey Be made with beter material economy By power appari, Bate sodPoder Metalrgy Scenes {ey and meron onl. thes the se of preaoed ower lows ally fabrction and cnslidson bbw he meling tempera The ne jtiano ning poner meta ces may co serial nd rear oppo, The aly ent expan of PM inmiehredutiy etings areexpectdta contac ses opporain . Reasons for Using Powder Metallurgy Thre overlapping categories provide an intodustry concep forthe reasons for using powder metallurgy Figure 12s Venn diagram showing how theapplcatens for” Mcanbecitegorid. Firs are he many applic ‘ions which) onthe ow cost production of eompiexpars Capone for the automotive indsty represent goad exampiy ofthis ace and hr production large PM activity. Within the area of sonoma pars Production come concerns with rods, olen and automation CContasing the powder rte with fsion scary fasting both he Precision and costar very arate. Furthermore ith caving th ae Prohlemsand cossasocatedwithsepgation machining. nd iat (which canbe avoided with metal pouderast approaches, 1s Figure 1.2 shows there ar ao unique property or nique mien ture jsifiatonsfor wing PM approacs, Some example porus ‘als, oxide dispersion siegthened alloys, cette and cement eis cost Precision productivity Pi refractory, reactive ‘alloy microstructure composite Introduction ta Powder Meaurgy Te nab abr these unique misteutucs by arnt eh gic as contributed age pr othe growth of PM Tena crleshownon he Venn dag corsponds io captive ape sions Tes atthe materials which requ to proces by an her ‘echnigues Iealexamplesare he eae and elratory metal ere fon ‘eens afenot practi. Anater ail emerging group of materia are {he amorphous of ey cea, Tn many cae, ts desrable to form oder ardeeloplow temperature processing to voi the microstructural hamage acompansing elevated emperatre Powder acta thgue. eattractive since al ofthe proossng canbe pero inthe valid tte. ‘Usually eleren rom llr cataores shonin Figur etn mont practical P/M appliaons. Indeed the major growth a expansion wil Ios ikely come om fre combinations hee hres elements info ng uniue low eon, hgh quality pods E. The Future of Powder Metallurgy ‘The pst scenes of P/M have derived fom the exnomiebeneis n more ee ines, the wig cult process materia ave contributed ‘othecxpansionnthetacolopalhase, Thee sme aftbuesarcenpests ‘ocontinuetcome ote to formnew applications for power metals Five areas apea to Red th ness ingens fo ctu gon 1 Mig volume production pres, igh ua sacral pars pial from frou bse alls, 2 Diletto-procee materials, where fly dense high performance alloys ‘anf abrieated wit nor micotacture, 3, Specialy alls pzlly comptes containing mixed phases thee wil len be fab y ena denifeston proces 4. The sonata mater sich a amorphous, micrcrstalie or retest alloys The complex parts posessng unique and uncommon shapes o ine mth broaceningat silat “iracomanglecanbempesred Leg Bete toalmeasted boaleh- ing. then th partic sie hroadening By nsalcuated fromthe otal using she ieee of te squire, Bi= BB en whee Bs the peak broadening fr the standard, The technique s best poli to particles in the 0 nm sie range. Under eau experimental anions ay peak broadeningcan be used for partic upto 2 (200 fm) insire. However the technique ly gives a mean parte ie with 0 Shape intormation The second say technique i mall angle scatesing. The neni of ‘ray catered by a smal pal wares withthe partie volume. Smal ‘nae xray watering mom uel for pats teow 50 nine The techigue ssumesthe parties to be dispened without interpartlenerle ‘coce. Measurements made of the xray intent vers angle at snl ‘nls. The etensty vera ane dat inthe Oto 3 dt eang ed 2 ‘timate cite the pat sie dstbution or the partilesbape Thus smal angle ra seateing provides atechngue or determining the size dist ‘om the particle shapes kaown. Further information onthe techni | hen inthe tet by Guinier a Comparison of Pate Sie Analysis Techniques, “The anahss of panic size depends measring the response of pale osome physical ew Thin dacuson hs reviewed the ae sur "osand piel principles associated wththecommon chai, Furth trmore the problems and enor sources for most technics have Been inated opener aspherical artle shape assume diicliesoen andettscedalectothatansmption, Tale 2. provides bil soma Som ofthe several ehniqusnaabe for partie sie anal and the ‘measurement sin and approximate ize range of appa. The table erally felts the best possible measurement rane obtainable onal Ponders Ore, large particle sie ranges or damien areca, but ot demonstrated ith he denser metals parties and th evar pale sien. A more compte dicusion of parce sce amas tecaiqus is salable in Allen and Bodom: E. Particle Size Data ‘Once partic ize data is collected, concern trns ta analysis ofthe Aisisbution, Assuming definition ot size and spe, the distbution of ‘thse paramcers sien items ofa equene pl, Disassnte shown a hsogram ofthe artount of powderin the meansed ie increments On sch lis, the modes the peak particle A plo the cumulaieprtile ieSeverna teat 20 1 a mode size 5 Sr 75 to90 um’ 5 2 10 screen 4 # analysis, & F| 3 = 40 100 1000 particle size, um ciate Temorsosnosentonesemsia ater sotribation shows the average of meth value asthe Spat sie (Consider the sieving tain Table 2, which pves the weight of poet ‘etn on each eecn ae seving The fis task to conve he dt incremental percentages by iiding each increment by the total aril vip The histogram for hs data generated posting the noel Peeenages esse screen opening size, Suen alot ngien in Pigure 212 forthe data rom Table 2.5. Notice the particles Seale sconverted to aloe scale theteby making th ierement wits xa toe tances: meal Powders are ound to exhib Bll shaped curve (Gasan ibution| ‘when pleted on a lg size scale. A cumulative patil ve dstibation ssnerated y adding the interval percentages sn pling thers ess ‘he fome inrementl partie size The raw data teatmet given able 2.5 wilethe esftingpiot shown n Figure? 13, The nortan geht ‘a serening analysis th respect othe weigh of pwd lage han the Speceserensies. In Figure 213.4 atooth curve hs en sed to comet the known points On the smooth curve the mean sie corresponds othe Si vale The standard deviation and mean ie can othe alt by ‘sual procures. The standard deviation ves( of one stndaed devia tin) tespand othe parle ex at phy 84 aa 16 a a Se Din a Opie = a ee 1. af An analysisdetermined by mirosopytecigucs ves the population of paths ves theirs, Homexer, a aaa taken by sieving ehiguePoser Metaugy Science panic sz information. Consider the ficulties in comparing ow es of ‘ata on dieting bass. The weight distribution is shoe to the soa Parle sizes in ommparson tothe population based btn. The part ‘Sksize datarom Figute2 hasbeen plotted in Figure [4 along wth ihe Population based dstbation for he same powder. The oboe dlerence Inplacementofthe two dstribations cane een in comparaon the mean sizes (72 um ersus42 um). Forany partes, esuing spherical shape lows ealelaton the numberof pares knowing the meight W and n= 6W iia) ew, shore nisthe numberof partis and D isthe diameter and the densi Dirt comparsonat weight an population sed parce sedition ‘inal A transformation required ome uth comparison and ths rues shape asempion, wl spherical, 5 100 £ [screen 75{ analysis BT tut 96) 8 50 9 s 3 25 jean =72 pm: 3 Eo 3p 10) 100 1000 Particle size, um 3 Ss population’ . 3 a weight 4 y & 100 1000 particle size, um fm 214 Aconprsan cum ui draenei cumulative percent finer w 8 3 2. Common Distebutions Ihisuseflo review some othe ypesof parce sie dsribaions which encountered P’M. The apical ellcure when the tral partis se {at's put ona og bss i shown in Figure 212. By cons, the pas Figure2ISshow variations includngbroad and narrow dtbtions sell sa bimodal dsbuton (two peaks) Normal powder fabreation practices a not orm a single sized powder (monodisperse). The typical pod Polvaspes,watha wide range of patil sie. Very spi torts are eed to achieve a monosized poder. Corsegurty, both mean ser ode sie i diferent rom the mea) andthe diapers npc se ae necessary information. The dispersion effi the snd deviation, 3. Log Norma Sire Distribution, Most powders follow the lognormal form in thei matural, uncresned state fog normal se disdain ives bl core when the fcguen Ploted onalinear sae against the logof te parties, Conseguetythe Aistibution can be described mathematical by ¢ modi Tor ofthe ‘Gausian probabity function. Let Pa) be the probably observing a particle sie described by x ~ lez). Then he unc hs th fon,Pe owl fot Vine. te ay here U, he log ofthe mean parte ize ad asthe tnd deviation ‘ofthediauibutononalogscale) Figure 2 Iopvesaschematiccomparion Tie Dm i ware frequency plot percent . linear b) frequency plot percent log cd) cumulative plot log d) {og-normat plot ‘of «parse size dsrbution plot on several bass, The iar scaling ‘hows u skewed parle sie istrbtion while te log scaling gies the xposted ball cure. The cumblate pute wre datbation ean be {xpress in ers othe negra of Pa} over the itera fom 010% percent g Fe 3 3 E 2 3 ie 5 3 a 2 a deviationssmount=(2 Pres e168 hic canbe normale by diving by te linea parse = 100 tsb’ Pass en Consider pot of sana deviations intend of percentage, The san dard deviations correspond to specie percentage pois, For example Standard deviation of sto fom the mean cores tothe Size The Standard deviations and corespndingcomultiveperemage pots ae Inte in Table 26 The log-normal price size ditrbation is erented by reposting the percentage points ftom 2 cumlative dition in tems of deviations, Sochapotshowninthebotom of Figure? 16. The sgniiant advantage |stharman powdersealbit asain behavior on he lognormal pit Hence the parties dtibation canbe reduced oust two parameters. ‘Anadvantagein ding chat besomes evden when partis siz di ‘ionsare compared by difering measurement technighs, ln Figure 2.17, the pale size data fom Table 28 have bee plated on cumulative ing Houma bass. The standard deviation points ndeated in Figure 213 ave een use to mae hi plo, giving ataight ne forthe dion Note that only the slope and imtercept are needed to descibe the parce size Sistribeton on a lognormal basis Recall the problem of comparing analss taken fom secening and ricrscopie mesurerment The sz daa by srening are on weight bai ‘hie the microscope measurement ive svingona population basi One of the fundameatl atrsctons tothe lognormal dsebuton is that such enparisons (or data tansformatons) ate lal simple By kaowsngtbe Slope and intercept of one distribation, the other distbution canbe et ‘mated by a tration In performing such tanformations, the slope 2 o log-normal Bs & 1/ screen analysis 8 2 (wt.%! 70 & 3 eC 3S g se 3 3. 3 5 o & 2 3 3 2 20 50 100 200 particle size, jm gue 217 Thelop-romalsaiciesee dart pot ets om Tale? remains constant on aog-normal bass Transformation ofthe datarequies ‘alzulation of the displacement parameter 6 shown in Figure 218. To onset fom a weigh datsbuton to population ditbution, the dis Placement is upward andthe magnitude dependent onthe slope m = 6508) m ew ‘when the parle sz sexpressed ona base 10 log scl. the wansorma- ‘on stom «population toa weight dtbution, then the displacements egtve donward) with gual magnitude. Therlore, knowing the ean Sreand the standard deviation provides mean ofcrexting lines pate ‘ire dtebution pot and knowing the slope ofthe liner fog-nomal plat makes data tansormation lately easy- Once he apsormation cn Pte, determination ofthe mean sie staphlorward (e equals ero 08 the new distbation). Alemativey, mathemati determination ofthe mean sizes pombe Fora weight dsriution the man sz en 8, b=" 21) and then the mean population size gven eanPowder Metalurgy Seine standard deviations ° xzlogj9(particle size) Fare 238th soe o-orlprce so aston vrsom Hom 8 SEs episton om terion aie spec one ape Pe ‘where bit the intercept (ihe standard deviation corresponding Wo the 1 um fart se) and sth slope Te iseper the parsed the Smaller 8 will be o. alternatively the closer the mean sizes by the two ‘echniues A more complete desipionofthe state ana partile sive distributions snd the seo he lognormal frm given by Leis" F. Problems in Particle Size Analysis There areseverl probes withputlesize analysis Resolution ofa wide rangs of particle sacs simultane ving an avai is te diel ‘Amos all devices have a inited sie range tat ean e accurately esohed {nd analyz atone tne, Often ths niaton rss ina reali Syma rato of 30:1 oles If the patil size ranges greater than this then the Iehods ae nat accuse Additionally, ach technique hs range of Spilsby For sevs.ths i genealy above 8 i, Optical mito ‘opy rested to partes above | cones techniques soc as Sedimentation te only applicable oa nurow sie range been of lint Tons in the apliable ys. haper; more on shape analysis follows inthe neat section. The more techniques. The limited analysis range coupled to a bias towards weight based stebutons resus infequetdstegardor the ier prtiiesizs In ‘any istances, he dargard isnot warranted sce the Gr parties owes the greater surface fea and Kine ctv scoinidence. Wher more than one pantie inthe detection zone ofan ‘ayzer. they arsed as oe large partic. Cnseyuenh the patil sive Aistibition becomes stewed towards the couse parle ses. To miimive {his problem, lower concentrations of powders inthe detector one ate ‘seco, For the steaming deves thi reues Gte concretions of ‘heponderinthecarrir Mad Seconds, agglomeration aes ine partis to appear as courier particles. Deaglomeration eau agation, ling land possi) even chemical eames o miata partie dnpersion. The ial problem eas ors the lal high speci vit of ox metal ponders. Steaming lecniqiesasume a unorm random dispersion of Pats in the feedstock forthe detector, The mewsarements cn soe Ihased becuse of peferemal seting ofthe coarse pales. To aware ‘nium tor fom setling'spood practice a pas the etre ample {hough he dtectr to cumterat any seting effets G. Particle Shape he shape ofa patie a dsribatd parameter which can incre packing, flow, and compresilty of powder, Parle shape provides Information on the pode fabrication ute ad lps explain many pro ‘esingsharcteristi. Recaus ofthedilltynquantiying partie shape, (qualitase descriptor ae med Figure 219 gives a colton of pails Shapes and shows the appropriate gulf destin. Farce shape varies with parties as elas the ecigue by which he poner mas manufactured. An exarple of sick variation penn Figure 22 A panic size anal which aware constant shape cou pote ‘aly hae large err, For ening anaes. simple quamative shape kscripor proves aeauate The most straightforward sh ergo the aspect ato. The apt ato defined the rani patil dieron Avie bythe minimum partitedimension For aspherthe aspect ats Unity while foragument type parce a vale near Sto Smo ly, Atan en hig 2, Geral mary tis eo Comider the park daramedin Figure 221 wth reser shape. Therese arog shape parameters witht tom the projet mae Bosidesthe ayes ra the parte shape can kote expr by the rao 1 Dy where Do sth danse of the outer embracing cc ar the sive shel amie bed cote poet re. By fr the Ilroscopy based shape decipior ae the east to undentand nd ae ‘late cyto bt om projet image H. Surface Area as a Shape Index Te specifi surface area i expres in ems af he area pe it mass (oa) For monoszed pers, the are per spre andthe volume pet sphere V are piven sy A= aD 22a sven the ncight gen in terms ofthe volume aid metalic deny Ueeore We av em Consent, the area per uni weit ca Be given S=6itaD) em hee S i the pei srface area, Fora pogslaperse powder (a powder tnitha wide sizrange.the mean partie siae on population ban provides afistestmate forthe ameter Equations 221-223, Convenient amt for the variables of sz surface area ad density are gn ane respects, When thee amis are wed the conversion factors cane! quition 223. fadiferent particle shape i assuned in dering Eauation 2.34 then the tlation Between parce size and ntfaceatea would be een gene orm of Equation 225 woul he follows S= Kleeb) 29 here steed ashape factor tis posiblewo make ough determination Of shape by comparing independent measurements of particle sie (on Population basis) and speci surace area through the ealeuaed propor Tonal constant k Using simple shape modes, te shape constant ah be Doe (hr sponge or RSS Greoses £2 AB Yyindricat irregular Foamental flake fibrous Peocreccte GeertPowder Metalrgy Seance PARTICLE SHAPE oe size 50m) ofa materi ike bey, 4 Mechanica Alloying (ver the pst wo decades oxide dpetson strengthened materials have be developed fr hightemperature rep restance, Milingtecnigus hie evohed to geste ane dprsion of submicron oxides. The mon sce echniguismechatealalloving” An inberent ll a fab ing dispersion strengthened ays obtaining a unr dition of te sprit throghout ie material Mechanica alloying employs theatre tioning motion between agate blo crest a miroalloyed sorafracture of ml powder mistares with oxide partes proves the desired emposte pone. Mechanical alloying wes 2 tre mint of Palka flementl ponder to create alloy powder Figure 33 show a schema fiagrarmof an ator il which tlesivey a high eficzne Call mal Shownalthe bottom of Figure 33 microscopic concept the mechanical homogenization whch aes place ding min The ntl kere part ‘eshecomecominualntermind adingoubotnosniaed mater wah biform dispersion f second phase inclusions. The ehnigu nt paren laiyffisemshoweser the product spe alloy whch fa nique, = input material {rotating impeller stationary tank — Bat tritioning balls —+ increasing milling time— {Like other mechanical powder friction hig echanilloyng an slr contamination. This pole canbe minimized by sing all ‘ring rod and tank made from he same muri os the powder. Although Powder Fabrication the powdc isigly work hanened and angular shape, subsequent bot ‘omoldtion tectniguce have been develope io ance these problens Unlike ther mln techn, th continuous cold welling aso with ‘heateoning motion nhibis the ean patel rom fecming ners ingly finer with miling tine. Thesecton of anorgan (eg aha for mling is quite imporant to sebievng the balance Between milling ad ‘welding ney fr mechani alloying ©. Electrolytic Fabrication Techniques A poner canbe precptatd atthe cathode ofan ektoltc el under cera operating conions Common example of metals ford ith Punts powder y sich an appre inl tan. pllada, copes fron and erm, The man atacton of an ctl approach the high roduc purity. The cee bins wth dssnaion ofthe anode under an ‘ppl woltge nan eletajicellch a shown schematically in Figure 51K The anode an eatode reactions coresponding to copes aon a ‘town in this figure, Trampert through the ets outs baed) sed to puny the powder which Tors at the cathe The cathe depost removed and cleano by wasting and ding, Subuquenty te eathoe cake iS round it ie power and annealed to remove any sain hardening Fesré* +26 Cusciit 2 anode i -bath () ster 5 leg. SOz) cathode F8%2e4Fe ct2e4 cusa Tesi roe ft oc pend one cnn ower has an regular porous stustre with por packing characteris {abriting pe poder ther ari wi the choi Ft th ‘deposition of powders atthe cathode, Additionally, only elemental powders ‘uc practcal by sch an approach. Finally, he product most be handed and ‘leaned ter aban, wich un bea sigan ation tthe com, . Chemical Fabrication Techniques Almos all metas can be fabricated into pode by achemial technique Typically the parle ze and shape can be adjusted over a mde range by contro ofthe reaction variables, There re several aint the chil Symes approach: powdescun be Torn by gars, gud, ova 1. Decompostion of Std hy Gas The ease form of metal ode fabrication is oxide redaction. The proces tars witha purified onde suchas magntical separate iron oxide (eagneite) Such odes re easy ile int ine powders Onide eduction isathieved by tbemachenseal reactions invohvng reducing sie such a Carbonmonoxide or hydrogen. The eduction cated ut at alow emer "ute 1 ensare minimal string ofthe product (i manta partic si onto) Onthe ope hand, aw temperate beneficial in producing fine Powder, whieon the tr shih temperature eres te redo ae Consequently the opeating emperatre sete ooze the ection Knees and ype af ponder formed, Because lage volume change ivaved ow temperate onde redustin, th inl prot stp) | ‘sponge powder sch as shown in Figute 3.6 Alternatively, igh emperature roses can result in dense partes with polygonal shapes. The reduced Power isgroundto break theinterpartcledifson bonds andtoesure the rope parle sz. Annealing ade the compres of the powder, "Uh he sponge shape can prove o be dll to compat, The bchavior dig ice reduction depends onthe tenpeature because of bat thermodynamic and kinetic consderations,Thermodynamicon rns are because of the relive stably he metal oid with epee ‘he edeing ps For reduction to osu, the ree energy st decease The ‘eduction on oxide suchas FeO in hydrogen eters energy change F045) + le) — Fes + H.04) on Tosdetermine the fe energy change for sich aston, chs or abies must be consted(e, for exarpie,Darken and Gu). The equlibsum constant fora closed seem Getrmines the terminal oncetaton ratio of produto eactants, The elim constant ies "ein aio ofthese two quantities; ti linked tothe re enrg. Forte "eduction of FeO by hydrogen in Eaton 3. the eau costam Ks‘where the rato isexpesed intermsof he parti prewuratiosncethesalid ise anietes ar unt. Figure 3: shows how he balance betwen oxide thn and eaetion depends onthe para presse ratio and emperor iron Below the inst equa hve oxidation cxcurs.Above the uit the metals the stable form and oxide reduction wll er For oxide vediton, both the smowphere and the temperate must be fovorable av inated by te oul line Toff the natural cessation ff rfacon eacton as cuba i approached the easeous phase Continual removed. Th for FeO vdicton by byrope, ts long asthe fmowture removed from the ection, the reaction can gow completion, These prncpic bret ovine he hemodynamic concerts asociaed with encoun decomposition of sold pode forming tp The kinetic concer come from th alow penetration fe redicing gas Ingo the redid meta. Av shown in Figure 38, the eduction ation {dependent on several multneous process. Aste ga ects to for pure Fe stable ee 10° oxide stable 0 200 40 600 800 1000 temperature, °C ‘oxox ic seth toupee sate oie FeO (om unreacted core reaction’ reacted boundary (cen tn dat J,=reactant diffusion flux Jout=product diffusion fluxPonder Mataugy Sciance ‘eae into the materia fre ede the oxide Terate af edactioncan be Iie by the rat of eactant dunon inward the rte of prot ium ‘utward othe chemi reuson rate a the oide-metal nterice. Uses tne ofthe fesion tps gover the rate of reaction Sine dion 3 Thermal activated process (ihe fate erases with an exponential depend fence femperatue), higher temperatures ae benefit. Kinetic ees Toon Anfenive temperature dependen wheve the reation fat k depen on the proces activation energy Q with an exponent temperature =Acpl-oerl a here Ais materia constant terme the fequncy factor, R isthe ps Consta and Tm the aot temperature Ether a lower ativation ney ‘a higher temperature wil itensfy the redaction ate. Typel emperae ‘ee athe ain djnalearueterin the abrieation of poder: terateot onder eduction inresss rap with temperature Fr example, Figure SSshowsa plo othe reaction ator nickel oxen 998% pare hsrogen in the temperature range 200 t0 SPC. Below a temperature of 200°C NiO reduction in hydrogen ‘change 2} 6} af\ jphase 4 2 1 200 400 600 800 temperature, °C time for 50 % reduction, min, ‘Reveucion pert a ots tar onsen The Powder Fabrication ently no reaction ces in pit of favorable hermodynamis.Aigh temperatures, small emperature changes ibe Fe to lage fection fae incest This xarpeilintates the eed combine bah thetmads aie orion the edition reaction can be hae onthe wea pulverized tel nil cleo ster sap ston prodte. The reaction i conducted in the ‘ighborboo o 100 C, with subsequent mechanical attioning corso Pelee Ail withsuch an appoachis thatthe powders ean havea Hpk nonmetal contamination lee typical sia. Powde fabication| without an nteprl heme eiing sep fen res ina high and variable impart ee. esis iron, gasous ection ap tote fabiation of ceral other ‘etal ponders suchas molybdenum tungsee and copper. The powers can be sara in both parle sue ad shape by sue changes inthe reduction parameters rch sgt compotion, temperate, eacion Kins, ad reaton bed thisknes 2. Thermal Decommpeton Power pats an be arated by he combination of vapor decompo sition ud condensation. The mest common exec ef this approach I Ido ket cron. Nik raced with cron monoxide to form rete! carbon (NiC.0.). The formation ofthis gaseous moka requires Smuitancous pesrzation and heating The caoryl molecule scold o forma iquda4Cand racttonaldstilation spp puri he igi Reheat the gud lads 0 vapor docompostion, pings mal power The sling nickel powder haa smal part size witha purity ear 9837 and a iegular, rounded or chain shape. An example Of ake powder raph shows te fine artic size and corresponding shape sociated with arbony powders, Tike ikl, ao made into a ie powder by such am approach arbonytprocesing However te hgh energy requirements dscoorape {xen appiation to metals yond nike and iron, Recent progress Ras een made informing metal powders by homogesous sutton fom the ‘vapor pase Such a approach io pode labration lin he research ‘ge, yeti ole the poy of rry fine powder The raw metal aporied ina residual prewar of argon (0.05 atmoxphers). Sine the ‘emperature fll off with the inverse cae of he distance from the spor Ble en ie vee oe eprom secs ncetion occuring parses Sbt [Wom sire rane Thesevered powderis it hgh parity an ery fine sie, Te appoah bas Bn ppl tothe formation of copper, ser go, pair, coal nd ine 3. Precipitation from a Lig A disolved meals such asa nits chlovideosllate canbe treated to produceihera metalic preciptac ral containing peintte Pepi fates involving meal Sails are an easy means of progoing powder. A Soluble satis dsavedin water and precipitated by a seond compound. The ’As an alternative, otal ions canbe reacted with hyrogen to form atalc preiptes Common cramp ined copper, cel and cobalt odes with pure of 998%. "The chemially precipated powders can fave igh puri and can be adjusted for powder characteris trough the ‘peating arate othe ation bah They have aie pace sie ada Pein om oe kang prt The ens can etree “The pecptationtshnigi ar wel te to orming composite powder Inti case phase ene tomes the precipitation reaction Example nl arethr tana and ungtencarbie Sack componite powders have ther greatest apltion i ispesionsrengthened alo. Another use of Presptaton sexton ein the formation ofthe reactive metals ck 2 con and tii, Fused sae bad on chlorides are reacted th metal ch se mapnesiam to produce asponge pode Such reactions arthe ass or forming oth powder and wrought ans "The precptated powders hae some chracterats incom. General, thecryalite sie gute smal and agglomeration xara tendency. The poder purity is wually wer 99% th the dominant impurities coming From the ection bath hepatic shape einer orci, o in some packing denies are low 4. Precipitation fom Gas ‘Gaseous based reactions provide suitable means of fabricating powers ‘with aerucibl hereby avoiding a major source of contamination. To ensure ‘hin puriy, the proeang rele on vapor dilation and prepurfetion ofthe feedstock mater An example of this proces the eaction of rlsikenam triode gs) with pure hyogen to fom metalic molsbe- tum powder Otber ection table ost an approach rly on chords, lode oxides of eae Ike vanadium, nob tungsten, hai, ‘ani, or seni, Compote powders of rraciny costing at be omrovte Parsee, purty, shape and agslomeratonrealvarable with the vapor eaton conditions. Ofen the produ a sponge partic; how ‘er aspherical olserysalie apalomerascan abo be forme E. Atomization Fabrication Techniques. 1 tnt In the lst sweaty sears, P/M bas tnd to ser advanced powder fabrication techniques wich fal under te general beading of tomtaton, Prior tthe development of alonization, powder hems and shape har ‘eters could not be fully controled Now atomization provides the ‘maori of al pour. Atomiaton ives th oration of powder om male ictal aang wopry of opin. Bets slenal and preloadCoupled os applicability io sevcral alloy and easy proces contol make ‘on ison based fehnoloy. This reliance provides exit in bath the ‘eedsock. ek purifinion and alloy chemistry, Recent eviews arabe 2.6 Atomiation These of, itogn, ism or argos hi fr Weakingupamoten meta sram provides vera powder abiationecigue The hud real sream fe disntgrted by rapid gas expansion outa «moze The {pproachnas proven eal for superalloy and eter ily led materials Tallmadge” provides a rvew of some of the options aiable wing Monization. The design tay vy wih apes tthe metal fed estan sn the sophistication a the mel ad collection chambers: west the Iain en to deer corey (rm a rapidly expanding ga) he metal Steam to form dope Low temperature atomizer are bse on horizontal design of he ype shetched in Figure 311 The high slo gts emerging from the nol trete spon pling molten metalinto the gsexpanson zon. Ahh ea met || furnace ‘elo als breakup of the meta, ging ie spay’ of moten droplets During fight though the election chamber, the droplets lose heat a Solis. For high temperate metal lows net pe il chamber ‘edt preventoxdation Thechamber izemost escent geo alos the partctes to solidly helor striking the wall Fig 312 shows che> ‘matic diagram of vert inert gas omit. In sch un, the ck is Prepared by induconmskingand poured int th oul Theva st be Sperheated onerthemeling gui) temperature, Avanalernaie dos melt, ay | vacuum induction oi melter sourcePonder Metal Science ‘he ses came formed by mk noves erage cicumferentiay around thet steam iste of aan anlarmozie Hecate ofthe lame ‘ga ase inten, ts porn fo exhaust the gat v0 a ack presen the horizontal stoner, he rg ie are eats the pode hit allowinggaiecape, For acontsined ye ich ete vertical inert tins given (and pose essing) while evn bei the ie patie ‘Gu atomization ean be eformed totally unde net eondiions, thereby maintaining thingy of hgh lo feedstock, The parti shape per Calithafaiy we siredstribution. Ths atomization prosss as age umber of operating variable, The bt olds ape eal tor phere. mal emperatoreand vicosty ay tenes the nose alo f)pe, meta Fenda ee pressure, ge fesdrte and loc, nozle peor, at ws temperaire These parsnters can be adja to maintain proses conta andar the powder characteris for trios, The man advantage of Em atomization in the prdethomazenty and the ood packing proper tis valle wth the eulting spherical powder. Avs example o pea ‘operating paruneters for gas atomizer, the prodocton of 4 superalloy ‘ponder (nelting temperature ner 14N"C) coud bea follows Presire = 2 MPa (ap to S MPais common) I scl at x= 100m Inch superneat= 150°C Impingement ange Hetwecn gas and melt = 40 ders tal flowrate 20k is ‘ypc mean sie = 130m In gas atomization, the renter te energy inp to the met the ner he roating powder The pxenctalneracionat he race has bees ‘sing bighspsd photography” The atomization phys cin be decribed by the drawing shown ax Figure 2.13 The expanding exe around the moked neal steam aus durbancsin the curt gvingacone shape afer {rit fom the moze From the op of the cone, exparsion cubes thera Scam formitoahin shes. Tesheet sunt bret ahi uae fea to volume sto. Assuming sliient spereat in the gid so that rematare soliton prevents to respond tothe Shear and celrton force ving ft liane and sibasuent net Spherical pals, Te sie reduction i ite by the met viscosity and ‘emperatue and bythe response tothe acleration Fores The ele of ‘ering the mel above te guia to decrease viscosa to Prolong he post-stomization slicaton tine long soliton ine {ids parle pronation Ph paris shape sequeas wih tance ro Powder Fabrication melt stream nozzle gas_# expansion 4 zone the noi i clinder cone sheet ligament sphere. Depening onthe mount of sapere and other arial ny ope of these shapes mi be Prndced. Additonal he turbulenoeand mixing near the nore willease fine partis to eenter the gas expnsion zone. Ths can fest 0 galomeation The nfuene of the prong sarah ses underoninterms af the nergy dane) tothe ie. Shomer dances betwen the as exit an ms Stream favor beter energy rater, ain the formation of tint owes Theis sclstyonewst rm heater the dominant torial ingthe oltingparvele sire, Ahghhermalconduciny nthe an aks ‘cooing nd promotes amore homogeneous pate microstuetue Factors ket as acon ate pot ver inportantincomparison othectecs os favor oars prick ses Recatne of more rapid acckration out ofthe expansion re As shown i Figue 3.13, the mel stream breaks wp into a shet, and temperate, the fina ie wil depend on the iganent diameter. ‘nthe pment diameter Dy depends he het thickness Wand the psD.= aw 04 where pis the mel density and the sutace ener. son condom, Drop formato dring ommion etunce 8 lee aifeecr bere ngund ston vcore abhigh promis nd high glow go cpl fom walls b= Livin tt ot 0s) hereCisanor rom soy an Use evo A parte tre dpendns on hiner guy pave apa Shesomiraon a ee stay caig on ean oper Insp ofa tveralpa tonite mdf aomunon ar ree Metra and Shit for dt), probly sahed The ec of many ofthe pros ls sof ny onde Sond gaat The pri iedstibuton of gas tized powder aos theo norma om The dbname sarowes she meth para sve deus Empl corcatom have proven ss Predicting the pare de Stab femelle or mene fens pre Sa: The sng of te noma camo pnt ot Towle parte Alowats mabe ma (rae ‘Sidon ots Lp price tne eon cham oe |. Water Atomization Water atomization the most common technique for producing eemen taland ley powders fromm anal which met below apprnimtely 160°C In Figure 3.14 an example of waterstomizergeometryisshown, Te watt ane rected bya singlejet. multiples or an annular ing The process Similar gas atomization excep forthe rapid quenching and dilerng id properties. High pesure waterjet are rece agai he met stream, forcing disintegration ad rapid sldfiation, Consent the powder shape i ore regular than with gas ste i Also the powder surface textre is rough. with some oidation. Baus of therapies extraction, ‘apeconrl requires supers ar above the lui yp exaenples of tater atomized and inert gs atomized powders are shown in Figure 3.18 ‘The es produc apherial, th sal sae parce, wie the wate omized powder shape s regula. Because of the ih colng rte. the ‘ihinan alloy particle end tbe quite inte. Recently. syatetical ave pressure sourcePowder Metaungy Seine teen sed instead of water to gain beter contra of pile shape and ‘tiation. The operation sila To that of wate stomation Presare i la the mn proces control variable in water atorition, Higher water pressures sl ip higher water seocts and ne partie ‘revere, Prestes up 20 MPa have been used in water stmiation The norsleso-mel dance i x fan inca in water wonization than in gs tonizntion, Water has ow sompresnbty end higher density {momentum} than ass ence dstance between input with the mel and Suid ext fom thease pas es fa rol, Tale 3.1 provides a entrant ‘eewcen water and ps atomirtion. The wo otstandingdilerences sein ‘he poser shape and the surface contamination, In many instance, a ‘oxide coatings detrimental hydrogen rection ean be used ocean the ponder le atomization, eo tna cone ee The operating variable or water slomization have asgnificant effect on the resume powder characteristics, A review of water atomization ech niques, applications and powder proper s provided by Gummeso, AS tovcnampe ofthe pial operating variables, ules sel wth 3 fn than 10 mesh is produced a lows: sn temperature = 110°C ‘etal flow rate = 22 kg in umber of wafer es 8 water apex angle = 38 geprees Mathematica models for partes from water atomization have in iaresto those forgasatomtaton. high pres or igh water eos, user decrease inthe man parce siee. spe orm, te eaion ca beexpesed as follows” D=CWsinay) 66 \wer’Cisaconstant which incorporate both meri and atmier design ‘lets, Viste water velit an asthe ample between he mel stream and the water nae Se Figure 14) Obvious the water vel a taj factor inconoling pute sie 4. Cental Atmiation The desire to contol partis ie andthe dilutes in fabriaing powders from reactive meals have led othe development of sete atomization. Many sariations ext onthe central theme of a uson prowess eupied ta cent! fore. The ential fore tows lf the ele Inca fine spray which sols nto 4 ode. As ane example the rotatingeleciade process sine or arty high alloy or reactive tals tke zconium,tanium an superaios. The oaing etre concep shown in Fite 3.16 and an example ofthe resting powder i show in to vocuumygas drive belt CO) meter spindle, | fy brush LF electrode = feed = tungsten |= cathode | powder collection Fgwe16 Conntpastominsonty etn dade roceasi sown his‘an The cetrode mcted at is end by eter plaza are o salionay tungsten esr, The consumable etre nthe anode apd rotaes a “eli upto 5,00 revoitions per minse (RPM). Theletrode rotation ‘dren anexternalmotor Avmsingoscr, the etode eno the ‘Shuniber a eseral echanim, Els contact withthe cco ‘mae out the chamber using 4 contact brush. Like gas atomization rove the ponder irom oxidation figura Ascari ceconmerarahate thr sonoma cnt. gue 18 The iad fora sest whch extend ond th po te Pichinto dropltsan eventual form pres, Hower if theres is Get supeteatng. soliton wll eee the particles ble spel tion. The partileshpeis spheial and anaverag partis size 290 mi common, The mean partic izes increased by higey mel ete shot ‘otations and smaller anodes. Champagne and Anges ve te following empirical ormula forthe mean parle se D by cena atomization Where Mis the met rate sth anode diameter, W isthe angular velocity,» is the sucface ension ofthe melt and the deny Tees of prea fonttl. the tof variables includes the poner, voltage, anode isms Fotation voc. andthe materalimvolved. Typical themel aes ‘onde of 10 ms: he otaton velo between 100 and 00 REM ant ‘he anode diameter etwcen? and 3 em The fonts ofa rotating elettod proces ate the powder cleantns, Spherical shape (high packing denstyand etsy flow), uniform pale ss ‘nd lok ofa crucible material contaminant. The disadvantage aes tow Production rae, high equipment and prosuing cons and cous prt ‘ies Additionally ifs tngsen cathode used, thee sully ons Contamination of te aoeed powderPower Metalurgy Senco There are sera other forms of centifegl atomization which rely on enteral ming In thse caves, the hau metal dete nto ached fotating dink, cp, shor wheel Schemas of hese aration cei fl atomiaton ar siwn in Figure 319, The cereal orcs thw the tol outwands na hin sos, sitar fo hat diagramed ia Figure 3.18. The Totaional clos ssl betucen Mad 2,000 RPM. Dk dances Itconthe onder of3to Sem Powders produc by rtating dk atomization {end ohave narrow parle edstebutons. One variant he process as prduce! unrphows powders hy wing tasters gs fo of hu 10 Fapily extract het fom the drops" Mot extraction using a spinnin ‘thel sapplicabltoforingribbonoreorse powder. The peoduct italy Solis onto the spinning whl ut high kenrg fore ease the tier to detach, Course patil ives can be obtained by texturing the Sth! to contol he sled produc sie. Rapid coling rates are ino {ood tothe material fom the whe! by conduction. Ths approach has rrnor applications nfrning gl (amorphows) meta. disk cup wheel mesh melt (al (b) to) @ Fae 318 saris cua amr inciting ang a) it taming we asotnown nema nracon case) 8) tng Other Atomization Approaches Ination othe major atomization approaches described above ers) canbe dler iow malty sera oher meckanisns. Some example a> “ibvating wie role spinnig crucible and mel exposion atomizer. The Toller tame tess hgh loss olin lt uk break up he mel Sheu I hes a primary adsaatage of producing igh cooling rates andi thal informing moephow mca. The mai disadvantage of role atom ite powders the retin ke shape: Coarse powder fom alow melting Point materi canbe absent scrubs. Con ofthe "pening sie provides some conto ote droplet si Lite diinegaton of thedropet osursafier et rm he crib sincera no maor stat Fores ating on the uid, The melt explosion technique, diagramed in Figure 3.2, uses a hydrogen saturated guid metal and rapid desaturation in a vaca to form tine Powder spray. Themel resized with [to SMPaotydroge A siphon {ube thenexkausstesatrated mln age vacuum chamber, Both the ih oct and hyrogea desaturation case tenet tral explode into the vacuum chamber. The teshnigoe sed motly for supeaiy ode fabrication, although variants using hyd tania ad he Ietas have been demonstrated, One diicuky with the met explosion pressure ‘vessel — induction | Jpowelor furnace oxitacum char. Cooling predominant rain Momizatin, are more fe eting He mater dino plasma torch whee melting and rapid aceeraton tur Aare fing owderespaped oto the tore. The igh eos sndbightcmpoature ofthc lama ue reulinafine parts ie anda igh Siperiet he powder i provided tong Might path, then patil shape results, Such an approach o forming speia Ppimized when te input power tween 30 and 80 ‘Svea eter approaches fo forming powder The common element i Smulnceus deer of motion and heat wa Toasock with aration the means of accelerating and ticking the meal. Tale 3.2 provides Comparison of several ofthe nomizalion technguss avaiable. The et rigues are eompored wth respect to size dstibutions,typial mean sie pall shape and elatv powder fabrication cot Reusticaly histabe ‘implication, Alo he fabrication approaches hat sulin parameter F, Microstructure Control in Powders The rapidly solidified powders prose potential impo Tes (clastic mous dine y deny). Consent, sttenion has ees Civected to rapid heat extraction fom highly alloyed melt fem amor phous or misoerstaline strates, The anorphows metal ras with Mandom, noncyutaline structure, The mkrorsaline materials re abo Tapily geenched but thy pms aie ctl ire, To acseve he coking tre in any alloys (> 0K eit esta sre and the depie of on and growth dominate the ma approach forming controled io seructres because of he pd convective cooing, Fora parc of diameter D cooling by convertion, the secondary dendrite arm spacing Y i tea hase materal oe Figur 3121) piven, v=o on where Cis clleton of material and process constants is an exponent Predicted to ange between 0S and 1, dependent one alloy sompeniton and sldiation mae. For a spheial dcop, both convection and q wk y 5 secondary dendrite = arm spacingnation sontbtetocooing Tere cotruton cach depend on SEES hrmat condi, tomration temperature, es temperature. ee cay anl as peste Fr somieation ysaco, ete ey aation wich pew slower colg ate than pole Powder Metaluray Seerce {ova of extn matra at posible, Once nleaton has occured the ‘otied marostractre determin hy he promt ate of the sb fom ‘heli be growth ate cannot hesipored by difsinalreartion iol te emesis (ahh prowthate or tow temperate then ifort {sta structure anipated. However, the growth rat fw ax com parediothe dfsionraten inthe igi, the dena ates re expetd In mest css, eter mati properties sult om high temperate gr ints large underooting male pale sis, and rpidnteatio. For anally me, there wll be asoldieation cate above wich the icvostu transtion in solid msrostrutare occurs witha cooing tte nexcess of 10" K's Such cling racy give shore sobiication times, with the tne decreasing the pai sie decreases, For ella microsite witht Sendeticsoliiation, the dee fora high mulation rate and a fw {rowth rate Maninization ofthe macetion rate with reset the row Fat ncates a parte se nea 10 pm is optima for fers lon “A important concer with the soidfetion tne for ap atomized ponder The sldsiation time for gas atomization can be ete eu shee Tithe atomiation temperatre ofthe gs ambien), Tite mle temperature, Inthe soldi emperatr, Maths eat of oon nd Cy and fn ie the beat capacity and density of the mel, respetivel The beat ‘Chater coefficient hy convective cooling increase with he gs thermal Conductivity andthe Reynols mane ofthe sytem. Ths Equation 310 ‘only approximate the complenty of eluting the soliton ime. practi consequence ofthe solidification tne that k governs he ir of thestomiation chamber For ently atomizer the chamber sizes eat ‘tn: forargonatomiation the chamber on the oder ong athe ‘ne of met explosion atomization, the convective cooing coticen Small and the chamber sir son the order of 15min eight. AL the other etree, td stoieation using asad water ony fees 403m ‘hambe diameter. Inston, tisalko a sonsern to control partie shape by determi ingthespheridzaton ime Ashorspheroitiation ime favored ow rit out (high atomization temperature ove the gus} and high ove exit welocy. Aso high surface energy and small artic ize a ‘phercal pric formation before soliton. Throughout thsscctiontbe role parle ein determining the powder structure has been emphasized fine parce ie eabances rps colin Thus amorphow powders tad by smal pari dimensions" tis tnimportan golf fate womization efor intense th ed fie Dari sizes to provide favorable micrsracurl abuts. However Associated withthe ine aries are the problems are nterparl fiction and preter surface conanaion The mers of fie parte se ae obvious and warrant ping tenon fo cna for overcoming ‘hetions to han ine powder, 5 Atomiztion Limitations ‘Atomizaton is generally ited to wea shan the speed of sound The estimated uppe ait for the het extraction rte 10 on) Fort particle sien the 1010100 range, the song ete approntaty 10° withsomespoileapaitis as bighas 10° s Splat quenching esa solid subsist to apd cool this ribbon or paris and ean gv eat ration rate of 0°) Ks}- igure 3 24shonsasoniparion of expected Secondary dendrite arm spacings for various material and proesing tec ques versus the coling rate Obviously, water stomiation provides = etter microstructure than gas atomization Comsquet it not surpis ingot’ ages dendrite arm spacing. pm cooling rate, K/sing to he resent coupling of water and gas tomizition o provide for ‘ream reibup.spheazation ndsimulancous qucnching Spat quench ing provides fr tore rapid eat exeation than any of he stmiaton| technigurs However, surfs ondation and an regular are shape ae advantages to plat techniques, Using gan atomization, the mana patil ize Tor producing amonptous alloys appt 1 be 40 xm. This ‘ils dependent onseveral variables however, efit paces Imcroentaline piers. Figure 3.28 shows the dilerene i slace rae tire forthe tne material eased byt dierent cooling rater The w= ‘omized ponder exhibisa uniform citallaatn pater whi the court Sentiugal powder ha a deni suture. Coneptaly, fre reduc ventas ea oan amorphous powder. a OO 20. 4. Example of apd Soldiiaion Rate Ponder Products sithot perspective othe resultant pode proper, Ae example il ven to demonstrate the propery development in stomied powder Syslems A more dead dann on he Benet avaiable nthe report through use of rapid quenching techniques Table 3.4 gives the mama Solu for tice atest alumi based onthe ulbriom pare Sivgram. For comparison the table also gives the solublty gered by ‘api echingecriguce. The extended yl esa rom he ape ten extition and comer nabity to isionallyrepartion the ZABLE Sh Nomi i ap Sa Tale 35 provides un example ofthe propety developments possible by ‘headton ofa normally segrgating pecs ke lithium to alumina. The uly 2024 nthe Theat condition Thetale compare tects ‘apisoliieation wth and % eu ado tthe strength and adulus ae improved by he lthium addition, although the tty Is legridd, is mot impressive tht the latigue its improved y rapid ‘benching and bia aon, A fnalexample ofthe property improvements sr witha nickel basally IN-100. Tale 86 gives the mechanical properties for rapidly sbi poses proesed hy both hot sont presing and extrusion. The ein ‘wirotuctursssocaed with api enching ste enhanced properties re the aveast materi The enhance predic properties lad To po rue sersice Me through icine cont forthe apily slidPowder Mealy Sslorce “hes three ables ilstrate the property improvements pote pos bie trough rapid soliton. Ponder metallurgy provides one pote nprouch to contol ofthe mater semis and mtosrcture, Thee Peril il be fuer expanded by fur esearch and developments in pone fabsication and processing Emphass has been gen to hs subject Frese ote aniipated growth for powder metallurgy inthis ae, G. Approaches to Forming Specitic Metal Powders Almost all mates ound in enginccrin ean be proces into patice- late forms, Thecommon materials alsin Tale along ith he pes ‘of fabrication approaches, Mention bs been made throughout caper ‘TROUT appr palo Vom Nel Pao o tothe aplcbilty ofthe various proces to specific metal stems. The blk of ts information eta in wandard references such ss Use, Yevarbaum, Goevel Jones, MeDermot and Poster" These ap proaches epeset he pee manifestations ofthe gence pode brick Tiononcepslspecton of Tale 37 will acquaint the reer withthe seal approaches to powder brian, H. References 2.1. K. Beddow, The Production of Metal Powders by Atomusation, Heyden and anes peg CE Ie a eg et tein 134. Hh, *Nuckation Uneeooling and HomagencowsStractresin Rapidlyig Ano awd Sip Me pp TetbSt Ponder Viste PRWA ROR Prot Prcunyof Metal and SSocets, Warrendale, PA, 182, 9p. 3847 2 ALR. Poer, Hand of el Pods, Renita, New York,NY Retin Eide Pres Ponder Mat of Tan als FW 25. Simin" MathenaelPhysa Conran Reuding he rods "Mal Powder Poder Mary our Met nr 9 vo ngs 973,922 2.1 Srey and W. Exam, “Sts in Gao Reine: Par An Tapers Sindy af Nekel One Reducon Wi Hoge” Met Tan 2.1 Tallon, “Pomier rodtionhy Gand Water Norizaion of ui 20, 1 yaserbaum, Tcl of Metal Pdr Ren saps Noyes | STUDY QUESTIONS 3.1-How might parse shape be aused wing the water stomiation| 312Bronze powder farmed int lakes by jailing. a) How might Patil ize be measured forthe fs? b) What factors ould aid the formation of Make shape c) What the expe variation in Nake 3.3 Ingusatomiaton,tisfound hat the mun patil size increase with ret sos, Why des his occur and wil here alo be a shape effect? 34" Amalloys gas atomized at a enperaure sity above the gus For a 100 gm partie the socom tine (4s and the secondary leit in ai t concentrations on the order of 40m! Such a danger ecsates ean handling of metal powder. E. Summary Comments Thischapter hs given an overview ofthe precompaction pe sociated wih forming metal ponders Mixing, nding, ubrcation a loner tion activites have Been described Thee consis the main acti invohed in powder handling before compaction. Fach of theve tp tat the ponder harateritcs andthe repos othe consldaion ete The ‘aren properties and the grossing se shhh inflenced bythe pe \atious properties There ho single approuch to obining the estedPowder Metalgy Sclnoe In ponder ising or blending, the foes i om the interparticle rion within th poser lt. The powder characterise, ape, ad sulace Condition nen the cae of sich operations Dierenes in powder sz, ‘olume othe miner cccupied by power miner shape and rotational sped {boinlencetheateof ening Toomogsoeye determined Wy thetime ‘of mixing, the intl sereation and the efcenc ofthe operation. The ‘ree mainsourceso seargationna powder mas are diferenesin partie Sr shape an dens As thee proper dle betwee wo powdets tbe “ica in ataiing uniform mining blending wil aso irene. Salty ‘Snsidration imply ceua handing and minimization of dot peneration F. Reference: 1.1.7, Bakhnora, Britnmmil Hci of Meta: Toy of Ponder 2 MH Coke, DJ Stephens and} Been Powder Ming A irate Save Pond Toh 19759015, 90.12. 3.01 Hauer “robe in Poder Min” Poceings Pose Sema. isaac Piumee Rese, Aur 17 stn Sp. 4. Minoan Ae Congr and Nag. Expy of Mel Ponders 0S 5, LED domes MT Kerak an RM Koere."The Ele of Moc tine 7. WIE Kuh otros” Crain Parr WE. Raha Lage) and 4 Simfoca"Detmnaton of he Optima Retonl Spe for Ponder ‘Map fnrt Pondr Met Powa Tach sl spp. 391.296 9 R To LT Fannd FS Ls Marr sa Mixa of tcomponet Sei Parc Review". Powder al Sis Techs IP, 02 pp 28 10. S°8. Wedeshaum, "Maing of Sl daha In Cems Biri ‘oi2sT Brew and 1-6. Hooper Academe Pr New Yor NY 1, J.C Wilms "Mining of Sob.” Poder Te, 198,926.12 1B Yaron ana avis "The Efe Lubatonon th Pesing of Metal Powder Compact” Powe Met 188, vl pp. 1915 G. Study Questions 441 Dire between abicant and a bade. 142 _Wnat are he negative consequens of lubicating a powder? 43. Phetlyiccoppr ponder of ~10D10-+325 mesh siz gives the allow ingapparent denstes and aren denies 350 MPacompaction pres) sharing amounts ie stearate amount apparent green LMS denny gem! deny go! 00 21% 69 as brs oes 10 an 68 20 2s on {plain why the apparent density decreases athe amount of ube is Explain why thegeen density has nonlinear variation withthe amount ot sree. ©) Sheth he expected geen strength variton wih amount of hibrcant 44 What isthe optimal rotational speed of « doble cone lender with 8 eight nd to eof 0.48 m and mania dame of 0.35 45 Go partici ae observe to spontaneously agaomeate in sltrahigh ‘acu why des this cc +46 What fect would ubication have om the low characteristics of & ‘coiusallystomied pond? 447~ Soft meas ike tin) hve been proposed as binders for improving the ven density of pesed powders, What problem might be antiiatea From us f such binder? 448~Ion powder wih a theoretical density of 7.86 gem’ and a apparent density of 804g ems horougls mixed with Lwin stearate, What ste theoretical density forthe mintre? Make anestimat ofthe appar deny. 449 For acyingrical mixer, assume the numberof revolutions needed for "ul mixing inereass proportionally with the mixer date, Under ths "sumption show how thevolameof ponder ised perunitime wary wh he einer diameter.CHAPTER CompactionCompaction A Introduction In most application for powder metallurgy, concern with propertis sictatesthat ph densities be achiesdincompattion, Compaction eeson mas, whe providing shape and dimensional contol to the pode. The ‘means of dleriagis pressure tothe ponder, the mechani constas td the ele of prettrztion ar the main proces paracicr which deter The fndamentls of powder compaction are emphasize, followed by a trie dnesion of the echnlogy. Topic involving simultaneous pesing and sintering, sch shot posing, wl be intodueed ater the chapter 08 String lo his chapter, the phenomenology and efntions precede the ‘material relations and there. The interaction betwee the compa: tion variabis, powder characteristics andthe compact properties deel ‘oped and then 4 bri veriew considers ooking and part ds, B. Phenomenology of Compaction An external pressure i acl to bith shape the powder and promote higher packing densities. The ckematic of powder compaction shown is Figure prods a hai for defining he stage of sompaction. The leanion with presraton i fom a loose ara) of parties o cose packing. Subscjuen, the pot cont deform as the presure nee. Finally the partes wadergo extensive pase deformation, A the ese nngof acormpacton ves, the powder usa dts appronaely equal powder there ian ences of vod space no strength and & low coordination number number of touching eighbor pris). As pes apd, he Ceordination. The inal preuriation therefore analogs to rating "aed by partie dying arena ied earrangerent. The er {ermal portion oeompustioais aided by hard perce eras (cha wth Tneesingpesure provides beter packing al east deresing oro ity, as shown in Figure 52. These papi ar for sphere! brome prices —- increasing pressure ‘packing occur wth tw emt of parte ges Wh hgh compacton been patos. ntl the number f conta gross parte eat ‘gement through plastic deformation. Thus, the presure causes localized Asformation atthe contacts, ging work (ran) hardsing and allowing new contest formas distance betwen pats deste. The nterpat ects rn on ated upeans, Dain coma ald ‘elding a the interparticle contacts conus to he dev termed he en stent The bbe shonin Fe 3 er AS the compaction presue is futher increased, the amount of each parts undergoing past deformation increases” Ai low peu, plastic Now slocalzedto parte contacts, Aethepreaueinceaes homogeneous Plastic low oceus throught the compact. Withsacentpesuration, the entire patie becomes work si) hardened asthe amount of prety eceases.Conseguey, any further gains in pressed density (erect emi requie even greater expenditures of ents rom he external presonde MetaurgySeence 285 ym spherical bronze porosity, % 8 number of 3 contact ‘area, 10° um? contacts nN 1 pressure, GPa ‘ora soctyoccete win poonraton na male tows a eee ‘mberateonacepr arse (pacing ome ie cota aes ‘acomatony Cangacton lara purcleepscungsra Slaton nea intuence compaction, Likewise, a fin patil size hinders compaction cute ofthe her inerpartise ition "Atvey high compaction presuts n exons of 1 GPa, massive deforma tion asc, lewsng tne pore ies, Continua presuraton beyong this lel ot ite beet The marl rexponse smart tha ofa dense sel Rei a te pressure elt inflation of the materia wth an Elastic springhack. During pressurization the stages of ensiaton over angementaccrs presse ess han 08 MPa, The deny change By Topecen Jstene pono can te atte to retrangement Athaher ‘Comacion resres, plastic deformation the mor form of densiaion for metal Ponders. The porosity decree below 10 during the paste flow stage Extensive stalnhurdnig begin to occur a 0 10 Main most metas and preseddesiticsover 30 ofthese ied, Ast tal Powter hardness increases and asthe tity to work harden decrease Ttagmenation atcipaed. These ae inherent mach properties whi combine withersallography. chemical nding tionand oid stato Aztermine the eine of compaction. Ernie powder variable tke the onde size and shape cat havea eually lags elfet on cornpaction ©. Conventional Compaction Conentona posdercompatonperorminhard oon ofthe pe stow in Fare. The prope ep tr) for such ol et ding resing ar shown n gue SA. The proves he ea in ‘shite ponders pent and gs ltralconsit ote ponder Mon. Compaction performed sing Both an operand tome! punch The upp punch reacted dig power ili Ths ws pce postion dt oder my steed thei potion. Th allows or enya pdt fined uu of ponder The pond vibrated int the de rom an xernal ed shoe. Th fl poiton ils rom the lowes pone poston ‘turing resrivation alow reing inthe cet thee Ate ing the toner punch drop othe pening pion andthe upper punch brought into thd. Boh punches ded ogeneae tc hn powde’ mas A thcend he sumption stroke the ponder expences {he maximum st. Fall the aper punch semeved snd te lover Pinch sued othe compact. THe Jk hen repeats thane i onder though baththe upper anions penhorn Figures) and $8 ae showa a tmp shapes, the seal shapes can Be que complek o> ‘cated byte part shape I commonta avs cores postoned win the pune fom tral ep ot hls in th compa The pasion the fer puch can change ring powder fio unr powder rlaeten thoughout the svi. General wea praiemwih high Presure compaction Tog yea frmedvom cull orcometed ti prong ie ‘When pes sans fom uth bom and top punches, th oes lemed doble ton prog. Alea, Slee pea "ante rom ony one puch the proc tested ig acon pes ing Aloting dc none ee the cain punch an i on a sek thar oth punches wor guia heer sultancesy, Tes eure ie beter taforey tothe porter rie ‘Aer compaction the pat ma be removed fm the de. The foneupper oe a powder lower Punch Fre $3 conor nh ad rocco chen ejection fil pressing compaztion postion ostion xerted 10 pus the compact out of he di called the ection fore, A ‘withdrawl pe pes fore the ch dowratpa the part an lowet punch, 1 general stem of part cisco exats for declaring the shape compli AS the amber of part eves and the complexity ofthe pring Aeon ierease, the prt clasicatonaloncreaser ented in Tae There are several modes of pressing and according tere areseverdl type of proses including hauls, mechanical, rotary, otc ad a I teaiional pre pressing, he eative motion othe punches eed shoe nd core ods reset toll a predetermined seauens Figure 34 proides ssimpleexamie ofthe reative tions during pein or wcyingl part Shape: Such motions ean be generated by hydraulic pistons or by cam D. Theoretical Basis Tein problem poder sompuctions the ie mal tion wit he powder. Thi ton cates the applied presre to decease with depth the power be. There ae many portant inisccharacterstin of & one hates the pressure densi-tengh lations in a powder come ac, These include the macril proper ike hardncs, work grin) huréning rte, surface tion, and chemical bonding between particles ually important ate the exten actors associ wth the powder sie ‘hap, bration ad he mode of compaction In ths section, the presure fist ona ponder developed mathematical ised on Jones ad Lamy mens etal" 10 show the source and magne ofthe fon eles. 1. Fundamentals of Compaction Consideracxintca compact of diameter D and height H suchasdeawn InFigie 55, Analyzingathin ection of eight dH when thee inan eternal Pressing force, shows tht the peste om top ofthe element and that transtedthough the element tom Py wl flr bythe normal ore cing against ftion, Mathematically, the balance of frees canbe xpresed solos 3F=0= A(R) +06, snapplied pressure ‘thie snd purse re evo an te Sea whore Fg the normal fore, is he coffe of fristion between the Power andthe di wal. and Atheros sectional arc. The aera ore anbe given iaterms of he applied pressure witha proportionality constant 2 Theatr represents the ratio thera stress tote asi testis R= mPa 62 The friton fore Fs culated dirt from the normal fore nd the coeticent of ition Funai 63 ‘Combining terms pies the pressure dlerencehetwen the op and Maton the powder element 3 aP= PP, = yA turPa > 6) lato of he ese em ih eps coe i sn at expL-turx!D] 69) ‘This equation is applicable to singe ation presing. I shows that he pressure decreases ath depth nthe powder bd. Examples of plots ofthis ‘xpresson are given in Figure 3, Note the fst ofan reas inthe er Compaction increasing uzH/D. 00 02 04 06 08 10 distance, x guess Trepresit grad teow netop punch ‘Sronby Equa 8, Th agen peste ce 1H) Dattenton willbe giventothespicance of thistermin part this section. The wal con conte to dereased pressure with depth ‘Actual compacts wl abo experince ition with the punch faces which ads lateral component tothe pressure grades. Doubl sting compas ion wl havea simultaneous pressere profilo both he op and baton Punches. The esti soreomogeneotspesue profi in he soma Forthedoubleactngese, Fquation Sisal, bl the distances now the stance othe ears punch. la either ca, he prs dea depends on ‘the compact height to diameter ratio, With a decresnng ameter, the rssure decreases moce apy with depth Hence fr homogeneous com action, small eight to diameer ais ae desirable Forasingleended pressing, he average compaction ses isetimate 6 = Pit D) 66 and fora double ended pressing the average ress is approximately 5 = Pita Dy on The awerage stress dependent om both he geometry (H/ De interpar slefritionz)andthe de wll rion (High erage stieses are stained inshort compacts with age siametersund bist wal. Lubrcton ‘of he de wal aids compaction by reducing the etna oc, The eet ofthe de wall tion to lower the effieny of compton. CConsausmy, the compact has nonhomogeneous desist geen10 pressure ratio 06; O04 02] oo 0 400 800 compaction pressure, MPa (ores. to cao! Tana etaternecmpacto eee double ation pring ae shown in Figure 5.10, In oth compacts, the hight co amt ratio unity, the cose lfition 9 and the pressure ratio nS. tn thesingle ston psig, ih lowest enya thecompac bottom. Atematies the dou action presing isthe lowes ‘ensy Inthe very cee of the compact Considering that the compact strength is dominated by the aren deny it ean to pole tha the Strength and hardness patter wil look quite ia othe deny profes Showin Figure 3.10. A smal stesratio ator () deal or compact ‘uiformity. Tis imps that «high interparticle ton wl ai homoge iy i the pring operation. Unfortunay. shih nerpanic icon hers compaction reyuting much larger presses. Ths thet ‘ghimerpuretFicion so lower verallcompact density we incening the homogeneity. The presare rato factor relate to the common inte Pate friction ekaractertic, To Gite no cael anal havea {teats the ink between packing o wand the response to compaction. The other important faciors the eight ameter ratio. A thiatos increased, density ardent a compat ll tease and the overall ‘compact dest wil decree Figure 11 gies thers of Davee and Zell for a ing action presig of coppee wing constant compaction pressure of 10 MPa, Plots ofthe approximate presure isbn the single double action ‘ction 7 RE ES dass height 2 | ul : ist i 0 radius, 0/2 Fre 530. Cert erty inesPonder Matalgy Setnce Es H/0=0.82 [goo foo Be 90 9 H/0=1.66 sce 200 00 t F pressure contours, MPa Faves $11. Prati sation i compacted capt soma pine Soh ecanalatinechagttodanstmes Soybeans compass re eno eight to ameter ton of 4,079 and 1.46. An Ince inthe hight oie rato ress preter Gens gains fa loer blk erty In imrng he amount of ompat shrinkage ‘ares ines wih he green densa ow geen density results in alas Shrnkage In many PM sppiation shrinkage 8 undseabe brat ‘tetes robles indiensional cone Furberg he rent gon ty paints par na prob bests he sinensis wl hang ‘omystematealy: Hence Gs tht minal ten dey ations ‘xa toc uniormiy in both proper anl dienion ar snag. Parametric Relations An understanding of two important paraeti retions secs a sucssonof compaction, The lithe dependence the yroen density on "hecompaction rewure Second sthevarahiono he green proper ih "iter density oF compaction peste. Inthe geen tate he emphasis ison ‘he ree tenth with only minimal atention vo other properties sich as icity. Thssection peseats several oftheavalale relations developed for 1. Green Deny as Function of Applied Presare ties theporonydesreses. The compresiblity ou powders dfined the deosiy tind at a preset compaction psu. provides bai for comparing powders for ther ease of compaction. The intementl desi tin with prestr relts to the remaining press alos as 8) Wee Piste applied presse, i the factional poroity, and Ks Proportonalty const: Rearanging and integrating Equation 38 gives. Ince KP 9) here ithe apparent poosty at the begining of compaction. Fauation 5.9 ignores he mechans of compaction; however apart be cmp cally apple tomctal power compcion inthe pres ange or 1 0 TOD MP, General itispecesar to aseount fr teil consolation leanints (rearngement and multiple mechanisms of compaction, th Equation 59s modified fells nee KPKe en whee K, and Ks are characte ofthe densification mechanisms, dB accounts for teerangeren. Other expression, sina to Equation & 1, have Been presented inthe pat, evened by Cope and Eaton” Hom. vr te form represented by Faation 5.10 ext sua the observed compan ‘on behavior of metal nd ceramic powders. Sore example consolation data on thee metal powders are ven in Figure 12, AL pars of sporoximatly 300 MPa, the behavior silts, incting «change inthe ‘mechanism controling crmpaction fom se ing to work harden The fl of pomderhardess as ben stu for one materi Ah ‘hardness hinders compaction illustrate in Figur 313. Ths igus showy the degre of densification te percentage of pros eliminated by pes, ization forfour materia of varying barnes. Te pate ses fh our powders ere all 062 un. The higher the hades the ower the een Sei at any given compaction pressure For aha mater bath ietune and deformation ar expected In such acne Equation $10 Yale. The higher pressre behavior correspondstothe fragmentation process ithe lower prewure behavior correspends tothe plastic deformation evens Accordingly, bththe yield stempth andthe powde hanes contribute to the pressure-densiy behavior through the smstants Kean Ke For many neal powders. the Hagmentation process snot important rather, nerk, hardening is more of concern, Figure $12 demonsiraes to reion ot dominance. with to distin slopes accsrng above and Below copra ‘mately 300 MPa. The low presser ops corresponds to Kin Eauating hie the high pressure slope corresponds K At Compaction pesie,Powder Metaligy Seine 0.80 2B 040b 4 5 stainless steel 3 020+ 1 8 Fe = o10F 1 cu 005 0 200 400 600 800 1000 compaction pressure, MPa asst Thorton toon prey winapi sero png on ‘materio/nardoess . waco, BS : 90 a0 3 sio, 620 § 2 Ate S24 atu ue ee ts 0 ‘compaction ‘pressure, MPa ‘nate tan orenunghatanee Thee tconpacton acorn she pot Ccompacton below approximately 300 MPs; the material vel strength dominates, iuscratd bythe data in Figure $14. This plot shows How the slope Ky ‘ontelaes 1 the Wfowght ye strength of the ate. This apes compaction at pesuesin exces ofthat corresponding Lo pti ara fement' At high ompacton pest the ae of densetion lowe. thisrepon compaction povern bythe work stain hardening behavior of the material a israel y Figure $1, The te of work hardening litscompacton when actueis absent Forabrite mata he mater harness will niunce the compaction proces bseawe of the fering ‘deals of consoldation eatre vers sui ardening). The eorration, between compaction behivioe and wiought material popes at epee ented by Figures 5.12 throught the prima mater eteco Lubricants ar often mixed with» metal powder to id ction an to minimize toot wear. Geer he briant has amined fl om the ‘essredensityrelaion. Small amounts of Iubecan il compaction by ‘reducing the fron forces. However, asthe compaction peste incensed the optima amount of bream deteses bees of ote fi. bythelubriantandhencealower posed densi sul: Figues band ‘ow the est of abrieation an the cea dest an th ston fore for iton ponder. In practice, balances reuired Detwoen te desis to Feee ie wal rion, minimize the adil load tant and maximize the gre rope 4 = ° a 90 30 arrears Inverse yl stern. work Fareany tee Fawes.s¢ onttorarourmes pons (A. Ne W.Cu dst) Saretnyeemaatycugh Won eager tine2 Gren Strength Variation With Density The econd major concen in poder compaction ss withthe green sirength Pore seduce the fete load Peringareain a ompac ths the : yer eossectional area, Ao Pores at 38 bak strength vedaced by the wer eon sec Stressconeeirtorsand ar effects tack tation ies, Comegueet 2 onder compact expected to hae strength ss than that fan guia nt proces wrovght (10% deme) compact In ot he ech tata testi renga ah erty han nee ‘nef the prem in pressing ea ack of seructral integrity nthe een fnmpact. This problem can be manfeed as cracks, mination are Senn forength) rads, and poor handling characters. Come ‘jen, the ree strength variation wt density has considerable practical pplication. "The compton elations depend onthe various powde ‘ke particles, shape and interparticle frieton,Lubieation and compact ‘himensons algo nlaence the este of consolidation, The geen tenes texpeted ovary wth the factional deity pa the compact as follows: 5 = Casio) eu seco nth Cason. wrouet tenga {De acoy dependence. Seer tds ae stempe oink este tbvaoformlipy Some oft foros arecoectedin Tes. Ane ferappoinaton ester tt ort ity eet le ‘Toston are, tarwiegulee coal deny neve hs fom ret ne corp that ner cont ont ie the wea se Figure 3.7 shows frac surface, strain fae ome par ineasToetrcere ronson trae ou mca een Th ihr comac se woe peer aly fh cofect which terns seg Formonoxted ‘Spires the strengths det ke tote contact onesie, which depends TARLERE Seay any Mos fu Gamay toa at fen the pressed densi a most cases, the strength aries withthe atonal, emi a8 «power function, tus, o= Coe” (512) here the exponent mis tater than ui: ‘Ahigheresa strength depends on ataning large degre of intrpartisle omtct during pressing An increase in the parce roughness sik gros Strength by providing for mechanical inrlockng of parle Tat spe "manne. aie partic sze pes morintrpancl bondingataghensree 66where Cs the equilibrium vacaney concentation an Cis he departure from the eau vale de to the surface curate, Fora conve rf he vacancy concentration i higher than equilibrium, whike fr & ‘onves surface tis lower than equbrum. Sie the umber of vacances {or the vapor pressure) thermally aetated, then the deviation fom ‘ulieam in Equation 66 bas aston temperature dependence Appice- thom ofthe concep sults in eaculation ofthe neck ie sa funtion of neck growth eatin he model for neck growth during intl sage sintering represents the conte af several estigatrs as noted by Thule and Thoma, tnd Exner "=" Asuming monosie spheres niall in point conte feck growth by a single mechani can be represented by a gneaized CORY = BUR" on where X is the neck radian, isthe parle rads is the isothermal Sineringtine, nd Bisacollcton of material and gomesc constants The “xpomen in Egution 6.7 termed the mechanam characteristic expo nem Theexponent ensth particles dependence. Te valves om, m and Bal depend onthe mechan of mass wansport. General the model representa by Equation 67 vl fora eck ie rao ss than 03. The ‘Sombiatons fers for he various mate anspor mechanism ven “Taber. Teach tem for B, there is atleast one parameter which ‘thermally activate, for example the dusty Dis vena Dy= Daexp(-QiEN ws) where Da isthe pre-exponential frauen factor and Q the activation {erg for difesion, Appends 2 contains data for several metals incloing| the diision frequency factor an activation eer ‘Sevralimportnt points shoul be ecg wih espet to Eguation 67 Fast there high set tothe inverse parte ve, Smale parce sieeve more rapid sintering, In all eases, temperature appear i 3 “xponeiial erm this sl mpeatre changes ean havea lrg fee Tine ha easy sal eet in omparson to tperature ad parle staing 1 hele oS pert so inferee Wisimportanttaconsiderthe distibutd nature of powders when dics ingthe parc size effect. The made Tor smering assume a homogeneous ‘rome However, intel powdersytemstherets adisibution i patle Size number of contacts per pail, and contac fatening due to erring presents scaling laws fr sintered compact whichis the eff ‘of parc siz onthe inal stage sintering Kneis" According 10 this concept th eet of change in parc size can be predicted ithe mass ‘eansport mechanism sknow. Thescling as sata the timetoreacha sven neck size rato depends on the particle ie The pare ie ist ‘Shows up in Equation 67s the exponent m, termed th scaling aw expo rent ASistedin Table. | the vale of mis inde othe dominant mass {tansprt mechani during sintering As the exponent dees in Man tude, there isa decreased sensitivity to partie wth espet othe ae of sinring. eis important ofealize that sieterng snot angle shane, ross. Many mately inter by emmpbested procs involving several ‘modes of mas flow, With change in partic su, ts posible to shite Slominantumtering mechanism besa the fering sensi opat ‘esse. General finer prices wil avr sintering by sfae ison Whe ako exhinting an overall restr rt sintering,Powder Metalugy Senos From an examination ofthe partis size dependence, some generis tion at possible, Fs, surface iffusion and pain boundary ilfon are anced eativeto te er processes yadecreasingprtlesize Latioe “iuion s-common contr to sitexng for mctalie powers, How ‘yer lati diffusion fot senate to parle sire sae the other 0 ‘Sifnion proce. In general inet parle sizes wl show Taster beck prowth and noe ss sintering ime or altemative mee ower mers Temperate to achive an egualem degree of inten. Coase powders slsitr slower i regu higher untringemperatres a onesie Ing mes During itrng the bth anspor processes wil eae a change in the ierparticle spacing eck growth ae place. The eu shrinkage of ‘hepowdercompuct Alera, ether surlae dilsionorevapoation- contention are the dominant sintering mechan, then thre wl emo Shrinkage. The approach ofthe atilecemerscan Be approximately rated tothe neck i flow ALL. 0x28 09) here the svinkage L/L can Be taken a the compact lent change ‘iid by he ina ingth Moaition of Equation 6. form a skit (ati = Berk win where theexponeatis ow hai ofthe eck arom exponent. The shrinkage {pproac io montoring sintering onl fr balk transport process Figure 67 shows the shrinkage behavior of ne stains sl powder sintered in hydrogen. Both the temperature and tine dependence a ‘strata ia these plas, Sich shave common in he sintering of metal ponder The shrinkage plt (logon follows the form peice by Equa fon :10 upto shrinkage, Longer ins aber temperatures an higher vn denies all contrat tow higher sintered dennis ‘Shrinhagets aweful parame forfollowing the inering procesinceit liminates messirement finds peck izes Ia thisrega the ava ‘sect oner the cae ponder compact quite Henlic Stvinkageis viewed in ino extreme manner in poder metallurgy, Many manulactures of Precion component sive for no srnkage during the sintering eee IF Siintage canbe avoided, then final sompact dimensions canbe used in ‘dsigning the compaction ting The ccuratce of shrinkage mandates ‘esingo he toting to bengal sintered part intoacepable ints Thiscan beadificul ask sats othe deny gradients intecorpacted 304L Stainless. steel, -2dym o ® eTESe rem seg 2 glare | x [eet ge $ hs or q Bro Eo i on | Ses 7 FS Socom 00 a0 73493 00 swnperoire'C tie min que 67. Siteng ta mowing omc! denen ane sage otra Se nary eratn ath genset on sein umpteen or shons tw oo abnage time utara rdced oy Emnaens 10 powder Density rads ratte ier shrinkage durin {rin Comeauet, warpage snd sommiform shapes ar pose For Some mati whet high este ate mandates or performance igh intered densest achieve y allowing crib uring Sint thee eit the action of bulk tampon smrng prose ge important This depending te mater iene of compotion, ane reied popes posible ta shag il be soup o vee Otviows ie, tmperatare an partis ne are means of ean Spree snrng mechan to chive the inka ans hein tag itrng olor strikage a prs by Equation 6.108 only aor he st of thrinkage A th pte Shing foc or sintering has an ier sage models appropriate Property development in» sinringmatra feer asad wh he intermediate stage of sing. Farhenore the asumptons of el ‘phere of aus le packing hopin foe nha se ai sinpieation tat ep fom pia. sae ae Anothe aproach to monitoring the sintering proces ithe surf tea ‘ikesrinage the surface area provides an average meane ofthe degre sintering throughout x powder compact. However, kha the advange of ‘ng appicableto allo the ansport mechansns Ts in surface are vided by thea surtee area flows he theta sintering tine sePonder Matalrgy Seance assy cy” com where 3S sthe change in sueace ate vied bythe inti surlace are, td teexponenvtelas tothe mse transport mechan as ated n Table (62 In Eauaton G1, the constant C resembles the constant Bot Eaustion £7 witha sl urea ference onthe ode of 20 Figure 8 provides tm exile ofthe seace area es fortwo copper powers sied at TOIO"C: In this eve, the kinetics inate x prov contol by surface illusion with lalice ifs contsbtion forthe TU pm powder Beyond a surface aea eduction of approximately SOs, the na tage model represented in Table 6.2 isnot applicable Like he eter mes of Snteringduring the inal stage, Eaton 6.1 represents aspen. isassumed thatthe particles aredeal spheres with equa ses and wotronie ropes, Furthermore, the model al asune ony one dominant mech copper spheres 70 oer oun 1010°C, Hy surface area loss BS/So, % 1 10 100 1000 time, hr [OF Sapeer apres a1 WHO Forte 0 pv rode te mesma ac sntring fdofeation In some instances, the densification parameter, define in Equation 62, has vale a a monitor of sintering. The advantage ofthe desiation| parameter isthat t oemaizes the eet of avail ren density with Fespect to the observed sintering effects, Shrinkage is seni to ia emiy variations. The demiy ofa sintered compact canbe caused om ‘he amour of srnkage and the gen dens. p= alll ati 61) The densifeton parameter is another means of monitoring he compact densi change durtngsineing. Higher compaction pesures cate higher teen densi eit otenoundempircal tit th sintering ensifcaton 'Sindependent a he ereen deny 1 data anti Definitive statements concerning the sintring proses eguieinfrmation fom the morphology, kina terms and temperature dependence. tn mi innanes, studies of model systems have Been conducted t slate the ‘arouses of time, temperature, parce sire, compaction pressure stmosphere, an so on. Taese model sts have comated of ite Spheres, an sphereon-plate geometries ee the revi by Thummlkr and Thoma}. Thesintring memurements arpa the neck surface ares, densification o shrinkage. The tine exponent, temperature deen nce actvaton ener) pale sie exponent and various otras ‘sbueretion nt the techie, Ingeeral, wecan deal wih a nonspecieintrig parameter ywhishcan represen any ofthe Stein monitor, Fortra sintering, pot of the Togs) versus lottime) wil provide bast Tor extracting the time exponent. Figure 6. provides an example of sch af the nck se data For 180 user spheres sintering at PC. Inti case the neck ec data forX/ Rare fit withaslopecorespondngto aie vue dillon Ina similar manne, the sation energy can be exacted frm experiments eformed ataliedigtempertures Figure IO ponidesan Arrhenius plot flog (shrinkage versus inverse absolute emperntte for? an lye ‘num powder. The slope ofthis pot allows calculation ofthe activation energy for ditfsion, ving vale of 05 ky mol, in exelent agreement with radioactive acer easements, To extract un atvation ene) important to perform experiments forthe time dependence ts ml a the temperature dependence. Experimental combinations of ine and ite ture dependencies ar necessary to oat the mechanism nd the ints