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Newport - Motion Control Tutorial
Newport - Motion Control Tutorial
Newport - Motion Control Tutorial
MOTION SYSTEMS
Important Specifications
ROTATION STAGES
MOTION SYSTEMS
The uncertainty of position after all The ability of a motion system to
sources of linear error are eliminated. reliably achieve a commanded posi-
Linear (or monotonically increasing) tion over many attempts. Manufac-
errors include cosine error, inaccuracy turers often specify uni-directional
of the leadscrew pitch, the angular repeatability which is the ability to
deviation effect at the measuring repeat a motion increment in one
point (Abbe error) and thermal expan- direction only. This specification
sion effects. Graphically these errors side-steps issues of backlash and
TRANSLATION STAGES
are represented by the slope of a hysteresis, and therefore is less
best fit line on a plot of position meaningful for many real-world
versus error (Figure 2). Knowing the applications where reversal of
slope of this line (error/travel), we motion direction is common.
can approximate absolute accuracy as:
A more significant specification is bi-
Absolute Accuracy = On-Axis directional repeatability, or the ability to
Accuracy + Slope x Travel. achieve a commanded position over
For stages with direct-output many attempts regardless of the
ROTATION STAGES
metrology such as a linear glass direction from which the position is Accuracy = .05 mm
scale, the slope approaches zero and approached. Few other manufacturers 10
NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS
Precision Backlash
The range of deviations in output The maximum magnitude of an input 6
MOTION CONTROLLERS
position that will occur for 95% of
the motion excursions from the same upon reversing direction. It can be a
4
error-free input. Precision is also result of insufficient axial preloads
known as repeatability. Although often or poor meshing between drivetrain
confused in common parlance, accu- components, i.e., gear teeth in a 2
racy and precision are not the same. gear-coupled drivetrain. Backlash is Precision =
.08 mm
Figure 3 shows graphically the differ- relatively repeatable and can be
ence between these two parameters. compensated for by capable 0
DRIVES
Combined Hysteresis
and Backlash Hysteresis
Backlash
OEM SOLUTIONS
erse
Rev
On-Axis
Position Error (m)
Accuracy
rd
rwa Absolute
Fo
Accuracy
Repeatability
(Uni-directional)
TUTORIAL
Travel (mm)
Figure 2 Error vs. position for a stage translated four times in each direction. This figure
shows graphically the difference between backlash and hysteresis.
which can be characterized and com- error due to the geometry of the
Figure 4 Position error in a pensated for by capable controllers. motion system.
translation stage.
(Figure 4), like accuracy, relate to when the point under measurement
parameters along the direction of is a relatively long distance from the
travel. Off-axis errors, like pitch error, axis of motion. For example, XYZ
relate to parameters along the con- stages incorporating an angle bracket
Eccentricity strained degrees of freedom. between the moving elements will
exhibit measurable Abbe error since
Ball Race Eccentricity and Wobble the Z stage is significantly displaced
Diameter above the X and Y axes. It appears as
MOTION CONTROLLERS
Typical Pitch
Deviation
Runout
Flatness
The linear (versus angular) portion of
Figure 6 Off-axis errors in a
linear stage. off-axis error. It is the
deviation between ideal straight line
Figure 8 Abbe error can be reduced by mini-
motion and actual measured motion mizing the height, h, from the stage surface.
in a translation stage. Runout has two
OEM SOLUTIONS
of travel.
MOTION SYSTEMS
Friction is defined as the resistance to For rotary stages, the direction of the
motion between surfaces in contact. resultant force is along the axis of
Friction can be constant or it can vary rotation. For loads with a resultant
with speed. Elements contributing force which is not centered, the
to overall friction may be in the form specified load capacity must be
of drag, sliding friction, system wear derated appropriately.
or lubricant viscosity. One of the primary determinants of
TRANSLATION STAGES
a stages load capacity is the bearing
Stiction system. See the Bearings section for
further discussion.
The static friction that must be over-
come to impart motion to a body at Normal Load Capacity
rest. Since static friction is higher The maximum centered load that
than sliding friction, the force which can be placed directly on the moving
must be applied to impart motion is carriage. It is typically limited by the
greater than the force required to load capacity of the bearings in a
keep the body in motion. As a result, motion stage.
ROTATION STAGES
when a force is initially applied, the
Transverse Load Capacity
body will begin to move with a
Also called side load capacity, it is the
jump at some unpredictable and
maximum load that can be applied
unrepeatable force threshold, giving
perpendicular to the axis of motion
a non-linear, non-repeatable motion
and along the carriage surface. This Load
that controllers cannot compensate.
is usually limited by the load Transverse
capacity of the bearings and is typ- Load
Position Stability ically smaller than the normal load
MOTION CONTROLLERS
The ability to maintain a constant capacity since fewer of the bearings
position over time. Variation from a carry the load. Axial
stable position is called drift. Load
Axial Load Capacity
Contributors to drift include worn
The maximum load along the direc-
parts, migration of lubricant, and Figure 10 Load capacity specifications
tion of the drivetrain. For linear refer to loads which are centered and
thermal variation.
stages mounted vertically, the speci- perpendicular.
fied vertical load capacity is usually
Load Capacity limited by the axial load capacity.
The allowable resultant force due to Most often, axial load capacity is
load applied at the center of the stage determined by the load capacity of
DRIVES
carriage with a direction perpendicular the motor and leadscrew.
to the axis of motion and carriage
dual-polarization
m
0 0
HeNe Laser (633 nm) -50
-1 -100
-2 -150
-200
-3 -250
Beat -25000 -15000 -5000 0 0 5000 15000 25000
Detector micron
Motorized X Runouts (microns)
Stage
V-Reflector : Flatness (Z) X Deflection (rad)
Polarization
Shear : Straightness (Y) : Yaw
: Roll
TUTORIAL
: Pitch
Polarization
Beamsplitter Straightness
Figure 9 Simplified schematic of Newports interferometric test
Prism
setup for measuring off-axis errors and sample test results. High
quality translation stages have sub-micron runout errors with
angular deviations on the order of 100150 radians.
are applied.
where : ation and deceleration times must be
increased.
Qdx, Qdy and Qdz are the projections
of the torque applied by Q onto the
x, y and z axes. MTBF
MTBF, or Mean Time Between Failure,
is a measure of stage reliability. It is
Dynamic Load
defined at a rated load and duty
OEM SOLUTIONS
The sum of all static loads and cycle. Quoting an accurate value for
dynamic resistance to motion. Some this important specification is diffi-
dynamic characteristics of the load cult due to the extensive testing
that need to be considered include involved.
friction and inertia. Dynamic load
must be considered when evaluating
overall performance of a motion sys-
tem since it limits the systems
achievable acceleration.
TUTORIAL
MOTION SYSTEMS
Materials
TRANSLATION STAGES
own unique set of advantages and to the coefficient of thermal expan-
disadvantages. Following is a sum- sion, , divided by the coefficient of
mary of the properties for the most thermal conductivity, c.
common materials used in motion
Relative thermal distortion = /c
mechanics.
If the ambient operating temperature
Stiffness of the component is much different
from room temperature, then close
A measure of the amount of force
attention should be paid to compo-
required to cause a given amount of
nents made with more than one
ROTATION STAGES
deflection. Force and deflection are
material. In a translation stage, for
proportional and related by the
example, if the stage is aluminum
equation:
while the bearings are stainless steel,
F = kx the aluminum and steel will expand
where F and x are force and deflection at different rates if the temperature
respectively and k is a material changes and the stages bearings
dependent constant of proportionality may lose preload or the stage may
MOTION CONTROLLERS
called the modulus of elasticity. A mate- warp due to stresses which build up
rial is stiffer for larger values of k. at the aluminum-steel interface.
DRIVES
change is: Aluminum
L = LT Features
Aluminum is a lightweight material,
where is the material dependent
resistant to cold flow or creep, with
coefficient of thermal expansion.
good stiffness-to-weight ratio. It has
a relatively high coefficient of thermal
Thermal Conductivity expansion, but it also has a high
Some materials, such as aluminum, thermal conductivity, making it a OEM SOLUTIONS
are good choices when temperature good choice in applications where
change across the component is there will be thermal gradients or
non-uniform. This occurs when where rapid adjustment to tempera-
mounting a heat source such as a ture changes is required. Aluminum
laser diode. Because the diode is is fast machining, cost effective, and
hotter than the surrounding environ- widely used in stage structures.
ment, it dissipates heat through the Aluminum doesnt rust and corrosion
mount setting up a temperature gra- is generally not a problem in a typical
TUTORIAL
dient along the stage. If the material users environment, even when the
does not readily dissipate the heat, surface is unprotected. It has an
then distortions caused by thermal excellent finish when anodized.
gradients can become significant.
used. Anodizing hardens the surface, brass has a less desirable stiffness-to-
improving scratch and wear resistance. weight ratio. Also, despite that the
Aluminum may also be painted with thermal expansion of brass is similar
excellent results. to that of aluminum, its thermal
conductivity is nearly a factor of two
Steel worse.
Features Coatings
Steel has a high modulus of elasticity, For optical use, brass is usually dyed
giving it very good stiffness (nearly black. In other cases, it may be plated
ROTATION STAGES
three times that of aluminum), and with chrome or nickel for surface
good material stability. It also has durability.
about half the thermal expansion of
aluminum (Figure 12), making it an Granite
excellent choice for stability in typical
Features
user environments where there are
Granites unique physical character-
uniform changes in temperature.
istics, combined with new advances
Stainless steel is well-suited to high
MOTION CONTROLLERS
Steel parts are generally plated or perfect surfaces that exceed the flat-
painted. Platings are often chrome, ness of surfaces produced by auto-
nickel, rhodium, or cadmium. A mated equipment of any kind.
black oxide finish is often used on
An important characteristic of granite
screws and mounting hardware to
is its extreme hardness, which enables
prevent rust. Stainless steel alloys
it to be lapped to very tight flatness
avoid the rust problems of other
specifications. Tests confirm that
OEM SOLUTIONS
than steel, and fast machining. The of granite also contributes to its use-
main use of brass is for wear reduc- fulness in precision support struc-
tion; it is often used as a dissimilar tures. Granite is completely free of
metal to avoid self-welding effects
MOTION SYSTEMS
uniform, predictable response to
Stiffness, k (Mpsi) 28 10.5
thermal changes. Granites high mass
Density, (lb/in3) 0.277 0.097
also gives it high thermal inertia,
Specific Stiffness, k/ 101 108
which protects experiments and
Thermal Expansion, (in/in/F) 5.6 12.4
processes from being affected by
Thermal Conduction, c (BTU/hr-ft-F) 15.6 104
short-term ambient temperature
Relative Thermal Distortion, /c 0.36 0.12
fluctuations.
TRANSLATION STAGES
Limitations Figure 12 Properties for common stage materials.
For large structures and table surfaces
the mass of a granite structure can better weight to stiffness properties
become large. For applications where and can be damped for specific
extreme flatness is not important, frequencies to optimize system
steel honeycomb structures offer performance.
ROTATION STAGES
Bearings
MOTION CONTROLLERS
the balls radii allows the use of
lubricant for proper performance.
smaller balls than with flat ways. The
The load and trajectory performance arch approximates a Vee shaped Single Row Double Row
of a translation or rotation stage is way with the load effectively V Profile Gothic Profile Gothic Profile
DRIVES
Figure 14 The type of bearing way,
ways by means of vee-ways or hard- for loads that are perpendicular to ball diameter and number of balls affect
ened steel rods as shown in Figure the direction of motion. the load capacity of a stage.
13. The guide ways are externally
loaded against the balls to eliminate Crossed-Roller Bearings
unwanted runout in the bearings.
Crossed-roller bearings (Figure 15)
Even with this preload, the friction is
offer all of the advantages of ball
very low resulting in extremely
OEM SOLUTIONS
bearings with higher load capacity
smooth travel. Ball bearing slides
and higher stiffness. This is a conse-
are relatively insensitive to contami-
quence of replacing the point contact
nation because each ball contacts
of a ball with the line contact of a
the guide ways at only a single
roller.
point, allowing debris to be pushed
out of the way. Bearings of this type require more care
during manufacture and assembly Figure 15 Crossed-roller bearings
With a vee-groove bearing way, ball
which results in higher costs. Reserve have all the advantages of ball bearings
bearings have a lower load capacity with greater stiffness and load capacity.
crossed-roller slides for applications
than crossed-roller bearings, since
which require the greatest stability,
TUTORIAL
Load
Screw
Common drive systems for linear direct drives include higher velocity
and rotary precision positioning ratios and higher load capacities.
mechanics include the leadscrew,
ball screw and worm drive. Shaft Gearboxes
couplings and gearboxes, which
Nut Gearboxes are used to transmit rota-
Motor effect system dynamics such as
TRANSLATION STAGES
materials.
the speed is decreased.
Screw (worm)
Recirculating Ball Screw Flexible Shaft Couplings
Recirculating ball screws are essen-
Couplings are used in a drivetrain to
tially leadscrews with a train of ball
Gear transmit power and motion between
(wheel) bearings riding between the screw
two independent shafts which may
and nut in a recirculating track (Figure
not be perfectly aligned (Figure 19).
17). The large number of mating parts
makes tolerances critical and thus Flexible couplings generally allow for
Figure 18 Worm drive systems can
provide high speed and high torque. manufacturing costs higher. The some parallel and angular misalign-
screw profile has a rounded shape to ment. Depending on their design,
DRIVES
Worm Drive
The worm gear system is a method of
b)
transforming rotary motion in one
direction into rotary motion in another Figure 20 Flexible couplings are made from
Figure 19 Shaft couplings adjust direction by meshing a screw (worm) many designs.
a) Helical. No backlash and constant velocity
TUTORIAL
MOTION SYSTEMS
N Stator
TRANSLATION STAGES
hand position for the operator. With are able to move in a continuous A
the manual drives that Newport pro- point-to-point positioning manner.
vides, we specify a sensitivity of one When at rest, a full-step motors stop
micron. This assumes that the knob position does not drift because there
has a diameter of 30 millimeters and is an inherent holding or detent torque D S N S N B
drives a leadscrew pitch of one mil- without power applied. For this reason,
limeter. If reduction gears are incor- steppers at rest generate little heat
porated, sensitivity of 0.1 microns is making them suitable for position- Step 2
C
possible. and-hold vacuum applications where
heat dissipation is more difficult.
ROTATION STAGES
A
Stepper Motors The three primary types of stepper
A stepper motor operates using the motors are permanent magnet, variable
basic principle of magnetic attraction reluctance and hybrid synchronous. S
D B
and repulsion. Steppers convert digital N
Permanent Magnet
pulses into mechanical shaft rotation. S
Permanent magnet motors have a
The amount of rotation is directly N
permanent magnet armature magne- Step 3
proportional to the number of input C
MOTION CONTROLLERS
tized perpendicular to the rotation
pulses generated and speed is relative
axis. By energizing four phases in
to pulse frequency. A typical stepper A
sequence, the rotor will rotate as it
motor has a permanent magnet and/or
follows the changing magnetic field.
an iron rotor with a stator. The
For the motor depicted in Figure 21,
torque required to turn the stepper
the step angle is 90. Typical step D N S N S B
motor is generated by commutating
angles for permanent magnet motors
the motor as illustrated in Figure 21.
are 45 and 90. They step at relatively
Commutation low rates but have high torques and Step 4
C
The first difference to understand good damping characteristics.
between a DC and a stepper motor is Figure 21 Rotation in a stepper
Variable Reluctance motor is generated by alternately
that when a voltage is applied to a DC
DRIVES
Variable reluctance motors differ energizing and de-energizing the poles
servo motor, it will develop both in the motors stator creating torque
from permanent magnet motors by
torque and rotation. When a voltage which turns the rotor.
having a multi-tooth armature, each
is applied to a stepper motor it will
tooth being an individual magnet as
develop only torque. For the motor to
shown in Figure 22. At rest, these
rotate, the current applied must be
magnets align themselves in a natural
commutated or switched.
detent position providing larger
OEM SOLUTIONS
Commutation is the principle by which holding torque. In the example Figure 22 In a variable reluctance
motor, the multi-tooth armature provides
the amplitude and direction of the cur- shown, by alternately de-energizing higher holding torque at each 15
rent flowing in the electro-magnetic pole 1 and energizing pole 2, the rotary step. Motion is accomplished
coils within the motor changes. A armature rotates 15. through coordinated energizing of the
stator poles from step 1 through 4.
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
3 3 3 3
1 1 2 1 2 2
2 3 1 3
3
1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
TUTORIAL
4
The hybrid synchronous stepper
2
motor combines the advantages of 4 2
MOTION SYSTEMS
use lead-zirconate-titanate (PZT) the direction of the applied field,
based ceramics. The PMN stack is a regardless of its polarity. Because
multi-layer configuration with very the PMN is unpoled, it is an inher-
thin layers (125 to 250 microns) that ently more stable device without the
are diffusion bonded during the man- long term creep associated with PZT.
ufacturing process. The net positive The creep, which can range up to
displacement is a superposition of 15% for PZT devices is reduced to
the strain from the individual layers. just 3% as shown in Figure 25.
TRANSLATION STAGES
For PMN materials, their change in PMN materials also have better
length is proportional to the square hysteresis characteristics than con-
of the applied voltage and on the ventional PZT elements. While piezo- 7.5 m
same order as PZTs. Unlike piezoelec- electric devices exhibit hysteresis of
tric devices, PMN ceramics are not 12 to 15%, PMN hysteresis is only
ACTUATOR DISPLACEMENT
7.2 m
poled. Positive or negative voltage 6% (Figure 26). AD
6.8 m
PIEZO
ROTATION STAGES
6.4 m
Stepper Motor DC Motor
MOTION CONTROLLERS
commutation circuitry commutating to maintain position over time. The
figure shows the results after one hour
Maintenance No brushes to worry about Brushes can wear requiring with a voltage step applied at time-zero.
periodic maintenance after a
large number of cycles
Motor Heating Higher due to continuous Lower motor heating with no
current in windings motor current at target position
(with integral gain, Ki, equal 35.0
to zero)
30.0
Torque vs. Speed Full torque at very low speeds Flatter torque curve over the 25.0
dropping off quickly as speed
DISPLACEMENT (m)
DRIVES
15.0
Dynamic Range Lower for velocity and Higher for velocity and
10.0
acceleration acceleration
5.0
Resonance Inherent vibration at certain Smooth quiet operation across
0.0
lower frequencies can be a speed range
problem when accelerating to a -5.0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
higher speed. Ministepping VOLTS
reduces this problem
Figure 26 Electrostrictive actuators
Servo Tuning None required PID tuning can be tricky if the have very little hysteresis. OEM SOLUTIONS
system dynamics are not
understood
Reaching Final Reaches final position without Reaches final position with
Position overshoot. Very stable holding closed-loop error correction.
a position due to natural detent Corrects for trajectory errors
forces. Open-loop may not also. Possible overshoot,
reach final position if load or hunting, or steady-state error if
speed capacities are exceeded PID tuning is inadequate
TUTORIAL
Cleanroom Compatibility
MOTION SYSTEMS
A feedback devices basic function is back devices are encoders for posi-
to transform a physical parameter tion feedback, tachometers for veloc-
into an electrical signal for use by a ity feedback, and accelerometers for
motion controller. Common feed- acceleration feedback.
TRANSLATION STAGES
Indirect vs. Direct Metrology Electronics
Board
Photodetector
The location in the motion system revolution. This number is called its Assembly
from which the feedback device per- points per revolution and is analogous to Mask
forms its measurements directly the steps per revolution of a stepper
affects the quality of the data fed motor. A DC motor with a 2000 Code
Disk
back to the controller. The closer the points per revolution encoder is like
feedback device is to the parameter a stepping motor with 200 steps per Light
Source
being controlled, the more effective it revolution when driven by a ministep
ROTATION STAGES
will be in helping the controller driver. The speed of an encoder is in
achieve the desired result. When units of counts-per-second. Linear
controlling position, for example, and rotary stages and actuators
Housing
measuring the linear position of the incorporating indirect metrology use Assembly
stage carriage directly provides high- rotary encoders measuring the motor
er quality feedback than measuring shaft or leadscrew angle to report Figure 27 Optical rotary encoders
the angular position of the leadscrew position. Conversely, rotary encoders commonly use a stationary mask
between the code wheel and the detector.
and inferring carriage position can also be used on rotation stages
MOTION CONTROLLERS
through knowledge of the drivetrain for direct output metrology.
architecture between the encoder
and the carriage (Figure 31). The for- Linear Encoder
mer is known as direct output metrology
A linear encoder is used when direct
and avoids the drivetrain induced
verification of the output accuracy, Light Source
errors like backlash, hysteresis and Reference
resolution and repeatability of the
windup that can affect the latter, Mark
positioning system is desired. These
indirect measurement.
encoders can be used as direct out-
put metrology devices to overcome
Rotary Encoder many of the inaccuracies present in
Lens
A rotary encoder can differentiate a mechanical stages due to backlash,
DRIVES
number of discrete positions per hysteresis and leadscrew error. Scanning
Reticle
Photocells
Although there are various kinds of Optical encoders can be further sub-
digital encoders, the most common is divided into absolute and incremental
the optical encoder. Rotary and linear encoders. Grating OEM SOLUTIONS
optical encoders are used frequently Pitch
for motion and position sensing. Absolute Encoders Figure 28 Optical linear encoders
direct light through a glass scale with
A disc or a plate containing opaque Absolute encoders contain multiple an accurately etched grating to photo-
and transparent segments passes detectors and up to 20 tracks of seg- cells on the opposite side.
between a light source (such an ment patterns. For each encoder
LED) and detector to interrupt a position, there is a different binary
light beam (Figures 27 & 28). The output so that shaft position is
electronic signals that are generated absolutely determined. With
TUTORIAL
are then fed into the controller absolute encoders, the position
where position and velocity informa- information is available even if the
tion is calculated based upon the encoder is turned off and on again.
signals received.
Many incremental encoders also have times-2 mode, both the rising and
a feature called the index pulse. An falling edges of channel A are used
index pulse occurs once per encoder to generate counts. In the times-4
revolution in rotary encoders (Figure mode, the rising and falling edges of
29). It is used to establish an absolute channel A and channel B are used to
mechanical reference position within generate counts. This increases the
Origin Switch
one encoder count of the 360 resolution by a factor of four. For
encoder rotation. The index signal encoders with sine wave output, the
0V
can be used to do several tasks in channels may be interpolated for
External
very high resolution.
ROTATION STAGES
Logic
the system. It can be used to reset
or preset the position counter and/or
generate an interrupt signal to the
Disc attached system controller.
to motor shaft
Quadrature Encoders Tachometers
Quadrature encoders are a particular
Figure 29 To get submicron kind of incremental encoder with of at For applications requiring velocity
repeatability using an index pulse from least two output signals, commonly regulation, speed can be either
MOTION CONTROLLERS
Ch B t
Encoder
(c) Controller Driver
Stage
T E M
User
or
TUTORIAL
Encoder
Figure 31 Closed-loop systems. a) Using indirect metrology rotary encoder b) Using direct metrology
linear encoder c) Using encoder for position feedback and tachometer for velocity control.
MOTION SYSTEMS
Desired Actual
An origin switch is a device which motor power when a limit is encoun- Output Controller/ Motion
Motion
defines a repeatable reference point. tered. Limit switches are most often Response Motor Driver Mechanics
The switch may be mechanical, such associated with linear stages but Measurements
as an on/off switch or it may be an rotary stages can also have limits to
optical device such as the index avoid problems like cable wind-up. Figure 32 Basic feedback control
pulse (top zero) of optical encoders system.
Mechanically actuated micro-switches
TRANSLATION STAGES
(Figure 29).
are often used to cut motor power
Limit switches are used to prevent and prevent over-travel. The
motion from proceeding beyond a repeatability of mechanical switches
defined point. They are usually is limited by their hysteresis and
located at the ends of stage travel susceptibility to wear.
immediately before the stages hard
travel stops. They can be mechanical
or optical and are designed to cut Command Trajectory Servo
Driver Motor
Interpreter Generator Controller
ROTATION STAGES
Motion Controller
of controller operations.
Controllers
MOTION CONTROLLERS
A controller is a device in a motion Centralized versus Distributed
system that generates electronic Motion Processing DAC 10V
signals instructing the motion DC
Controllers may be designed such
mechanics to move or stop. If a Main Counter Encoder
that a single microprocessor controls P or Or
feedback system exists, then signals
motion on all axes. Alternatively, DSP F. Generator
measuring the actual motion output
the controller may use a distributed Stepper
are returned to the controller. The Counter Encoder
configuration where a central micro-
controller compares the actual to
processor coordinates dedicated
desired output and generates an
special-purpose motion control
error signal upon which corrective P Bus
chips on each axis (Figures 34 & 35).
DRIVES
action is taken (Figure 32). Figure 34 With centralized motion
processing, all axes are controlled by a
The controller sends signals to the Digital Signal Processor single microprocessor.
motor driver to control motion within
Digital Signal Processors (DSPs)
the system. A controller can have
are special chips manufactured to
various features such as data commu-
address the increased speed require-
nications, input/output lines, memory
ments in calculating advanced control
for storing motion programs, and
OEM SOLUTIONS
algorithms. When these operations are
encoder feedback processing for Dedicated
10V
performed on an ordinary processor, Chip
DC
closed-loop positioning (Figure 33). Encoder
they can consume too much time to Main
P
Although a displacement can take provide high-speed control.
several seconds, the controller has to Dedicated
Stepper
DSPs are often built using an archi- Chip Encoder
work at higher speeds to make calcu-
tecture that allows instructions and
lations and output updated motion
data to move in parallel instead of
commands. The time needed for
sequentially. They often carry high P Bus
these actions to take place is called
speed hardware multipliers and fast
the sampling time. Figure 35 Distributed motion
on-chip memories that eliminate
TUTORIAL
the motors operating speed range. increased to bring the current to its
However, if power is removed, the desired level faster. The most widely
stepper motor will move from its used technique is a high voltage
current half step position to a chopper.
physical detent position.
If, for instance, a stepper motor
Microstep/Ministep requiring only 3 V to reach the nomi-
A microstep driver will position a nal current is connected momentarily
Nominal Current stepper motor armature a defined to 30 V, it will reach the same current
fraction of a full step between the in only 110 the time.
actual detent positions. In this cata-
Once the desired current value is
log, microstep is used to describe
reached, a chopper circuit activates to
DRIVES
motor will move from its current troller (usually 10 V) into a usable
position to a true detent position. current to drive the motor.
TUTORIAL
MOTION SYSTEMS
Common motion systems use three Overshoot
types of control methods. They are The amount of over-correction in
position control, velocity control and an under-damped control system
torque control. (Figure 39).
The majority of Newports motion
TRANSLATION STAGES
systems use position control. This Steady-State Error
type of control moves the load from
The difference between actual and
one known fixed position to another
commanded position after the con-
known fixed position. Feedback, or
troller has finished applying correc-
closed-loop positioning, is impor-
tions (Figure 39).
tant for precise positioning.
Position
Velocity control moves the load con- Vibration
tinuously for a certain time interval Commanded
When the operating speed approaches
or moves the load from one place to position
a natural frequency of the mechanical
ROTATION STAGES
another at a prescribed velocity. Acceptable error
system, structural vibrations, or
Newports systems use both encoder Time
ringing, can be induced. Ringing can
and tachometer feedback to regulate
also occur in a system following a
velocity.
sudden change in velocity or posi-
Torque control measures the current tion. This oscillation will lessen the Settling Time
applied to a motor with a known effective torque and may result in
torque coefficient in order to develop loss of synchronization between the Figure 38 How settling time is
a known constant torque. Newports motor and controller. defined.
MOTION CONTROLLERS
motion systems do not employ this
Settling times and vibrations can
method of control.
best be dealt with by damping motor
oscillations through mechanical
Following Error means such as friction or a viscous Overshoot
e steady state
The instantaneous difference damper. When operating a stepper
between actual position as reported system, some additional methods 1.0+
1.0
by the position feedback device and that can change resonance vibration 1.0
the ideal position, as commanded frequencies are:
Output
Input
by the controller.
half stepping or microstepping
the motor
DRIVES
Settling Time 0
Tp Time Ts
changing the system inertia Peak Settling
The amount of time elapsed between Tr
Time Time
Rise
when a stage first reaches a com- accelerating through the reso- Time
manded position and when it main- nance speed ranges
Figure 39 Response for a system
tains the commanded position to modifying drivetrain torsional using only proportional control leads to
within an acceptable pre-defined stiffness overshoot and non-zero steady-state
error value (Figure 38). errors.
OEM SOLUTIONS
Velocity Profiles
Control Loops
Start/Stop Ramp Slope
Rate
Start Stop
TIME Open-Loop Control Open-loop is by no means a synonym
Figure 40 Trapezoidal motion Open-loop refers to a control tech- for crude. Very fine incremental
ROTATION STAGES
profiles are required to obtain higher nique which does not measure and motions can be achieved even by
speeds without skipping steps or stalling. inexpensive open-loop devices.
act upon the output of the system.
Most piezoelectric systems and Nanometer-scale incremental motions
inexpensive micrometer-replacement are achievable by open-loop piezo-
actuators are open-loop devices. and electrostrictive-type devices.
Depending upon how the feedback Other types are called derivative and
signals are processed by the controller, integral control. Combining all three
different levels of performance can techniques into whats called PID
be achieved. The simplest type of control provides the best results.
TUTORIAL
MOTION SYSTEMS
A control technique which multiplies the transient response of a system,
the error signal (the difference it may be thought of as electronic
between actual and desired position) damping.
by a user-specified gain factor Kp Increasing the value of K d, increases
and uses it as a corrective signal to the stability of the system. The
the motion system. The effective steady-state error, however, is unaf-
result is to exaggerate the error and fected since the derivative of the
react immediately to correct it.
TRANSLATION STAGES
steady-state error is zero.
Changes in position generally occur
during commanded acceleration, Current Position
deceleration, and in moves where
velocity changes occur in the system Current
Following Error
dynamics during motion. As Kp is x Kp E
increased the error is more quickly
corrected. However, if Kp becomes
too large, the mechanical system Desired
Position x Kd Amp M
ROTATION STAGES
will begin to overshoot, and at some
point, it may begin to oscillate,
becoming unstable if it has insuffi- Trajectory
Previous
Following Error
Generator
cient damping. Kp = proportional gain
Kd = derivative gain
Kp cannot completely eliminate ( n) Ki = integral gain
il = integral limit
errors since as the following error, e, M = motor
il x Ki
approaches zero, the proportional E = encoder
correction element, Kp e, disappears. ( n 1)
MOTION CONTROLLERS
This results in some amount of Error Integral
steady-state error.
Figure 41 PID control implemented
DRIVES
past errors, the correction factor
tuning a motion system. Optimum
does not go to zero as the following
system performance requires that the
error, e, approaches zero allowing
coefficients, Kp, Ki, and Kd, be tuned
steady-state errors to be eliminated.
for a given combination of motion
The integral gain has an important mechanics and payload inertias.
negative side effect. It is a destabi-
lizing factor for the stability of the Feed Forward Loops
control loop. Large values or used
When using a PID control algorithm, OEM SOLUTIONS
without proper damping could cause
severe system oscillations. an error between the desired and
actual positions must exist in order
to generate a corrective input. The
Derivative Control implication of this is that there will
A control technique which multiples always be some non-zero following error.
the rate of change of the following The goal when using a feed forward
error signal by a user specified gain loop is to minimize following error.
K d and uses the result as a corrective
TUTORIAL
Current Position
Current
Following Error
x Kp
E
Error
Desired Command
Position x Kd
TRANSLATION STAGES
Amp M
Last
Axis 1 Trajectory
Following Error
Speed Generator f.f.
cmd.
Time ( n) Kp =
proportional gain
Kd =
derivative gain
il x Ki Ki =
integral gain
Axis 2
Speed il =
integral limit
( n 1)
Kvff =
velocity feed
forward gain
Error Integral
Time M = motor
E = encoder
ROTATION STAGES
Trajectory x Kv ff
: Stop point
Axis 2
Figure 42 Adding a feed forward loop to the PID controller reduces following error and improves overall
system performance.
Axis 2
Speed
Positioning Trajectory Options
DRIVES
Time
MOTION SYSTEMS
With contouring, the controller fined points. The speed is defined
changes the speeds on the different along the trajectory and can be con-
axes so that the trajectories pass stant, except during starting and
smoothly through a set of prede- stopping (Figure 48).
TRANSLATION STAGES
Axis Y XY Stage Figure 45 Pseudo linear
Y
interpolation is obtained with
(Inc.) Position Position
controllers using precalculated
(T1)
12 acceleration ramps. Axis 1
Speed
10 Real
Linear Time
Interpolation Axis 2
Speed
5
Time
ROTATION STAGES
Pseudo
Linear
Interpolation Trajectory
Axis 2
0 0 X
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Time (T1) 0
3 Speed 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 (Inc.) 0 -1 (Inc. /s) -2 -1 -0 -1 -2 (Inc. /s2)
(Inc. /s)
Position Speed Acceleration Axis1
1
Figure 46 Simple circular
Time
interpolation.
MOTION CONTROLLERS
(Inc. /s2) Acceleration
2 Axis X
1
0
-1 Time
-2
Time Time Time
DRIVES
Time
Axis Y Y XY Stage
(Inc.) Position (T3)
10 10
Trajectory
Figure 47 To be able to
control stages in real circu- Axis 2
6 6 (T1) (TC)
(T9) lar interpolation, a controller
must be able to modify the
acceleration on the fly.
2 2
OEM SOLUTIONS
(T7) Axis1
0 0
1 3 5 7 9 Time 0 2 6 10 Figure 48 Applications such as laser
Speed writing require unusual trajectories
3
2 (Inc.) (Inc. /s 2 ) (Inc. /s 2 )
executed at constant speed.
1 0 2 6 10 -3 0 3 -2 -1 -0 -1 -2
0
-1
(Inc./s) Time
-2 1 Position Speed Acceleration
-3
3
(Inc. /s 2 )
2 5
Axis X
Acceleration
1
0 7
-1 Time
TUTORIAL
-2
Time Time Time
Note: Inc = Increment
Inc/s = Increment per second
Inc/s 2 = Increment per second 2
= Controller without circular interpolation
Servo tuning sets the K p, Ki and K d more responsive system that mini-
and the feed forward parameters of mizes following error. To achieve the
the digital PID algorithm, also called best dynamic performance possible,
the PID filter. the system must be tuned for the
specific application. Load, accelera-
Always start the tuning process using
tion, stage orientation and perfor-
TRANSLATION STAGES
Tuning Procedures
tachometer gain and DC offset eliminate steady-state error taneously amounts to an infinite
on each axis to be properly acceleration which, since it is physi-
To avoid stability problems, never
cally impossible, causes large follow-
adjusted. Please consult our use K p and K i without K d
ing errors and overshoot. Use the
technical staff. Servo tuning is usually performed to smallest acceleration the application
achieve better motion performance can tolerate to reduce overshoot and
(such as reducing the following error make tuning the PID filter easier.
If the system is stable and you want Depending on the performance start-
to improve the performance, start ing point and the desired outcome,
TUTORIAL
with the current parameters. The goal here are some guidelines for further
is to reduce the following error during tuning.
motion and to eliminate it at stop.
MOTION SYSTEMS
This is a case of a soft loop. It is factor K i. As described before, this
especially common if you just per- term of the PID reduces the following
formed the steps described under error to near zero. Unfortunately, it
axis oscillations. The proportional can also contribute to oscillation
gain K p is probably too low and K i and overshoot. Always change this
and K d are zero. parameter carefully and in conjunc-
tion with K d.
Start by increasing K p by a factor of
TRANSLATION STAGES
1.5 to 2. Continue this operation Start, if possible with a value for K i
while monitoring the following error that is at least two orders of magni-
until it starts to exhibit excessive tude smaller than K p. Increase its
ringing characteristics (more than value by 50% at time and monitor
3 cycles after stop). To reduce the the overshoot and the final position
ringing, add some damping by at stop.
increasing the K d parameter. If intolerable overshoot develops,
Start with a K d value one order of increase the K d factor. Continue
magnitude smaller than K p. Increase alternately increasing K i and K d
ROTATION STAGES
it by a factor of 2 while monitoring until an acceptable loop response
the following error. As K d is increased, is obtained. If oscillation develops,
the overshoot and the ringing will immediately reduce the K i.
decrease almost to zero. Remember that any finite value for
NOTE K i will eventually reduce the error at
Remember that if the acceleration is stop. It is simply a matter of how
set too high, the overshoot cannot much time is acceptable for the
application. In most cases it is
MOTION CONTROLLERS
be completely eliminated with K d.
preferable to wait a few extra milli-
If K d is further increased, at some seconds to stop in position rather
point the oscillation will reappear, than have overshoot or run the risk
usually at a higher frequency. Avoid of oscillations.
this by keeping K d at a high enough
value, but not so high as to reintro-
Following Error During Motion
duce oscillations.
This is caused by a K i value that is
Next, add more gain. Increase the K p too low. Follow the steps in the pre-
value by 50% at a time until signs of vious paragraph, keeping in mind that
excessive ringing appear again. it is desirable to increase the integral
DRIVES
Alternately increase K d and K p until gain factor as little as possible.
K d cannot eliminate the overshoot Points to Remember
and ringing at stop. This indicates K p Use the lowest acceleration the
is larger than its optimal value and application can tolerate. Smaller
should be reduced. acceleration generates less over-
Ultimately, optimal values for K p and shoot.
K d depend on the stiffness of the
OEM SOLUTIONS
Use the default values provided
loop and how much ringing the with the system for all standard
application can tolerate. motion devices as a starting
point.
Errors After Stop Use the minimum value for K i
If you are satisfied with the dynamic that gives acceptable performance.
response of the PID loop but the The integral gain factor can cause
motion device does not always stop overshoot and oscillations.
TUTORIAL