ELSEVIER Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345

Dedolomitization and other early diagenetic processes in Miocene

lacustrine deposits, Ebro Basin (Spain)
C. Arenas a, , A.M. Alonso Zarza b , G. Pardo a
a Departamento de Ciencias de la Tierra, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
b Departamento de Petrologa y Geoqumica, Facultad de Ciencias Geologicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid,
28040 Madrid, Spain
Received 25 February 1998; accepted 27 November 1998

Abstract

A variety of meteoric diagenetic features reveal the development of a syngenetic karst on lacustrine deposits of the
Ebro Basin. Diagenetic processes that operated on lacustrine laminated and stromatolitic carbonates include the following.
(1) A first syndepositional stage with processes such as dolomitization, desiccation and related breccia formation and
sulphate precipitation, either as lenticular gypsum crystals or nodules. This stage took place under progressive evaporation
due to lake level fall, when the previous carbonate deposits became exposed as a supra-littoral fringe surrounding saline
mud flats of adjacent sulphate depositional environments. (2) A second early diagenetic stage in which processes such
as sulphate dissolution and collapse brecciation, dedolomitization, calcite spar cementation and silicification occurred as
a result of meteoric water input that caused a progressive rise in lake level. Light isotopic compositions (13 C and 18 O)
of diagenetic calcites, versus heavier compositions in primary laminated and stromatolitic limestones, confirm a meteoric
influence. The syngenetic karst is best developed at the boundary between two allostratigraphic units and coincided with
one of the extensive stages of sulphate deposition at the end of the Early Miocene. The karst facies occurred in an area
that was a low-relief barrier that separated two sites of sulphate deposition during low lake levels. This indicates that
the karst development was controlled by topographic changes within the basin and record a shift from arid to wetter
climatic conditions, as suggested by the overlying freshwater carbonate deposits. The presence of diagenetic features such
as those described in the central Ebro Basin affecting saline lacustrine carbonates is relevant because they can be used as
indicators of subaerial exposure periods in terrestrial environments and they also reveal important palaeogeographic and
palaeoclimatic events of basinal extent. 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: meteoric diagenesis; dedolomitization; syngenetic karst; saline lakes; palaeoclimatic change; Miocene; Ebro
Basin

1. Introduction recognized in both marine and terrestrial sediments,

Typical products of meteoric diagenesis such as
calcretes or palaeokarsts have very commonly been
Correspondingauthor. Fax: C34-976-761-088; E-mail:
carenas@posta.unizar.es
and formed under the influence of relatively fresh wa-
ters (James and Choquette, 1990; Tucker and Wright,
1990). Both products document subaerial exposure
of previous host rocks. However, the results of me-
teoric diagenetic processes can be much more var-
ied and their occurrence does not necessarily indicate

0037-0738/99/$ see front matter 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 3 7 - 0 7 3 8 ( 9 8 ) 0 0 1 4 6 - 8
24 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345

Fig. 1. General and geologic location of the Ebro Basin and the study area on the Iberian Peninsula (simplified and modified from
Instituto Tecnologico y Geominero de Espana, 1995). MC D Montes de Castejon; SA D Sierra de Alcubierre.
 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345
subaerial exposure periods. Very early diagenetic pro-
cesses closely related to the sedimentary environment
can play an important role in the lithification of la-
custrine micritic muds (Wright et al., 1997), in early
dolomitization (Calvo et al., 1995) and dedolomitiza-
tion (Canaveras et al., 1996) or in silicification pro-
cesses (Bustillo and Bustillo, 1987). This variety of
diagenetic processes reflects the complex chemistry
of the diagenetic waters that evolved from typical
meteoric compositions either by evaporation, mixing,
waterrock interaction, or different combinations of
the three. Meteoric diagenesis occurring under sub-
aerial conditions may lead to important dissolution
processes; when these develop before or simultane-
ously to lithification the result is the formation of a
syngenetic karst (Jennings, 1971). The effects of me-
teoric diagenesis on marine sediments are relatively
well documented, but little attention has been paid to
meteoric diagenesis operating on lacustrine deposits.
However, the determination of the sequence of diage-
netic processes that affect lake deposits is important
as it informs on climate conditions, subaerial expo-
sure periods and changes in the chemistry of both the
lake and diagenetic waters.
Our study focusses on a group of lacustrine car-
bonate facies from the Neogene of the Ebro Basin
that show evidence for several diagenetic processes
including brecciation, dolomitization, dedolomitiza-
tion and silicification. The diagenetic carbonates
analysed in this study, or syngenetic karst facies,
are mostly located at the boundary between two
allostratigraphic units in the Montes de Castejon re-
gion (Fig. 1). The original carbonate facies were
generally deposited in low- to moderate-salinity
conditions, alternating with more dilute and saline
episodes, the latter resulting in sulphate and halite
deposition (Arenas, 1993). The main purpose of this
study is to characterize the diagenetic facies and in-
terpret their origin in relation to the evolution of the
lacustrine environment, and to discuss their palaeo-
geographic significance.
2. Geological setting and stratigraphic
framework
The Ebro Basin is one of the largest Tertiary
basins in the Iberian Peninsula (Fig. 1). This basin
25
started to form during the Palaeogene and its evo-
lution until the Late Miocene was linked to tectonic
activity on its bounding margins (Pyrenean, Iberian
and Catalan Coastal Ranges), although it is gener-
ally considered as the southern foreland basin of the
Pyrenees (Riba et al., 1983). The Late Oligocene
to Late Miocene sedimentary environments include
alluvial fans originating along the active margins,
and carbonate and sulphate lacustrine systems that
developed in the basin centre.
The study area is located in the central part of
the Ebro Basin (Fig. 1), where the latest Oligocene
Late Miocene succession consists of a carbonate for-
mation (Alcubierre Formation), forming present-day
uplands, and a sulphate formation (Zaragoza Forma-
tion), which mainly crops out in topographically lower
parts of the basin, and can also include halite and
glauberite deposits. Both carbonate and sulphate for-
mations may also intercalate distal alluvial sediments
originating from the Pyrenees and the Iberian Chain.
The lacustrine and fluvio-lacustrine deposits of
the Montes de Castejon region, in which the studied
syngenetic karst facies are included, were linked to
the Pyrenean Range evolution. The outcropping suc-
cessions comprise two allostratigraphic units (Are-
nas, 1993): N1 (Ramblianlower Aragonian) and N2
(middle Aragonianupper Aragonian), and possibly
extend into a third one (unit N3 : upper Aragonian
Vallesian) (Fig. 2). Their cartography and lithofa-
cies distributions (mappable facies associations) are
shown in Fig. 3. Unit N1 is made up of different car-
bonate, sulphate and siliciclastic lithofacies. Carbon-
ate lithofacies mainly consist of limestones (facies
Lm, Lb, Ll and Ls; see Table 1) and marls with mi-
nor mudstones and sandstones. Sulphate lithofacies
are mostly composed of nodular gypsum beds with
intercalated marls and limestones (facies Ll and Ls).
Laminated gypsum and halite beds are more abun-
dant in southern outcrops. The most important lateral
changes are marked by the passage from carbonate
lithofacies to the north and east (lower part of the Al-
cubierre Formation) into sulphate lithofacies toward
the south (Zaragoza Formation). Fluvial siliciclastic
deposits (mudstones and sandstones) are located to
the north of the lacustrine outcrops (Figs. 2 and 3).
Unit N2 comprises limestones and marls (upper part
of the Alcubierre Formation), and no time-equivalent
sulphate or siliciclastic lithofacies are preserved in
26 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345

N3
MIDDLE MIOCENE

UPPER
? ? ?

T.S.U. N2

A R A G O N I A N
1 3

MIDDLE
*
2
5

MIOCENE
6

EARLY
T.S.U. N1
EARLY
40

20

RAMBLIAN
0m

Parallel lamination
Cross lamination Nodular gypsum beds
Current ripples
Limestones
Trough cross-stratification
Lacustrine fauna & flora Syngenetic karst facies
Stromatolites
Sandstones
Bioturbation
Ochre & red lutites
Nodular bedding Green & grey marls
Karstification
Mottled level
* Oxidized crust Sampled syngenetic karst areas
Gypsum nodules for isotopic analyses
Macrocrystalline gypsum
Fig. 2. Simplified stratigraphic sections in the Montes de Castejon region (modified from Arenas and Pardo, 1999). Location of sections
in Fig. 3.

this area. The uppermost part of the succession con-
sists of mudstones and sandstones that could belong
to unit N3 (Fig. 2, section 4).
Boundaries between the units are sedimentary
breaks (in the sense of Pardo et al., 1989) represented
by sharp shifts in the sequential evolution; in the
southernmost outcrops of the studied area, sulphate
deposits of unit N1 are sharply overlain by carbon-
ate facies of unit N2 (Fig. 2, sections 1 and 5). In
the north, this boundary is located within a carbon-
ate succession (Fig. 2, sections 2, 3 and 4). In nearby
uplands (e.g., Sierra de Alcubierre, about 35 km in
 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345 27

Fig. 3. Geological map of the Montes de Castejon area (simplified from Arenas, 1993).

the southeast, or La Muela area, around 25 km in
the south) carbonate deposits of unit N2 are followed
by lutites and sandstones with intercalated marls and
limestones of unit N3 . It must be underlined that most
of the syngenetic karst facies analysed in this work
are carbonate deposits placed at the top of unit N1 ,
and pass laterally to the south into time-equivalent
sulphate deposits (Fig. 2). Syngenetic karst facies are
also present within units N1 and N2 , associated with
nodular gypsum beds, but the related beds are thinner
and with limited lateral continuity.
3. Sedimentology of the lacustrine deposits
The main characteristics of various siliciclastic,
sulphate and carbonate facies in the north-central part
of the Ebro Basin are shown in Table 1. This work will
focus mainly on the carbonate facies. Siliciclastic,
sulphate and carbonate facies are arranged in simple
sequences, decimetres to 14 m thick, representing:
(i) distal alluvial plainexpansive lacustrine deposi-
tion; (ii) shallowing carbonate lacustrine deposition;
(iii) deepeningshallowing carbonate lacustrine de-
position; and (iv) shallowing sulphate lacustrine de-
position (Arenas, 1993; Arenas and Pardo, 1999).
Syngenetic karst facies developed from primary fa-
cies Ll and associated Ls and M, and are present at
the top of shallowing carbonate lacustrine sequences.
The distribution of the different mappable facies
associations or lithofacies (siliciclastic, sulphate and
carbonate lithofacies) through space and time in the
central part of the Ebro Basin (see Fig. 3 as an exam-
ple) indicate that distal alluvial deposits constitute

Table 1
Main characteristics and interpretation of the facies present in the central part of the Ebro Basin (slightly modified from Arenas and Pardo, 1999)
Facies
Marls: M
Laminated limestones: Ll
Stromatolitic limestones: Ls
Massive limestones: Lm
Bioturbated limestones: Lb
Nodular gypsum: Gn
Lenticular gypsum: Gln
Rippled and laminated gypsum:
Gr, Gl
Halite: H
Green, grey and ochre
mudstones: Fg and Fo
Sandstones: Sm, Sl, Sr or St
G D gastropods; O D ostracods; Ch D charophytes; S D stromatolites; C D carbonaceous debris.
Subfacies Sedimentary structures
Laminated marls Parallel lamination
Lenticular stratification
Massive marls None
Micrite with mm to cm fine
siliciclastic lenticules or laminae
Ll.1 Lenticular or wavy stratification
Ll.2 Graded parallel lamination
Ll.3 Hummocky cross-stratification
Planar crusts; bioherms; Microscopic alternations of
biostromes; coated grains light and dark micrite laminae
Uncommon and poor, irregular
lamination
Depending on the pedogenic Root traces; desiccation cracks
processes
Commonly, massive
Chaotic, rarely forming laminae
Parallel, lenticular and rippled
lamination
Cubic and chevron textures
Massive or with parallel
lamination
Massive, parallel, rippled or
trough cross-stratification
Biological and diagenetic
features and components
C Settle-out, mostly in offshore
G, O, Ch, C
S; associated
S; associated
S; associated
Rod and coccoid calcite bodies;
rare filament algae and fungi
If present, weak bioturbation;
G, O, Ch, C
Nodules, breccias, etc.; G, O,
Ch, C
Alabastrine mmdm-size
nodules, as beds or isolated
Alabastrine texture
Alabastrine texture
Bioturbation; mottling; G, O,
Ch, C
Bioturbation; C
28
Interpretation
lake areas linked to runoff
periods
Wave influence above or below
C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345
storm surge level
Shore sheet inflows or offshore
turbidite-like currents (Ll.2)
Moderate salinity waters
Shallow=marginal lacustrine
areas; moderate salinity waters
Freshwater, shallow lacustrine
areas; permanent water supply
Palustrine conditions;
shallowing of previous
freshwater ponded areas
Evaporative processes in saline
mud flats
Gypsum precipitation in water
lake and interstitial within the
sediment
Gypsum precipitation in
hypersaline lake water
Precipitation of NaCl in very
shallow salinas
Nearshore lake areas or alluvial
plains surrounding lacustrine
areas
Sheet flows and channels of the
alluvial plain near or within the
lake area
 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345 29

Fig. 4. Simplified lacustrine facies model proposed for the late Agenianlate Aragonian of the north-central part of the Ebro Basin
(modified from Arenas and Pardo, 1998). The scheme shows the different sequences of facies and processes resulting from a continuous
fall of lake water level from freshwater (HWL D WL1) to saline, sulphate (WL3) and halite (WL4) depositional environments. Saline
water carbonates originated during WL2 (explanation in the text). (A) Distal alluvial plainexpansive lacustrine sequence. (B) Shallowing
carbonate lacustrine sequence. (C) Shallowing carbonate sequence with diagenetic carbonate facies (syngenetic karst). (D) Shallowing
sulphate sequence. Facies legend in Table 1.

the fringes of the lacustrine systems, where extensive
and thick carbonate deposits surround thick sulphate
deposits placed at the basin centre. Based on these
relationships and on the sedimentological analysis of
facies, a lacustrine facies model was proposed for the
Lower and Middle Miocene (units N1 and N2 ) in the
central part of the Ebro Basin (Arenas, 1993; Arenas
and Pardo, 1998, 1999). These authors proposed the
existence of a lacustrine system, in which cycles of
water level variations were responsible for kilome-
tre-scale shoreline migrations and were the origin
of the different depositional environments in which
the lacustrine facies formed, giving rise to the sim-
ple sequences mentioned above, although sequences
are commonly incomplete, as those shown in Fig. 4
(Arenas and Pardo, 1998).
During high lake levels (Fig. 4, HWL D WL1),
carbonate deposition mainly due to biological pro-
ductivity originated facies Lm (massive limestones,
Table 1) in a single body of dilute water. This was
surrounded by wide palustrine margins with dense
vegetation in which facies Lb (bioturbated lime-
stones) originated.
Facies Ll and Ls (laminated and stromatolitic
limestones, in some cases, dolostones) developed
at lower lake levels (Fig. 4, WL2). Stromatolites,
always associated with facies Ll, developed in shal-
low lacustrine areas. Both facies Ll and Ls show
similar isotopic compositions throughout the lacus-
trine deposits north of the Ebro River (Arenas et
al., 1997a,b). In the studied case (Table 2), facies Ll
and Ls have average 13 C D 1.5 and 1.1 and
18 O D 3.9 and 4.5, which are heavier than
those of facies Lm and Lb (average 13 C D 2.3
and 3.4 and 18 O D 5.5), reflecting more
solute-concentrated waters due to evaporative con-
centration, comparing with facies Lm and Lb, which
formed in dilute waters. Dolomite of facies Ll and Ls
could originate under such conditions, between WL2
and WL3. Thus facies Ll and Ls are considered as
saline water carbonates (Arenas and Pardo, 1998).
Lower lake levels led to the formation of sul-
phates, mainly facies Gl and Gr (Fig. 4, WL3) and
halite (WL4). Some other sulphate minerals, e.g.,
glauberite, could also precipitate at intermediate wa-
ter levels between 3 and 4 (Fig. 4).
During sulphate and halite depositional episodes,
wide areas which previously were sites of carbonate
and sulphate sedimentation became desiccated: fa-
cies Ll and Ls, which formed surrounding fringes of
the playa-lake system, underwent evaporite overprint
(lenticular gypsum, sulphate nodules and dolomite).
The diagenetic features of the carbonate facies stud-
ied for this contribution started to develop under
such conditions, by undergoing surface diagenetic
processes (Fig. 4, sequence C). Primary sulphate
deposits of the playa lake were obliterated by dis-
placive sulphate nodules and halite growth (Fig. 4,
sequence D). Facies Lm and Lb, which constituted
the outermost fringes of the carbonate lithofacies,
were not affected by evaporite formation, but other
features such as brecciation, channel incisions and
30 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345

Table 2
Isotopic (13 C and 18 O) and mineralogical (% weight) compositions of the lacustrine carbonate facies in the Montes de Castejon region

Location Facies Samples 18 O, 13 C, Calcite Dolomite Quartz C Clay

PDB PDB feldspars minerals
Section 2 Diagenetic carbonates SO-21 C1.4 0.6 0 79 6 15
Site b Cv-7 (cal) 2.7 2.9 61 31 1 7
Cv-7 (dol) C2.2 1.5 61 31 1 7
Cv-9 5.6 3.4 69 8 16 7
Cv-10 C2.1 C0.4 0 72 9 19
Section 4 E-6a 6.6 3.3 93 3 4 0
E-6b 6.7 4.1 87 1 4 8
E-6c 6.9 4.5 88 0 12 0
E-6d 6.7 4.6 71 0 14 14
E-6e 6.9 4.1 96 2 2 0
E-7a 6.4 2.5 93 4 3 0
E-7b 6.9 4.1 98 0 2 0
E-8 C2.0 C0.4 1 82 4 13
E-9 C2.1 C0.4 1 82 4 13
E-1540 6.7 4.9 92 1 3 4
Sections 2, 4 and site b Diagenetic calcites Average n D 10 6.2 3.8 85 5 6 4
Diagenetic dolomites Average n D 5 C1.9 0.2 13 69 5 13
Sections 1 C 2 C 4 Laminated limestones Average n D 9 3.9 1.5 60 (096) 29 (079) 4 7
Laminated dolostones Average n D 5 C1.3 0.0
Calcitic stromatolites Average n D 7 4.5 1.1 88 (7697) 6 (18) 5 1
Dolomitic stromatolites Average n D 1 0.3 C0.7
Massive limestones Average n D 13 5.5 2.3 95 0 3 2
Bioturbated limestones Average n D 22 5.5 3.4 95 0 2 3
Marls Average n D 8 4.4 3.0 53 2 13 32

oxidized crusts were characteristic during water lev-
els 2, 3 and 4 (Arenas and Pardo, 1998).
Rise in lake levels (not represented in Fig. 4) led
to new sediment deposition, and according to the de-
positional subenvironment the same facies originated
again, arranged in deepening sequences. Water table
rise, however, also caused some modifications in the
previous deposits, such as dissolution and transfor-
mation of some sulphates and carbonates, or forma-
tion of new mineralogies (e.g., silica) within host
rocks. These processes are characteristic of some of
the studied syngenetic facies.
4. Characteristics of the syngenetic karst facies
The diagenetic carbonates or syngenetic karst fa-
cies in this study consist of beige, white or grey
limestones or dolostones, and associated stromato-
lites and marls, which developed from the original,
primary facies Ll, Ls and M (Table 1). They consti-
tute tabular or gently folded layers about 1 m thick,
in some cases stacked, forming sections up to 3 m
thick (Fig. 5A). Beds of syngenetic karst facies are
hectometres to more than 10 km in lateral continuity
and grade laterally to the south into thick nodular
gypsum successions (Fig. 2). Bedding is commonly
preserved, but disrupted in detail.
Syngenetic karst facies consist of calcite with
variable percentages of dolomite (up to 40%), quartz
and feldspars (1 to 14%) and clay minerals, mainly
illite and chlorite (5 to 20%); the latter more abun-
dant in marls. In some samples, dolomite can be the
main carbonate phase (8085%) and then calcite is
scarce (15%) or absent (Table 2).
Host deposits are primary calcites and dolomites.
Primary calcites are mainly micrites very poor in
Mg (3 mol% MgCO3 ), and are almost absent in
 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345
the syngenetic karst facies. Dolomites are ubiquitous
in the studied syngenetic facies. They are non-sto-
ichiometric dolomicrites poor in Mg (4548 mol%
MgCO3 ).
One of the most significant features of the syn-
genetic karst beds is the presence of regular and
irregular cavities and cracks, randomly distributed
or aligned parallel to stratification (Fig. 5A,B). The
degree of fabric modification varies from low to in-
tense. In the first case, it is possible to recognize
most features of the primary deposits (Fig. 5B).
Breccia levels consisting of angular fragments (intr-
aclasts) of the previous lacustrine carbonates (lam-
inated and stromatolitic limestones and dolostones)
mostly occur at the base of the diagenetic carbonate
sections (Fig. 5C). The intraclasts are very poorly
sorted, ranging from micrometres to centimetres in
size, and are cemented by coarse spar calcite. The
maximum degree of modification is represented by
layers with poor preservation of the primary features
(Fig. 5D), showing crystalline mosaics of calcite
and=or dolomite crystals with some laminar and vug
porosity preserved. Relics of dolomicrite intraclasts,
sulphate nodules and carbonate pseudomorphs after
lenticular gypsum are common. The contact between
the intraclasts and the coarse crystalline mosaics
varies from very gradual to sharp.
Between these two end-members a wide range of
intermediate types can be seen. Common features
and components are: (a) dolomites; (b) cavities and
cracks distributed parallel to bedding planes or at
random; (c) angular fragments forming breccias; (d)
dedolomites consisting of crystalline mosaics replac-
ing a previous host fabric; (e) coarse calcite cements
filling voids; (f) sulphate pseudomorphs and gypsum
or anhydrite nodules; and (g) silica nodules and beds.
4.1. Dolomites
Dolomites constitute the host rock on which the
syngenetic karst developed. In origin they corre-
sponded to laminated and stromatolitic dolomicrites.
In the studied karst facies, they occur as individual
beds, as well as forming intraclasts (Fig. 6A) and
relics (Fig. 6B) within the calcite mosaics. They are
dolomicrites made of anhedral crystals up to 5 m.
Oval to rounded dolomite crystals of <5 m are
present in dedolomite mosaics.
31
Dolomite formation is common in shallow saline
depositional environments, frequently in relation to
intense evaporation (Behrens and Land, 1972; Fried-
man, 1980; McKenzie, 1981; etc.). In the studied
case, dolomite originated from evaporative concen-
tration of lake waters as a primary precipitate from
solution (protodolomite?) or during very early diage-
nesis stages. The very fine crystal size, non-stoichio-
metric dolomite and isotopic compositions of these
facies compared to primary calcites support that ori-
gin (see Section 5). Arenas et al. (1997a), based on
the 118 ODOL-CAL D 7.5 of dolomite-bearing sam-
ples with respect to calcite from the same laminated
and stromatolitic facies, proposed such an origin for
dolomicrites of time-equivalent deposits of the Sierra
de Alcubierre region, a nearby upland of the Ebro
Basin.
4.2. Cavities and cracks
Cavities and cracks are the most prominent fea-
tures of these carbonates on a macro- and meso-
scale. Cavities are from 3 to 15 cm long and from
2 to 7 cm high and can be irregular, randomly
distributed within the beds (Fig. 5A), or square, rect-
angular or triangular in section and aligned parallel
to stratification (Fig. 5B). Cracks and cavities may
be open or filled by calcite spar cements, although
in some irregular cavities it is possible to find relics
of sulphate nodules. The arrangement of the cracks
varies from very regular networks to completely
chaotic. In some cases, cracks tend to be planar and
are vertical or horizontal. Width varies from some
mm to several cm. Other types of porosity such as
vug or channel-like (Choquette and Pray, 1970) of
mm-scale are commonly preserved. When cavities,
crack vugs and channels are relatively abundant the
bedding of the primary carbonate deposits is com-
pletely distorted and results in a breccia (see below).
The porosity of these carbonates has various ori-
gins. The network of horizontal and vertical cracks
represents a very early process related to the desic-
cation of the shallow lake deposits as a consequence
of lowering of the water table. Later dissolution
could favour their enlargement and the loss of the
geometrical appearance of the cracks. Not only did
dissolution of carbonate minerals occur soon after
deposition, but also in different stages as revealed by
32 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345
 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345 33

Fig. 5. (A) Field view of an outcrop of carbonate diagenetic facies. Note the irregular cavities at the lower part. (B) Polyhedral cavities
(arrows) at the base of a weakly modified diagenetic section, where lamination is still preserved. (C) Breccia facies formed of carbonate
fragments. (D) Intensely modified diagenetic facies. a D sulphate nodules; b D carbonate intraclasts. (E) View of a small collapse breccia
at the base of a section (arrowed).

the presence of vugs and channels in the crystalline
calcite (see below). Some cavities were formed by
dissolution of lenticular gypsum crystals, anhydrite
and gypsum nodules, formed within the sediment
during lowering of the water table (Arenas, 1993).
4.3. Breccias
Breccias consist of carbonate fragments (micrite
or dolomicrite of facies Ll and Ls), mm to a few cm
long (Fig. 5C), which in cases constitute small col-
lapse breccias (Fig. 5E). Most of the porosity among
intraclasts is filled by calcite cement (Fig. 6A). The
intraclasts can contain calcite pseudomorphs after
lenticular gypsum. Breccia units can be up to 40 cm
thick and a few decametres in lateral continuity, and
they mostly occur at the base of the diagenetic beds.
Similar breccia units are common in carbonate-
rich saline lakes that underwent desiccation stages
(Eugster and Hardie, 1978; Smooth, 1983). This
early diagenetic fabric formed by desiccation due to
lowering of the water table followed by breakage
 34
C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345
Fig. 6. Photomicrographs. (A) Breccia formed of very angular dolomicrite intraclasts. Cavities are filled by phreatic calcite spar. (B) Dedolomites showing ghosts of the
dolomicrite intraclasts (arrowed). Crystal size is varied. (C) Detail of the dedolomite mosaics. The calcite crystals are euhedral to subhedral. Some crystals show cloudy
centres (arrowed). (D) Calcite crystals showing well developed growth zones. These mosaics include dolomicrite patches irregularly distributed. The contact between the
dedolomites and the dolomicrite relics is gradual and very irregular.
 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345
Fig. 6 (continued). (E) Spherulite-like calcite crystals (arrowed) in a dolomicrite ground mass. (F) Calcite pseudomorph after lenticular gypsum. (G) Partial view of a
sulphate nodule consisting of anhedral gypsum crystals in which the small pores (arrowed) indicate a former anhydrite precursor. (H) Silica nodule consisting of quartzine
and a mosaic of microquartz. (I) Lutecite in the dedolomite mosaics. Relics of calcite within the silica are arrowed.

35
36 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345
of the initial carbonate deposits, without signifi-
cant transport. It is possible that storm reworking
contributed to the breccia formation too, but storm-
associated structures are not preserved within these
deposits. Dissolution of underlying evaporite miner-
als could cause collapses of local extent.
4.4. Dedolomites
Dedolomites consisting of calcite mosaics are the
most characteristic microfabric of the diagenetic car-
bonates (Fig. 6B,C). We do not consider here the
coarse calcite spar cement but replacive microfabrics
which are entirely or partially composed of coarse
calcite and relics of dolomicrite intraclasts.
The calcite crystalline mosaics commonly include
relics (micrometres to a few centimetres across) of
previous carbonates such as dolomicrite or laminated
limestones. The contact between the mosaics and the
carbonate relics is gradual and very irregular. In other
cases the crystals show, inside them or shared with
some other crystals, inclusion trails that delineate the
shape of the primary carbonate components (ghosts)
(Fig. 6B). The crystals are varied in size and mor-
phology. Anhedral calcite crystals vary in size from
0.10 mm to 1 mm. Rhombohedral ones are about 0.6
mm across and they commonly show cloudy cen-
tres and dolomicrite patches are present among the
crystals (Fig. 6C). Growth zones of the crystals are
commonly recognized by inclusion bands (Fig. 6D).
Another type of calcite comprises spherulite-like
crystals of 0.2 mm across that show an external ra-
dial-fibrous texture that consists of calcite and an
internal part or nucleus, formed either of calcite or
dolomite (Fig. 6E).
Coarse crystalline calcite mosaics could have
formed by several processes: aggrading neomor-
phism, replacement of previous dolomitic grains
or cementation. Features such as the diffuse con-
tacts between intraclasts and crystalline mosaics and
the presence of intraclast relics and ghosts within
the crystals strongly suggest that the calcite mo-
saics formed by replacement of previous components
(CL observations confirm such interpretation). The
dolomitic composition of some of the crystal nuclei
and of most of the intraclasts and host rock indicate a
previous dolomitization process that in part replaced
calcitic grains, and a later dedolomitization stage.
Canaveras et al. (1996) have interpreted some coarse
calcite mosaics of the Madrid Basin as the result
of dedolomitization of a previous dolomicrite host
rock. They argue that there is no evidence of coarse
crystalline dolomites and that in the near-surface set-
tings where dolomitization could occur there was not
enough burial or high temperatures to form meso- or
macrocrystalline xenotopic dolomites as suggested
by Gregg and Sibley (1984). In our case the occur-
rence of small dolomite crystals within the coarse
calcite mosaics proves the existence of a dolomite
precursor for these mosaics.
4.5. Calcite void fillings
Calcite void fillings consist of equant drusy spar
mosaics with crystal sizes varying from 0.1 mm
in the commonly sharp contact with the host rock
(Fig. 6A) to 0.5 mm in the innermost part of the
pores. Void fillings contain calcite crystals that do
not show any relics or ghosts of dolomite and are
considered the original cement formed from mete-
oric phreatic waters.
4.6. Pseudomorphs and nodules of sulphates
Coarse calcite pseudomorphs after lenticular gyp-
sum up to 1 cm long are only recognized in both
weak and intensely modified carbonates (Fig. 6F).
They are randomly distributed within the carbonate
host or grouped into discontinuous levels, up to a few
centimetres thick, parallel to the primary bedding.
The contact with the dolomicrite host, where they
are included, is very sharp and sometimes the cracks,
described above, sharply cut the pseudomorphs. The
lenticular crystals formed within the micrite mud
during or shortly after the carbonate deposition and
so are interpreted as intrasedimentary gypsum crys-
tals (Rodrguez-Aranda, 1995) that underwent later
dissolution and were filled by calcite cement.
Nodules of anhydrite and=or gypsum are either
scattered through the beds or grouped parallel to
stratification. They range in size from mm to 8 cm
in diameter. Nodules are formed of anhedral gypsum
crystals, and disrupt and displace the dolomicrite
host rock. The boundary with the dolomicrite ranges
from very sharp to gradual, and commonly is very
irregular. In some cases the outermost part of the
 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345
nodule encases calcite remains and fragments or
ghosts of dolomicrite, indicating partial replacement
of these carbonates. Initial anhydrite nodules were
later hydrated to gypsum as revealed by the presence
of needle-like anhydrite crystals within the gypsum
nodules (Fig. 6G).
Occurrences of nodular gypsum or anhydrite are
common features of marine sabkhas (Patterson and
Kinsman, 1982; Randazzo and Cook, 1987) and
playa-lake environments (Rodrguez-Aranda et al.,
1991; Salvany et al., 1994). In the studied case, they
indicate lowering of the water table and sulphate
concentration in the interstitial waters.
4.7. Silica
Silica is found as irregular nodules up to a few
cm wide and discontinuous layers mm to cm thick.
Authigenic silica is found within the dolomicrite in-
traclasts where it occurs as massive opal replacing
the dolomicrite or filling small pores within it. In
the calcite mosaics either in void fillings or replacing
fabrics, as well as in gypsumanhydrite nodules, sil-
ica is present as spherulites up to 2 mm in diameter,
consisting of fibrous-radial chalcedonite (length-fast
chalcedony), quartzine (length-slow chalcedony) and
lutecite (Fig. 6H,I). Occasionally, equigranular mo-
saics of quartz are observed. The spherulites contain
inclusions of coarse calcite crystals as well as gyp-
sum and anhydrite, which indicate replacement of
both calcite void fillings and sulphate nodules. In
some cases, the chalcedony and lutecite spherulites
are cut by fractures which are filled by calcite spar.
The occurrence of silica via replacement and void
filling of evaporite nodules seems to be a com-
mon feature of supratidal environments (Chowns and
Elkins, 1974; Elorza and Rodrguez-Lazaro, 1984)
and also of terrestrial evaporite environments (Sal-
vany et al., 1994). In the southwestern area of the
Ebro Basin, Salvany et al. (1994) have recognized
chert nodules formed in relatively low concentration
waters either in marginal areas of saline lakes or in
carbonate lakes. They did not find any nodules in
more central and evaporitic lake areas. In that area
of the Ebro Basin it seems that chert precipitated ini-
tially as opal that was later recrystallized to quartz.
In our case, there is a clear textural control on sil-
ica replacement: within dolomicrite opal is present,
37
whereas quartz textures are associated either with
sulphate nodules or with coarse carbonate crystals.
5. Isotopes
A total of 72 samples of different lacustrine car-
bonate facies from several areas in the Montes de
Castejon (sections 1, 2 and 4, Fig. 2; site b, Fig. 3)
were selected for bulk sample 13 C and 18 O analy-
ses. In sections, samples of the facies present were
taken systematically from base to top. Stained thin
sections were used for dolomite petrography and to
select samples for isotopic analyses. Of these sam-
ples, 14 correspond to diagenetic carbonates from
sections 2 and 4, and site b (Figs. 2 and 3, resp.). All
the samples were ground and sifted to 53 m. Min-
eralogy was determined by X-ray diffraction using a
Phillips PW 1729 diffractometer. Isotope determina-
tions were performed on a VG-Isotech Sira-II mass
spectrometer in the Servicio de Analisis de Isoto-
pos Estables of the University of Salamanca (Spain).
Samples were attacked with 103% H3 PO4 at 25C,
using standard methods (McCrea, 1950) and on the
isotopic determinations standard corrections (Craig,
1957) were applied. Time of reaction was 3 h for
pure calcites and 72 h for pure dolomites. In samples
with calcite and dolomite, both mineral phases were
analysed by selective extraction, following meth-
ods of Walters et al. (1972) and Al-Aasm et al.
(1990). Fractionation factors are those of Friedman
and ONeil (1977). Isotopic contents are expressed
in units, and reported against the PDB standard.
The analytical error margin of the isotopic deter-
minations is 0.04 for 13 C and 0.09 for 18 O
(1 against simultaneous analyses of standards).
Table 2 shows the isotopic values of the diagenetic
carbonate samples and average values of the rest of
the lacustrine facies. We will discuss data pertaining
to the diagenetic facies studied in this contribution.
For more detailed information on isotopic character-
ization of the overall lacustrine facies, see Arenas et
al. (1997a,b).
Carbonates in the syngenetic karst facies have a
wide range of 18 O ( 6.9 < 18 O < 2.2 PDB) and
13 C ( 4.9 < 13 C < 0.4 PDB) values, making
evident the complexity and variety of the diagenetic
processes that originated those carbonates. Calcites
38 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345
Fig. 7. Isotopic composition (13 C and 18 O PDB) of the
diagenetic carbonate facies and mean values of the primary
lacustrine facies in the Montes de Castejon region. The arrow
joins values of calcite and dolomite phases of the same sample.
show 18 O values ranging between 6.9 and 5.6,
and 13 C between 4.9 and 2.5, suggesting dilute
waters and moderate 12 C contribution during the for-
mation of these facies. The narrow spread of 18 O
values suggests a meteoric water line. The impover-
ishment in 18 O with respect to the precursor calcite
facies Ll and Ls of the same area (Table 2, Fig. 7),
with average differences of 2.3 for the laminated
limestones and 1.7 for the stromatolites, indicates
a meteoric water, probably much richer in 16 O, in the
formation of diagenetic calcites. The fractionation
equation by Friedman and ONeil (1977) indicates
that primary calcite of 18 O D 4.2 PDB (average
of precursor facies Ll and Ls) at 20C would be
in equilibrium with a water of 3.2 SMOW and
diagenetic calcites of 18 O D 6.2 PDB would
be in equilibrium with a water of 5.2 SMOW,
then corroborating the above-stated differences in
composition.
Similarly, 13 C contents of the diagenetic calcites
are lower than those of the precursor calcite facies
Ll and Ls, with average differences of 2.3 for Ll
and 2.7 for Ls. Such 13 C depletion can also be
explained by the influence of meteoric waters rich in
organic CO2 derived from soil-zone processes. Fa-
cies overlying the syngenetic karst beds are massive
and bioturbated limestones with marls (Lm, Lb and
M), which formed in freshwater lakes with vege-
tated palustrine margins. Meteoric waters could then
be enriched in organic CO2 derived from those ar-
eas and, in consequence, be responsible for the 13 C
depletion of diagenetic calcites.
Pure dolomite samples and the dolomite phase
of one sample containing 34% dolomite, show the
heaviest isotopic compositions, with mean 18 O of
C1.9 and 13 C of 0.2 (Table 2, Fig. 7).
Dolomites from the studied diagenetic facies and
primary calcites of facies Ll and Ls (average 18 O
D 4.2) show an 118 ODOL-CAL D 6.1 (Ta-
ble 2, Fig. 7). This 18 O enrichment lies within the
fractionation values extrapolated to low temperature
(25C) of 118 ODOL-CAL D C4 to C7 proposed
for the isotopic equilibrium between coprecipitated
or syngenetic calcitedolomite (Epstein et al., 1964;
ONeil and Epstein, 1966; Northrop and Clayton,
1966), and would indicate primary dolomite, precip-
itated according to an ideal dolomitewater isotopic
fractionation (McKenzie, 1981). The 18 O enrichment
of 6.1 of dolomites of the Ebro Basin would indi-
cate a primary precipitated dolomite in equilibrium
with coexisting calcite. At diagenetic temperatures,
Land (1983) suggested an average 3 fractionation
in 18 O between cogenetic dolomite and calcite. Us-
ing Lands fractionation equation, dolomite of 18 O
D C1.9 PDB would have precipitated in equi-
librium with a water of 1.6 SMOW at 20C.
Similarly, primary calcite of 18 O D 4.2 PDB at
the same temperature would be in equilibrium with
a water of 3.2 SMOW. From the above calcula-
tions we interpret dolomites as primary precipitates
formed from evaporative concentration of the same
waters in which calcites precipitated. Such an origin
was also proposed for dolomites of time-equivalent
deposits of the Sierra de Alcubierre (Arenas et al.,
1997a).
The much lower enrichment 113 CDOL-CALprimary
D 1.3 compared to 118 O agrees with the pre-
dicted, smaller carbon isotope fractionation of 13 C
 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345
in dolomites (Fritz and Smith, 1970; Sheppard and
Schwarcz, 1970; Land, 1980).
Calcite diagenetic samples are strongly depleted
in 18 O with respect to dolomite (118 ODOL-CAL D
8.1) and mixed mineralogy host rocks (sample
CV-7) (118 ODOL-CAL D 4.9). Considering that
these calcite facies resulted mainly from dedolomi-
tization, as well as from spar cementation, as inter-
preted above, these values indicate the impoverish-
ment in 18 O due to the influence of meteoric waters.
6. Sequence of diagenetic processes within the
evolution of the lacustrine system
The studied carbonate deposits show an associa-
tion of diagenetic features that has commonly been
described in marine environments such as sabkhas,
but also in terrestrial environments, especially in
marginal areas of relatively saline lakes. The diage-
netic association found in the carbonate facies of the
Montes de Castejon region developed from primary
deposits formed in low- to moderate-salinity carbon-
ate environments (laminated and stromatolitic lime-
stones and marls) (Fig. 4). These conditions were
produced during fluctuations from high (freshwater
carbonate depositional conditions) to low (saline,
sulphate depositional conditions) lake levels, so that
the Latest Oligocene to Middle Miocene lacustrine
succession (units N1 and N2 ) records alternating
freshwater carbonate and evaporative sulphate depo-
sitional environments with intermediate-saline car-
bonate depositional stages (Arenas and Pardo, 1998,
1999). Lake level fluctuations and chemistry of both
lake and diagenetic waters controlled the develop-
ment of the following diagenetic sequence.
6.1. Syndepositional diagenetic processes (Fig. 8B)
Lowering of water table from high (freshwater
carbonate) to low (sulphate and halite) lake levels
led to subaerial exposure of wide areas that previ-
ously were sites of carbonate sedimentation (facies
Lm and Lb in the outermost fringe and facies Ll and
Ls in inner areas). Areas of deposition of facies Ll
and Ls became an exposed carbonate fringe adjacent
to saline mud flats of central sulphate lakes. Desicca-
tion caused brecciation of the previous laminated and
39
stromatolitic carbonate facies, and breccia fragments
formed at this stage, although reworking by storm
episodes during relative lake level rises could also
contribute to the formation of this facies.
Exposure of wide areas of the lake platform is a
typical feature of ramp-like lake margins, either in
freshwater lakes (Freytet and Plaziat, 1982; Platt and
Wright, 1992) or in carbonate-rich saline lakes (Eug-
ster and Hardie, 1978), and very commonly gives
rise to the formation of carbonates that are formed
of fragments of recently deposited lithologies. These
carbonates are very commonly micrite-rich and their
fragmentation results in the formation of granular
textures. The individual grains may be more or less
rounded, as in many freshwater palustrine deposits
(Alonso-Zarza et al., 1992), or very angular as in
the current example. Differences in the morphology
of the grains are generally attributed to the interplay
between mechanical and biogenical processes that
caused the fragmentation. If mechanical processes
(fragmentation due to desiccation) are dominant, the
intraclasts will be angular and poorly sorted, as
in the studied example. Similar morphologies are
commonly recognized in saline lakes (Eugster and
Hardie, 1978; Smooth, 1983), as well as in inter-
to supratidal areas in marine environments (Shinn,
1983).
Formation of sulphate minerals occurred as a con-
sequence of the progressive concentration of the pore
fluids by evaporative processes. Lenticular gypsum
crystals precipitated then within the micrite mud
soon after subaerial exposure. Anhydrite nodules
formed after more evaporation, and displaced and
deformed the as yet unlithified micrite mud.
The precipitation of anhydrite and gypsum might
have caused an increase of the Mg=Ca ratio and
triggered subsequent dolomitization, as described in
marine sabkhas of the Arabian Gulf (Patterson and
Kinsman, 1982). Changes in pH due to respiration
and photosynthesis, oxidation and the pumping ac-
tion of fluctuating groundwater have been considered
as important factors contributing to dolomitization
in supratidal environments (Shinn, 1983). Not only
could the increase of the Mg=Ca ratio be due to
sulphate precipitation, but also the release of Mg
contained in cyanobacterial sheaths and mucilages
could contribute to dolomitization, as indicated by
Wright (1997) in the Cambrian of Scotland. Tak-
40 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345

Fig. 8. Schematic sequence of diagenetic processes giving rise to syngenetic karst facies. (A) Initial sediment: lime mud with laminae
of detrital grains and microbial mats (facies Ll and Ls; see Table 1 for facies characterization and interpretation). (B) During low lake
levels: syndepositional diagenesis. (C) During rising lake levels: early diagenesis.

ing into account the presence of stromatolites in
the studied lacustrine deposits (Arenas, 1993), both
sulphate precipitation and degradation of microbial
mats could favour very early dolomitization of the
study lacustrine carbonates.
6.2. Early diagenetic processes (Fig. 8C)
Infiltrating meteoric waters mixed with the evap-
oritic pore waters. The recurrence and=or persistence
of such event resulted in variations in the com-
position and pH of the diagenetic waters. These
variations initially caused dissolution of the sul-
phates, which led to the formation of new cavities
and collapse breccias. Meteoric water inputs were
responsible for extensive dedolomitization. Meteoric
waters seem to be the main agent for dedolomitiza-
tion either of marine (Kenny, 1992) and terrestrial
dolomites (Canaveras et al., 1996; Colson and Co-
jan, 1996). Moreover, dissolution of sulphates also
favoured dedolomitization, as has been shown in re-
cent sediments of Lake Banyoles (Bischoff et al.,
1994). Changes in pH controlled the amount of dis-
solved silica in the pore waters and were the main
mechanism for silica precipitation during early di-
agenesis. In more evaporitic periods or when the
 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345
mixing of groundwaters with meteoric water is re-
duced, silica can be in solution in high quantities
(Hesse, 1990) and can precipitate when mixing oc-
curs in more humid periods (Knauth, 1979).
Dedolomitization, silicification and calcite void
filling were processes closely related in time and we
cannot indicate a single sequence. Even if in most
cases silicification seems to be later than dedolomi-
tization, in other cases lutecite crystals seem to be
corroded by dedolomite crystals and are cut by spar
calcite. Moreover, the presence of lutecite and chal-
cedonite in the same sample proves the existence
of two different silicification phases (M.A. Bustillo,
pers. commun., 1997). The complexity of the ar-
rangement of the overall diagenetic processes indi-
cates that they repeated themselves through time and
reflects the variable chemistry of the pore waters.
Rises in water lake level due to more continu-
ous inputs of meteoric waters caused the dilution of
the lake waters and then of the pore waters, further
promoting dedolomitization, as well as late exten-
sive cementation by coarse spar calcite. Rising water
levels ended up burying the diagenetic saline carbon-
ate facies by deposition of more recent freshwater
lacustrine carbonates.
7. Diagenetic carbonates within the evolution of
the lacustrine system: palaeogeographic
implications
The palaeogeography of the central Ebro Basin
during deposition of units N1 and N2 (Latest Oligo-
ceneMiddle Miocene) consisted of a central lacus-
trine system that received supply from the alluvial
systems arising from the Iberian and Pyrenean mar-
gins of the basin (Perez, 1989; Arenas, 1993). In
the study area, the lacustrine system received north-
ern supply, and its evolution, at least during unit
N1 deposition, was partially linked to the Pyrenean
evolution (Arenas and Pardo, in prep.).
Syngenetic karst facies are best developed at the
boundary between units N1 and N2 , and in par-
ticular in the Montes de Castejon region, where
facies Ll and Ls with the diagenetic features de-
scribed above are mostly distributed along a north
south-oriented zone almost perpendicular to the
WNWESE-oriented carbonate fringe of facies Ll
41
and Ls (Fig. 9A). This northsouth area is consid-
ered to have been a low-relief barrier within the
lacustrine system. During low lake levels it separated
two adjacent areas of sulphate deposition. Structural
maps (Arlegui et al., 1997) indicate that this barrier
zone corresponds to gentle, northsouth-oriented an-
ticline-like structures. That particular location caused
subaerial exposure of this zone and development of
saline diagenetic processes during low lake level
stages (Fig. 9B). The fact that diagenetic processes
related to rising lake levels, such as dissolution of
sulphates, dedolomitization, calcite void filling or
silicification, are best developed in the barrier area
and did not affect so intensely the rest of the saline
carbonates of the fringes, could be explained by the
fact that the barrier zone was a wide area that under-
went continuous infiltration and dissolution and did
not record sedimentation during initial rising lake
levels after sulphate depositional conditions. New
sediment supply introduced into the lake by fluvial
inputs was diverted from the barrier toward lower la-
custrine areas, thus allowing diagenetic processes to
go on. But in the carbonate fringes, fine siliciclastics
or marls deposited there prevented them from further
infiltration and dissolution. Palaeocurrents do not
disagree with such palaeogeographical distribution
(Fig. 9B).
The thickest and best developed syngenetic karst
facies are found at the end of unit N1 deposition, and
coincide with one of the expansive stages of sulphate
deposition toward the end of the Early Miocene in
the Ebro Basin. This stage is indicative of dry climate
conditions. During the deposition of unit N2 , fresh-
water carbonate depositional environments related to
more permanent inputs into the lake predominated.
Therefore the boundary between units N1 and N2 is
marked by a shift in the sequential evolution, due to
the replacement of carbonate and extensive sulphate
depositional environments of unit N1 with almost
exclusively carbonate depositional environments of
unit N2 . This is interpreted in terms of a climatic
change toward wetter conditions, which lasted until
the Late Miocene (Arenas, 1993; Arenas and Pardo,
in prep.). Thus we consider that the above-described
syngenetic karst facies can also be useful clues to
identify environmental changes of basinal range.
42 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345

A N Mudstones and sandstones

Limestones with marls
Luna
and vice versa

Gllego River
Ejea Gypsum and marls
Mudstones or marls and
gypsum
Paleocurrents
Syngenetic karst sites

Zuera

Remolinos Alcubierre

15 km
Farlete

Alluvial plain
B
Luna Saline carbonate
depositional areas
Ejea Saline mud flat

Sulphate depositional areas

Low-relief barrier area

Zuera

Remolinos Alcubierre

Farlete
Fig. 9. (A) General lithofacies distribution in the Montes de Castejon and Sierra de Alcubierre region (see Fig. 1 for location) for the
upper part of unit N1 (Early Miocene) (simplified from Arenas, 1993). The extent of each lithofacies is based on lihofacies outcrops
at present. (B) Palaeogeographic reconstruction for the upper part of unit N1 during low lake levels: a low-relief barrier separated two
sulphate depositional environments surrounded by saline mud flats and exposed fringes of previous saline carbonate depositional areas,
which received sediment supply from northern fluvial systems.
 C. Arenas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 125 (1999) 2345
8. Conclusions
Miocene lacustrine deposits of the Ebro Basin
contain several carbonate levels strongly modified
by diagenetic processes. Main diagenetic features of
the carbonates developed in two major stages. The
first stage includes syndepositional processes such
as dolomitization, desiccation and sulphate forma-
tion, either as lenticular crystals or nodules. These
processes occurred under progressively evaporative
conditions when the lake water was gradually low-
ering and primary carbonates became exposed. The
second or early diagenetic stage includes dissolu-
tion of sulphates, collapses, dedolomitization, calcite
spar cementation and silicification, caused by mete-
oric water inputs that led to the rise of lake levels.
This second stage is interpreted to have occurred
soon after burial of the sediments, and probably was
not a single but a repetitive event.
The overall diagenetic features developed under
subaerial and near-surface conditions, and constitute
the formation of a syngenetic karst. The recognition of
diagenetic features such as those described in this con-
tribution is important to identify prolonged subaerial
exposure periods in saline carbonate lake systems due
to water level variations. Moreover, the presence of
these deposits has broader implications as they can be
used to predict particular palaeogeographic situations
and identify sedimentary breaks of basinal extent in
relation to climate changes of equivalent range.
Our work demonstrates that the study of early di-
agenesis in lacustrine deposits, which up to now has
not received much attention, may significantly con-
tribute to a better understanding of the palaeogeogra-
phy and palaeoclimatology of continental basins.
Acknowledgements
Financial support for this contribution was pro-
vided by project PB93-0580 of the Direccion Gen-
eral de Investigacion Cientfica y Tecnica. Mrs. I.
Benito is thanked for her assistance with cathodolu-
miscopy. We are grateful to J.M. Gonzalez Lopez for
XRD analyses and help in interpreting isotope data.
Drs. J.P. Hendry, C. Taberner and an anonymous
reviewer are thanked for their helpful suggestions to
improve this contribution.
43
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