Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, abid.tnau@gmail.

com
GENERAL AGRICULTURE STUDY MATERIAL

WEATHER AND CROPS

The areas of heavy rainfall exist in the windward side of Western Ghats and Khasi
Hills and the Himalayas.
Rajasthan receiving < 500mm rainfall annually.
The average rainfall of 1,050 mm is highest in any part of the world.
85-90% of the rainfall over the country occurs mostly during southwest monsoon.
North East monsoon is the main contributor to the amount of rainfall over the
Southeast portion of peninsular.
The conditions in the State, where the tracks of depression terminate ex: - In
Gujarat & Rajasthan tend to be erratic very violent & destructive storms
Kalbaishaki of Bengal & Dust storms/Andhis occur over Northwest India.
Hailstorms occur one/two occasions in the year, and pose a potential Hazard to
Rabi crops.
Cyclonic Storms: On an average 2-3 storms may be expected in a year.
Western disturbances: -
These disturbances result in light rains which benefit the Rabi crops.
The cold waves are sometimes injurious to vegetables and fruit crops.
Variability of rainfall
The areas with low/scanty rainfall are generally the areas of the high variability in
rainfall.

S.d
C .V. = -------- X100
X

C V is 60-80 % in Western Rajasthan.

Drought
Drought is taken to have occurred over an area where annual rainfall is less than
75 % of the normal.
When the annual rainfall is 50% of the normal it is called severe drought.
The palmer drought index which takes in to account rainfall evapo-transpiration and
soil moisture is considered as a comprehensive approach in the problem.
Floods : Rainfall exceeding 40-50 cm within 24 hours results in
Floods.
Evapo-transpiration and water balance .
The areas of high annual potential evapo-transpiration are extreme in Rajasthan
(Jaisalmer) and the exterior South of T N (Tuticorn).
Frosts: The forest hazard is greatest in Punjab.
Sunshine: High Humidity and warm temperature are conducive to most plant
diseases.
Weather modification & crop production
The technique of cloud seeding aims at correcting the deficiencies of nuclei in the
cloud.
Silver iodide - cold clouds
Sodium chloride - warm clouds
In India the cloud seeding experiments were conducted in Jaipur, Agra & Delhi in
the monsoon season during the period ranging from 4 9 years.

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SOILS
Igneous rocks: - mainly contains feldspars, marphic minerals & quartz.
The rocks containing high proportion of quartz Acidic (60-75 % quartz)
Ex: granite
The rocks containing less proportion of quartz Basic (<50%)
Ex: Basalts (Deccan trap).
Common igneous rocks Basalts (Basic) & Granite (Acidic)

Sedimentary rocks: -
Derived form igneous rocks & is formed by the consolidation of fragmentary rock
materials.
Ex: -conglomerate, sandstone. Shale & limestone.
Metamorphic rocks: -
They are formed from the igneous/sedimentary rocks the action of high pressure &
intense heat, both resulting in considerable change in texture & mineral
composition.
Ex: - Gneiss from - granite
Quartzite from - quartz/ sandstone
Marble from - limestone
Slate from - shale
Pedology: study of soil formation & soil development
Edephology: study of soil in relation to crop husbandry
A2 horizon - is called as Elluvial Zone
Particle Sizes:
International
System (mm) USDA (mm)
Gravel 2 & above 2 & above
Very coarse sand 21 --
Coarse sand 1 0.5 2 0.2
Medium sand 0.5 0.25 --
Fine sand 0.25 0.1 --
Very Fine sand 0.1 0.05 --
Silt 0.05 0.002 0.02 0.002
Clay < 0.002 < 0.002

Textural classes:
The clayey soils hold more moisture but they have high wilting %
Density: TA
% Pore space (P) =--------- x 100
T
T - true density
A - apparent density
Soil air:
1/3 r d of the pore space in the soil by air & two thirds of it by water constitute most
favourable condition for plant growth.

Soil water:
1. Hygroscopic water :
2. Capillary water:
- 31 atm. & more
- Not available to plant
- Discontinuous film
- continuous film
- Held by surface tension
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0.3 - 31 atm.
3. Gravitational water: - held at below 0.3 bars
- Influenced by gravity.
F.C.: - held at 0.3 bars to 15 bars
It is generally recognized that the capillary water held at tension greater than 15
atm is not available to crops. At this the plants shows the wilting symptoms hence 15
atm is called as wilting point.
Soil Structure: -
Granular structure (spheroidal) is considered very favourable to plant growth.
Clay fractions: -
1. Kaolinite: - - 1: 1 layer silicate
-Held together by mutually held oxygen

2.Montmorillonite: - 2:1 (silica to aluminia)

- Held together through weak oxygen linkages

3. Illite: - 15 % of silica in silica sheet is replaced by aluminium and potassium

atoms.

Principle minerals of earthcrust: -

Minerals approximate (%)

Feldspars 48

Quartz 36

Micas 10

Clay CEC (me / 100g)

Kaolinite 3-10

Illite 10-30

Montomorillonite 80-150

Soil having >15% ESP - Alkali soil

C: N ratio of O.M. 10:1

Average value of C: N ratio of Indian Soils - 14:1

Micro flora - Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Fungi & Algae

Micro fauna - protozoa & nematodes

NH3 NO2 NO3

Nitrosomonas Nitrobacter

Nitrosofication-

1----------------------------------nitrification ---------------------- 1

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Protozoa are unicellular organisms.

Land capability classification

Arable land

Class - I - productive & suitable for intensive cropping.

II - used for raising many cultivated crops.

III - need careful management

IV - the cultivation of crop is restricted to once in 3-4 years.

V - restrict their use to pasture/adoptable tree species.

VI - restricted to pasture & silviculture.

VII - restrict their use for grazing.

VIII - use is restricted to recreation / wild life.

Alluvial soils: -

This is the largest & most important soil group of India contributing the largest
share to its agricultural wealth.

Two types

1. Khadar - newer alluvium of sandy.

2. Bhangar - older alluvium of more clayey.

Black soils; -

Maharastra has maximum black soil area in India.

Red soils: -

Tamil Nadu has maximum red soil area in India. (2/3 r d of cultivated area)

Clay fraction is rich in Kaolinite.

Colour is due to Hydration of the ferric oxide in them.

Lateritic soils: -

All Lateritic soils are very poor in lime and magnesia and are deficient in Nitrogen.

Desert soil -

Most predominant component of the desert sand is quartz

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Acid tolerant crops: -

Cereals Legumes miscellaneous

Maize Groundnut Sugarcane

Rice Soybean Potato

Wheat Berseem Tea

Barley Lentil

Oats

Saline & alkali soils:

7 m ha area has gone out of cultivation.

Saline soils are also called as- white alkali soils

Sodic soils are also called as - black alkali soils

Reclamation

Acid soils - lime

Basic soils - gypsum

Saline soils - sulphuric pyrite and also gypsum

WATER RESOURCES

Average annual rainfall is about 120 cm (India) and that of global is 99 cm.

Water source of the country - 178 M Ha M

Ground water runoff is roughly assessed at about - 45 mham

The utilizable flow has been estimated to be 66.6 mham

Ground water recharge in the country as a whole works out at10% of the total rainfall.

Total volume of surface water presently utilized for irrigation is about - 23.5 mham.

The total volume of ground water presently used for irrigation is estimated about 10.5
mham.

The present total utilization of surface water for irrigation may then be taken as -
23.31 (23.50) mham.

As regards the net area sown - 142mha

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LAND UTILIZATION

Total geographical area - 328 mha, the land use statistics is available only for
306 mha constituting 98% of the total.

Technical committee in co-ordination of agricultural statistics set up in 1948 by

Ministry of food & agriculture.

Arable land = net area sown + current of allows + other of allow land

Potential land available = available land+ cultivable waste + permanent

postures & grazing land

Net area sown

% Potential land exploited = --------------------- x 100

Potential land

Net area sown

% Arable land = ------------------- x100

Arable land

65.9 mha (21.6 %)

Net area sown - 141.16 mha (46.1%)

Gross cropped area -167.4 mha

Reporting area: -

MH has highest net sown area in the country.

The gross cropped area is highest in UP followed by MP & MH.

UP has largest gross irrigated area in the country which is about 21.6 % of the
country as a whole, followed by Punjab - 11.0 and AP - 10.95

In case of food grains - UP has highest irrigated area - 22.3 % followed by AP

(11.7%) and Punjab (9.7 %)

Non food grains - irrigated area UP 19.2% and Punjab - 16.1 %

State producing highest agricultural produce - UP (21.6%)

Total geographical area (highest) - Rajasthan

Area under forest (highest) - Madhya Pradesh

Land put to non cultural uses (highest) - Andra Pradesh

Barren & uncultivated land (highest) - Rajasthan

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Net area sown (highest) - Madhya Pradesh

SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

Extent of soil erosion

It is estimated that out of 305.9 mha of reporting area 145 mha is in need of
conservation measures.

Gullies are the most spectacular evidence of the destruction of soil.

Wind erosion

Saltation: the major portion of the soil carried by wind is moved in a series of
short bounces called Saltation. The soil carried in a Saltation consists of fine
particles ranging from 0.1 0.5 mm in diameter.

Mechanical measures of erosion control: -

1. Basin listing : Basin listing consists in making of small interrupted basins along
the contour with a special implement called a basin -lister.

2. Subsoiling : This method consists in breaking with a subsoiler the hard and
impermeable subsoil to conserve more rainwater by improving the physical
conditions of a soil.

3. Contour Bunding: This consists in making a comparatively narrow based

embankment at intervals across the slope of the land on a level that is along the
contour. It is an important measure that conserves soil and water in arid & semiarid
areas. Slope - 3-6 %

4. Bench terracing : It consists of a series of platforms having suitable vertical drops

along contours or on suitable graded lines across the general slope of the land.
The vertical drop may vary from 60 180 cm depending upon slope and soil
condition. Slope - 16 33%

Water sources: -

The southwesterly monsoon contributes over 80 % to the total precipitation.

Shallow well derive their water supply from the surrounding area through
seepage, percolation, high water table etc.

Deep wells depend for their water on aquifers.

Salt tolerance crop:

1. Tolerant sps (>5000 ppm): Barley, sugarcane, date- palm, grape, kale, cotton,
rhodes, grass, sesbania

2. Semi tolerant sps (< 2500 ppm 5000): Rice, sorghum, maize, Barley, sunflower,
Lucerne, berseem/guar, safflower, onion, wheat, bajra.

3. Sensitive sps (< 2500 ppm): peas, cabbage, grapes, orange, potato, tomato

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Boron toxicity tolerant:

1. Tolerant sps: (2-4 ppm): - datepalm, sugar beet, Lucerne, onion, turnip, cabbage,
and lettuce

2. Semi-tolerant (1-2 ppm): - wheat, maize, barley, cotton, sunflower, potato, tomato,
peas & sweet potato

3.Sensitive crops (0.3-1 ppm): - Apple, apricot, grape, orange, cherry, walnut

Water requirement = consumptive use of water + application

Losses+ special needs

1 cubic foot of water - 62.4 lb

1 cubic foot /sec = one cusec = 448.83 gallons

= 0.99 acre. inch/hr = 100 tons

1 Acre inch of water = 101 tons = 12.8 cubic meter = 22,660 gallons

Sprinkler method : can be adopted in the case of almost all crops and is specially
suited to shallow sandy soils of uneven topography, where leveling is not practicable.

Drip irrigation: - first initiated in Israel.

Critical stages of rice : - tillering and flowering

Water need for rice: Conditions

1000 1500 mm heavy soils, high water table, kharif

1500 2000 mm medium soils, kharif

2000 2500 mm light soils, long duration varieties.

WHEAT: -

Optimum moisture range - 100 60 % of availability.

Critical stage - crown root initiation (CRI) - 3 weeks after sowing

(21-25 days)

- Flowering

- Grain development

Maize: -

Critical stages: - Early vegetative period - 30-40 weeks after

Sowing

- Tasselling - 45-50 weeks after sowing

Maize is highly sensitive to excess water

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Sorghum: -

Critical stages: - pre-flowering and grain development

Kharif legumes - kidney bean -Green gram (Mung), pigeon pea.

-Black gram (mash)

Rabi legumes: - gram, lentil, pea and Indian bean.

Critical stages of pulses: - early vegetative growth, flowering, pod development.

Sunflower and mustard are relatively hardy crops and can withstand more unfavourable
conditions that other.

Cotton: - extremely sensitive to excess moisture and lack of aeration. Optimum soil
moisture is necessary during the stages of flowering and ball formation.

Sugarcane: - only vegetative growth is the economic importance. (Formative

stage)

Tobacco: - water with a high chloride content, affects the leaf, burning quality
and hence is unsuitable for irrigation.

Potato: - stolonization and tuber formation stages during 20-60 days growth are
critical.

Onion And Garlic : - bulbing is most important critical stage.

Tomato, watermelon & Muskmelon: - excessive irrigation during ripening results

in fruit cracking and hence it should be avoided.

SOIL FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER USE

Cations form of uptake by plants

K K+

Ca Ca++

Mg Mg++

Fe Fe+++

Zn Zn++

Anions

N NO 3 - , NH 4 +

P H 2 Po 4 -

S SO 4 -

Cl Cl -

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3 mechanisms of absorption of nutrients : -

1. Mass flow / convection

2. Diffusion

3. Contact exchange and root interception.

Mass flow /convection is considered to be important of nutrient uptake.

Nutrient ions such as nitrate, chloride & sulphate are not absorbed by the soil colloids
and remain mainly in solution. Such nutrient ions area absorbed by the roots along
with soil.

Diffusion: This mechanism is predominant in supplying most of the phosphorous and

potassium to plant roots.

Plant Nutrients & Their Functions .

Source

Carbon - CO2

Oxygen - air & water

Hydrogen - water

Nitrogen - air, soil & both

Others - soil

Primary nutrients - N, P, K

Secondary nutrients - Ca, Mg, S

Trace elements / micronutrients - Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B Mo, Cl

Primary and secondary elements are known as major elements.

Nitrogen: -

Excess _ lodging in cereals

-Delays maturation of plant.

Deficiency - reddening of leaves in cotton.

Phosphorus: -

Function; - formation of grains.

Offsets harmful effects of excess nitrogen in plants.

Deficiency: - purplish / reddish discoloration of the stem

- Abnormal increase in the sugar content and the

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Formation of anthocynin

Potassium: -

Function:

1. Enhance ability of a plant to resist pest, diseases and other abnormal condition

2. Formation of starch and in the production and translocation of sugars and is

thus of special value of water rich crops.

Plants can take-up and store potassium in much larger quantities than what is
needed for optimum growth. This is called luxury consumption .

Deficiency: - firing along the edges in maize leaves

Calcium: -

Function: - Constituent of cell wall (calcium pectate

- Involved in cell division

Excess - favours scab in potato

Deficiency - commonly associated with acidity.

Magnesium -

Function: - constituent of chlorophyll

- Necessary for formation of oil.

Deficiency: - in maize intraveinal chlorosis.

Sulphur: -

Function: - Important constituent of straw and plant stalk.

- Constituent of AAS - methionine and cysteine.

Fe: -

Deficiency: - gray speck - maize

Marsh spot - sugarcane (sugar beet)

Yellow diseases - spinach and beans

White streak - field peas

Dry spot - field peas

Leaf spot - field peas

Cu: -

Deficiency - dieback in citrus

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Zn: - is taken up by the plant in the ionic form/ complex with chelating agent. Ex:
EDTA.

Deficiency: - white bud - maize

Khaira - rice

In calcareous soils and soils with high P content the Zn deficiency is commonly
observed.

Boron: -

Deficiency: - Yellow and resetting - Lucerne

Snakehead - walnut

Pitting of fruits - tomatoes

Die back & corking of fruits - apples

Hollow stem and bronzing of curd in cauliflower

Brown heart - table beets and turnip

Molybdenum:

Deficiency: - whip tail in cauliflower, broccoli and other Brassica species.

Chlorine : - In 1954 chlorine was proved as essential micronutrient.

Deficiency: - bronze discoloration in tomatoes.

Na: - not an essential element but the presence is considered to be beneficial.

Most commonly used organic manure in India - FYM - 0.5 % N

Sewage, sludge and activated dry contains N 4-7 %

P 2 O 5 2.1 4.2 %

K 2 O 0.5 0.7%

Tree leaves of pongamia, (Karanj/Honge) N 3.69 %

P 2 O 5 2.41%

K 2 O 2.42 %

Crop Synonyms

Cowpea chavli, lobia

Cluster bean guar

Horsegram Kulthi

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Mothbean Mutki, moth

Greengram mung, mug

Blackgram urd, urid (mush)

Redgram arhar

Calcium sulphate /gypsum and supper phosphate have proved most promising in
preventing the escape of ammonia.

Folding 7,000 sheep for on night is said to add equivalent of 149.3 quintals of cattle
dung.

Calcium nitrate - also known as Chilean nitrate.

Ammonium sulphate widely used fertilizer in the country.

Nitrochalk: - is the trade name of a product formed by mixing ammonium nitrate with
40% lime stone /Dolomite.

Non- proteinaceous organic nitrogen Urea.

CROPPING PATTERNS

Among post monsoon crops (rabi) wheat, sorghum & gram

Largest area under Kharif maize is in UP

The area under the Kharif Jowar in India is highest in Maharashtra.

Ragi is mainly concentrated in Karnataka.

Bajra is drought resistant crop. The Rajasthan has maximum area (4.6 mha) of Bajra
(2/3 of total area of India).

G/N - Gujarat is producing maximum G/N (24.4 %)

Cotton - Maharashtra shares 36% of the total cotton area followed by Gujarat.

Hot water treatment for seed borne diseases - 54 o c for 1 min.

Bordeaux mixture - CuSO4 + CaCO 3 Millardet

Burgundy mixture - CuSO4+ Na 2 CO 3 Mason

Systemic fungicides

Oxanthin derivatives - plantavax - oxycarboxin -for rusts

Vitavax - carboxin - for smuts

Agrimycin 100 is the mixture of streptomycin + tetracycline

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Diseases and Causal organisms

Rice

Brown spot - cochliobolus miyabeanus

Stem root - Leptosphaeria salvini

Sheath blight - Rhizoctonia solani

Foot rot/ bakanae - Gibberella fujikuroi

Bunt - Neovossia horrida

False smut - Ustilaginoidea virens

Leaf smut - Entyloma Oryzae

Ultra disease - Ditylenchus angustus

Bacteria blight - Xanthomonas Oryzae

Yellow dwarf - Mycoplasm

Leaf yellowing -Virus

Pan sukh (dry leaf disease) - Physiological

Khaira -Zn def

Wheat:

Black mould -Cladosporium herbarum

Pythium root rot -Pythium graminicolum

Foot rot -Helmisthosporium sativum

Hill bund -Tilletia foetida & T caries

Karnal bund -Neouossia indica

Flagsmut -Urocystis tritici

Loosesmut -Ustilago tritici

Stemrugt -Puccinea graminis tritici

Stripe rust (yellow rust) -Puccinia glumarum

Leaf / Brown rust - Puccinia recondita

Powdery mildews - Erysiphe graminis

Earcocle -Anguina Tritici

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Molya/cereal cyst nematode - Heterodera avenae

Insecticidal property of DDT in 1939 by Paul Muller

Two breeding seasons of Lucusts 1) winter spring

2) Summer Monsoon

Ectoparasitic nematodes

Spiral nematodes - Helicotylenchus, Rotylenchus

Lance nematodes - Hoplolaimus

Ring nematodes - Cericonemoides, Hemicriconemoides

Stunt nematodes - Tylenchonemoides

Sheath nematodes - Hemicycliophora

Semiendoparatic nematodes:

Citrus nematode - Tylenchus semipenctrans

Reniform nematode - Rotylenchus reniformis

Endoparasites:

Roof knot Nematode (RKN)-Meloidogyne sp

Cyst nematode - Heterodera, Globadera

Roof lesion nematode - Pratylenchus

Seed parasites nematode - Anguina tritici

Foliar nematode - Aphelenchoides sp

Stem & Bulb nematode - Ditylenchus sp

SL-120 RKN resistant tomato variety released from IARI

Bladed harrows are also called as Bakharas/guntakas .

Agricultural produce Grading and Marketing Act (APGMA)

Central Agmark lab Nagpur & there are about 16 regional labs.

1878 - Sea customs Act.

1955 - Essential Commodity Act.

NAFED - National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Federation.

Differed liabilities

Debt equity ratio = ------------------------

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Net worth

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION EDUCATION

Community development programme 1952

The word extension was first used in USA

Extension education is - Informal education

National Extension Service (NES) - 1953

Community development and extension Service in India

Stage I - pre-independence Era: - (1886-1974)

Sevagram - Mahatma Gandhi

Shantiniketan - Rabindranath Tagore

Marthandam - Spencer Hatch

Gurugaon - F.L. Brayne

Department of Agriculture 1871 June

1905 IARI PUSA Bihar

Royal Commission on Agriculture 1928

Stage II : post independent Era ( 1947 53 )

Etawah Pilot project - (1948-52) - Albert Mayer

Community development project (1952 Oct 2)

Stage III : community development and National Extension Service Era (1953 60 )

National extension service was inaugurated on 2 n d Oct 1953

In 1958 panchayat raj was introduced as recommended by the Balwant Rai Mehta
Committee.

IADP - Intensive Agriculture Development Programme

First Agriculture University - GBPUAT - 1960 pantnagar (Rudrapur)

SFDA - Small Farmer s Development Agency started under 4 t h FYP

Bhoodan & Gramdhan Acts: started in early 1950s Acharya Vinobha Bhave
initiated this movement.

The first attempt to prevent further fragmentation was made in Maharashtra (1947)

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Minimum Wages Act - 1948

Insecticide Act - 1968 & Insecticide Rules - 1971

Karnataka Cotton control Act - 1974

Seeds Act -1966 seed rules - 1968

Karnataka land improvement Act - 1966

Karnataka Agriculture pests & Disease Act - 1974

Fertilizers order - May 1973

Destructive insect pest act - 1914

Agricultural produce act - 1937

Taccavi loans - started in 1973

National co-operative development corporation act 1962

Wheat

Common bread wheat - T. aestivum

Macaroni wheat - T. durum

Indogangetic plains form the most important wheat area

Soil - well-drained clayey loam.

Spacing - 22.5 cm between rows.

Varieties - medium long duration - kalyan sona Short duration - sonalika

Most critical stage - CRI stage

Weedicide 2-4 D

Phalaris minor - graminaceous problematic weed.

Storage - < 10% moisture content

RICE

Oryza sativa - cosmopolitan (Asian rice)

Ooryza glabarima - confined to Africa

Fruit - caryopsis

Rice is considered as short day plant

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West Bengal has highest rice area

PH - 5- 8.5

Spacing 20-25 cm

Nursery area 10% of main field (1/10 t h of total area)

Seed rate - 40-50 kg/ha

In calcareous soils - Fe is deficit, so FeSO 4 is added.

Dapog nursery - used especially in place where there is assured water supply &
when early transplanting is needed & 30-40 m2 area is required to raise enough
seedlings to transplant 1 ha area.

Water requirement is high than any other crop of similar duration.

About 37-75 acre-inches of water is needed.

Maize

Native to America

Highest production- UP

With the average yield maze ranks first among cereals

Nutritionally superior opaque 2 composites - Shakti Rattan Protina

These opaque 2 composites are rich in essential AAS life lysine &
Tryptophan

Pulses are deficit in methionine & Tryptophan

Cereals are deficit in Lysine & Tryptophan

Used in the manufacture of Beer & Whisky

Oats

Grown in Rabi - mostly for fodder

Black gram - Urd, mash

Bengalgram

Germinated seeds are recommended to cure scurvy.

Malic and oxalic acids collected from green leaves are prescribed for intestinal
disorders.

Greengram

Highest production MP
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Horsegram Highest production AP

Lentil Highest production MP

Moth bean Highest production Rajasthan

Peas Highest production UP

Pigeon pea (Red gram/ arhar) Highest production MH

Potato

Native South America

Occupies largest area under any single vegetable in the world

Kufiri Jyothi.

Best method of starting potato is cold stores at 2.2 C at 75-80 % RH

Tea

Popularly known as health herb

Soils - acidic pH 4-6

Spacing - 120x75 cm - 10000 plants / ha

1 1 year old nursery seedlings are used for planting in the field.

Shade trees - oak ( Gravelea robusta ) Erythrina lithosperma (dadapa)

Acacia

Albizzia

State: Assam

UPASI: United Planters Association of Southern India

Chinchona P O., Coimbatore dist., T.N.

Coffee

State - Karnataka

Cocoa : Theobroma cocoa, Theobrama means The food of gods

Coconut

Tree of heaven - coconut

India ranks 2 n d w.r.t. Coconut production.

Groundnut
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Native - Brazil

Oil content - 44-50%

Oil is extensively used as cooking medium - both as refined oil and vanaspati ghee.

Groundnut is predominantly self-pollinated crop.

Peg which later swells to become the pod.

Groundnut is raised mostly as rainfed Kharif crop.

The application of 500 kg gypsum / ha at the pegging stage will enhance pod
formation.

Safe moisture content is not more than -5%

Damp nuts of stored will ferment and allow the development of poisonous moulds

Ex:- Aspergillus falvus - produce Aflatoxin in Kernels

Indian mustard - Brassica Juncea - commonly called as rai / raya/ laha

Origin of B.juncea - China

Taramira is native to - North Africa & Europe

Oil content of rape seed & mustard - 30 48 %

India occupies first position w.r.t. Area & production.

Sesamum Primary center of origin. - Africa India ranks first.UP ranks first

Linseed MP ranks first

Castor India ranks first AP ranks first

Saf flower MH ranks first

Sunflower Native USA Country _ Russia

Niger State MP Country _ India

Sugarcane UP have largest acres under sugarcane (57%) Yield/ha - TN

Ek sali - Dec Feb -MH

Oct - Nov - AP

Adsali - July - Aug - 18-month crop

Water requirement - 200 300 cm

Cotton

AICRP on cotton 1967, Short staple - 9.5 mm 25.4 mm

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Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, abid.tnau@gmail.com
Medium staple - 13mm 40mm

Long staple - 25.4mm 63mm

The group now recognized in India is

Superior long staple - 27mm & above

Long staple - 24.5 26

Superior medium staple - 22 24

Medium staple - 20- 21.5

Short staple - <19

First co-operative cotton sales society was opened at Gadag in Mysore in 1917.

1 bale = 170 kg

Staple length classification

upto 1961 62 after 1961 62

Long 24 & above 24 & above

Medium 18 21 20 24

Short 17 & below 19 & below

Tobacco

India ranks 3 r d after USA & China

AP ranks first

Central Tobacco Committee - 1945

Topping & Suckering

Removal of flower head alone/ along with some of the top leaves of the plant is known
as topping.

After topping, the axillary buds grow and their removal is known as Suckering.

Banana: State - TN Desuckering - removal of daughter suckers.

Mango:

Veneer grafting has been found to be best method of mango propagation.

The graft joint should be at least 15cm above the ground.

The application of Ethrel (200 ppm) from September onwards has been found to induce
flowering in Mango in Karnataka by the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research.

Harvesting - June to Aug in Northern India.

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Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, abid.tnau@gmail.com
Guava UP has largest area L 49 (Allahabad safeda) - seedless variety

Pomegranate _ MH

Avocado - rich in protein & Fat

Apple Rootstock Use M. IX dwarfing rootstock for propagating dwarf apple trees.

- Malling Merton - rootstocks are recommended where

Vegetables

Daily minimum requirement of veg - 284 g/ day / head

Veg gardens are classified into 6 types.

Spices

King of spices - pepper

Queen of spices - cardamom

Fruits of cardamom - small trilocular capsules.

Hoshomin the queen of China first introduced sericulture in China

Outbreak of pebrine disease - 1857 to 1895

The cocoons of erisilkworm cannot be ruled as they produce cocoon with small
opening.

Entomology (General Agriculture)

Per hectare consumption of pesticides in India 440 gm/ha

Pesticides consumption is maximum in Andhra Pradesh (19%)

Per hectare consumption is maximum in Tamil Nadu

Consumption of pesticides in India

1994-95 (metric tons)

Imported 6266

Indigenous 55191

Total 61357

Maximum consumption of pesticides

Imported Carbaryl followed by Chlorpyriphos

Indigenous B H C followed by Monocropophos & Endosulfon

Export of Agro Chemicals:

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Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, abid.tnau@gmail.com
Maximum (in terms of Rupees) Cypermethrin followed by Endosulfon, Aluminium
Phosphide & Lindane.

The top Agro-business company Novartis (Ciba + Sandoz)

Production of Agro-Chemicals 1995-96 (000 tons)

BHC - 25

Monocrotophos - 9

Endosulfon - 6.8

Total Production of pesticides in India 88,890 tons (1994-95)

82,000 tons (1995-96)

No. of pesticides registered in India 143 (as on 31.3.95)

No. of Technical grade pesticides manufactured in India 66

Pigeon Pea: - 2nd most important pulses after Chickpea.

Origin India Maximum area and Production M H

Groundnut: - Critical stage Pegging Origin Brazil

Rice: - Area -43.2 million hectare

Production 82 mt Origin Hindustan

India ranks first in area and 2 n d in production

Maximum area and production West Bengal

Rice grain in known as caryopsis

Rice is short day plant

Dapog method Introduced from Philiphines 30-40 m area is needed

Nitrification inhibitors N-serve, ST, DCA

Slow release N fertilizers S coated/neem coated/Lac coated useful

Critical stage Tillering to flowering

Water requirement 100-120 cm

Herbicides Propanil @ 1-1.5 kg/ha Butachlon @ 1-2 kg/ha

Father of Hybrid rice Prof. Long Ping Yuan

First rice hybrid COH R-1/MGR-1

WHEAT:

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Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, abid.tnau@gmail.com
Bread wheat T.Aestivum

Club wheat Tritium compactum

Macaroni wheat -T.durum

Einkorn wheat T. monococcum

Emmer wheat -T.dicoccum

India area -25 mha

Production -65 mt

India is 2 n d largest producer only after China

Wheat is Worlds leading cereal

Maximum area & production of wheat Uttar Pradesh

Critical stage CRI stage

Operations

Topping & Suckering - Tobacco

Nipping - Gram (Bengal gram)

Tripping - Lucerne (Alfalfa)

Xanthomonas

Bacterial Blight of rice Xanthomonas Oryzae oryzae

Bacterial leaf streak of rice Xanthomonas oryzae oryzicola

Bacterial blight of cowpea Xanthomonas axonopodis vignicola

Citrus canker Xanthomonas oxonopodis citri

Black rot of crucifers Xanthomonas Campestris Campestris

Sugarcane gummosis Xanthomonas axonopodis vascularum

Angular leaf spot of cotton Xanthomonas axonopodis malvacearum

Leaf spot & Blight of beans Xanthomonas axonopodis phaseoli

Leaf spot of Tomato Xanthomonas axonopodis Vesicatoria

Leaf spot of red gram Xanthomonas campestries cajani

Leaf spot of Bajra Xanthomonas campestris annamalaiensis

Leaf blotch of Bajra Xanthomonas campestris Penniseti

Bacterial blight of Banana Xanthomonas campestris musarum

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Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, abid.tnau@gmail.com
Leaf spot of pomegranate Xanthomonas axonopodis punicae

Leaf spot of cluster bean Xanthomonas compestris cyamopsidis

Bacterial pustule of soybean Xanthomonas axonopodis phaseoli - sojens

Bacterial bllight of sesamum Xanthomonas campestris sesami

Pseudomonas

Brown rot of potato Ralstonia solanacearum (= pseudomonas solanacearum )

Bacterial wilt of Brinjal Ralstonia solanacearum

Bacterial wilt of Tomato Ralstonia solanacearum

Moko disease of Banana Ralstonia solanacearum

Wild fire of tobacco pseudomonas syringae tabaci

Bacterial stalk rot of maize pseudomonas lapsa

Leaf stripe of sorghum pseudomonas lapsa

Leaf spot of mango pseudomonas mongiferae indicae

Angular leafspot of tobacco pseudomonas anguluta

Leaf spot of grape pseudomonas viticola

Erwinia

Stalk rot of maize Enterobacter dissolvens ( = Erwinia dissolvens )

soft rot of vegetable Erwinia caratovora caratovora

fire blight of apple Erwinia amylovora

Black leg of potato Erwinia caratovora abroseptica

Clavibacter

Yellow ear of wheat Rathayibacter tritici

Ring rot of potato Clavibacter michiganensis spidonicum

Stem & fruit canker of tomato Clavibacter michiganensis michiganensis

Agrobacterium

Crown gall of stone fruits Agrobacterium tumefacines

Streptomyces

Potato scab streptomyces scabis

Herbicides
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Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, abid.tnau@gmail.com
2-4 DB - can be used in pulse crops

Propanil - selective contact herbicide (used in Rice)

Paraquat - non-selective contact herbicide used in non-cropped areas.

Glyphosate - non-selective translocated herbicide

Rice - propanil, 2-4 D, Butachlor

Wheat - Isoproturon, sulfosulfuron, clodinofos

Weight of top 15 cm soil 2.25 x 10kg/ha

STATISTICS

Probability of an event any number lying between 0-1

Positive Binomial distribution Variance< mean

Negative Binomial distribution Variance> mean

Binomial distribution variance < mean

Poisson distribution variance = mean

Normal distribution mean, median & mode are equal

(Coincide at a single point)

Limiting value of correlation coefficient -1 to =1

Limiting value of multiple co-relation coefficient 0 to 1

S.E = ------

CV = ---------- x 100

CRD (completely randomized block design) is mostly used for lab experiments.

Nipping: - is the process of plucking the apical buds of the crop at 30-40 DAS. It is
done in Gram safflower, which promotes lateral branching, more flowers & pod yield.

No. of soil orders 12

Short day plants - soyabean, s/c, rice, tobacco

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 Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, abid.tnau@gmail.com
LDP - wheat, oats, sugarcane, raddish, lettuce

Day neutral - tomato, bulk wheat , maize & sun flower

True seeds of s/c are called as FLUFF

Artificial s/c ripeners polaris, sodium metasylicate, cycoul.

TMO - technology mission on oilseeds -May 1986

(mha)

ultimate irrigation potential - 148

irrigation potential created - 92

Irrigation potential utilized - 82

Net irrigated area - 55

Irrigated area (%) - 35 %

Igneous rocks - granite , Basalt

Sedimentary rocks - limestone, quartz, sandstone shale, conglomerate

Metamorphic rocks - gneiss, quartz, marble, slate

1. True/particle density - 2.5 - 2.7 g/cc

2. Apparent/bulk density - 1.4 - 1.8 g/cc

3. First hybrid rice WHR 1/ MGR 1 (1994)

4. Density of water is highest at - 4c ( 1.02 g/cc )

5. 1959 60 Urea was first produced at Sindri ( Bihar)

6. ICPH 8 first pigeon pea hybrid

7. 1 km = 100 ha

8. 1 ft = 28.32 lbs

9. 1 ban = 10 dynes/cm = 0.1 Mpa

10. C.N ratio 0.M = 10:1

11. Indian soils = 14 :1

12. Most of Indian soils are deficit in N & contains about 0.05%

13. Taking in to account the total land resources ( 328 mha) , the availability of land /
head in India = 0.58 ha

14. Australia - 59 ha
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Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, abid.tnau@gmail.com
Graded bunding - if rainfall is - 780 cm

Zing terracing - 3- 10% slope

Bench terracing - 6-33% slope

1871 - Department of Agriculture

1963 - NSC

1972 - ICRISAT

1995 - Institutional Village Level Programme

1998 - National Agricultural Technology Project

1976 - N C A (National commission on Agriculture)

1926 - R C A (Royal Commission on Agriculture)

Project Directors - 10

AICRP - 78

NRC - 10

National Bureaus - 4

During 2001-02

1. GDP (Agricultural Share) 25.00% (27.00%)

2. (Exports) 16.18% (15.30%)

3. Distribution of certified seeds 100 lakh tons

Cloud Seeding :

Silver iodide cold clouds

Sodium Chloride Warm

Crumb and granular structure (Spheroidal) of soil are considered as favourable

to plant growth.

Percentage of forest area to geographical area is highest in Japan (69%), while

that of India is 22%

Water erosion: 3 forms, sheet, Rill, Gully erosion

Wind erosion: There are 3 types of soil movement

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Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, abid.tnau@gmail.com
Particle Size

1) Saltation 0.1-0.55 mm in diameter Major process

2) Suspension < 0.1 mm

3) Surface creep > 0.5 mm

DAP 18% N, 46% P2O5 OR 16% N 48% P2O5

CAN 25-28% N

Ammonium nitrate 33-35 % N It is explosive

Statistics (1994-95)

Geographical area - 328.73 mha

Forests - 68.39 mha (22.40%)

Net area sown - 142.82 mha

Gross area sown - 188.15 mha

Cropping intensity - 131.70 %

Net irrigated area - 55 mha

Gross irrigated area - 82 mha

Fertilizers : N P K Total

10.3 mt 2.97 mt 1.02 mt 14.3 mt

Average ha consumption of fertilizers

India - 86 kg/ha

World Avg. - 86 kg/ha

Punjab - 158 kg/ha (Highest with respect to states excluding

UTs (Union Territories))

Netherlands - 542 kg/ha

Gross capital formation in Agriculture 9.4 %

Uttar Pradesh Contributes maximum food grain production (42 mt) and has
maximum area and production of wheat, maize, sugar cane, potato, mango

West Bengal has maximum area and production of Rice, Jute and Mesta

Maharashtra has maximum area and production of warse cereals, jowar,

pigeon pea and cotton

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Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, abid.tnau@gmail.com
Madhya Pradesh maximum area and production of pulses, chickpea, oilseeds and
soyabean

Groundnut highest area Andhra Pradesh

Production Gujarat

Sugarcane area & production West Bengal

Productivity Tamil Nadu

Rice and Wheat Productivity is highest in Punjab

Water requirement Rice 100-120 cm

Sugarcane - 200-300 cm

Sugarcane

Origin - Thincane - India

Thickcane - New Guinea

Area 4mha

Production 279 mt

Seed rate 30.35 thousand setts 3 buded 2 buded 75,000 1 single 1,25,000

Herbicides 2-4 D (75-80 gt)

Atrazine

Brix nad refactometer 17-18 ideal stage for harvest

GENERAL

Fibrinogen is the precursor of Fibrio

Fertilizin is an (hormone) chemical substance produced by the egg during

fertilization which attract the sperm

First geneticist who had received Nobel Prize T H Morgan

Agroclimate Zones - 15

Agroecological Zones - 21

Agroclimatic regions - 126

Fobrinogen - Fibrin

Trypsinogen - Trypsin

First enzyme crystalized urease by Sumner

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Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, abid.tnau@gmail.com
Metallovitamin B 1 2 (Cobalamine)

First aromatic hybrid Rice Pusa basmati 1

First Basmati Pusa RH 10

Stomata less (Astomatal) plant potamogaton & submerged plants

Central molecule controlling cell division aquatic plant cycline

Father of Physiology Stephan Hales

Pollination by bats Chiropterophylly

Most of the Indian soils are deficit in Nitorgen and Zn

India is the largest producer of Mango, Banana, Sapota and Cauliflower

Elements absorbed in complex form Na

Plant uptake maximum amount of K from soil amount all elements (Luxury
consumption)

Indian soils are usually poor in OM & nitrogen

White Revolution - Milk

Blue Revolution - Fishery

Round Revolution - Potato

Silver Revolution - Eggs & Poultry

Brown Revolution - Biomass (fertilizer production)

Orange Revolution - Onion

Yellow Revolution - Oilseeds

Green Revolution - Wheat & Rice

Grey Revolution - I T in Agriculture

Fertilizer having explosive nature Ammonium nitrate

50 % of Indian soils are deficit in Zn(among micro nutrients)

Neutral fertilizer CAN Calcium Ammonium Nitrate

Crop State (%)

Sugarcane West Bengal (51.00)

Tobacco Andhra Pradesh (48.00)

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Abid Hussain, MSc, Horticulture, abid.tnau@gmail.com
Potato Uttar Pradesh (33.60)

Jute West Bengal (60.00)

Coconut Kerala (68.30)

Rubber Kerala (92.80)

Cashew Kerala (67.40)

Tea West Bengal

Coffee Kerala

Onion Maharashtra (18.50)

Chillies Andhra Pradesh (26.90)

Coriander Andhra Pradesh (36.00)

Weed Control

The crops like sudangrass, sorghum and cowpea are good competitors while crops
like linseed, groundnut and lentil are poor competitors

Prickly pear opuntia spp

Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes

Grass carp feed on guatic weeds

Eradication of prickly pear by using the cochineal insects Doctylopius tomentosus in

Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu is best example of Biological Control in India

Parthenium - Compositae family

Cyperus - Cyperaccae

Echinochloa - Graminae

Orobanchae - Orobanchaceae

Argemone mexicana Papaveraccae

Striga - Scrophulariaceae

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