EMC611S

ELECTRICAL MACHINES 214

SINGLE-PHASE
TRANSFORMERS
LECTURE 2

2/2010; 4/2015 TRANSFORMERS - K. Kanyimba

 5. THE REAL (PRACTICAL) TRANSFORMER

In practice there is no transformer that is ideal.

In a real (practical) transformer:
(i) The core material has a finite value of relative
permeability, r. This will determine how much flux is
produced for a given current.
(ii) The coils have winding resistances, Rp and Rs.
Therefore, Ep is no longer equal to Vp and, on load, Vs
is no longer equal to Es as there are voltage drops in
the windings.
There are also resistive losses in the windings;
(iii) Not all the flux produced in the primary coil links with
the secondary coil, there are leakage fluxes in both
windings (s is no longer equal to p);
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 THE REAL TRANSFORMER (CONT.)

(iv) Hysteresis' and 'eddy-current' core losses exist

and therefore the core heats up.
This means also that the no-load current consists of
two components, viz,
(i) a component responsible for the production of the
magnetic flux (known as a magnetising component)
and
(ii) a component that represents the core losses.

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 THE REAL TRANSFORMER (CONT.)

5.1. THE PHASOR DIAGRAM OF A REAL

TRANSFORMER ON NO-LOAD
A real transformer on no-load approximates an ideal
transformer in its operation. The phasor diagram of a real
transformer on no-load is shown in Figure 5.1.
From equation 3.3 (in lecture 1: ep = Epsin(t + /2), the
primary induced voltage, Ep, leads the magnetic flux, , by
90.
Assuming that winding resistance, leakage flux and core
loss are very small and hence negligible, the primary
induced voltage, Ep, is therefore equal to the supply
voltage, Vp.
This means that the circuit is purely inductive and hence
the supply voltage, Vp, also leads the magnetic flux, , by 90.
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 THE PHASOR DIAGRAM OF A REAL
TRANSFORMER ON NO-LOAD (CONT.)

The phasor diagram is based on

the assumption that, winding
resistances, leakage flux and
core loss are very small and
hence negligible.
With the core loss neglected, the
no-load current is purely
reactive.
With the primary winding
resistance and leakage fluxes
neglected, Ep = Vp and Vs = Es,
hence, Vs = Es = Ep = Vp (for Np =
Figure 5.1. Phasor diagram of a Ns).
real transformer on no-load with
Winding resistances, leakage
flux and core losses neglected.

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 THE REAL TRANSFORMER (CONT.)

5.2. THE MAGNETISING CURRENT

Although the iron core of a transformer is highly
permeable, it is not possible to produce a magnetic
field in it without the application of at least a small
m.m.f.
Thus even when the secondary winding is on open-
circuit and giving no current, a small magnetising
current is needed to maintain the magnetic circuit
or core in the magnetised state.
The magnetising m.m.f. is a function of the length, the
net cross-sectional area and the permeability of the
iron path/magnetic circuit.
The m.m.f. of the primary circuit on no-load is of the
order of 3 5 per cent of its m.m.f. on full-load.
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 THE MAGNETISING CURRENT (CONT.)

If it is assumed that the core loss is too small to be

considered (negligible) then the component of the current
responsible for this loss is also ignored and therefore, the
no-load current only consists of the magnetising current,
i.e., INL = INL-m. (Figure 5.1).
The magnetising current (INL-m) responsible for the
production of the m.m.f. is considered to be in phase with
its associated flux and is therefore purely reactive.
It is also assumed that the permeability of the core
remains constant, so that the magnetising current and
the flux are proportional to each other.
For convenience, when carrying out calculations, INL-m is
considered to be sinusoidal, although this is not the
case for the saturation values normally employed in
practice.
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 THE MAGNETISING CURRENT (CONT.)

The magnitude of the maximum flux in the core is

determined by the voltage, the frequency and the
number of turns of the primary winding and does not
depend upon the nature of the core material used which is
apparent from the following equation:
Ep
m = ...eqn. 5.1
4.44 fN p

Hence the maximum value of the flux density, Bm is

determined by
m
Bm = ... eqn. 3.2.
Ac
where Ac is the cross-sectional area of the core.

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 THE MAGNETISING CURRENT (CONT.)

The maximum magnetic field strength, Hm is obtained

from the B H curve of the material, but it is known that

N p I NL m max H m lc
Hm = or I NL m max = ...eqn. 5.3
lc Np
where INL-m-max is the maximum value of the magnetising
current.
So the r.m.s. value of the magnetising current will be:

H m lc B
m / (N )
N p
=
p
= r o
I NL mmax
I NL m = eqn. 5.4
2 2 2

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 THE MAGNETISING CURRENT (CONT.)

Thus it is found that the magnitude (r.m.s. value) of the

magnetising current drawn from the supply will be
different for different core materials (due to different
values of r) although the applied voltage, frequency and
number of turns may be the same.
Under no-load conditions the required amount of flux will
be produced by the m.m.f. NpINL-m.
In fact this amount of m.m.f. must exist in the core of the
transformer at all times, independent of the degree of
loading.

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 THE REAL TRANSFORMER (CONT.)

5.3. THE ACTUAL NO-LOAD CURRENT

The alternating nature of the flux in the core entails a
production of core loss, due to hysteresis and eddy-
currents.
The continuous loss of energy to the core, which
produces heat that is eventually dissipated from the
transformer, requires a continuous supply from the
electrical source to which the primary winding is
connected.
Since the only way in which an electric circuit can
furnish energy is for a current to flow under the
influence of a voltage, there must be a current
component INL-l which supplies the losses.

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 THE ACTUAL NO-LOAD CURRENT (CONT.)

The product EpINL-l thus represents the power input to

supply the core loss.
The voltage Ep is used (rather than Vp) because this is
the voltage directly associated with the magnetic field.
On no-load, therefore, there will be two currents flowing,
INL-m for magnetisation and INL-l for the core losses.
The currents are in phase-quadrature since one is in
phase with the flux, m, while the other is in the direction
of Ep, which in turn is in phase-quadrature with m.

12
 THE ACTUAL NO-LOAD CURRENT (CONT.)

The no-load current, INL, taken from the primary at no-

load, therefore, consists of two components:
(i) A reactive or magnetising component, INL-m,
producing the flux and therefore is in phase with the flux
and
(ii) An active or power component, INL-l, supplying the
hysteresis and eddy-current losses in the core.
INL-l is in phase with the applied voltage, i.e. INL-lEp = INL-
lVp = core loss (since Rp is assumed negligible and
hence no copper loss).
This component, INL-l, is usually very small compared
with INL-m, so that the no-load power factor is very low.
The phasor diagram representing the two components of
the no-load current is shown in Figure 5.2.

13
 THE ACTUAL NO-LOAD CURRENT (CONT.)

From the phasor diagram:

I NL = I NL
2
l + I 2
NL m eqn. 5.5
and the power-factor on
no-load is
I NL l
cos NL = eqn. 5.6
I NL

Figure 5.2. Real transformer:

no-load phasor diagram with
core loss.
14
 THE REAL TRANSFORMER (CONT.)

5.4. THE PHASOR DIAGRAM OF A REAL

TRANSFORMER ON LOAD
Considering a general case of a load having a lagging
power-factor, coss; the phasor representing the
secondary current Is lags Vs by an angle s, as shown in
Figure 5.3.
Phasor Is' represents the component of the primary current
to neutralise the magnetising effect of the secondary
current and is drawn equal and opposite to Is.
Here Is' is described as ''Is referred (to the primary circuit)'.
INL is the no-load current of the transformer. The phasor
sum of INL and Is' gives the total current Ip taken from the
supply and the power factor on the primary side is cosp,
where p is the phase angle between Vp and Ip.
15
 THE PHASOR DIAGRAM OF
A REAL TRANSFORMER ON LOAD (CONT.)

Whenever the secondary

winding delivers a current Is, the
primary reacts by drawing extra
current Is (the reflected current)
such that IsNp = IsNs is to be
satisfied at every instant.
This means that if at any
instant Is is leaving the dot
terminal of the secondary winding,
Is will be drawn towards the dot
terminal of the primary winding.
Figure 5.3. Phasor diagram of Under this condition, these two
a loaded transformer having m.m.f.s (i.e, IsNs and IsNp) will act
negligible voltage drops in in opposition as shown in Figure
the windings as Rp and Rs are 5.4.
both negligible.
16
 THE PHASOR DIAGRAM OF
A REAL TRANSFORMER ON LOAD (CONT.)

Since the two m.m.fs

Figure 5.4. MMF directions of
Is and Is'.
(NsIs and NpIs) are numerically
equal, there cannot be any flux
produced in the core, due to the
effect of the secondary current Is
and the corresponding reflected
current Is.
The net m.m.f. therefore,
acting in the magnetic circuit, is
once again INL-mNp as m.m.f.s
Is'Np and IsNs cancel each other.

Therefore, in order to create m, the necessary m.m.f. is INL-mNp.

Thus, the net m.m.f. provided by the two coils together must always
be INL-mNp under no load as well as under load conditions.
In a well designed transformer, the choice of core material is such
that INL-m is kept as small as is practically possible.
17
 THE REAL TRANSFORMER (CONT.)

5.5. DERIVATION OF THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

DIAGRAM OF A REAL TRANSFORMER
The equivalent circuit of a real transformer can be
considered to be that of an ideal transformer plus some
appropriate resistances and reactances connected to it to
take into account the effects of the imperfections listed
from (i) to (iv) on pages 2 and 3.
That is,
Real Transformer
=
Ideal Transformer + Imperfections

18
 DERIVATION OF THE EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT OF A REAL TRANSFORMER (CONT.)

Therefore, a real transformer will differ from an ideal

transformer in that
(1) its core material will have finite permeability;
(2) there will be eddy-current and hysteresis losses taking
place in the core;
(3) there will be leakage fluxes and therefore not all the flux
from the primary winding will link the secondary winding
and vice-versa; and
(4) there will be finite winding resistances and hence
resistive losses in the windings.

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 DERIVATION OF THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
OF A REAL TRANSFORMER (CONT.)

5.5.1. REPRESENTATION OF THE MAGNETISING

CURRENT:
First consider the no load operation of Figure 5.1.
Since the core is not ideal, a finite magnetising current INL-
m will be drawn from the supply and it will be in phase with
the flux phasor.
Further, since the core loss is neglected the primary
current will only consist of the magnetising current.
Since winding resistances and the leakage flux are also
neglected, Ep will be in phase with and the same as Vp.
Figure 5.5 shows the transformer on load with the same
conditions as those for Figure 5.3 but with INL-m INL, since
core loss and winding resistances are negligible.

20
 REPRESENTATION OF THE
MAGNETISING CURRENT (CONT.)

Noting that INL-m lags Vp by 90 and that the magnetising

current has to be supplied for all loading conditions (no-
load or load), an equivalent reactor of reactance Xm, called
the magnetising reactance, can be used to represent this
part of the circuit.
This reactor is connected across the primary of the ideal
transformer as shown in Figure 5.6(a).
Thus the transformer having a finite magnetising current
can be modelled or represented by an ideal transformer
with a fixed magnetising reactor of reactance, Xm,
connected across the primary winding.

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 REPRESENTATION OF
THE MAGNETISING CURRENT (CONT.)

(a) With no load

Figure 5.5. Phasor diagram

of transformer on load, with
(a) With load
only the magnetising
current taken into account Figure 5.6. Introduction of a magnetising
(i.e. core loss and winding reactance in the ideal transformer.
resistances neglected).
22
 REPRESENTATION OF
THE MAGNETISING CURRENT (CONT.)

With the switch, S, opened in Figure 5.6(a), the current

drawn from the supply is Ip = INL-m since there is no
reflected current in the primary of the ideal transformer.
However, with S closed there will be Is, hence a reflected
current Is will appear in the primary of the ideal
transformer.
So current drawn from the supply will be Ip = INL-m + Is.

23
 DERIVATION OF THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
OF A REAL TRANSFORMER (CONT.)

5.5.2. REPRESENTATION OF THE CORE LOSS:

The core of a transformer is subjected to an alternating
time varying field causing eddy-current and hysteresis
losses to occur inside the core.
The sum of these two losses is known as the core loss of
the transformer.

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 DERIVATION OF THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
OF A REAL TRANSFORMER (CONT.)

(1) Eddy-Current Power Loss:

Eddy-current power loss is essentially a collection of i2R
losses occurring inside the core.
The currents are caused by induced e.m.fs in closed
paths due to the time varying field.
Eddy current loss per unit volume of material
depends directly upon
(i) the square of the frequency,
(ii) the square of the maximum flux density and
(iii) the thickness of the plate.
It is also inversely proportional to the resistivity of the
material.

25
 REPRESENTATION OF THE CORE LOSS (CONT.)

Eddy-Current Power Loss (cont.)

For a given core, the eddy-current power loss is given by
Pe = K e Bm2 f 2 ...eqn. 5.7
Since the voltage induced in the coil is proportional to fBm,
( E = 4.44 NAfBm ) the eddy-current power loss may be
re-written as:
Pe = K e' E 2 ...eqn. 5.8
The constant Ke' depends on the conductivity of the core
material and the square of the thickness of the
laminations.
Therefore, eddy-current power loss is proportional to
the square of the (supply) voltage.

26
 REPRESENTATION OF THE CORE LOSS (CONT.)

(2) Hysteresis Power Loss:

A real transformer has a real coil and a real magnetic
circuit.
This magnetic circuit is described by the hysteresis loop of
the B-H characteristic of the material shown in Figure 5.7.
During the process of magnetisation by the alternating flux,
energy is lost due to hysteresis.
This energy loss, called the hysteresis loss is
proportional to the area enclosed by the hysteresis
loop.
That means it depends on the material the transformer
core is made of.

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 Hysteresis Power Loss (cont.)

The empirical formula for hysteresis

loss is:
Ph = K h fBmn
eqn. 5.9
The constants Kh and 'n' vary with the
core material.
'n' is often assumed to be between 1.5
2.5.
Since Bm is proportional to E, eqn. 5.9
Figure 5.7.
Hysteresis loop or
can be re-written, for n = 2, as:
B-H characteristic. 2
E
Ph = K h' eqn. 5.10
f
i.e. hysteresis power loss is proportional to the square of the
(supply) voltage.

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 REPRESENTATION OF THE CORE LOSS (CONT.)

Combining the eddy-current and hysteresis power losses,

the total core power loss is:
E 2 ' K h' 2
Pc = Pe + Ph = K E + K
'
e
2 '
h = K e + E eqn. 5.11
f f

The effect of core loss is manifested by the heating-up of

the core and it is a real power (or energy) loss.
For the purpose of the equivalent circuit, an equivalent
resistor is introduced.
Since core loss is proportional to the square of the
voltage, a resistor (RC) connected across the supply
terminals (or across the primary winding) is an
appropriate representation of the core-loss-resistance.

29
 REPRESENTATION OF THE CORE LOSS (CONT.)

In a well designed transformer, the maximum flux

density Bm remains practically the same from no-load
to full-load.
Hence core loss will be practically independent of the
load and this loss must be drawn from the supply.
Rc is shown connected in parallel with the magnetising
reactance in Figure 5.8.
The core power loss, Pc, is proportional to the square of
the voltage (Ep)2 , which appears across the core
resistance, Rc and is given by:
2 2
E V
Pc = =
p p
...eqn. 5.12
Rc Rc

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 REPRESENTATION OF THE CORE LOSS (CONT.)

Rc represents the core loss (i.e., the sum of hysteresis and

eddy-current power losses) and is in parallel with the
magnetising reactance Xm.
Thus the no- load current drawn from the supply INL, is not
magnetising current INL-m alone, but the sum of INL-l and INL-m,
with INL-l in phase with the supply voltage Vp and INL-m
lagging Vp by 90.
The equivalent circuit diagram of the transformer (thus far)
with Xm and Rc in parallel and phasor diagrams for the
equivalent circuit are shown in Figures 5.8 and 5.9,
respectively.
It may be noted that the no-load current INL is about 2 to
5% of the rated current of a well designed transformer.
The reflected current Is is now to be added vectorially with
INL to get the total primary current Ip as shown in figure
5.9(b).
31
 REPRESENTATION OF THE CORE LOSS (CONT.)

Figure 5.8. Equivalent circuit showing

core loss and magnetising current.

Figure 5.9.
Phasor
Diagrams
for a
transformer
having core
loss and
magnetising
(a) No load (b) With load current.
32
 DERIVATION OF THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF
A REAL TRANSFORMER (CONT.)

5.5.3. REPRESENTATION OF LEAKAGE FLUX AND

WINDING RESISTANCES
(1) Useful and Leakage Fluxes in a Transformer:
For simplicity of analysis, the following assumptions are
made:
(i) The core loss and the I2R loss in the primary winding are
negligible,
(ii) The permeability of the core is constant, so that the
magnetising current and the flux are proportional to
each another.
(iii) Np = Ns.

33
 REPRESENTATION OF LEAKAGE FLUX
AND WINDING RESISTANCES (CONT.)

When the secondary winding of a transformer is on open-

circuit, the current taken by the primary winding is
responsible for setting up the magnetic flux and providing
a very small power component to supply the loss in the
core.
Assuming a load having a power-factor such that the
secondary current is in phase with Es, the primary current,
as explained earlier, will have two components: INL-m, to
maintain the useful flux and Is' to neutralise the
demagnetising effect of the secondary current (Figures
5.10 (a) and (b)).

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 Useful and Leakage Fluxes in a Transformer (cont.)

(a)

(b)
Figure 5.10. (a) Waveforms of supply voltage, currents and fluxes in a
transformer on load. (b) Phasor diagram (unity p.f. load; core and
resistive losses neglected).
35
 Useful and Leakage Fluxes
in a Transformer (cont.)

At instant A in Figure 5.10(a), the magnetising current is

zero, but Is and Is' are at their maximum values (since they
are in phase with the supply voltage); and if the direction of
the current in the primary winding, P, is such as to produce
flux upwards in the left-hand limb of Figure 5.11, the
secondary current must be in such a direction as to produce
flux upwards in the right-hand limb as well and the flux of
each limb has to return through air. Since the flux of each
limb is linked only with the winding by which it is produced, it
is referred to as leakage flux and is responsible for inducing
an e.m.f. of self-inductance in the winding with which it is
linked. The reluctance of the paths of leakage flux, L, is
almost entirely due to the long air paths and is therefore
practically constant. Consequently the value of the leakage
flux is proportional to the load current, whereas the value
of the useful flux, U = m remains almost independent of
the load.
36
 Useful and Leakage Fluxes
in a Transformer (cont.)

Figure 5.11. Paths of leakage flux.

The reluctance of the paths of the leakage flux is very
high, so that the value of this flux is relatively small
even on full-load when the values of Is' and Is are about
20 30 times the magnetising current INL-m.

37
 Useful and Leakage Fluxes
in a Transformer (cont.)

From the above discussion it follows that the actual flux in

a transformer can be regarded as being due to the two
components shown in Figure 5.10(a), namely:
(i) The useful flux (or mutual flux), U = m linked with both
windings and remaining practically constant in value at
all loads.
(ii) The leakage flux, L, half of which is linked with the primary
winding and the other half with the secondary winding and
its value is proportional to the load.
The above conclusion may also be interpreted by recognising that
all the space immediately surrounding the transformer, ideally,
becomes magnetised when the transformer is energised; and that,
the greater part of the flux is produced in the core provided for it,
but a small proportion, called the leakage flux, links one or other
winding, but not both so that it does not contribute to the
transfer of energy from the primary circuit to the secondary
circuit.
38
 REPRESENTATION OF LEAKAGE FLUX
AND WINDING RESISTANCES (CONT.)

(2) Representation of Leakage Fluxes in a Transformer:

The leakage flux is proportional to the primary and
secondary currents and its effect is to induce e.m.fs of
self-inductance in the windings.
The total flux produced by the primary is the sum of
the useful (mutual) and the leakage fluxes.
While the useful flux alone takes part in the energy
transfer from the primary to the secondary, the effect of
the leakage flux is to cause additional voltage drop.
This drop can be represented by a small reactance drop
called the leakage reactance drop.
Consequently the effect of leakage flux can be
considered as equivalent to inductive reactors Xp and
Xs connected in series with a transformer having no
leakage flux as shown in Figure 5.12.

39
 Representation of Leakage Fluxes
in a Transformer:

The leakage reactors are such that the flux-linkages

produced by the primary current through Xp are equal to
those due to the leakage flux linked with the primary
winding and the flux-linkages produced by the secondary
current through Xs are equal to those due to the leakage
flux linked with the secondary winding of the actual
transformer.

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 REPRESENTATION OF LEAKAGE FLUX
AND WINDING RESISTANCES (CONT.)

(3) Representation of Winding Resistances in a

Transformer:
The real (practical) transformer has coils of finite
resistance.
In large transformers the effect of the resistance in causing
a voltage drop is nearly negligible, but the I2R loss due to
the same cause is of great importance in design, as
producing the major portion of the load losses that must be
dissipated by the cooling and ventilation system.
The resistance of the transformer windings is actually
distributed uniformly, but may conveniently be conceived
as concentrated.

41
 Representation of Winding Resistances
in a Transformer (cont.)

The drop across the resistance Rp of the primary winding

is IpRp and this has to be provided for by a component of
the applied voltage under all conditions in order that the
current can be made to circulate through the winding.
Similar considerations apply to the secondary resistance
voltage drop, IsRs.
The effect of winding resistance is, therefore, taken into
account by introducing small lumped resistors connected
in series with the leakage reactors as shown in Figure
5.12.

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 REPRESENTATION OF LEAKAGE FLUX
AND WINDING RESISTANCES (CONT.)

Figure 5.12. The (Exact) Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Real

(Practical) Two-winding Transformer.

43
 REPRESENTATION OF LEAKAGE FLUX
AND WINDING RESISTANCES (CONT.)

(4) Methods of Reducing Leakage Flux

The leakage flux can be practically eliminated by winding
the primary and secondary, one over the other, uniformly
around a laminated ferromagnetic ring of uniform cross-
section. Such an arrangement, however, is not
commercially practicable except in very small sizes, owing
to the cost of threading a large number of turns through
the ring. The principal methods used in practice are:
(i) Making the transformer window long and narrow.
(ii) Arranging the primary and secondary windings
concentrically (see Figure 5.13(a)).
(iii) Sandwiching the primary and secondary windings (see
Figure 5.13(b)).
(iv) Using the shell-type of construction (see Figure 5.16).
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 Methods of Reducing Leakage Flux (cont.)

(b)

(a)

Figure 5.13. (a) Concentric windings: HVW = high-voltage winding;

LVW = low-voltage winding. (b) Sandwiched windings.

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 Methods of Reducing Leakage Flux (cont.)

Figure 5.15. Shell-type construction.

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