F A T I G U E LIFE ESTIMATION OF BELLOWS BASED ON

ELASTIC-PLASTIC CALCULATIONS

MASATAKATANAKA

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,

Osaka University, Yamada-kami, Suita, Osaka 565, Japan

(Received: 5 September, 1973)

ABSTRACT

A procedure which estimates the low-cycle fatigue life of bellows on the basis of
elastic-plastic calculations is treated. A U-shaped bellows is taken as an example for
the analysis and comparison is made with the measured data. A design formula, in
which Langer's method is modified so that it includes in its expression the strain
concentration factor, is proposed for the fatigue life estimation.

INTRODUCTION

With the aid of high speed electronic computers with huge memories, numerical
methods of solution using the finite difference technique or the finite element
technique have been rapidly developed in recent years as powerful means for
structural analysis. At present refined solution procedures have been established
even for elastic-plastic problems of various structures. Hamada and Tanaka I have
established a numerical method of solution by the finite difference technique for
general axisymmetric shell problems, using the incremental theory of plasticity. The
use of such solution procedures enables us to calculate stress and strain distribu-
tions in the elastic-plastic range with ease and fairly good accuracy and it is worth
using such results in rational design procedures for pressure vessels and other
structural components.
When bellows are used as expansion joints in piping systems it is reoognised
that they are often loaded beyond their elastic limits or that low-cycle fatigue under
tension--compression cycles of axial force is an important design factor. In most
cases, however, bellows are designed with the use of empirical formulae or linear
elastic solutions. As a design procedure of bellows considering the low-cycle fatigue,
an empirical formula has been presented by M. W. Kellogg Co. 2 and an oxperi-
51
Int. J. Pres. Ves. & Piping (2) (1974)-- Applied Science Publishers Ltd, England, 1974
Printed in Great Britain
52 MASATAKA TANAKA

mental equation by Hamada and Takezono. 3 The latter equation is a modification

of Langer's equation, 4 which was determined as best-fitted to the experimental
results of only one kind of bellows. Hence, it is not guaranteed that this equation
is valid for all other bellows configurations.
In this paper, a procedure for dealing with the above-mentioned low-cycle
fatigue problem is discussed in which the fatigue life of bellows subjected to com-
pletely reversed loading is predicted by the use of the numerical method of solution
already mentioned, namely, the plastic strain range under cyclic loading is assessed
by the elastic-plastic analysis and then the low-cycle fatigue life is estimated by
applying this strain range to the Manson-Coflin equation. To ascertain the validity
of the procedure, the low-cycle fatigue problem of U-shaped bellows subjected to
completely reversed cycling of axial force under a constant deflection amplitude is
analysed and comparison is made with the measured data. Moreover, it is made
clear why Langer's equation, a good estimation formula of fatigue life under uni-
axial stress condition, must be modified as in the above experimental equation
when applied to the bellows problem. Next a design formula is discussed in which
Langer's method is modified so that it includes in its expression the strain
concentration factor obtained from the elastic-plastic analysis.

LANGER'S METHOD

For the low-cycle fatigue of completely reversed cycles under uniaxial stress con-
dition, the following relation is valid between the plastic strain range Asp and the
number of cycles to failure Ns:
A~PNf ~ = C (1)

where ~t and C are experimental constants. Equlation (1) is well known as the
Manson-Coffin equation. The constant a is nearly equal to 0.5 regardless of
material properties.
Equation (1) is, however, frequently inconvenient for practical use, because it
includes a plastic strain in its expression. In fact, it has become possible quite
recently to analyse with a good accuracy the plastic strains produced in structures.
Formerly, they have been approximately estimated by the use of linear elastic
solutions. Langer 4 made an attempt to express eqn. (1) in a form easily applicable
to practical design, combining it with elastic stress analysis in the following way.
Let us consider a stress-strain cycle as shown in Fig. 1, then A~p can be expressed
as follows:
Aet' = A~ t - Aee = A~ t - 2Se/E (2)
where E is Young's modulus. Substituting eqn. (2) into eqn. (1), we obtain:
 FATIGUE LIFE ESTIMATION OF BELLOws 53

Stress

-I
2S

o/ Strain

L
A,P --,.

-- A _t

Fig. I. Stress-strain cycle.

s - e a~'12 = c e / ( z u / ) + se (3)
In eqn. (3) S corresponds to the elastic extrapolation stress, as shown in Fig. 1.
Langer proposed that the low-cycle fatigue life of pressure vessels, etc., can be
predicted if the endurance limit is inserted into S and the stress value obtained
from elastic stress analysis into S of eqn. (3~. He considered, 4 for example, that the
constants of eqn. (3), determined as best-fitted to 146 experimental results of
austenitic stainless steel specimens, are as follows:
54 MASATAKA TANAKA

= 0"5 C = 0"65 Se = 35"3 kg/mm 2 E = 2.1 x 104 kg/mm 2 (4)

That is:
N~r = 4.65 x 107/(S - 35.3) 2 S in kg/mm 2 (5)
is the best-fitted Langer's equation.
Tavernelli and Coffin 5 examined the validity of this procedure for a number of
low-cycle fatigue data under the strain-controlled uniaxial stress condition and
concluded that satisfactory correlation was possible up to 105 cycles for specimens
made from a variety of materials.
Since elastic-plastic deformations of shells or other structures concentrate
locally, a linear relation determined from linear elastic analysis is no longer valid
between a total value of deformation and a local strain value. This is called the
strain concentration phenomenon. It is not considered in Langer's method where
the stress value obtained from linear elastic analysis is substituted into the elastic
extrapolation stress S. Therefore, even if the fatigue life predicted by this method is
best-fitted as that by eqn. (5) does for unnotched uniaxial stress condition, it is
anticipated that the procedure would give an unsafe fatigue life estimation to shell
structures made of the same material as in the above case. For example, Marcal
and Turner 6 pointed out, on the basis of their experimental results on bellows,
application of Langer's method to such a problem was dangerous. It was also
reported by Hamada and Takezono a that the fatigue life estimated by Langer's
method was larger than the measured one obtained from the low-cycle fatigue test
on the U-shaped bellows made of SUS 27 stainless steel (according to Japanese
Standards) which corresponds to 18-8 stainless steel. They obtained the following
expression of lifetime:
N s = 1.68 x 107/(S - 28.1) 2 S in kg/mm 2 (6)
which was determined as best-fitted to the test results obtained under completely-
reversed-deflection cycles.

FATIGUE LIFE ESTIMATION BASED ON ELASTIC-PLASTIC CALCULATIONS

Since the bellows problem is in a multiaxial stress state, the question of how eqn. (I),
which concerns uniaxial stress state, is to be related to such a problem remains
unsolved. Examining a number of experimental results from this aspect, Ohji 7 has
shown that the Manson-Coffin equation is also applicable to the low-cycle fatigue
problems of multiaxial stress state if the following equivalent plastic strain range
Aseqp is used instead ofAe p in eqn. (I), i.e.,
A~eqP = (~)} (h~ijP A~ijP) (7)
 F A T I G U E LIFE E S T I M A T I O N O F B E L L O W S 55

In this research we use the equivalent plastic strain range given in eqn. (7). It can
be rewritten for the bellows problem as follows:

2 (Ae~v2 +
Ae,q p = (-~ As~p Aed + Asd2) (8)

in which the subscripts ~ and 0 denote meridional and circumferential directions of

bellows, respectively.
For the case of completely reversed loading, the components Ae~p and Aeop of
plastic strain range can be determined in the following way. First, elastic-plastic
analysis is carried out after the uniaxial stress-strain characteristics have been
investigated. Since elastic-plastic analysis under monotonic loading is to be carried
out in this case, the use of the Prandtl-Reuss equations--based on the isotropic
strain hardening theory--and the stress-strain relations--based on the kinematic
hardening theory or the combined isotropic and kinematic hardening theory--
produces only a slight difference between the analytical results, as has been
reported by the author. 8.9 Hence we may use the Prandtl-Reuss equations which,
at present, have been widely applied to elastic-plastic analyses. A residual strain at
the point of zero stress value is determined as the difference between such an
elastic-plastic solution and an elastic solution obtained by another procedure, and
it is assumed to be the plastic strain amplitude. Figure 2 illustrates the procedure
for obtaining the plastic strain range for one principal strain, in which the bellows is
subjected to tension--compression cycling of axial force under the constant deflec-

Deflection Stress
Elastic I
~c-plastic / ElosticCTension)

e6
0 E.~//IDtrairl II ] I .8 Strain
< 11 / /

W ~
(Compression)
(Compression) (o (b)

Fig. 2. Procedure for obtaining plastic strain range.

56 MASATAKA TANAKA

tion amplitude w. That is, it shows a procedure in which the maximum strains ca +
and so- in the tension and compression sides are known, respectively, from
Fig. 2(a) when the deflection amplitude w is given, then the residual strains s t and
s c in respective sides are obtained using Fig. 2(b) and, finally, the plastic strain
range As p is determined. The strain value of the point which has the highest prob-
ability of fatigue failure should be used as the strain co-ordinate of the figure. In
what follows, attention will be paid to the point at which yielding occurs for the
first time when loading increases monotonically, i.e., the point which has the maxi-
mum value of the Mises equivalent stress, and it will be shown that satisfactory
results are obtained by such a treatment.

COMPARISON WITH EXPERIMENT

The bellows taken up for comparison between analytical and experimental results
is U-shaped and has four convolutions, as shown in Fig. 3. Using the notation and

I--
!~ dI
d2 - -

t. b
o

. . . . .J; 176~
-I

(Unit : ram)
Bet lows a b rl=2 h I' dp d~ I1
No.I 64.1 56.1 448 0-825 130 99~ 106 35
NO.2 61.7 55.5 4"43 1.050 1,50 106 40
NO.:5 52"4 44'0 4"56 0"/86 I~) 68 78 40

Fig. 3. U-shaped bellows tested.

 FATIGUE LIFE ESTIMATION OF BELLOWS 57

the corresponding values given in the figure, the configuration parameters are as
follows. For No. 1 bellows:

b 0"875 rl r2 = 0"0699 h = 0.0129 19 = n (9)

a a a a 2

For No. 2 bellows:

b = 0"899 ri rz = 0.0718 h = 0.0169 19= n (10)

a a a a 2

For No. 3 bellows:

b 0"839 r~ r2 h
. . . . . . 0"0870 - = 0"0151 0 = - (11)
a a a a 2

Among these, No. 1 bellows is that used in the low-cycle fatigue test by Hamada and
Takezono. 3 Nos. 2 and 3 bellows are tested in this research by using the same
apparatus as mentioned above. All the bellows are made of SUS 27 stainless steel
and solution-treated after forming to remove residual stresses. The stress-strain
relation of this material in uniaxial tension test is shown in Fig. 4. In elastic-plastic
analysis a linear hardening material is assumed, as shown in the figure by the solid
lines. Using the following material constants:

30 ~

E
20 J
R E/Y:910
H'=O.O2E
E =2-1x 104 I~/tn,.n2

,I
o 05 I0 1'5 2'0 %
b

Fig. 4. Stress-strain relation of bellows material in uniaxial tension test.

58 MASATAKA TANAKA

E
- - = 910 H ' = 0"02E v -- 0"3 E = 2"1 x 104 kg/mm 2 (12)
Y
elastic-plastic analysis of the processes of axial tension and compression is carried
out. Here Y, H ' and v denote the yield stress, the plastic tangent modulus and
Poisson's ratio, respectively. A non-linear elastic solution is necessary to obtain
residual strains. It can be furnished, however, if Hooke's stress-strain relations are
always used in the solution procedure for elastic-plastic problems. The linear
elastic solution can also be obtained by such a treatment.

_l
- ] C OA
A

lh

v v
A B

l Fig. 5. Half pitch of bellows.

Numerical analysis of Nos. 1 to 3 bellows reveals that for all the bellows the
Mises equivalent stress:

O'e = (O'~g2 - - O'~O"0 + O'02) ~ (13)

takes the maximum value at point A of Fig. 5, where and 0 denote meridional
and circumferential stresses, respectively. Elastic-plastic calculations were carried
out for a half pitch, as shown in Fig. 5. The value of the deflection per half pitch is
used in the following.
 F A T I G U E LIFE E S T I M A T I O N OF B E L L O W S 59

Figure 6 shows the relations between Aeeq~ and the non-dimentional deflection
w* at point A of Fig. 5 which are obtained from the elastic-plastic analysis. Here
w* is a non-dimensional expression of the deflection w divided by the elastic limit
deflection w t, i.e.,
w w/h if,
w* . . . . . --=- (14)
w, .'dh wl

~ No. 2

No. I
No. 3

<3

I
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0
~= w/~i

Fig. 6. Theoretical relations between non-dimensional deflection w* and equivalent plastic strain
range AeqP

The values of ff~ = wJh determined from the linear elastic solution are as follows:
~P; = 0.270 No. 1 bellows
wt = 0.136 No. 2 bellows
rp~ = 0.330 No. 3 bellows (15)
Using eqn. (15) and Fig. 6, the value of Ae=qp at an arbitrary deflection amplitude
can be obtained for a given bellows unit.
Next let us compare the analytical with the experimental results. The latter were
obtained in such a way that the number of cycles accumulated until a fatigue crack
60 MASATAKA TANAKA

penetrating the shell thickness was regarded as Ny. The same device as that of
Hamada and Takezono 3 was employed, in which the fatigue testing machine was
automatically stopped when the air that had been filled in the test bellows with
about 0.2 kg/cm 2 before the experiment decreased in pressure to about 0.02 kg/cm 2
as a fatigue crack propagated through the shell thickness. The fatigue crack
penetrating the shell thickness was, in most cases, found in the bottom portions of
bellows convolution.
The fatigue lives predicted by the present method, in which the constants of
eqn. (1) are assumed as:
= 0.5 C = 0.65 (16)
so that best-fitted estimation anay be given to the uniaxial fatigue data, and those
by eqns. (5) and (6), are compared with the measured data of bellows in Figs. 7(a)
to (c). The fatigue life estimated by the present method is in good agreement with
the measured one. The maximum principal stress value Sp is used as the elastic
extrapolation stress S in Langer's method. The relations between Sp and ~ = w/h
obtained from linear elastic solution are as follows:
Sn = 86-0~ (kg/mm 2) No. 1 bellows
Sp = 164.9~ (kg/mm 2) No. 2 bellows
Sp = 79.6}~(kg/mm 2) No. 3 bellows (17)

(:~o \ o : Experimental
1.5
\\ - : Longer, eqn. ( 5 )
\\ -:Takezono, ecln (6)
' ~ 0 \\\\ -- :Present theory

% ~ \\\\\ :'
~ . 1.0
'G

0.5
<

0 t ~ I i I I I
i0 3 104 IO5 I06
CyclestofailureNf
(a)
 FATIGUE LIFE ESTIMATION OF BELLOWS 61

15 -
~ \\ 0 :Experimentol
------ :Longer,eqn.(5)
c~'~ \\ : Takezono,eqn.( 6 )
~ , - :Presenttheory
I 0 -

.-=_

.B --..
~ o5
,....,
-

t I i I I I
0102 io3 K)4 ~)s
Cycles to failure Nf

(b)

:L~O
0 :Experimental
.... Longer, ecln.(5)
~ ~'\\ --~ :Takezono,eqn (6)
\ ~ :Presenttheory
~2.0
"8

~1.0
8

0 I i I i I I I
io3 ~ ~ ~G
Cyclas to failure Nf
(c)

Fig. 7. Comparison between estimated lifetimes and measured ones of bellows: (a) No. 1 bellows;
(b) No. 2 bellows; (c) No. 3 bellows.
62 MASATAKATANAKA

COMPARISON BETWEEN ESTIMATEDLIFETIMESOF BELLOWS HAVING

VARIOUS SHAPES

According to linear elastic solution, the following proportional relation exists

between the maximum value S.q of ~re in eqn. (13)and the deflection amplitude w:
S,q = kew (18)
where k, is a proportional constant. At the elastic limit the following relation holds:
Y = kcwl (19)
Combining eqns. (18) and (19), we obtain:
Seq = Yw* (20)
If we use S~ in eqn. (20) as the elastic extrapolation stress S in Langer's method
and in the Hamada-Takezono equation (eqn. (6)) then each of these equations
corresponds to one curve on the w*-Nf plane if only the yield stress Y is identical.
Such an expression is convenient in order to show, in one figure, the differences
between estimated lifetimes of bellows having various shapes.
In Fig. 8 the lifetimes estimated by the present method for the bellows whose
configuration parameters are given in Table 1 are compared with those estimated
by eqns. (5) and (6) on the w*-Nf plane. Numbers in the figure correspond to those

\
\ \\ :Linger, era.(5 )
\ \ . :TQl~zono, ecp. {6)

7
29 i~,. 3 \\\
~6
~5
.-=_ 47 6 "%.'~.\ XXxxx\
4

.5

t I I I J I I
1102
Cycles to failure Nf

Fig. g. Comparison between estimated lifetimes of bellows having various shapes.

 FATIGUE LIFE ESTIMATION OF BELLOWS 63

TABLE 1
CONFIGURATION PA.R)tdvl][n~R~OF BELLOWS ANALYSED

Bellows b/a r 1/a --- r2/a h/a

numbers
1 0"875 0.0699 0"0129
2 0"899 0-0718 0"0169
3 0"839 0"0870 0.0151
4 0'9 0"2 0-01
5 0"9 0.2 0"02
6 0.9 0.2 0.04
7 0.9 0.1 0.01
8 0.9 0.1 0.02
9 0.9 0.1 0.03

of Table 1. It is apparent from Fig. 8 that while there are many cases where both
the estimated fatigue lives agree well with each other, there are still other cases
where the Hamada-Takezono equation (eqn. (6)) gives an unsafe fatigue life
estimation and further that the Langer equation (eqn. (5)) is always unsafe.
In order to experimentally investigate the above point which can be concluded
from a theoretical standpoint, another low-cycle fatigue test was carried out for
No. 5 bellows. The configuration parameters of the bellows used in this experiment
were not identical with those of the No. 5 bellows because of difficulty in its forming.

\ , Io :Experimental
------:Lar~er, eq~ (5)

6
' \
\\\\ ----- :Takezon~ecln.(6)
:Preserd theory

~4

2 -

I -

oe i I
103
i I
104
i
I05
I I
I06

Nt

Fig. 9. Additional experimental support for fatigue life estimation by present theory.
64 MASATAKA TANAKA

They are as follows:

7~
_b = 0"928 --rl = --r2 = 0.216 _h = 0.0229 O =- a =43.7mm
a a a a 2
(21)
The bellows has four convolutions.
In Fig. 9 the measured data of this bellows are compared with the analytical
results given by the present method and by eqns. (5) and (6) on the w*-Nr plane.
The value of wt/h is 0.171. From this figure it can be also ascertained, from the
experimental point of view, that the Hamada-Takezono equation (eqn. (6))
sometimes gives an unsafe fatigue life estimation.

CONSIDERATION ON STRAIN CONCENTRATION FACTOR

The following proportionality between the total strain amplitude 5o and the
deflection amplitude w can be derived from linear elastic solution:
e = k,w (22)
where k, is a constant. If Kc is a strain concentration factor, then the actual strain
range Aet of the elastic-plastic deformation state can be expressed as follows:

0 :Experimental
1"5 \ -- :Longer,eqn (5)
\\ .... Talezono, eqrk(6)
-- :ModifiedL~'~ger,eqn(25)

\ ~ \\\\

1.0

05

o" I
io 3
1 I
io4
i I
~:~
-i t
~s

(a)
 FATIGUE LIFE ESTIMATION OF BELLOWS 65

I-5-

\ -- : Lanoer, eqn. (5)

~'~ \ . . . . Tok,~o~,~ (6)

J'O --

<,

0.5-

I I J I I I

Nf

(b)

3.0

0 : Ex~tol
\ .... L , x ~ r , eqn.(5 )
. -----: Tokezono,eqn.(6 )
:Modified Lor~er, eqn.(25)
2.0

1.0

0 / 3 i I i I i I
io 4 ~ ~e
Nf

(c)

Fig. 10. Comparison of estimated lifetimes by eqns. (5), (6) and (25) with measured ones:
(a) No. I bellows; (b) No. 2 bellows; (c) No. 3 bellows.
66 MASATAKA TANAKA

Ae' = 2Kck~w (23)

Substituting Ad of eqn. (23) into the basic equation (eqn. (3)) of Langer's method,
we obtain:
E A d / 2 = EKck~w = C E / ( 2 N : ' ) + S e (24)
Since E k , w corresponds to the elastic extrapolation stress S of Langer's method,
we can derive the following expression:
(CE/2) 1/~
N / = (SKc _ S , ) I / , (25)

Equation (25) is to be called the modified Langer equation which takes account of
the strain concentration factor. If we assume as Kc = 1 in this equation, we obtain:
(CE/2) t/~,
N f = (S - Se) l/at (26)

whose form is identical with that of eqn. (5) or eqn. (6).Therefore, if the results
obtained by eqns. (25) and (26) are compared with the measured data, the influence
of strain concentration becomes dear.
In Figs. 10(a) to (c) the fatigue lives predicted by eqns. (5), (6) and (25) are
compared with the measured data of Nos. I to 3 bellows, when Kc is determined
from elastic-plasticanalysis and the constants of eqns. (25) and (26) are assumed
as in eqn. (4).The strain concentration factor is calculated only for the maximum
principal strain ,. The fatigue life given by eqn. (25) agrees well with that of
eqn. (6) and also with the measured one. From this fact it may be concluded that
eqn. (5),which gives Ix~st-fittedestimation to uniax/al stressstate,must be modified
as in eqn. (6) for the bellows problem, mostly because Langer's method does not
take account of any strain concentration phenomenon which occurs in elastic-
plastic deformations.

DISCUSSION

It has been made clear that the two procedures based on elastic-plastic calculations
suggested in this paper are effective for the low-cycle fatigue life esti/nation of
bellows subjected to completely reversed loading. If the relations between deflec-
tion amplitude and the equivalent plastic strain range or the strain concentration
factor are given in design charts, then we can design bellows with regard for their
low-cycle fatigue failure. This procedure seems to be more reasonable than the
other, i.e., eqn. (25), based on a principal strain concentration factor, and, in
addition, is applicable to low-cycle fatigue problems of other more complicated
 FATIGUE LIFE ESTIMATION OF BELLOWS 67

structural components. The writer concludes that much effort should be made in
the future to express the relations between the deflection amplitude w and Aecqp or
Kc in design charts so that reliable lifetime estimates can be made.

CONCLUSIONS

A procedure has been discussed whereby estimates of the low-cycle fatigue life of
bellows subjected to completely reversed loading can be made on the basis of
elastic-plastic calculations. The analytical results obtained by this procedure for
bellows subjected to completely reversed-deflection cycling of axial force were
compared with the measured data, and the effectiveness oftbe procedure ascertained.
Further considerations on the bellows problem revealed the following facts:
(I) While there are many cases where the Hamada-Takezono equation (eqn. (6))
is effective, there are still some cases where eqn. (6) gives an unsafe fatigue life
estimation if the bellows configurations are changed. This fact was also ascertained
from the experimental point of view.
(2) It is because Langer's equation (eqn. (5)) does not take account of any
strain concentration phenomenon occurring in the elastic-plastic deformation of
actual structures that it must be modified as in eqn. (6) for the bellows problem.
(3) If Langer's method is modified so that it includes in its expression the strain
concentration factor as shown in eqn. (25), then such a modified Langer equation
gives a good fatigue life estimation to the bellows under consideration. The use of
eqn. (25) may be recommended for the design of bellows because of the simplicity
of its expression.
In this paper the problem to be dealt with was restricted to that of bellows
subjected to completely reversed loading and a case of completely-reversed-
deflection cycling of axial force was analysed. It should be possible, however, to
apply the present method to other low-cycle fatigue problems of shell structures
other than bellows, since refined solution procedures for their elastic-plastic
problems have been already established and are readily available.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writer wishes to express his cordial thanks to Professor M. Hamada, Osaka
University, for his encouragement and useful discussion. In addition the writer
expresses his gratitude to Professor R. K. Penny, University of Liverpool, for his
critical reading of the manuscript and helpful suggestions. He is also grateful to
Mr T. Ohiwa and Mr K. Iyoshi, formerly Students of Osaka University, for their
aid in performing experimental work.
68 MASATAKATANAKA

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rotationally symmetric shells, Trans. Japan Soc. Mech. Engrs (In Japanese), 36(292) (1970)
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2. M. W. KELLOGGCO. Design o f piping systems, 2nd edn, John Wiley & Sons, 1965, p. 220.
3. HAMADA,M. and TAK~ZONO,S, Strength of U-shaped bellows (5th report, fatigue strength
under axial loading), Bulletin o f the YSME, 10(40) (1967) p. 611.
4. LANG,, B. F. Design of pressure vessels for low-cycle fatigue, Trans. ASME, Ser. D, 84(3)
(1962) p. 389.
5. TAVERNELLI,J. F. and COFHN, L. F., Jr, Experimental support for generalised equation pre-
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