Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep

Changing markets Medicinal plants in the markets of La Paz and El

Alto, Bolivia
Rainer W. Bussmann a,b,n, Narel Y. Paniagua Zambrana c, Laura Araseli Moya Huanca b,
Robbie Hart a
a
William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden, P.O. Box 299, MO 63166-0299, USA
b
Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Calle Ovidio Suarez (26), Cota Cota, La Paz, Bolivia
c
Herbario Nacional de Bolivia, Instituto de Ecologa-UMSA, Campus Universitario, Cota Cota Calle 27, La Paz, Bolivia

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Ethnopharmacological relevance: Given the importance of local markets as a source of medicinal plants
Received 19 June 2016 for both healers and the population, literature on market ows and the value of the plant material traded
Received in revised form is rather scarce. This stands in contrast to wealth of available information for other components of Bo-
26 July 2016
livian ethnobotany. The present study attempts to remedy this situation by providing a detailed in-
Accepted 28 July 2016
Available online 29 July 2016
ventory of medicinal plant markets in the La Paz-El Alto metropolitan area, hypothesizing that both
species composition, and medicinal applications, have changed considerably over time.
Keywords: Materials and methods: From October 2013October 2015 semistructured interviews were conducted
Medicinal plants with 39 plant vendors between October 2013 and October 2015 in the Mercado Rodriguez, Mercado Calle
Markets
Santa Cruz, Mercado Cohoni, Mercado Cota Cota, and Mercado Seguencoma and Mercado El Alto in order
Bolivia
to elucidate more details on plant usage and provenance. The results of the present study were then
Globalization
compared to previous inventories of medicinal plants in La Paz and El Alto studies to elucidate changes
over time and impact of interview techniques.
Results: In this study we encountered 163 plant species belonging to 127 genera and 58 families. In
addition, 17 species could not be identied. This species richness is considerably higher than that re-
ported in previous studies (2005, 129 species of 55 families; 2015, 94 identied species). While the
overall distribution of illness categories is in line with older reports the number of species used per
application, as well as the applications per species, were much higher in the present study. Overall,
informant consensus was relatively low, which might be explained by the large number of new species
that have entered the local pharmacopoeia in the last decade, although some species might simply have
been missed by previous studies. In course of the present study it became apparent that even well known
species might often be replaced by other apparently similar but botanically unrelated species due to
environmental and market forces
Conclusions: The present study indicated that, while the oristic composition of markets in the La Paz
metropolitan area remained relatively constant over the last decade, with this inventory adding about
20% of species to previous studies, the number of indications for which certain species were used in-
creased tremendously, and that profound differences exist even between markets in close proximity. The
dramatic increase in previously not used species used per indication might pose serious risks for con-
sumers. We found serious problems due to species replacements. Even plants that have a well estab-
lished vernacular name, and are easily recognizable botanically, can be replaced by other species that can
pose a serious health risk. Vendor education and stringent identication of the material sold in public
markets are clearly needed.
& 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

General ethnobotanical studies in Peru and Bolivia have fo-

n
Corresponding author at: William L. Brown Center, Missouri Botanical Garden,
P.O. Box 299, MO 63166-0299, USA.
E-mail address: rainer.bussmann@mobot.org (R.W. Bussmann).
cused mostly on Quechua herbalism of the Cusco area (e.g. De
Ferreyra, 1978, 1981; Franquemont et al., 1990). Other compre-
hensive studies have centered on the border region of Peru and
Bolivia around Lake Titicaca (Roersch, 1994), with many treating

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.074
0378-8741/& 2016 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
 R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695
the Kallawaya, famous itinerant traditional healers (Andel-Malek
et al., 1996; Bastien, 1982, 1983, 1987, 1992; Girault 1987). Other
broad studies from Bolivia include the pioneering work of Crde-
nas (1943, 1989), De Lucca and Zalles (1992), Oblitas (1992), Zalles
and De Lucca (1996), and Beck et al. (1999). In addition, studies in
Bolivia exist in for individual ethnic groups, e.g. Mosetn-Tsiman
(Aguirre, 2006), Jampiris (Alba and Tarifa, 1993), Ese Eja (Alex-
iades, 1999), Yuracar (Hinojosa et al., 2001; Vargas, 1997), Tacana
(Paniagua-Zambrana, 2001), and Chcobo (Boom, 1987; Bussmann
and Paniagua-Zambrana 2014; Paniagua-Zambrana et al., 2014), as
well as for individual regions, e.g. Cochabamba (Arrzola et al.,
2002; De Lucca, 2004), Chiquitana (Birk, 1995; Toledo 1996), Po-
tosi (Fernandez, 1999; Fernandez et al., 2003; Fisel, 1989), and
Chaco (Bourdy, 2002; Bourdy et al., 2000, 2004; Quiroga et al.,
2009, 2012; Quiroga, 2012). During the last years, the con-
temporary use of plants by local healers (curanderos) in the wider
region has been well documented (Bussmann, 2013; Bussmann
and Sharon, 2006a, 2006b, 2009, 2015a, 2015b; Bussmann et al.,
2007a, 2007b, 2008a, 2008b, 2010a, 2010b; Monigatti et al., 2013;
Revene et al., 2008).
Both healers and laypeople often buy their medicinal plants in
local markets. Information on the composition of the market ora,
the origin of the plant material, and the quantities of plant ma-
terial sold exists to some extent (Bussmann et al., 2007b, 2008a,
2009, 2010a; Bussmann and Sharon, 2009; Revene et al., 2008),
and some studies focus on the interface between traditional and
allopathic medicine (Bussmann et al., 2007a, 2009). Previous stu-
dies indicate that patients regularly receive their diagnosis from
allopathic doctors, and then go to the markets to buy traditional
remedies to treat this illness previously diagnosed by a biomedical
health provide (Bussmann et al., 2007a, 2009). Vendors also fol-
lowed the allopathic concept. Initial bioassays indicate that at least
for antibacterial applications the efcacy of parts of the medicinal
ora can be proven (Bussmann et al., 2008b, 2010b; Hammond
et al., 1998), and preliminary data on plant toxicity exist (Buss-
mann et al., 2011). However, there is very little comparative in-
formation available about which plants are sold under which
vernacular name at any given time, for which indication, and
which dosage information, and what kind of information about
side effects vendors provide to their clients.
Given the importance of local markets as a source of medicinal
plants for both healers and the population in general literature on
local markets, market ows and the value of the plant material
traded is rather scarce. This stands in contrast to wealth of avail-
able information for other components of Bolivian ethnobotany.
Although the value of the international market for medicinal re-
ceives high interest (e.g. Breevort, 1998), and ecosystem services as
well as non-timber forest products do receive some attention
(Constanza et al., 1997; Godoy et al., 2000; Grimes et al., 1994),
studies on the trade volumes of local medicinal markets hardly
exist, and mostly focus on the export market (Olsen, 1998, 2005;
Olsen and Helles 1997).
Latin America is still terra incognita with regards to its medic-
inal plant markets, and detailed studies are of high importance as
even local health care authorities begin to promote com-
plementary alternative medicine. Macia et al. (2005) provided the
rst study of a high Andean market, focusing on La Paz, Bolivia.
This was followed by a short study by Justo Chipana and Moraes
(2015) in the same region. In addition, studies exist especially for
the very large medicinal plant markets of Northern Peru (Buss-
mann et al., 2007b), and a recent review of Lima et al. (1996) fo-
cused on Amazonian markets. However, information on the com-
position of the overall market ora of the La Paz metropolitan area,
and possible changes over the last decade is still lacking. The
present study attempts to remedy this situation by providing a
detailed inventory of medicinal plant markets in the La Paz-El Alto
77
metropolitan area, hypothesizing, based on long term experience
in the area, that both species composition, and medicinal appli-
cations, have changed considerably over time.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Ethnobotanical inventory
Since October 2013 we have been conducting an ongoing col-
lection of medicinal plant species and associated plant use
knowledge in the main plant markets of La Paz, Bolivia. Semi
structured interviews following Bussmann and Sharon (2006b),
under consideration of the collection standards established by
Cook (1995) were conducted with 39 plant vendors between Oc-
tober 2013 and October 2015 in the Mercads Rodriguez, Calle
Santa Cruz, Cohoni, Cota Cota, Seguencoma and El Alto in order to
elucidate more details on plant usage and provenance. Mercado
Rodriguez is the main daily market that supplies much of the
center of La Paz (covering a population of about 500,000 in-
habitants) with fresh vegetables, owers, and other products.
Fresh herbs are sold in a dedicated area by about a dozen vendors
in nonpermanent posts. Mercado Calle Santa Cruz is the so called
witch market of La Paz, where plants are sold in about three
dozen permanent stalls and in a handful of specialized herbal
stores. Mercado Cohoni, Mercado Cota Cota, and Mercado Se-
guencoma are small markets in the more modern southern part
of the city. Mercado El Alto is the main plant market in the in-
dependent city El Alto above La Paz proper. Vendor participants
were self-selected: every vendor in the studied markets was asked
if they wanted to participate in the study. Specialized herbal shops
were excluded from the study because they sold mostly plant
material that was, according to the owners, obtained from Peru,
for mesasofferings that are blessed and burned, and artifacts
for healing ceremonies, but few medicinal plants. Interviews were
conducted only after explaining the study to all participants and
obtaining their oral prior informed consent. All vendors were fe-
male and all were members of cooperatives regulating the sale of
plants for medicine as specied by the semigovernmental SO-
BOMETRA (Sociedad Boliviana de Medicina Tradicional). Age and
ethnicity of the vendors were not disclosed.. The structure of the
market stands in La Paz, as well as sourcing plant material and the
function of the vendors as advisors consulted for health problems
of the public, were comparable to the markets in northern Peru
(Bussmann and Sharon, 2006b). Initial contact and prior informed
consent were made and obtained by all authors together. Given
that only female participants were encountered the detailed in-
terviews were conducted in Aymara and Spanish by the female
authors to avoid gender inuence, because in initial surveys the
authors found that female vendors did not talk to men about
specic female conditions, e.g. menstruation, childbirth etc.
Vouchers of all species were collected, and all plant material
was identied and deposited in the National Herbarium of Bolivia
(LPB). No material whatsoever was exported from Bolivia. The
nomenclature of all species follows www.tropicos.org, under AP-
GIII (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, 2009).
The results of the present study were then compared to pre-
vious inventories of medicinal plants in La Paz and El Alto studies
(Maca et al., 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes, 2015) to elucidate
changes over time and impact of interview techniques.
2.2. Statistical analysis
Among markets and among studies, we compared plants spe-
cies reported as being used (unique Latin binomials eg. Aloe vera),
plant-uses (unique combinations of a species used for an ailment
 78
Table 1
Species table.

Family/Scientic name Vernacular name Medicinal Use categories (Ailment/Illness) Market Collection # LM

Adoxaceae
Sambucus canadensis L. Khojla (a) Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Wound swelling) Mercado Rodriguez 347
Sambucus peruviana Kunth Sauco (s); Khojla (a) Muscular-skeletal system (Strong blows); Non-specic symptoms and general Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 383, 488
illnesses (Inammation); Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Wound swelling)

Amaranthaceae
Chenopodium quinoa Willd. Quinoa (s); Jaru jupa (a) Muscular-skeletal system (Strong blows) Calle Santa Cruz 412
Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin Paico (s) Digestive system (Colics, Gallbladder, Gastritis/Ulcers, Stomach ache, Vomiting); Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 555
& Clemants Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Desinammatory) Rodriguez

Amaryllidaceae
Allium cepa L. Ajo macho (s) Blood and circulatory system (High blood pressure, Varicose veins); Metabolism Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto 546A
and nutrition (Blood cleansing, Diabetes); Muscular-skeletal system (Rheuma-
tism); Respiratory system (Asthma, Cough)

R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695

Allium sativum L. Ajo (s) Blood and circulatory system (High blood pressure); Cultural illnesses (So that Cota Cota 566
the kari kari (a spirit) stays away, To stay young); Respiratory system (Cough,
Tonsils); Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Hemorrhage)

Anacardiaceae
Schinus molle L. Molle (s) Blood and circulatory system (Varicose veins); Cultural illnesses (Against curses, Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 447
Air, Incense for cleansing, Lightning strike, Ritual cleansing, Sajra (a specic Rodriguez
curse), To make children speak (13 years)); Digestive system (Stomach ache);
Muscular-skeletal system (Rheumatism, Sprains)

Apiaceae
Apium graveolens L. Apio (s) Digestive system (Liver) Calle Santa Cruz 654
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Hinojo (s) Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Galactogogue); Skin and subcutaneous Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 446
tissue (Skin spots) Rodriguez
Mulinum spinosum (Cav.) Pers. Choke kaylla (a) Respiratory system (Cough, Pneumonia) Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto 407, 531
Pimpinella anisum L. Ans (s) Digestive system (Stomach ache) Calle Santa Cruz 571

Aristolochiaceae
Aristolochia sp. Huaji (a) Cultural illnesses (Air) Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 439

Asteraceae
Achyrocline sp.
Ageratina pentlandiana (DC.) R.M. King Chillca (s)
& H. Rob.
Ambrosia arborescens Mill.
Artemisia absinthium L.
Baccharis genistelloides (Lam.) Pers.
Baccharis pentlandii DC.
Baccharis tola Phil.
Baccharis tola Phil. var. tola
Bidens sp.
Bocconia sp.
Wira wira (a) Respiratory system (Cough) 313
Muscular-skeletal system (Fracture bones) Mercado Rodriguez 473
Altamisa (s) Blood and circulatory system (Varicose veins); Digestive system (Stomach ache); Calle Santa Cruz, Cohoni, Mercado 320, 352
Muscular-skeletal system (Bone pain, Muscular pain, Rheumatism); Non-specic Rodriguez
symptoms and general illnesses (Affected by the cold air); Urinary system
(Kidney infection)
Ajenko (s) Cultural illnesses (Air); Digestive system (Diarrhea, Gallbladder, Stomach ache); Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Final Bajo 371, 441, 515
Infections and infestations (Anthelmintic); Metabolism and nutrition (Diabetes) Seguencoma, Mercado Rodriguez
Carkeja, Charara (s); Kimsa kuchu (a) Blood and circulatory system (High blood pressure): Digestive system (Stomach Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 535
ache); Urinary system (Kidney infection)
Chillca (s) Cultural illnesses (Air, Lightning strike); Muscular-skeletal system (Arthritis, Calle Santa Cruz, Cohoni, El Alto, 338, 339
Blows, Bone pain, Fractures, Sprains, Strong blows); Non-specic symptoms and Mercado Rodriguez
general illnesses (Fever); Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Acne, Wound healing,
Wound swelling)
Thula (a) Dental health (Molar pain); Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Blemishes) Mercado Rodriguez 466, 478
Lejia (s) Digestive system (Gallbladder, Stomach ache) Mercado Rodriguez 450
Chiri chiri (a) Muscular-skeletal system (Fractures); Nervous system and mental health (Epi- Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 516
lepsy); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Headache); Reproductive
system and sexual health (Menopause)
Amakari (a) Muscular-skeletal system (Arthritis, Rheumatism); Non-specic symptoms and Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto 457
general illnesses (Tumors); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Washing if a
fetus dies); Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Wound swelling)
Chersodoma sp.
Chrysanthemum sp.
Cynara cardunculus L.
Eupatorium azangaroense Sch. Bip. ex
Wedd.
Gnaphalium cheiranthifolium Lam.
Grindelia boliviana Rusby
Loricaria thuyoides (Lam.) Sch. Bip.
Matricaria chamomilla L.
Mutisia acuminata Ruiz. & Pav.
Mutisia orbignyana Wedd.
Parastrephia quadrangularis (Meyen)
Cabrera
Senecio sp.
Senecio canescens (Bonpl.) Cuatrec.
Senecio nutans Sch. Bip.
Senecio smithioides Cabrera
Sonchus oleraceus L.
Tagetes multiora Kunth.
Taraxacum ofcinale F.H. Wigg.
Werneria sp.
Werneria heteroloba Wedd.
Werneria nubigena Kunth
Xanthium spinosum L.
Xenophyllum poposum (Phil.) V.A. Funk Poposa (s), Zazawi blanca (a), Alcuma
Betulaceae
Alnus acuminata Kunth.
Wira wira (a) Respiratory system (Cough) Mercado Rodriguez 485
Santa Mara (s) Digestive system (Stomach infection); Muscular-skeletal system (Arthritis, Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto 552
Rheumatism)
Alcachofa (s) Blood and circulatory system (High blood pressure); Digestive system (Gall- Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 367, 502
bladder, Liver); Metabolism and nutrition (Cholesterol, Diabetes) Rodriguez
Mankapaki (a) Digestive system (Stomach ache); Muscular-skeletal system (Bone pain, Frac- Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 563
tures, Rheumatism); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Fever)
Wira wira (a) Respiratory system (Asthma, Cold, Cough) Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Final Bajo 342, 365, 513
Seguencoma, Mercado Rodriguez
Chili chili (a) Muscular-skeletal system (Fracture bones, Sprains) Mercado Rodriguez 321, 504
Kili koa (a) Cultural illnesses (Against curses) Calle Santa Cruz 536
Manzanilla (s) Digestive system (Stomach ache, Stomach infection); Muscular-skeletal system Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 492
(Rheumatism); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Desinammatory, Rodriguez
Inammation); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Childbed, Post partum care,
Post-partum washing, Uterus, Uterus inammation); Reproductive system and
sexual health (Uterus prolapse); Respiratory system (Cold, Cough, Sinusitis, Sore
throat); Sensory system (Eye irritation); Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Skin
cleansing, Wounds); Urinary system (Kidney infection)
R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695
Chinchircoma (a) Muscular-skeletal system (Bone pain); Nervous system and mental health (Epi- Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 368, 459
lepsy); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Headache, Nausea)
Muthu muthu / Kutu kutu (a) Cultural illnesses (Against curses, Black altar (offering), Lightning strike); Di- Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 455, 458
gestive system (Hemorrhoids); Metabolism and nutrition (Goiter); Muscular- Rodriguez
skeletal system (Muthu kata (damage to the vertebral column), Strong blows)
Pulica (s) Muscular-skeletal system (Fractures); Nervous system and mental health Mercado Rodriguez 449
(Nerves)
Paas akana (a) Muscular-skeletal system (Rheumatism) Calle Santa Cruz 437
Kea kea (a) Muscular-skeletal system (Arthritis); Non-specic symptoms and general ill- Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Final Bajo 328, 411, 489
nesses (Cancer, Fever); Respiratory system (Asthma, Cough, Throat) Seguencoma, Mercado Rodriguez
Chachakoma (a) Digestive system (Diarrhea, Gastritis/Ulcers, Stomach ache); Metabolism and Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto 406
nutrition (Blood cleansing)
Lampazo (s) Muscular-skeletal system (Back pain, Bone pain, Waist pain); Non-specic Calle Santa Cruz, Cohoni, El Alto, 364
symptoms and general illnesses (Fever, Inammation); Respiratory system Mercado Rodriguez
(Cough, Pneumonia); Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Bruises, Wound swelling);
Urinary system (Kidney infection)
Kana paku (a) Digestive system (Gallbladder, Liver, Stomach ache, Stomach acidity); Non-spe- Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 387, 498, 544
cic symptoms and general illnesses (Alcoholism)
Chijchipa (a) Digestive system (Stomach ache); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Childbed, Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 319, 421, 505, 509
Post partum care, Post-partum washing) Rodriguez
Diente de len (s) Digestive system (Gallbladder, Liver, Stomach ache, Stomach acidity); Metabo- Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 508
lism and nutrition (Anemia); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Al- Rodriguez
coholism); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Galactogogue)
Akana (s) Cultural illnesses (Against curses); Metabolism and nutrition (Diabetes) Calle Santa Cruz 436
Marancela (s), Janko warmi (a) Reproductive system and sexual health (Uterus prolapse); Urinary system (Kid- Calle Santa Cruz 422, 434, 422A
ney infection)
Janko warmi, Janukara (a) Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Cancer, Inammation, Quirwacin Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto 520, 534
(pain on the sole of the feet)); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Uterus);
Reproductive system and sexual health (Bloody vaginal discharge); Respiratory
system (Cold)
Amor seco (s); Anuchapi (a) Cultural illnesses (Rage); Dental health (Mouth ulcers); Infections and infesta- Calle Santa Cruz, Cota Cota, El Alto, 518
tions (Chickenpox, Malaria, Measles, Scarlet fever); Metabolism and nutrition Mercado Rodriguez
(Blood cleansing); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Cancer, Fever);
Respiratory system (Cough, Flu, Mucus in the lungs); Skin and subcutaneous
tissue (Acne)
Infections and infestations (Anthelmintic); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed Calle Santa Cruz 403, 530
blanco (akana blanca) (s) (Childbed, Uterus), Blood and circulatory system (High blood pressure); Cultural
illnesses (Air); Digestive system (Gastritis/Ulcers); Muscular-skeletal system
(Rheumatism)
Lampara (s) Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Insolation) Mercado Rodriguez 346
79
 80
Table 1 (continued )

Family/Scientic name Vernacular name Medicinal Use categories (Ailment/Illness) Market Collection # LM

Boraginaceae
Borago ofcinalis L. Morraja (s) Respiratory system (Cough) Calle Santa Cruz 417

Brassicaceae
Brassica rapa L.
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.
Lepidium bipinnatidum Desv.
Matthiola incana (L.) W.T. Aiton
Nasturtium ofcinale W.T. Aiton
Mostaza (s) Cultural illnesses (Rage); Digestive system (Gastritis/Ulcers); Non-specic Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 391
symptoms and general illnesses (Fever); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed Rodriguez
(Accelerate childbirth)
Bolsa bolsa, Bolsa de pastor (s) Digestive system (Liver); Urinary system (Kidney infection, Prostate) Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 375, 468
Anukara (a) Digestive system (Gastritis/Ulcers, Laxative); Infections and infestations (An- Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 324
thelmintic); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Cancer)
Alel (s) Cultural illnesses (Against curses, Lightning strike) Calle Santa Cruz
Berro (s) Digestive system (Liver, Metabolism and nutrition); Metabolism and nutrition Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 380
(Anemia)

Burseraceae

R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695

Protium sp. Copal, Copal blanco, Copal negro (s) Cultural illnesses (Against curses, Air, Ajayu, Altar (offering), Depression, Light- Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 572, 573
ning strike); Nervous system and mental health (Nerves) Rodriguez

Cactaceae
Opuntia cus-indica (L.) Mill.
Penca (s) Digestive system (Gallbladder, Liver); Metabolism and nutrition (Diabetes); Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 561
Muscular-skeletal system (Back pain, Fractures, Strong blows); Non-specic Rodriguez
symptoms and general illnesses (Fever, Hair care, Inammation); Respiratory
system (Lung pain); Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Wound swelling); Urinary
system (Kidney infection)

Calceolariaceae
Calceolaria bartsiifolia Wedd.
Calceolaria buchtieniana Kraenzl.
Calceolaria engleriana Kraenzl.
Calceolaria sp.
Termentina (s) Muscular-skeletal system (Fractures, Strong blows) Cohoni, Mercado Rodriguez 348
Zapato zapato (s); Amay zapato (a) Blood and circulatory system (Heartache); Cultural illnesses (Larpha); Urinary Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 337, 340, 349, 392
system (Kidney infection, Prostate)
Zapato zapato (s) Digestive system (Liver); Urinary system (Cystitis, Kidney infection) Mercado Rodriguez 463, 340A
Amay zapato (a) Respiratory system (Cold) Mercado Rodriguez

Caprifoliaceae
Valeriana micropterina Wedd. Valeriana (s) Blood and circulatory system (Heartache); Nervous system and mental health Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto 550
(Nerves, Stress, Tranquilizer); Urinary system (Kidney infection)

Caryophyllaceae
Dianthus plumarius L. Clavel blanco (s) Blood and circulatory system (Heartache); Cultural illnesses (Against curses, Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Final Bajo 373
Lightning strike); Digestive system (Liver); Nervous system and mental health Seguencoma, Mercado Rodriguez
(Nerves); Sensory system (Eye irritation)

Celastraceae
Maytenus laevis Reissk. Chuchuhuasi (a) Urinary system (Prostate) Calle Santa Cruz 430

Clusiaceae
Clusia lechleri Rusby Incienso (s) Cultural illnesses (Lightning strike) Calle Santa Cruz 558

Convolvulaceae
416 Mora (s) Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Hair care) Calle Santa Cruz 416

Cucurbitaceae
Cucurbita maxima Duchesne Zapallo (s) Digestive system (Laxative) Calle Santa Cruz 562

Cupressaceae
Cupressus sargentii Jeps. Pino (s) Respiratory system (Asthma, Cough) Calle Santa Cruz, Final Bajo Se- 395
guencoma, Mercado Rodriguez

Ephedraceae
Ephedra americana Humb. & Bonpl. ex Cola de caballo, Cola de caballo hembra Digestive system (Liver); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Uterus); Urinary Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 382, 551
Willd. (s) system (Kidney infection, Prostate)
Ephedra rupestris Benth. Sanu sanu (a) Digestive system (Liver, Stomach ache); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed Calle Santa Cruz, Cota Cota, El Alto, 317, 433, 525
(Childbed); Urinary system (Kidney infection, Prostate) Mercado Rodriguez
Equisetaceae
Equisetum bogotense Kunth
Equisetum giganteum L.
Sanu sanu (a) Digestive system (Stomach ache); Muscular-skeletal system (Foot pain, Fractures, Calle Santa Cruz, Cohoni, Mercado 363
Cramps); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Childbed, Post-partum washing); Rodriguez
Reproductive system and sexual health (Abortive); Urinary system (Kidney
infection)
Cola de caballo, Cola de caballo macho, Blood and circulatory system (Varicose veins); Digestive system (Liver); Meta- Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 370
Cola de caballo yungueo (s) bolism and nutrition (Blood cleansing); Muscular-skeletal system (Waist pain); Rodriguez
Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Uterus); Urinary system (Kidney infection,
Prostate)

Erythroxylaceae
Erythroxylum coca Lam. Coca (s) Digestive system (Stomach ache); Muscular-skeletal system (Arthritis) El Alto 542

Euphorbiaceae
Croton lechleri Muell.-Arg. Sangre de grado (s) Digestive system (Gastritis/Ulcers); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 575
(Cancer); Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Hemorrhage, Wound healing) Rodriguez
Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex. Flor de Pascua (s) Cultural illnesses (Lightning strike) Calle Santa Cruz
Klotzsch
Hura crepitans L. Habilla (s) Digestive system (Gallbladder, Gallstones, Laxative); Non-specic symptoms and Calle Santa Cruz, Cota Cota 427

R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695

general illnesses (Alcoholism)
Jatropha curcas L. Pin (s) Digestive system (Gallstones, Laxative); Non-specic symptoms and general ill- Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto 424, 528
nesses (Alcoholism)
Ricinus communis L. Macororo, Macororo rojo (s) Digestive system (Gallstones, Laxative); Non-specic symptoms and general ill- Calle Santa Cruz 425, 426
nesses (Alcoholism)

Fabaceae
Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Willka (a) Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Accelerate childbirth) Calle Santa Cruz 405
Brenan
Astragalus garbancillo Cav. Garbanzo (s) Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Pain) Calle Santa Cruz 442
Lupinus sp. Janko janko (a) Sensory system (Earage) Mercado Rodriguez 467
Lupinus altimontanus C.P. Sm. Kela (a) Cultural illnesses (Against curses); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses Calle Santa Cruz, Cohoni, Mercado 343, 469
(Cancer); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Abortive when fetus dies, Child- Rodriguez
birth, Post-partum washing); Reproductive system and sexual health (Abortive);
Respiratory system (Cold); Urinary system (Kidney infection)
Medicago sativa L. Alfa alfa (s) Metabolism and nutrition (Anemia, Iron deciency, Strengthen the bones); Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 547
Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Galactogogue); Reproductive system and
sexual health (Sexual potency); Urinary system (Kidney infection)
Ormosia coccinea (Aubl.) Jacks. Huayruro (s); Wayruro (a) Cultural illnesses (Against curses) Calle Santa Cruz
Otholobium pubescens (Poir.) J.W. Wallakaya (a) Cultural illnesses (Against curses, Larpha); Metabolism and nutrition (Diabetes); Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 332, 377, 510
Grimes Reproductive system and sexual health (Menstrual pain); Urinary system (Kid-
ney infection)
Prosopis laevigata (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Algarrobo / Tajo (s) Cultural illnesses (Against curses); Metabolism and nutrition (Anemia, Frailty, Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 560
Willd.) Kunth Strengthening); Urinary system (Kidney infection, Prostate)
Senna aymara H.S. Irwin & Barneby Moto moto (s) Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Wounds); Muscular-skeletal system (Back Mercado Rodriguez 350, 484
problems)
Spartium junceum L. Retama (s) Blood and circulatory system (Heartache); Cultural illnesses (Against curses, Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 557
Good luck, Lightning strike, To drive away evil spirits); Pregnancy, childbirth and Rodriguez
child-bed (Post partum care)
Vicia faba L. Haba (s) Sensory system (Eye irritation) Mercado Rodriguez

Geraniaceae
Erodium cicutarium (L.) LHr. ex Aiton Aguja aguja, Reloj reloj (s) Dental health (Molar pain); Digestive system (Gallbladder); Infections and in- Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 325, 385, 461, 500
festations (Measles); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Anti-in-
ammatory, Inammation); Urinary system (Cystitis, Kidney infection, Prostate)

Icmadophilaceae
Thamnolia vermicularis (Sw.) Ach. ex Wari kunka (a) Respiratory system (Cough) Calle Santa Cruz 578
Schaerer

Iridaceae
Sisyrinchium sp. Aika aika (a) Cultural illnesses (To make children speak (13 years)); Digestive system (Sto- Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 322, 440
mach ache, When babies have green feces)

81
 82
Table 1 (continued )

Family/Scientic name Vernacular name Medicinal Use categories (Ailment/Illness) Market Collection # LM

Juglandaceae
Juglans boliviana (C. DC.) Dode Nogal (s) Metabolism and nutrition (Diabetes) Calle Santa Cruz 423

Lamiaceae
Clinopodium bolivianum (Benth)
Kuntze
Lavandula latifolia Medik.
Lepechinia meyenii (Walp.) Epling
Khoa (a) Cultural illnesses (Larpha); Digestive system (Stomach cleansing, Stomach ache); Calle Santa Cruz, Cohoni, El Alto, 314, 318, 335, 470,
Metabolism and nutrition (Blood cleansing); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed Mercado Rodriguez 543
(Post-partum washing)
Alhucema (s) Cultural illnesses (Air, Incense for cleansing); Digestive system (Swellings of the Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado
stomach); Muscular-skeletal system (Bone pain); Non-specic symptoms and Rodriguez
general illnesses (Fever); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Post partum care);
Reproductive system and sexual health (Uterus prolapse)
Salvia (s) Blood and circulatory system (Varicose veins); Cultural illnesses (Air); Muscular- Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 524, 533
skeletal system (Arthritis, Bone pain, Rheumatism); Nervous system and mental Rodriguez
health (Memory); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Affected by the

R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695

cold air, Quirwacin (pain on the sole of the feet)); Pregnancy, childbirth and
child-bed (Post partum care); Reproductive system and sexual health (Menstrual
regulation); Respiratory system (Cold); Urinary system (Kidney infection)
Melissa ofcinalis L. Toronjil (s) Blood and circulatory system (Heartache); Nervous system and mental health Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 559
(Epilepsy, Nerves, Relaxant); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses
(Nausea)
Mentha
piperita L. Menta (s) Digestive system (Gastritis/Ulcers, Swellings of the stomach); Metabolism and Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 386, 435
nutrition (Blood cleansing)
Mentha spicata L. Hierba buena (s) Digestive system (Stomach ache); Infections and infestations (Anthelmintic); Calle Santa Cruz, Final Bajo Se- 390
Metabolism and nutrition (Blood cleansing) guencoma, Mercado Rodriguez
Ocimum basilicum L. Albahaca (s) Cultural illnesses (Spiritual owering) Calle Santa Cruz 565, 570
Rosmarinus ofcinalis L. Romero (s) Blood and circulatory system (Varicose veins); Cultural illnesses (Air, Good luck); Calle Santa Cruz, Cota Cota, Mercado 374, 393, 482
Dental health (Stained teeth); Digestive system (Liver, Stomach ache); Muscular- Rodriguez
skeletal system (Bone pain, Rheumatism); Nervous system and mental health
(Memory, Nerves); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Cancer);
Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Childbed, Post partum care, Post-partum
washing); Respiratory system (Cold);Urinary system (Kidney infection)
Salvia hispanica L. Chia (s) Digestive system (Gastritis/Ulcers); Metabolism and nutrition (Blood cleansing); El Alto 549
Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Slimming)
Stachys pusilla (Wedd.) Briq. Verbena, Verbena blanca (s) Blood and circulatory system (Heartache); Digestive system (Gallbladder, Liver, Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 580
Stomach acidity); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Alcoholism);
Urinary system (Kidney infection)

Linaceae
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaza (s) Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Fever) El Alto 569

Loranthaceae
Ligaria cuneifolia (Ruiz. & Pav.) Tiegh.
Jamillo (s) Cultural illnesses (Lightning strike); Muscular-skeletal system (Blows, Bone pain, Calle Santa Cruz, Cohoni, El Alto, 341, 366
Fractures, Sprains, Strong blows); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses Mercado Rodriguez
(Fever); Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Acne, Wound swelling); Urinary system
(Prostate)

Malvaceae
Malva parviora L. Malva (s) Cultural illnesses (Rage); Digestive system (Stomach infection); Non-specic Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 545
symptoms and general illnesses (Fever); Urinary system (Infection)
Nototriche abellata (Wedd.) A.W. Hill Altea (s) Respiratory system (Cough) Calle Santa Cruz 429

Monimiaceae
Peumus boldus Molina Boldo (s) Digestive system (Gallbladder, Liver); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto 548
(Uterus); Reproductive system and sexual health (Bloody vaginal discharge);
Urinary system (Kidney infection)

Moraceae
Ficus carica L. Hoja de higo (s) Digestive system (Stomach ache); Metabolism and nutrition (Blood cleansing); Calle Santa Cruz, Cota Cota, El Alto, 420, 493
Reproductive system and sexual health (Abortive, Menstrual hemorrhage, Mercado Rodriguez
 Menstrual pain, Uterine cysts); Urinary system (Kidney infection)

Myristicaceae
Myristica fragans Houtt. Nuez moscada (s) Cultural illnesses (Air); Nervous system and mental health (Nerves) Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 563
Rodriguez

Myrtaceae
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Eucalipto (s) Cultural illnesses (Air); Muscular-skeletal system (Rheumatism); Pregnancy, Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 381
childbirth and child-bed (Post partum care); Respiratory system (Asthma, Cough, Rodriguez
Mucus in the lungs)
Myrtus communis L. Arrayn (s) Dental health (Sensitive teeth) Calle Santa Cruz 401

Oxalidaceae
Hypseocharis pimpinellifolia J. Rmy Huanchaca (a) Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Alcoholism) Calle Santa Cruz 556
Oxalis tuberosa Molina Isao negro (s) Urinary system (Prostate) Calle Santa Cruz, Cota Cota, Mercado 410
Rodriguez

Passioraceae
Passiora mollissima (Kunth) L.H. Tumbo (s) Metabolism and nutrition (Diabetes) Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 353, 415
Bailey

R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695

Phyllanthaceae
Phyllanthus niruri L. Chanka piedra (s) Digestive system (Gallbladder, Kidney stones); Urinary system (Kidney infection) El Alto

Piperaceae
Piper acutifolium Ruiz. & Pav.
Piper elongatum Vahl.
Matico (s) Cultural illnesses (Air); Muscular-skeletal system (Arthritis, Rheumatism, Shor- Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 327, 329
tened tendons); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Affected by the
cold air, Quirwacin (pain on the sole of the feet)); Pregnancy, childbirth and
child-bed (Uterus); Reproductive system and sexual health (Uterus prolapse);
Respiratory system (Cold, Flu, Internal cold); Urinary system (Kidney infection,
Prostate)
Matico (s); Sotoja (a) Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Steam baths) Calle Santa Cruz 454

Plantaginaceae
Plantago major L. Llantn (s) Blood and circulatory system (Heartache); Digestive system (Gallbladder, Gas- Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 388, 511
tritis/Ulcers, Liver); Metabolism and nutrition (Blood cleansing); Non-specic
symptoms and general illnesses (Cancer, Inammation); Urinary system (Kidney
infection)
Plantago lanceolata L. Llantn (s) Blood and circulatory system (Heartache); Digestive system (Liver); Urinary Mercado Rodriguez 465
system (Kidney infection)

Poaceae
Cortaderia sp. Sewenka (a) Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Childbed); Reproductive system and sexual Calle Santa Cruz, Cota Cota, Mercado 444
health (Abortive, Menstrual pain); Urinary system (Kidney infection) Rodriguez
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf Hierba luisa (s) Digestive system (Stomach ache); Metabolism and nutrition (Correct the blood); Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 490, 503
Nervous system and mental health (Nerves); Respiratory system (Cold)
Hordeum vulgare L. Cebada (s) Urinary system (Kidney infection) Calle Santa Cruz
Zea mays L. Maz blanco, Choclo (s) Blood and circulatory system (Heartache); Cultural illnesses (Lightning strike); Calle Santa Cruz, Cota Cota, El Alto, 539
Metabolism and nutrition (Blood cleansing); Non-specic symptoms and general Mercado Rodriguez
illnesses (Hair growth); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Uterus); Urinary
system (Kidney infection, Prostate)

Polemoniaceae
Cantua exuosa (Ruiz. & Pav.) Pers. Cantuta amarilla (s) Cultural illnesses (Lightning strike) El Alto

Polygonaceae
Muehlenbeckia volcanica (Benth.) Endl. Muaka (a) Digestive system (Gallbladder) Calle Santa Cruz
Rumex cuneifolius Campd. Kento (s); Kentu (a) Muscular-skeletal system (Arthritis, Rheumatism); Pregnancy, childbirth and Calle Santa Cruz, Cohoni, El Alto, 311, 554
child-bed (Uterus); Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Acne, Disinfectant, Wound Mercado Rodriguez
healing)

Pteridophyta
522 Helecho (s) Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Uterus); Urinary system (Kidney infection, El Alto 522
Prostate)

Rosaceae

83

Table 1 (continued )
Family/Scientic name
Lachemila sp.
Lachemilla pinnata (Ruiz. & Pav.)
Rothm.
Malus sylvestris Mill.
Polylepis pacensis M. Kessler &
Schmidt-Leb.
Polylepis tomentella Wedd.
Rosa odorata (Andrews) Sweet
Rubus boliviensis Focke
Sanguisorba minor Scop.
Rubiaceae
Galium sp.
Morinda citrifolia L.
Uncaria guianensis (Aubl.) J.F. Gmel.
Rutaceae
Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle
Citrus medica L.
Citrus x limon (L.) Osbeck
Ruta chalepensis L.
Santalaceae
Phoradendron nervosumOliv.
Quinchamalium chilense Molina
Sapindaceae
Dodonaea viscosa Jacq.
84
Vernacular name Medicinal Use categories (Ailment/Illness) Market Collection # LM
Pimpilina (s) Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Headache) Calle Santa Cruz 574
Sillu sillu (a) Blood and circulatory system (Heartache); Digestive system (Gallbladder, Liver); Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 323, 369
Metabolism and nutrition (Blood cleansing); Nervous system and mental health
(Nerves); Urinary system (Kidney infection)
Manzana (s) Nervous system and mental health (Memory) Calle Santa Cruz
Keua (s) Digestive system (Stomach ache); Urinary system (Prostate) Mercado Rodriguez 330, 333
Keua (s) Digestive system (Stomach ache); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses Mercado Rodriguez 462, 475
(Fever)
Rosa blanca (s) Blood and circulatory system (Heartache); Cultural illnesses (Lightning strike); Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 372
Nervous system and mental health (Epilepsia, Nerves, Relaxant); Non-specic Rodriguez
symptoms and general illnesses (Headache, Nausea)
Khari khari (a) Cultural illnesses (Stuttering in children, To make children speak (13 years)); Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 376, 460
Urinary system (Kidney infection)
R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695
Pimpinela (s) Blood and circulatory system (Heart attack, Heartache); Nervous system and Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 378, 389
mental health (Epilepsia, Nerves, Relaxant); Non-specic symptoms and general
illnesses (Headache, Nausea)
Chapi (a) Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Stomach ache in pregants, Uterus) El Alto 445
Noni (s) Digestive system (Gastritis/Ulcers); Metabolism and nutrition (Blood cleansing); El Alto 581
Muscular-skeletal system (Osteoporosis); Non-specic symptoms and general
illnesses (Cancer, Tumores)
Ua de gato (s) Digestive system (Gastritis/Ulcers, Liver); Muscular-skeletal system (Rheuma- Calle Santa Cruz, Cota Cota, Mercado 408
tism, Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses); Non-specic symptoms and Rodriguez
general illnesses (Cancer); Reproductive system and sexual health (Uterine
cysts); Urinary system (Kidney infection)
Naranja (s) Blood and circulatory system (Heartache, High blood pressure); Cultural illnesses Calle Santa Cruz, Cota Cota, El Alto, 428, 514
(So that the kari kari (a spirit) stays away, To stay young); Digestive system Mercado Rodriguez
(Gallbladder); Nervous system and mental health (Nerves, Tranquilizer); Preg-
nancy, childbirth and child-bed (Accelerate childbirth); Respiratory system
(Cough, Mucus in the lungs, Tonsils); Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Hemorrhage,
Wound healing)
Cidra (s) Cultural illnesses (Rage); Digestive system (Gallbladder, Gallstones); Respiratory Calle Santa Cruz, Cota Cota, Mercado 414, 527, 537
system (Cold, Cough) Rodriguez
Limn (s) Digestive system (Gallbladder, Liver, Stomach ache); Non-specic symptoms and Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez
general illnesses (Desinammatory); Respiratory system (Asthma, Cold, Cough);
Urinary system (Kidney infection)
Ruda, Ruda macho (s) Cultural illnesses (Against curses, Air, Good luck, Lightning strike, To drive away Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 384, 507
evil spirits); Muscular-skeletal system (Rheumatism); Nervous system and Rodriguez
mental health (Nerves); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Childbed, Post
partum care, Post-partum washing); Respiratory system (Cold)
Sulta que sulta (s) Muscular-skeletal system (Bone pain, Fractures, Internal blows, Rheumatism, Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Final Bajo 394
Sprains, Strong blows); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Fever, Seguencoma, Mercado Rodriguez
Quirwacin (pain on the sole of the feet)); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed
(Childbed, Uterus); Reproductive system and sexual health (Uterus prolapse);
Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Wound swelling); Urinary system (Kidney infec-
tion, Prostate)
Kinchamali, Mali chapi (a) Muscular-skeletal system (Fractures); Nervous system and mental health Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 419, 487
(Nerves); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Uterus); Reproductive system and
sexual health (Fertility)
Chakhataya (a) Blood and circulatory system (Varicose veins); Cultural illnesses (Air, Lightning Calle Santa Cruz, Cohoni, El Alto, 379
 strike); Muscular-skeletal system (Blows, Bone pain, Fractures, Rheumatism, Mercado Rodriguez
Sprains, Strong blows); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Fever);
Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Childbed, Post partum care, Post-partum
washing, Uterus); Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Acne); Urinary system (Kidney
infection)

Schizandraceae
Illicium verum Hook. f. Ans estrella (s) Metabolism and nutrition (Blood cleansing) Calle Santa Cruz

Scrophulariaceae
Buddleja coriacea J. Rmy Kiswara (a) Muscular-skeletal system (Rheumatism); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 310, 351, 456, 476
(Childbed); Reproductive system and sexual health (Uterine cysts); Urinary
system (Kidney infection, Prostate)

Smilacaceae
Smilax sp. Zarzaparrilla (s); Wila layu (a) Cultural illnesses (Black altar (offering)); Metabolism and nutrition (Blood Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 443, 582
cleansing, Diabetes); Muscular-skeletal system (Waist pain); Pregnancy, child- Rodriguez
birth and child-bed (Uterus, Uterus inammation); Urinary system (Kidney
infection)

R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695

Solanaceae
Brugmansia sp.
Brugmansia arborea (L.) Lagerh.
Brugmansia sanguinea (Ruiz. & Pav.) D. Floripondio (s)
Don.
Cestrum parqui LHr.
Solanum marginatum L. f.
Solanum nitidum Ruiz. & Pav.
Solanum tuberosum L.
Floripondio (s) Cultural illnesses (Hallucinogen) Calle Santa Cruz
Floripondio (s) Anti-venom (Poison); Infections and infestations (Scarlet fever); Muscular-ske- Mercado Rodriguez 567
letal system (Rheumatism); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Tu-
mores); Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Acne)
Cultural illnesses (Lightning strike) El Alto 568
Andrs wailla (a) Cultural illnesses (Rage); Digestive system (Gastritis/Ulcers, Stomach ache); Calle Santa Cruz, Cohoni, El Alto, 326, 480
Muscular-skeletal system (Back pain, Body pain, Fractures, Strong blows, Swel- Mercado Rodriguez
lings ); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Cancer, Desinammatory,
Fever, Inammation); Reproductive system and sexual health (Menstrual pain);
Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Bruises, Skin infectionss, Wound swelling)
Cardo santo (s) Cultural illnesses (Larpha); Respiratory system (Cough, Flu) Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 418, 517
uu maya (a) Cultural illnesses (Against curses, Larpha); Digestive system (Stomach ache); Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 494
Metabolism and nutrition (Blood cleansing); Muscular-skeletal system (Strong Rodriguez
blows); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Allergies); Skin and sub-
cutaneous tissue (Acne, Skin spots)
Papa (s) Metabolism and nutrition (Blood cleansing); Urinary system (Kidney infection) Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez

Urticaceae
Urtica urens L. Ortiga / Itapallo (s) Blood and circulatory system (High blood pressure); Cultural illnesses (Air); Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 312
Muscular-skeletal system (Rheumatism)

Verbenaceae
Aloysia triphylla Royle
Lampayo medicinalis F. Phil.
Cedrn (s) Blood and circulatory system (Heartache); Digestive system (Liver); Nervous Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 540
system and mental health (Nerves); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses
(Affected by the cold air)
Lampaya (a) Digestive system (Gastritis/Ulcers, Stomach ache, Stomach infection); Metabo- Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez 404, 448
lism and nutrition (Blood cleansing, Cramps); Muscular-skeletal system (Bone
pain, Rheumatism, Sore muscles); Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses
(Shudders); Pregnancy, childbirth and child-bed (Childbed, Uterus inamma-
tion); Reproductive system and sexual health (Menstrual pain, Ovary infection);
Respiratory system (Cold, Cough); Skin and subcutaneous tissue (Skin spots);
Urinary system (Cystitis, Diuretic, Kidney infection, Prostate, Urinary infection)

Xanthorrhoeaceae
Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.
Sbila (s) Digestive system (Gastritis/Ulcers, Liver); Metabolism and nutrition (Diabetes); Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 362
Muscular-skeletal system (Fractures, Strong blows); Non-specic symptoms and Rodriguez
general illnesses (Hair care, Hair loss); Sensory system (Eye irritation); Skin and
subcutaneous tissue (Facial care, Skin cleansing, Skin spots, Wound healing,
Wound swelling); Urinary system (Kidney infection)

Non identied
402 Kalawala (a) Muscular-skeletal system (Arthritis, Bone pain, Internal blows, Rheumatism); Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Mercado 402

85
 86
Table 1 (continued )

Family/Scientic name Vernacular name Medicinal Use categories (Ailment/Illness) Market Collection # LM

Urinary system (Kidney infection, Prostate) Rodriguez

403 Raz de la china (s) Muscular-skeletal system (Rheumatism); Non-specic symptoms and general Calle Santa Cruz 403
illnesses (Quirwacin (pain on the sole of the feet)); Pregnancy, childbirth and
child-bed (Childbed); Reproductive system and sexual health (Uterus prolapse);
Urinary system (Kidney infection)
413 Almidn del pas (s) Digestive system (Gastritis/Ulcers) Calle Santa Cruz 413
526 Lloque (a) Cultural illnesses (Larpha, Lazynenss, Lightning strike) Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto 526
529 Cristalachin (s) Metabolism and nutrition (Blood cleansing); Muscular-skeletal system (Internal Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto, Final Bajo 529
blows); Urinary system (Kidney infection, Prostate) Seguencoma, Mercado Rodriguez
546 Waji (a) Cultural illnesses (Air); Digestive system (Gastritis/Ulcers); Metabolism and nu- Calle Santa Cruz 546
trition (Blood cleansing); Muscular-skeletal system (Rheumatism)

No specimen
No specimen Ankaoque (a) Digestive system (Gallbladder); Infections and infestations (Anthelmintic) Calle Santa Cruz

R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695

No specimen Canchalawa (a) Metabolism and nutrition (Blood cleansing) Calle Santa Cruz
No specimen Chapi espina (a) Cultural illnesses (Against curses) Calle Santa Cruz
No specimen Chata (a) Muscular-skeletal system (Rheumatism) Calle Santa Cruz
No specimen Hoja blanca (s) Digestive system (Liver) Calle Santa Cruz
No specimen Kolomoni (s) Digestive system (Gallbladder); Muscular-skeletal system (Back pain); Urinary Calle Santa Cruz, El Alto
system (Kidney infection)
No specimen Kara (a) Metabolism and nutrition (Blood cleansing); Urinary system (Kidney infection) Calle Santa Cruz
No specimen Kara llanten (a) Digestive system (Gastritis/Ulcers; Stomach ache); Urinary system (Kidney Calle Santa Cruz, Mercado Rodriguez
infection)
No specimen Kuphi (a) Muscular-skeletal system (Osteoporosis) Mercado Rodriguez
No specimen Lari lari (s) Cultural illnesses (Against curses) Calle Santa Cruz
No specimen Llausa mora (a) Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Hair care); Urinary system (Kidney El Alto
infection)
No specimen Locororo (s) Infections and infestations (Tuberculosis); Respiratory system (Pneumonia) Calle Santa Cruz
No specimen Pata de cabra (s) Non-specic symptoms and general illnesses (Cancer) Calle Santa Cruz
No specimen Phusa phusa (a) Muscular-skeletal system (Swellings) Cohoni
No specimen Sayri sayri (a) Cultural illnesses (Against curses); Cultural illnesses (Larpha) Calle Santa Cruz
No specimen Ure ure (s) Cultural illnesses (Larpha) Calle Santa Cruz
No specimen Wanchaca (a) Digestive system (Laxative); Digestive system (Stomach cleansing); Non-specic Calle Santa Cruz; El Alto
symptoms and general illnesses (Alcoholism)
 R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695 87

Table 2
Market consensus for plants and for uses, plus some summary metrics of consensus among studies.

(A) Within RBU Markets

# Shared

Plants Calle Santa Cruz Cohoni (12) Cota Cota (12) El Alto (60) Final Bajo Seguencoma (8)
(126)
Cohoni (12) 10
Cota Cota (12) 11 0
El Alto (60) 52 8 5
Final Bajo Seguencoma (8) 8 0 0 6
Mercado Rodriguez (97) 88 12 10 43 8
Plant Uses (Illness) Calle Santa Cruz Cohoni (21) Cota Cota (27) El Alto (146) Final Bajo Seguencoma
(392) (10)
Cohoni (21) 3
Cota Cota (27) 6 0
El Alto (146) 44 1 2
Final Bajo Seguencoma (10) 8 0 0 4
Mercado Rodriguez (327) 100 8 5 44 10
Plant Uses (Category) Calle Santa Cruz Cohoni (17) Cota Cota (21) El Alto (105) Final Bajo Seguencoma (8)
(292)
Cohoni (17) 7
Cota Cota (21) 10 0
El Alto (105) 53 7 4
Final Bajo Seguencoma (8) 8 0 0 3
Mercado Rodriguez (234) 111 13 7 49 8

(B) Within RBU Markets

Euclidian Distance

Plants Calle Santa Cruz Cohoni Cota Cota El Alto Final Bajo Seguencoma
Cohoni 55
Cota Cota 55 12
El Alto 46 22 23
Final Bajo Seguencoma 55 8 11 21
Mercado Rodriguez 44 42 43 37 42
Plant Uses (Illness) Calle Santa Cruz Cohoni Cota Cota El Alto Final Bajo Seguencoma
Cohoni 23
Cota Cota 23 7
El Alto 24 13 13
Final Bajo Seguencoma 23 6 6 12
Mercado Rodriguez 25 20 20 21 19
Plant Uses (Category) Calle Santa Cruz Cohoni Cota Cota El Alto Final Bajo Seguencoma
Cohoni 30
Cota Cota 30 8
El Alto 29 16 17
Final Bajo Seguencoma 30 7 7 16
Mercado Rodriguez 30 26 28 25 27

(C) Among RBU Markets and Other

Markets

# Shared

Plants
Calle Santa Cruz - Calle Santa Cruz - J El Alto - RBU (60) El Alto - J
RBU (126) (44) (94)
Calle Santa Cruz - J (44) 33
El Alto - RBU (60) 52 23
El Alto - J (94) 61 34 28
La Paz - El Alto - M (131) 75 33 36 73
Plant Uses (Illness) Calle Santa Cruz Calle Santa Cruz - J El Alto - RBU (146) El Alto - J
(392) (170) (318)
Calle Santa Cruz - J (170) 21
El Alto - RBU (146) 44 9
El Alto - J (318) 31 149 13
La Paz - El Alto - M (329) 53 17 16 34
Plant Uses (Category) Calle Santa Cruz Calle Santa Cruz - J El Alto - RBU (105) El Alto - J
(292) (125) (242)
Calle Santa Cruz - J (125) 34
El Alto - RBU (105) 53 17
El Alto - J (242) 58 108 20
La Paz - El Alto - M (250) 93 30 32 70
88 R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695

Table 2 (continued )

(D) Among RBU Markets and Other

Markets

Euclidian Distance

Plants
Calle Santa Cruz - Calle Santa Cruz - J El Alto - RBU El Alto - J
RBU
Calle Santa Cruz - J 56
El Alto - RBU 46 33
El Alto - J 56 26 40
La Paz - El Alto - M 49 36 32 33
Plant Uses (Illness) Calle Santa Cruz - Calle Santa Cruz - J El Alto - RBU El Alto - J
RBU
Calle Santa Cruz - J 26
El Alto - RBU 24 18
El Alto - J 28 14 22
La Paz - El Alto - M 27 22 21 25
Plant Uses (Category) Calle Santa Cruz - Calle Santa Cruz - J El Alto - RBU El Alto - J
RBU
Calle Santa Cruz - J 31
El Alto - RBU 29 22
El Alto - J 34 17 26
La Paz - El Alto - M 31 25 25 26

(E) Among Studies

# Shared Euclidian Distance

Plants Justo (104) Maca (131) Justo Maca

Maca (131) 78 Maca 8,7
RBU (163) 70 78 RBU 5,6 9,5
Plant Uses (Illness) Justo (339) Maca (329) Justo Maca
Maca (329) 35 Maca 21,8
RBU (738) 53 67 RBU 14,5 18,1
Plant Uses (Category) Justo (259) Maca (250) Justo Maca
Maca (250) 72 Maca 17,2
RBU (467) 91 116 RBU 11,9 14,6

Fig. 1. Proportional Euler diagrams of plants (A) and plant uses (B) among markets.

or illness, eg. Aloe vera for eye irritation), and plant-categories
(unique combinations of a species used for a category of ailments,
eg. Aloe vera sensory system).
To compare the geographic/market structure of plants and
plant-uses, we extracted lists of unique and shared plants, plant-
uses, and plant-categories in each market (Wilkinson, 2011). In
addition to these raw counts, we also used Euclidian distance as a
metric of the difference among markets. To look for change over
time, or with methodological differences among studies, we em-
ployed similar methods on the plants and plant-uses reported in
 R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695 89

Table 3 3. Results and discussion

Unique species to studies.
3.1. Participants
Unique to this study Unique to Macia et al., 2005 Unique to Justo
et al., 2014
All 39 participants were women of an estimated 2570 years of
Allium sativum Adesmia miraorensis Abutilon sp. age, although the majority fell into the age group of an estimate-
Baccharis tola var. tola Austrocylindropuntia exaltata Alnus acuminata dut 40 years. Plant bundles (normally a handful, i.e. what could
Bidens sp. Canavalia sp. Cajophora horrida
Bocconia sp. Chenopodium ambrosioides Calendula ofcinalis
t into the ring of thumb and index nger) sold for 1-3Bs. (about
Brugmansia sp. Coffea arabica Hedeoma 0.150.45$), indicating a 100300% price increase compared to
mandoniana Maca et al. (2005).
Calceolaria bartsiifolia Corryocactus melanotrichus Laurus nobilis
Calceolaria engleriana Dasyphyllum sp. Lepechinia sp.
3.2. Plants in the market
Calceolaria sp. Dunalia brachyacantha Nicotiana sp.
Chrysanthemum sp. Echinopsis pachanoi Ocimum sp.
Citrus aurantiifolia Echinopsis sp. Perezia coerulescens In this study we encountered 163 plant species belonging to
Citrus x limon Hypseocharis cf. Petroselinum sativum 127 genera and 58 families in all markets studies. In addition, 17
pimpinellifolia species could not be identied (Table 1). This species richness is
Croton lechleri Kageneckia lanceolata Psoralea pubescens
Cucurbita maxima Lachemilla sp. Salvia haenkei
considerably higher than reported in Maca et al. (2005, 129 spe-
Equisetum bogotense Lobivia sp. Senecio sp. cies of 55 families) and Justo Chipana and Moraes (2015, 94
Euphorbia pulcherrima Loricaria thuyoides Weinmannia sp. identied species). One reason for this discrepancy might be that
Hordeum vulgare Mucuna sp. the present study ran over several years, and repeated sampling of
Hura crepitans Myroxylon balsamum
all vendors yielded species that previous studies might have
Illicium verum Oenocarpus bataua
Lampaya medicinalis Opuntia soehrensii missed because the material was not available e.g. during the dry
Ligaria cuneifolia Ormosia sp. southern winter.
Lupinus altimontanus Puya sp. The most common plant families used were Asteraceae (33
Malus sylvestris Relbunium sp. species, 20.25%), Fabaceae (17 species, 6.75%), Lamiaceae (11 spe-
Maytenus laevis Rubus megalococcus
Morinda citrifolia Satureja boliviana
cies, 6%), Rosaceae (8 species, 5%), Solanaceae (7 species, 4.25%),
Nasturtium ofcinale Solanum palitans Brassicaceae and Euphorbiaceae (5 species, 3%), followed by Poa-
Nototriche abellata Thamnolia vermicularis ceae, Rutaceae, Calceolariaceae and Apiaceae (each 4 species,
Ormosia coccinea Tropaeolum tuberosum 2.5%). This distribution is relatively similar to Maca et al. (2005).
Oxalis tuberosa
One major difference is the place of Cactaceae, which Maca et al.
Parastrephia
quadrangularis (2005) lists as the fourth most important family, and here played
Phoradendron nervosum almost no role. The recent prohibitions on sale of CITES species
Phyllanthus niruri likely are responsible for this lack, which is also attested in the
Piper acutifolium family distribution of Justo Chipana and Moraes (2015). Some
Polylepis pacensis
Prosopis laevigata
changes, e.g. the complete lack of some hallucinogenic species like
Ricinus communis Echinocereus pachanoi in the present study, as compared to Maca
Salvia sp. et al. (2005) might have its base in a prohibition against the sale of
Sambucus australis hallucinogenic species also enacted during the last decade.
Senecio nutans
Of the identied species 106 (61.2%) were native to Bolivia, and
Solanum tuberosum
Uncaria guianensis 47 (28.8%) were introduced. This shows differences to Justo Chi-
Werneria heteroloba pana and Moraes (2015) who report only 52% of native species,
Werneria nubigena most likely because during their study period native species due to
Werneria poposa the dry southern winter conditions were not available.
Xenophyllum poposum
Almost 65% of all species (106) were known only by their
Spanish names, (7%) had Spanish and Aymara names, and 46 (28%)
were only traded under their Aymara name. This indicates that
especially species that were added to the pharmacopoeia in the
this study versus previous studies (Maca et al., 2005; Justo Chi-
last decade were mostly known by their Spanish names. Overall
pana and Moraes, 2015). We also specically compared the same
Maca et al. (2005) reported only 56.6% Spanish vernacular names,
markets as sampled in the difference studies. and while the percentage of Aymara names remained almost
To evaluate plant importance, we used the Logarithmic In- constant, no Quechua names were recorded in the present study.
formant Consensus index of Dudney et al. (2015). Here, we con- This might relate to the fact that our interviewers were native
sidered markets as occurrences, so for a species: Aymara speakers.
In most cases (over 75%), the prepared remedies were taken
(
LICs=sum ICu* ln( FCus) orally as decoctions / infusions, and another 15% were applied as
cataplasm. Applications involved preferentially leaves (45%), aerial
where for each use of a species ICu (FCu NSu)/(FCu  1), FCu is parts of the plant (21%) or the whole plant (10%), very similar to
previous studies (Maca et al., 2005; Justo Chipana and Moraes,
the total reports of that use and NSu is the number of species
2015).
reported for the use.
To evaluate the diversity of uses across markets, we calculated,
3.3. Most common medicinal applications
for each plant that occurs in at least two markets, the percent of its
uses that are unique to each market. The most treated illness categories were Digestive system (152
All analyses were performed using the R program package mentions, 16%), Muscular-skeletal-system (136, 14%), Urinary sys-
(Oksanen et al., 2015). tem (112, 12%), Cultural illnesses (99, 10%), Non-specic symptoms
and general illnesses (89, 9%), Respiratory system (72, 8%), and
90 R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695

Fig. 2. Proportional Euler diagrams of plants (A) and plant uses (B) in this study (Bussmann) and two previous studies (Maca Maca et al., 2005, Justo Justo Chipana
and Moraes, 2015).

Table 4
Species differences between markets in present study.

Calle Santa Cruz Mercado Rodriguez El Alto Cota Cota Final Bajo Seguencoma Cohoni

Anadenanthera colubrina Baccharis tola var. tola Cantua exuosa Allium sativum
Apium graveolens Calceolaria engleriana Erythroxylum coca
Borago ofcinalis Calceolaria sp. Linum usitatissimum
Chenopodium quinoa Parastrephia quadrangularis LM 522
Clusia lechleri Polylepis pacensis Morinda citrifolia
Cucurbita maxima Sambucus australis Phyllanthus niruri
Euphorbia pulcherrima Vicia faba Salvia sp.
Hordeum vulgare
Illicium verum
Juglans boliviana
LM 403
LM 413
LM 416
LM 546
Malus sylvetsris
Matthiola incana
Maytenus laevis
Muehlenbeckia volcnica
Myrtus communis
Nototriche abellata
Ormosia coccinea
Pimpinella anisum
Piper elongatum
Ricinus communis
Werneria heteroloba
Werneria poposa
Xenophyllum poposum

pregnancy (63, 7%). Among the individual illnesses kidney infec-
tions stood out as the most common illness treated by traditional
remedies (74 mentions, 8%), followed by stomach ache (36, 4%)
and cough (33, 4%). Rheumatism, gallbladder, prostate, liver, frac-
tures, bad air, gastritis/ulcers, blood cleansing and nerves followed
with 32-22 mentions (3%).
Digestive system disorders were treated with 72 species (40%
of the total), followed by non-specic illnesses (55 species, 30%),
urinary and musculo-skeletal system (52 species, 28%), cultural
illnesses (51 species, 28%), pregnancy related issues and metabo-
lism (36 species, 20%), and respiratory system (28 species, 15%).
The most important individual illnesses were kidney infections,
treated with 48 species (27%), stomach ache (28 species, 26%),
rheumatism (24 species, 13%), liver (23 species, 13%), blood
cleansing (22 species, 12%), gallbladder (21 species, 12%), prostate
(19 species, 11%) and cough / ulcers (18 species, 10%).
While the overall distribution of illness categories is in line
with previous studies (Maca et al., 2005; Justo Chipana and
Moraes, 2015), the number of species used per application, as well
as the applications per species, were much higher in the present
study.
3.4. Market comparison
In the present study, almost without exception, the small
markets contained much less species than the main markets in La
Paz, and carried subsets of the plants the main markets had
(Table 2A-B, Fig. 1A). However, plant-uses diverge much more,
with a substantial proportion of the plant-uses in Cota Cota and
Cohoni unique, and more structure of shared plant-uses among
 R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695 91

Bussmann - Justo
Justo
Bussmann
Maca

8
Bussmann - Maca

6
count

0
-10 0 10 20 30 40
number of species
Fig. 3. Number of plants reported within each use category in this study (Bussmann) and two previous studies (Maca Maca et al., 2005, Justo Justo Chipana and
Moraes, 2015). For use categories shared between the studies for the number of plants by which RBU counts are greater than (green) or less than (red) each previous study is
shown. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

markets (Table 2, Fig. 1B). Plants which were common to at least
four of the markets tended to also have uses in common, e.g. Ar-
temisia absinthium (anthelmintic at three markets, stomach ache at
three markets), Baccharis pentlandii (fractures at four, strong blows
at 3), Dianthus plumarius (heartache at three ), Dodonaea viscosa
(fractures at three , sprains at three ), Gnaphalium cheiranthifolium
(cough at three ), Ligaria cuneifolia (fractures at four), LM 529
(kidney infection at four, prostate problems at four), Phoradendron
nervous (fractures at three , kidney infection three , sprains at
three ), Senecio canescens (cough at four), Senecio smithioides
92 R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695
40
30
number of species
20
cough stomach pain
kidney infection
10
rheumatism
bladder fever headache sprain
blood pressure cold
prostate anthelmintic diabetes
bad air
ulcer liver diarrhea
anemia lung pain
varicose fractures cramps galactogogue
0
Maca
Fig. 4. Comparison of the number of plants reported within each use category in this study (Bussmann) and two previous studies (Maca Maca et al., 2005, Justo
Justo Chipana and Moraes, 2015).
(kidney infection at three , pneumonia at three ), Xanthium spi-
nosum (cough at four), Zea mays (kidney infection at three ). A few
common plants had more variable uses among markets these
plants (those at four or more markets but with no use shared
among more than two markets) were: Cestrum parqui, Citrus aur-
antiifolia, Clinopodium bolivianum, Ephedra rupestris, and Ficus
carica (Table 3).
Comparing all three available studies, the picture for the spe-
cies composition is rather similar and shows large consistency
over the last decade (Fig. 2A, Table 2C-D), although some species
were unique to the individual studies (Table 4). In contrast, there
were many more unique plant-uses; representing sizable differ-
ences among the three studies in what the plant species were
actually used for (Fig. 2B, Table 2E).
Overall our study encountered a much broader variety of plant
uses per use category (467), vs. 259 (Justo Chipana and Moraes,
2015) and 250 (Maca et al., 2005), and individual uses (738), in
contrast to 339 (Justo Chipana and Moraes, 2015) and 329 (Maca
et al., 2005) (Fig. 3). In addition, for the 28 uses reported from each
of the three studies, we encountered signicantly more species
associated with each use on average, 8 (95%iles 4-11) more
species per illness than Maca et al. (2005), and 5 (95%iles 2-8)
more than Justo Chipana and Moraes (2015) (paired Wilcoxon
p-values o0.001 and o 0.01 respectively, Fig. 4). It is interesting
to note that the greatest increase of species per use found in this
study relates to the treatment of kidney infections, according to
the vendors especially in women. This might be explained by
changes in lifestyle i.e. work further away from home, and more
western style clothing which makes it harder to nd a spot to
relieve oneself, given that there are hardly any public restrooms,
because previously women could simply lift their skirts and squat
kidney infection
stomach pain
rheumatism
liver
bladder prostate
ulcer cough
bad air
fever
cold fractures
diabetes
varicose blood pressure
sprain anthelmintic
headache anemia
galactogogue
diarrhea
lung pain cramp
Justo Bussmann
in the street, which is not acceptable with Western clothing. This
might indeed lead to a higher incidence of cystitis cases. Combined
with a high antibiotic resistance of standard urinary pathogens
(e.g. E. coli) as veried through interviews in public clinics, this
might explain the growing use of a diversity of plant remedies for
this condition.
3.5. Informant consensus
The logarithmic informant consensus (Dudney et al., 2015)
ranking of all species is given in Table 4. This index takes into
account the frequency of citation as well as consensus. Species
with exceptionally high scores often were indicated for a large
number of uses and tended to be common local (Clinopodium
bolivianum, Cestrum parqui, Schinus molle) or cosmopolitan spe-
cies: (Rosmarinus ofcinalis, Aloe vera, Matricaria recutita, Equise-
tum giganteum, , Xanthium spinosum, and Opuntia cus-indica).
However, some highly ranked species, e.g. Lampaya indica were
traded from other countries. Overall, informant consensus was
relatively low, which might be caused by the large number of new
species, both native and indigenous, that have entered the local
pharmacopoeia in the last decade (Table 5).
3.6. The problem of species replacements the example of Ephedra
and Equisetum
In course of the present study it became apparent that even
well known species might often be replaced by other apparently
similar but botanically unrelated species due to environmental
and market forces, as also encountered in other markets (Buss-
mann et al., 2013). The replacement of Equisetum sp. by Ephedra sp.
 R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695 93

Table 5
Logarithmic Index of species use (logarithmic use importance value).

Scientic name LIC Scientic name LIC Scientic name LIC

Rosmarinus ofcinalis 7,5 Mentha x piperita 2,0 Pimpinella anisum 0,8

Clinopodium bolivianum 7,1 Mutisia orbignyana 2,0 Senecio nutans 0,8
Cestrum parqui 5,0 Phoradendron trianae 1,9 Foeniculum vulgare 0,7
Aloe vera 4,8 LM 402 1,9 Borago offcinalis 0,7
Matricaria recutita 4,6 Eupatorium azangaroense 1,8 Dianthus caryophyllus 0,7
Equisetum giganteum 4,5 Sambucus sp. 1,8 Croton lechleri 0,7
Schinus molle 4,4 Eupatorium azangaorense 1,8 Brugmansia arborea 0,7
Xanthium spinosum 4,3 Mentha spicata 1,8 Cantua buxifolia 0,7
Lampaya medicinalis 4,2 Ficus carica 1,7 Clusia lechleri 0,7
Opuntia cus-indica 4,1 Sanguisorba minor 1,7 Chrysanthemum coronarium 0,7
Brassica rapa 4,1 Rosa alba 1,7 Psoralea pubescens 0,7
Senecio smithioides 3,8 Citrus x limon 1,7 Lupinus altimontanus 0,5
Dodonaea viscosa 3,6 Urtica urens 1,7 Bocconia 0,5
Spartium junceum 3,6 Medicago sativa 1,7 Weinmannia 0,5
Ruta chalepensis 3,5 Lepidium bipinnatidum 1,6 Apium graveolens 0,5
Baccharis latifolia 3,5 Sonchus oleraceus 1,6 Baccharis tola var. tola 0,5
Phoradendron nervosum 3,4 Capsella bursa-pastoris 1,6 Chenopodium ambrosioides 0,5
Plantago major 3,3 Matthiola incana 1,5 Erythroxylum coca 0,5
Valeriana micropterina 3,1 Aloysia triphylla 1,5 Perezia coerulescens 0,5
Taraxacum ofcinale 3,1 Erodium cicutarium 1,5 Phyllanthus niruri 0,5
Artemisia absinthium 3,1 Lepechinia sp. 1,5 Ricinus communis 0,5
Cynara cardunculus 2,9 Rumex cuneifolius 1,5 Satureja boliviana 0,5
Ephedra rupestris 2,9 Cupressus sargentii 1,4 Senecio graveolens 0,5
Tripodanthus acutifolius 2,8 Solanum nitidum 1,4 Thamnolia vermicularis 0,5
Baccharis pentlandii 2,8 Sambucus peruviana 1,4 Calceolaria engleriana 0,4
Mutisia acuminata 2,8 Equisetum bogotense 1,4 LM 522 0,4
Citrus aurantiifolia 2,7 LM 529 1,3 Quinchamalium chilense 0,4
Piper acutifolium 2,6 Baccharis genistelloides 1,3 Solanum tuberosum 0,4
Stachys pusilla 2,5 Hura crepitans 1,3 Adesmia miraorensis 0,4
Peumus boldus 2,5 Uncaria guianensis 1,3 Austrocylindropuntia exaltata 0,4
Buddleja coriacea 2,5 Piper elongatum 1,2 Brugmansia sanguinea 0,4
Allium cepa 2,4 Cymbopogon citratus 1,2 Cantua exuosa 0,4
Tagetes multiora 2,4 Citrus medica 1,2 Corryocactus melanotrichus 0,4
Dysphania ambrosioides 2,4 Protium sp. 1,2 Dasyphyllum sp. 0,4
Calceolaria buchtieniana 2,4 Mulinum spinosum 1,2 Dunalia brachyacantha 0,4
Lachemilla pinnata 2,4 Sisyrinchium sp. 1,1 Echinopsis sp. 0,4
Ambrosia arborescens 2,4 Rubus boliviensis 1,1 Lobivia sp. 0,4
Lavandula latifolia 2,4 Rosa sp. 1,1 Loricaria thuyoides 0,4
Malva parviora 2,4 Citrus sinensis 1,0 MM 7133 0,4
Lepechinia meyenii 2,3 Grindelia boliviana 1,0 Opuntia soehrensii 0,4
Senecio canescens 2,3 Myristica fragans 1,0 Puya sp. 0,4
Otholobium pubescens 2,3 Werneria villosa 1,0 Solanum tripartitum 0,4
Dianthus plumarius 2,3 Jatropha curcas 1,0 Passiora mollissima 0,4
Zea mays 2,3 Bocconia integrifolia 0,9 Tagetes terniora 0,4
Ephedra americana 2,2 Oxalis tuberosa 0,9 Xenophyllum poposum 0,4
Melissa ofcinalis 2,2 Werneria nubigena 0,9 Lachemilla sp. 0,3
Solanum marginatum 2,2 Allium sativum 0,9 Morinda citrifolia 0,3
Eucalyptus globulus 2,1 Muehlenbeckia volcanica 0,8 Myrtus communis 0,3
Cortaderia sp. 2,1 Prosopis laevigata 0,8 Echeveria sp. 0,2
Gnaphalium cheiranthifolium 2,0 Calceolaria bartsiifolia 0,8 Juglans boliviana 0,2
Smilax sp. 2,0 Chenopodium quinoa 0,8 All other species 0,0
Ligaria cuneifolia 2,0 Chrysanthemum sp. 0,8

serves as a prime example on which we previously gave a short
report (Bussmann et al., 2015). Equisetum is traditionally known as
Cola de Caballo (horsetail) in Spanish speaking countries, and
Bolivia is no exception (Crdenas 1989; Vandebroek et al., 2003).
Species of the genus are widely used for kidney problems and the
washing of wounds, as well as prostate problems, inammations
of the reproductive tract in women, and arthritis (Bussmann and
Sharon, 2006a, 2006b; Gonzalez de la Cruz et al., 2014; Hua-
mantupa et al., 2011), and are widely sold in markets of the region.
The aqueous extracts produced by immersing whole plants in
boiling water, used traditionally for treatment turned out to show
no toxicity (Bussmann et al., 2011).
In their 2005 inventory, Maca et al. reported Cola de Caballo
macho as Equisetum giganteum, used for urinary problems and
kidney swellings. However, the same authors indicated that
Ephedra americana was sold as Cola de Caballo hembra for ex-
actly the same indication. Ephedra rupestris was sold under the
vernacular name Samu Samu, as diuretic, but more commonly for
abortions and menstrual retardation. These ndings of Maca et al.
(2005) already indicate a change in usage and vernacular name of
Ephedra from the reports of Cardenas (1989) and Vandebroek et al.
(2003), where the species is still listed as Sanu-Sanu, and is not
reported for urinary system problems. In the present study, over
90% of vendors sold Ephedra americana and Ephedra rupestris as
Cola de Caballo. A reason for the decrease of Equisetum in the
surroundings of La Paz and El Alto might be urban sprawl de-
stroying most wetlands in the Mecapaca valley and much of the
former wetlands of the high plateau, eliminating habitat that
formerly harbored Equisetum. This could explain a shift to Ephedra,
which, growing on rocky slopes, is not affected by urban extension.
In contrast to Bolivia, we never found this confusion for the two
species in Northern Peru (Bussmann and Sharon, 2006b). Ephedra
americana was sold in the markets as Diego Lopez, and a con-
coction was drunk for bruises, but with a maximum use time of
94 R.W. Bussmann et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 193 (2016) 7695
two weeks. Gonzalez de la Cruz et al. (2014) reported the same use
for Central Peru. In addition, they found Ephedra being used as
bath for colds. Humantupa et al. (2011) however do report Ephedra
americana var. rupestris under the vernacular name Pinco-Pinco
used as remedy to clean the prostate. In addition, crude plant
material was applied to mend fractures. For the latter application
the vernacular name of the plant changed to Suelda con Suelda.
Interestingly, the same vernacular name was also used for various
Loranthaceae (Bussmann and Sharon, 2006b). The latter fact is
interesting, because it shows that in this case the vernacular name
appears clearly linked to a use: Soldar in Spanish signies mend
/ solder, thus Suelda con Suelda mends broken bones.
These ndings of the current study are problematic, because
Cola de Caballo is widely regarded as a safe and simple long-term
remedy for urinary problems and kidney inammation. Con-
sumers always relied on the vendors identication, and may be
unaware that this name now refers primarily to Ephedra and not
the Equisetum. Given that Ephedra sold as Sanu-Sanu was used as
abortive in Bolivia (Maca et al., 2005), the potentially serious ef-
fects of the plant must have been known, but none of the vendors
selling Ephedra as Cola de Caballo mentioned any side-effects or
potential risks. Apart from potentially causing abortions, other
possible side effects include insomnia, irritation, nausea, tachy-
cardia, headaches, and most seriously, development of addiction,
and were clearly indicated in the monographs of the German
medicinal plant commission (Bundesanzeiger, 1991). Because of
potential side-effects the US Federal Drug Administration banned
supplements containing Ephedra in 2004. The German medicinal
plant commission also warns that Ephedra should not be used in
cases where patients suffer from Prostate adenoma and urine re-
tention. This sets up a dangerous possibility, because such pro-
blems would exactly be an indication treated with Cola de Ca-
ballo in Bolivia. Its clear that this substitution has the potential to
create serious complications.
Similar to our previous study in the markets in Lima, where we
found that Gentianaceae and Geraniaceae used to treat diabetes
posed a potential health risk (Bussmann et al., 2013), we found
again, that even plants that have a well established vernacular
name, and are easily recognizable botanically, can be replaced by
other species that can pose a serious health risk. More vendor as
well as consumer education, and a much more stringent identi-
cation of the material sold in public markets, and entering the
global supply chain via Internet sales, are clearly needed.
4. Conclusions
The present study indicated that, while the oristic composi-
tion of markets in the La Paz metropolitan area remained relatively
constant over the last decade, with this inventory adding about
20% of species to previous studies, the number of indications for
which certain species were used increased tremendously, and that
profound differences exist even between markets in close proxi-
mity. The dramatic increase in species used per indication, caused
most likely by a combination of species replacements, introduction
of fashionable species, and higher demand, might pose serious
risks for consumers. Similar to our previous study in the markets
in Lima, where we found that species used to treat diabetes posed
a potential health risk (Bussmann et al., 2013), and a short survey
of the markets in La Paz that indicated serious problems due to
species replacements (Bussmann et al., 2014), we found again, that
even plants that have a well established vernacular name, and are
easily recognizable botanically, can be replaced by other species
that could pose a serious health risk. Vendor education and
stringent identication of the material sold in public markets are
clearly needed.
Author contributions
RWB and NYPZ designed the study; RWB, NYPZ, and LAMH
conducted the eldwork, RHE conducted the main statistical
analysis; RBU, NYPZ, and RHE analyzed the data and wrote the
manuscript; all authors read, corrected and approved the
manuscript.
Competing nancial interests
The authors declare that they have no competing nancial
interest.
Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge the participation of the market
vendors in La Paz, and the Herbario Nacional de Bolivia for access
to comparative plant material.
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