Notice: highlighted pink is the answer

Plasmodium
Overview from internet
Plasmodium species exhibit three life-cycle stagesgametocytes,
sporozoites, and merozoites. Gametocytes within a mosquito develop into
sporozoites. The sporozoites are transmitted via the saliva of a feeding
mosquito to the human bloodstream. From there they enter liver
parenchyma cells, where they divide and form merozoites. The merozoites
are released into the bloodstream and infect red blood cells. Rapid division of
the merozoites results in the destruction of the red blood cells, and the newly
multiplied merozoites then infect new red blood cells. Some merozoites may
develop into gametocytes, which can be ingested by a feeding mosquito,
starting the life cycle over again.

https://www.britannica.com/science/Plasmodium-protozoan-genus

Invasion of Plasmodium to human ---- From the book (pg 145-

147):

Mosquito to Human liver route

- Injected to bloodstream, sporozoites disappear from circulating blood

within an hour (para sa ako it is because they go to the parenchyma of
the liver)
- The sporozoite surface has protein that binds to other molecules (that
is why naa sha sa liver usually)
- Entry to liver(hepatocyte) initiates series of asexual reproduction
- Parasites transforms into feeding-trophozoite that feeds on host
cytoplasm
- After a week, trophozoites mature and begin schizogony (multiple
fission)
- It will become dormant (hypnozoites)
- When merozoites leave the liver to invade RBC, they initiate
erythrocytic cycle

Human liver to RBC route ( I think this is the answer to #1)

- After erythrocytic cycle, merozoite transforms into trophozoite again

- Trophozoite ingest host cytoplasm forming large food vacuole in its
center (this results to a ring like form of plasmodium)
- Produce hemozoin (a polymer of heme; an end product of parasites
digestion)
- Parasite develops into schizont (??)
- When merozoite developmet completes, host cell ruptures, releasing
parasite metabolic waste including hemozoin
- Hemozoin is responsible for the symptoms of malaria
- Hemozoin has a toxic effect on macrophages, so it lowers their
effectiveness as phagocytes (I think this is the answer to #2
question about critical point)

Answer for # 3 I think.

The presence of this protein, called CD55, was found to be critical to

the Plasmodium falciparum parasites ability to attach itself to the red
blood cell surface during invasion. This discovery opens up a promising
new avenue for the development of therapies to treat and prevent
malaria.

The researchers transformed stem cells into red blood cells, which allowed
them to conduct a genetic screen for host determinants of P.
falciparum infection. They found that malaria parasites failed to attach
properly to the surface of red blood cells that lacked CD55. The protein
was required for invasion in all tested strains of the parasite, including
those developed in a laboratory as well as those isolated from patients,
making it a primary candidate for intervention.

Title of article: Malaria parasites essential doorway into red

blood cells illuminated https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-
releases/malaria-parasites-essential-doorway-into-red-blood-cells-
illuminated/

Answer for # 4 I think.

Results found on the study:

Here, we demonstrate that the clinically used macrolide antibiotic

azithromycin, which is known to kill human malaria asexual blood-stage
parasites by blocking protein synthesis in their apicoplast, is also a rapid
inhibitor of red blood cell invasion in human (Plasmodium falciparum) and
rodent (P. berghei) malarias. Multiple lines of evidence demonstrate that
the action of azithromycin in inhibiting parasite invasion of red blood cells
is independent of its inhibition of protein synthesis in the parasite
apicoplast, opening up a new strategy to develop a single drug with
multiple parasite targets.

Conclusion:

Safe and effective macrolide antibiotics with dual modalities could be

developed to combat malaria and reduce the parasites options for
resistance.

Title of article: Macrolides rapidly inhibit red blood cell invasion

by the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum
http://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-015-0162-0

Kulang pata ug 2 ka example for #4