HUMA103 Philosophy of Man with Logic and Critical 2016

Thinking

Learning Module
Introduction to Logic
Philosophy of Man

This module aims to place proper and universal definition of

terms in Logic in order to help students gain understanding of
what Logic is and how relevant it is in our lives, despite our
different fields of study.

Objectives

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

A. define what Logic is

B. differentiate the three-fold intellectual act
C. know and understand the different terms in logic

Teaching Strategies/Learning Activities

Lecture
Class Discussion
Video Presentation

Resources/Materials

Books
Journal Articles
Internet Sources

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Learning Concept

Definition of Logic
Etymological Definition

Zeno the Stoic first coined the word logic.

Logic came from the Greek term:

( logike ) which means a thought
Etymologically, logic means a treatise pertaining to thought.
Aristotle considered Logic as the organon or the tool or instrument of the
sciences.
Logic is the instrument for gaining knowledge or the tool for correct thinking

o Logic is the instrument for gaining knowledge or the tool for correct
thinking.
Formal Definition:

Logic is the study of science and art of correct inferential reasoning.

Logic deals with the laws, methods and principles of correct thinking.
Thereby, logic distinguishes correct from incorrect reasoning.
It is a science because it is a systematized body of knowledge about the
principles and laws of correct inferential reasoning. It follows certain rules
and laws in arriving at valid conclusions.
Logic is also considered art, the art of reasoning. As an art it requires the
mastery of the laws and principles of correct inferential thinking.
Formal and Material Logic

Formal Logic discusses the conceptual patterns or structures needed for a valid and
correct argument or inference. It deals with the correct patterns of argumentation.
Material Logic deals with the nature of the terms and propositions that are used in the
different types of inference. It discusses the types ad meanings of terms or words and
sentences or propositions used in the arguments.
The Three-fold Intellectual Acts:
Intellectual Acts Mental Product External Sign

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Simple Idea Term
Apprehension

Judgment Enunciation Proposition

Reasoning Argument Syllogism

TERMS

Contents

I. Simple Apprehension, Idea, Terms

II. Comprehension and Extension of Ideas

III. Classification of Terms

IV. Predicaments and Predicables

V. Definition

I. Simple Apprehension: First Intellectual Act

The first act of the intellect, by which it knows the essence or nature of the
thing, without affirming or denying anything about it.
It is through simple apprehension that the intellect forms a mental image of
the thing, called idea.
Apprehension is the beginning of knowledge. It is when we have an
understanding or an idea of things that we can say we know.

Idea and Term: Product of Apprehension

Idea is the mental product of the apprehension. It is the mental or

intellectual image or representation of the object, because it represents the
object of thing in the intellect.
An idea is formed through the process called abstraction.
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Abstraction is defined as the process by which the intellect strips the
object of its non-essential qualities, retains the essential ones, and forms
them into one image, which is the idea.

Characteristics of Idea

1. Abstract

2. Universal

3. Immaterial

4. Spiritual

5. Constant

Term is the external manifestation or sign of an idea. It is a written or

spoken word.
Idea exists in the mind, but when it is expressed or manifested verbally, it
then becomes a term.
The term is considered as a conventional sign, as a sign it stands for
something, like a thing, object, place, person, event, etc.
It is a conventional sign for the connection between the thing of object it
signifies and the term is established by convention.
The term or word is part of language and language is used to express our
thought about reality.
II. Comprehension and Extension: Logical Properties of Idea or Term
Comprehension is the sum total of the attributes or thought elements which
constitute the idea. It is the meaning, the signification, the thought, content
or connotation of the idea.
Extension is the sum-total of all the individuals, things or beings or groups to
which the idea can be applied. It expresses denotation or the application of
the idea to different individuals or things.
Example:

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Comprehension Extension

UST, UP, ADMU, DLSU,

UNIVERSITY An institution of higher UE,

learning AdU, NU, UERM, etc.

There is an inverse relation between the comprehension and extension

of idea. As the comprehension of the idea increases, the extension
decreases and vice versa. This means that, if the conceptual features
of an idea increase, the application of this idea will decrease.
Example:

UNIVERSITY

Comprehension Extension

AMA, STI, Samson Tech, All Universities

and Colleges, All public and private
An institution of learning primary and secondary schools, etc.

An institution of higher learning All universities and colleges

A Catholic Institution of DLSU, ADMU, La Consolacion, San

higher learning Sebastian, AdU, San Beda College, UST

A Pontifical and Catholic

Institution of higher learning in the
Philippines UST

The term with greater comprehension will have lesser extension and
the term with greater extension will have lesser comprehension.

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III. Classification of Terms

A. According to Significance or Meaning (Comprehension)

1. Univocal A univocal term is a term that is used in an identical sense. It

expresses only one meaning or sense when applied to several objects. A
term maybe univocal if it falls under the following conditions:
a. A term has no other possible meanings other than itself.
e.g. Homo Sapiens, Homo Erectus, solar system, heliocentricism,
Rector Magnificus, Supreme Pontiff, etc.

b. The term used is defined.

e.g.

Mercury is a planet in the solar system.

A notebook is a material used for writing made up of paper.

c. The terms used are taken to signify one meaning in two instances.
e.g.

The reverend father blesses the mother and the father of the
child.

Water is heavier than air and the air outside is fresh.

2. Equivocal An equivocal term is a term that expresses two or more

different or unrelated meanings. Equivocal terms may be externally
the same, (same spelling and/or pronunciation) but different in sense.
They may be equivocal in:
a. pronunciation as in, son-sun, sweet-suite, pain-pane;
b. spelling, as in, bow-bow, live-leave, lead-lead; or
c. both in spelling and pronunciation, as in club-club, watch-watch,
ball-ball.
e.g.

The sentence of the judge was not

clear.

I love philosophy.

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My notebook is new.

3. Analogous an analogous term is a term that expresses a meaning that is

partly different and partly the same, or meanings that are related.
a. Analogy by proportion when a term is applied to unlike objects
because of some resemblance between them

e.g.

foot

- foot of the mountain - foot of the stairs

Leg

- leg of the chair - leg of the table

b. Analogy by attribution when the term is used in an absolute

sense in one thing and then attributed in other things because of
some intrinsic relation with the first.
e.g.

healthy Being

- Healthy food - Divine Being

- Healthy exercise - Human Being

- Healthy medicine - Animate Being

- Healthy body - Inanimate Being

B. According to Application or Extension

1. Singular A singular term is one that applies to only one individual or

object. It may be proper noun or name, a term prefixed by a
demonstrative pronoun, or a term with restrictive qualification.
e.g.

The 15th President of the Philippine Republic.

The Dean of the College.

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2. Universal A universal term is one that is applied distributively to all
the individuals or objects in a class or to the class itself. It always
expresses a universal idea. It is usually prefixed by terms like all,
every, no, each, and other similar terms serving as universal
quantifiers.
e.g.

Every Catholic is a Christian.

A square is a polygon.
3. Particular A particular term is one that applies to only a part of the
extension of the universal. It is usually prefixed by terms like
some, few several, majority, many, a number of, and other similar
terms serving as particular quantifiers.
e.g.

Some students are lazy.

Several policemen are dishonest.
4. Collective A collective term is one that applies to a collective
idea. It represents a group or class but does not apply distributively to
the individuals in the class or group. It may appear singular in form,
but because it represents a class it is considered collective.

e.g.

A flock of sheep is destroying the crops.

The family celebrates the holiday.

IV. Predicaments and Predicables

Predicaments are classifications of universal natures and concepts.
Predicables are classifications of universal predicates in general.
o Predicaments and Predicables are useful to put order in
our universal concepts by ways of classification and to assign
the proper nature of things when we try to understand and
define them.

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A. The Supreme Predicaments

Aristotle called them Categories, which is the Greek term for

Predicaments. According to Aristotle, there are Two Supreme Predicaments:
that of Substance, and that of Accident. Above these two is the
Transcendental Being, and we use the concept Being to manifest the one and
the other.

Substance is being that carries existential actuality by itself (or a being

that exists by itself).

Accident is a modification of the substance, or being , and does not

carry existential actuality by itself, but in the substance of which it is a
modification (a being that does not exist by itself, but in the substance).

B. The Ten Predicaments

The First Predicament is that of Substance; the remaining nine are the
sub-classification of the Predicament Accident, in other words,
Accident, the Second Supreme Predicament is further subdivided into
nine other Predicaments, comprising the different kinds of accidents.
Accidents are non-essential modifications of the substance. Some of
these are in the substance, e.g. quantity, quality; others are just
circumstantial determinations, as to place, time, etc.

1. Substance
A nature that carries existential actuality and reality by itself,
and not a inhering in something else as subject. E.g., a tree, an
animal.
A nature that exists by itself
2. Quantity
Modification of substance as regards the effect of having
extended and measurable parts.
The extended and measurable parts, as regards dimensions
and weight.
3. Quality
A formal modifier of the substance.
E.g. health, figure, beauty, color.

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Aristotle further subdivided Quality as follows:

a. Habit or Disposition:
Habit is a quality modifying the substance well or ill, as
to itself, or as to its operation, in a permanent manner.
o E.g. physical fitness, wisdom, virtue.
Disposition is a quality analogous to the former but not
permanent in character.
o E.g. a cold-ailment, an initiation in mathematics.
b. Capability or Incapability
Capability is power and strength for action;
Incapability is shortcoming of strength for action.
c. Passion and Passive modification
Passion is a quality of a transient nature resulting from
some alteration in the substance.
o E.g. fatigue, rash or heat, anger.
Passive modification is akin to the former, but it is of a
lingering nature.
o E.g. redness or paleness of complexion
d. Form and Figure
Both denote a quality that follows the dimensional
termination of the substance.
Form is said of the shape of artificial things.
Figure is said of the shape of natural things.
o E.g., the form of a house, the figure of a woman.

4. Relation
Reference of one substance to another.
o E.g. fatherhood, sonship, kingship.

5. Action
Motion of the substance, commonly inducing a result
in another thing. o E.g. running, sawing, baking.
6. Passion
Modification of the substance as the result of the influence of
another agent.
o E.g. a wound, a confusion,
This accident should not be confused with the species of Quality
that runs under the same name (passion).
7. When
Circumstantial determination of the substance as to time, that
is, as to a point or portion, of a certain duration.
o E.g., at noon; between two or three oclock.
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8. Where
Circumstantial determination of the substance as to place, that
is, as to a point in space, or on a surface, or within a
circumstantial body.
o E.g., in Baguio, on my face, in the stomach, in the air.
9. Posture
Determination of the substance as to the disposition of its parts.
o E.g. upright, standing, lying.
10. Habit
Determination of the substance as to external outfit.
o E.g. dressed, armed.

C. Predicability, Kinds
Predicability is the aptitude of a universal concept to be said of many
subject. It is a logical property of the universal concept. There are two kinds:

a. Univocal

o When the universal concept is applicable to many subject

in exactly the same sense. This is the usual case with the
predicables.
b. Analogous
o When the universal concept is applicable to many
subjects in a sense that is neither altogether the
same nor altogether different, but kindred.

D. The Predicables

The Predicables are the different kinds of Logical Universals, that is,
universal concepts that may be applied to many subjects. Taken as
Classifications, they are universal concepts bearing different kinds of
logical relationship to the subject.

1. Genus
A universal that expresses that part of the essence of the
subject, which the subject has in common with other
individuals of a different species.
o Man is an animal. (Animal bears an essential feature,
which man has in common with the brute).

2. Specific Difference
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A universal that expresses that feature of the essence of
the subject, which distinguishers its essence from that of other
species.
o E.g. Man is rational. (Rational expresses the essential
feature of man, which distinguishes him from the
brutes.)

3. Species
A universal that expresses the whole essence of the subject. It
comprises both the Genus and Specific Difference.
o E.g. Man is a rational animal.
4. Property
A universal that expresses an attribute that is not part of
the essence of the subject, but necessarily flows from it.
o E.g. Man is being capable of progress, of making
tools, of religious sentiment, of artistic feeling, of
wonderment.
5. Accident
A universal that expresses a feature that is not part of the
essence of the subject, nor necessarily associated with it,
but is associated with the subject merely in a factual and
contingent manner.
o Mary is beautiful and healthy. (Such attributes are not
necessarily said of the subject.)
V. Definition
In dealing with ideas and terms, there is a need to get familiar with its
meaning for the sake of clarity. Since terms and ideas do not possess absolute
univocity, we must be able to harness our capacity to give its meaning and to
be able to define them. In this way, the vagueness of discourse can be
totally clarified and the right understanding of its meaning and context
can be properly achieved.

A. Meaning of Definition
a. Etymology
o The term definition came from the Latin term definere
which means to lay down.
o To define means to lay down the markers or limits.
o So when we define, we are putting or laying down the
markers or limits of the word or term. Outside of the

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markers, we can no longer apply the term or the word.
b. Real Definition
o The conceptual manifestation either of the meaning
of the term or of the formal features of the object.

B. Kinds of Definition
a. Nominal1 A nominal definition simply explains the meaning of a
term or word. It may provide the origin or root word or an
equivalent term.
i. Synonym an equivalent term or word.
e.g. joy means happiness; the President means the Chief.

ii. Etymology the origin or root of the word.

! Biology bio (=life) + logos (=study)
! Philosophy philos (=love) + Sophia (=wisdom)
b. Real A real definition explains what a thing or subject is. It
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explains the nature of the object by giving its properties,

characteristics, qualities, or features. It could be a complete
explanation of the object or thing or a simple description of the
object.
1 [Nominal = nomen (=name)]

2 [Real = res (=thing)]

i. Essential an essential definition explains the very

nature of the object by giving its proximate genus and
specific difference. The proximate genus consists of the
essential elements which makes the object or individual
similar to others. The specific difference is the distinctive
element which distinguishes it from others.
E.g. Mother a woman having a child.

Z genus W specific difference

Triangle a polygon with three sides and three

angles

ii. Descriptive A descriptive definition explains what a thing

or object is by giving the positive but nonZessential
features of the object. Sometimes, it is difficult to give
the essential features of objects or things, this explains
the general acceptance of a simple description of its
characteristics.
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1. Distinctive a distinctive definition explains an object
or thing by giving the set of distinctive characteristics
of an object or external features, those features that
are distinct to the object.
E.g. Water is a colorless, tasteless and odorless
substance.

2. Genetic a genetic definition explains an object by

giving its origin or process of production.
E.g. Water is a result of the combination of two
atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen

3. Causal a causal definition explains a thing or object

by giving its efficient cause, i.e. that which produces a
thing, or the final cause, i.e. the end or purpose of
an object or its efficient cause.
E.g. Painting is a work of art by a painter.

Watch is an instrument used to measure time.

Certain types of definitions are formulated by following certain formats:

Distinctive

X is [genus] characterized by certain [qualities, properties, traits]

X Z is [genus] having the following or manifesting certain [traits,

qualities, symptoms, etc.]

Genetic

X is [genus] derived from, or originated from [source, origin, etc.]

X is [genus] produced through [processes, procedure, formulation,

etc.]

Causal

X is [genus] produced or created or made by [makes, creator,

writer, producer]

X is [genus] used for, or designed to, or intended for [use, purpose,

goal, etc.]

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C. Other Classification
a. Popular A popular definition is based on the common knowledge
or idea of people about a thing or object.
E.g. Jose Rizal is our national hero.

Fiesta is a day of thanksgiving.

b. Scientific Scientific definitions are usually technical definitions of

scientific terms. In the field of medicine and physical science,
terms and objects or instruments, body parts and diseases are
given scientific definitions.
E.g. Diabetes insipidus is a disorder of the posterior lobe of
the pituitary gland due to a deficiency of vasopressin,
the antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

c. Medical definition of medical terms of procedures, using medical

terms.
d. Legal definition of legal concepts, procedures, using legal terms.
e. Lexical definition given in the dictionary.

D. Rules of Definition
1. The definition must be clearer than the term being defined. It must not
contain terms which will only make it less intelligible.

E.g. Net is the reticulated fabric decussater at regular

intervals with interstices and intersections.

Happiness is a way station between too little and too

much.

2. The definition must not contain the term being defined. The definition
must use other terms in defining. It is supposed to explain a
particular term and is not supposed to use the same term in the
explanation.
E.g. Teacher is the person who teaches.

A cookbook is a book for cooking.

3. The definition must be convertible with the term being defined. The
purpose of this rule is to make sure that the definition is equal in

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extension with the term being defined. The definition must not be too
narrow nor too wide, it must be accurate and precise.
E.g. A dog is a four-legged animal.

A wolf is a sheep-killing animal.

4. The definition must be an affirmative statement not negative

whenever possible.
The definition is supposed to explain what a term or object is, and not,
what it is not. Only when the term is negative should the definition be
negative.

E.g. A child is an individual who is not yet an adult.

An amateur is not a professional.

Correct definition: Darkness is the absence of light.

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