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Phillip's Astronomy Encyclopedia, Revised PDF
Phillip's Astronomy Encyclopedia, Revised PDF
Phillip's Astronomy Encyclopedia, Revised PDF
ENCYCLOPEDIA
ASTRONOMY
ENCYCLOPEDIA
FOREWORD BY LEIF J. ROBINSON
Editor Emeritus, Sky & Telescope magazine
hilips would like to thank the following contributors for their valuable Dr Dale P. Cruikshank, University of Hawaii, USA
P assistance in updating and supplying new material for this edition: Professor J. L. Culhane, Mullard Space Science Laboratory, UK
Dr J. K. Davies, University of Birmingham, UK
Alexander T. Basilevsky, Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical M. E. Davies, The Rand Corporation, California, USA
Chemistry, Moscow, Russia Professor R. Davis, Jr, University of Pennsylvania, USA
Richard Baum, UK D. W. Dewhirst, Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge, UK
Peter R. Bond, FRAS, FBIS, Space Science Advisor for the Royal Astronomical Professor Audouin Dollfus, Observatoire de Paris, France
Society, UK Commander L. M. Dougherty, UK
Neil Bone, Director of the BAA Meteor Section and University of Sussex, UK Dr J. P. Emerson, Queen Mary College, London, UK
Dr Allan Chapman, Wadham College, University of Oxford, UK Professor M. W. Feast, South African Astronomical Observatory, South Africa
Storm Dunlop, FRAS, FRMetS, UK Dr G. Fielder, University of Lancaster, USA
Tim Furniss, UK Norman Fisher, UK
Peter B. J. Gill, FRAS, UK K. W. Gatland, UK
Dr Ian S. Glass, South African Astronomical Observatory, South Africa A. C. Gilmore, Mt John Observatory, University of Canterbury, New Zealand
Dr Monica M. Grady, The Natural History Museum, London, UK Professor Owen Gingerich, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, USA
Dr Andrew J. Hollis, BAA, UK Dr Mart de Groot, Armagh Observatory, N. Ireland
James B. Kaler, Department of Astronomy, University of Illinois, USA Professor R. H. Garstang, University of Colorado, USA
William C. Keel, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of L. Helander, Sweden
Alabama, USA Michael J. Hendrie, Director of the Comet Section of the BAA, UK
Professor Chris Kitchin, FRAS, University of Hertfordshire, UK Dr A. A. Hoag, Lowell Observatory, USA
Professor Kenneth R. Lang, Tufts University, USA Dr M. A. Hoskin, Churchill College, Cambridge, UK
Dr Richard McKim, Director of the BAA Mars Section, UK Commander H. D. Howse, UK
Mathew A. Marulla, USA Professor Sir F. Hoyle, UK
Steve Massey, ASA, Australia Dr D. W. Hughes, University of Sheffield, UK
Sir Patrick Moore, CBE, FRAS, UK Dr G. E. Hunt, UK
Dr Franois Ochsenbein, Astronomer at Observatoire Astronomique de Dr R. Hutchison, British Museum (Natural History), London, UK
Strasbourg, France Dr R. J. Jameson, University of Leicester, UK
Dr Christopher J. Owen, PPARC Advanced Fellow, Mullard Space Science R. M. Jenkins, Space Communications Division, Bristol, UK
Laboratory, University College London, UK Dr P. van de Kamp, Universiteit van Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Chas Parker, BA, UK Professor W. J. Kaufmann, III, San Diego State University, USA
Neil M. Parker, FRAS, Managing Director, Greenwich Observatory Ltd, UK Dr M. R. Kidger, Universidad de La Laguna, Tenerife, Canary Islands
Martin Ratcliffe, FRAS, President of the International Planetarium Society Dr A. R. King, University of Leicester, UK
(20012002), USA Dr Y. Kozai, Tokyo Astronomical Observatory, University of Tokyo, Japan
Ian Ridpath, FRAS, Editor Nortons Star Atlas, UK R. J. Livesey, Director of the Aurora Section of the BAA, UK
Leif J. Robinson, Editor Emeritus Sky & Telescope magazine, USA Sir Bernard Lovell, Nuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratories, Jodrell Bank, UK
Dr David A. Rothery, Department of Earth Sciences, The Open University, UK Professor Dr S. McKenna-Lawlor, St Patricks College, Co. Kildare, Ireland
Robin Scagell, FRAS, Vice President of the Society for Popular Astronomy, UK Dr Ron Maddison, University of Keele, UK
Jean Schneider, Observatoire de Paris, France David Malin, Anglo-Australian Observatory, Australia
Dr Keith Shortridge, Anglo-Australian Observatory, Australia J. C. D. Marsh, Hatfield Polytechnic Observatory, UK
Dr Andrew T. Sinclair, former Royal Greenwich Observatory, UK Dr J. Mason, UK
Pam Spence, MSc, FRAS, UK Professor A. J. Meadows, University of Leicester, UK
Dr Duncan Steel, Joule Physics Laboratory, University of Salford, UK Howard Miles, Director of the Artificial Satellite Section of the BAA, UK
Nik Szymanek, University of Hertfordshire, UK L. V. Morrison, Royal Greenwich Observatory (Sussex, UK)
Richard L. S. Taylor, British Interplanetary Society, UK T. J. C. A. Moseley, N. Ireland
Wil Tirion, The Netherlands Dr P. G. Murdin, Royal Greenwich Observatory (Sussex, UK)
Dr Helen J. Walker, CCLRC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, UK C. A. Murray, Royal Greenwich Observatory (Sussex, UK)
Professor Fred Watson, Astronomer-in-Charge, Anglo-Australian Observatory, I. K. Nicolson, MSc, Hatfield Polytechnic, UK
Australia J. E. Oberg, USA
Dr James R. Webb, Florida International University and the SARA Observatory, Dr Wayne Orchiston, Victoria College, Australia
USA Dr M. V. Penston, Royal Greenwich Observatory (Sussex, UK)
Dr Stuart Weidenschilling, Senior Scientist, Planetary Science Institute, USA J. L. Perdrix, Australia
Professor Peter Wlasuk, Florida International University, USA Dr J. D. H. Pilkington, Royal Greenwich Observatory (Sussex, UK)
John Woodruff, FRAS, UK Dr D. J. Raine, University of Leicester, UK
Dr R. Reinhard, European Space Agency, The Netherlands
Contributors to the 1987 edition also include: H. B. Ridley, UK
Dr D. J. Adams, University of Leicester, UK C. A. Ronan, East Asian History of Science Trust, Cambridge, UK
Dr David A. Allen, Anglo-Australian Observatory, Australia Professor S. K. Runcorn, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Dr A. D. Andrews, Armagh Observatory, N. Ireland Dr S. Saito, Kwasan & Hida Observatories, University of Kyoto, Japan
R. W. Arbour, Pennell Observatory, UK Dr R. W. Smith, The Johns Hopkins University, USA
R. W. Argyle, Royal Greenwich Observatory (Canary Islands) Dr F. R. Stephenson, University of Durham, UK
H. J. P. Arnold, Space Frontiers Ltd, UK E. H. Strach, UK
Professor W. I. Axford, Max-Planck-Institut fr Aeronomie, Germany Professor Clyde W. Tombaugh, New Mexico State University, USA
Professor V. Barocas, Past President of the BAA, UK R. F. Turner, UK
Dr F. M. Bateson, Astronomical Research Ltd, New Zealand Dr J. V. Wall, Royal Greenwich Observatory (Sussex, UK)
Dr Reta Beebe, New Mexico State University, USA E. N. Walker, Royal Greenwich Observatory (Sussex, UK)
Dr S. J. Bell Burnell, Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, UK Professor B. Warner, University of Cape Town, South Africa
D. P. Bian, Beijing Planetarium, China Professor P. A. Wayman, Dunsink Observatory, Dublin, Ireland
Dr D. L. Block, University of Witwatersrand, South Africa Dr G. Welin, Uppsala University, Sweden
G. L. Blow, Carter Observatory, New Zealand A. E. Wells, UK
Professor A. Boksenberg, Royal Greenwich Observatory (Sussex, UK) E. A. Whitaker, University of Arizona, USA
Dr E. Bowell, Lowell Observatory, USA Dr A. P. Willmore, University of Birmingham, UK
Dr E. Budding, Carter Observatory, New Zealand Dr Lionel Wilson, University of Lancaster, UK
Dr P. J. Cattermole, Sheffield University, UK Professor A. W. Wolfendale, University of Durham, UK
Von Del Chamberlain, Past President of the International Planetarium Society Dr Sidney C. Wolff, Kitt Peak National Observatory, USA
Dr David H. Clark, Science & Engineering Research Council, UK K. Wood, Queen Mary College, London, UK
Dr M. Cohen, University of California, USA Les Woolliscroft, University of Sheffield, UK
P. G. E. Corvan, Armagh Observatory, N. Ireland Dr A. E. Wright, Australian National Radio Astronomy Observatory, Australia
FOREWORD
he progress of astronomy or, more precisely, astrophysics One of the greatest successes of astrophysics in the last century
T over the past century, and particularly the past generation, is
not easily pigeon-holed.
was the identification of how chemical elements are born.
Hydrogen, helium, and traces of others originated in the Big Bang;
On the one hand, profound truths have tumbled abundantly heavier elements through iron derive from the cores of stars; and
from the sky. Here are four diverse examples: still heavier elements are blasted into space by the explosions of
1. Our universe began some 14 billion years ago in a single very massive stars.
cataclysmic event called the Big Bang. The discovery of pulsars in 1967 confirmed that neutron stars
2. Galaxies reside mainly in huge weblike ensembles. exist. Born in supernova explosions, these bodies are only about 10
3. Our neighbouring planets and their satellites come in a kilometres across and spin around as rapidly as 100 times a
bewildering variety. second. Whenever a pulsars radiation beam, focused by some of
4. Earth itself is threatened (at least within politicians horizons) by the strongest magnetic fields known, sweeps over the Earth, we see
impacts from mean-spirited asteroids or comets. the pulse. In addition to being almost perfect clocks, pulsars have
On the other hand, ordinary citizens may well feel that allowed studies as diverse as the interstellar medium and relativistic
astronomers are a confused lot and that they are farther away than effects. Finally, unlike any other astronomical object, pulsars have
ever from understanding how the universe is put together and how yielded three Nobel Prizes!
it works. For example, yesterday we were told the universe is Tantalizing though inconclusive evidence for extraterrestrial life
expanding as a consequence of the Big Bang; today we are told it accumulates impressively: possible fossil evidence in the famous
is accelerating due to some mysterious and possibly unrelated Martian meteorite ALH 84001, the prospect of clement oceans
force. It doesnt help that the media dine exclusively on gee-whiz under the icy crust of Jupiters satellite Europa, and the organic-
results, many of them contradictory and too often reported compound rich atmosphere of Saturns moon Titan. And then
without historical context. I cant help but savour the pre-1960s there is the burgeoning catalogue of planets around other stars and
era, before quasars and pulsars were discovered, when we navely the detection of terrestrial life forms in ever more hostile
envisioned a simple, orderly universe understandable in everyday environments. All this suggests that we may not be alone. On a
terms. higher plane, despite many efforts to find extraterrestrial intelligence
Of course, all the new revelations cry out for insightful since Frank Drakes famous Ozma experiment in 1960, we havent
interpretation. And thats why Im delighted to introduce this picked up E.T.s phone call yet. But the search has barely begun.
brand-new edition. So much has been discovered since it first The flowering of astrophysics stems from the development of
appeared in 1987 . . . so much more needs to be explained! ever larger, ever more capable telescopes on the ground and in
Its sobering to catalogue some of the objects and phenomena space. All the electromagnetic spectrum from the highest-energy
that were unknown, or at least werent much on astronomers gamma rays to the lowest-energy radio waves is now available for
minds, only a generation or two ago. robust scrutiny, not just visible light and long-wavelength radio
The one that strikes me most is that 90% (maybe 99%!) of all emission as was the case in as recently as the 1950s.
the matter in the universe is invisible and therefore unknown. Equally impressive has been the development of detectors to
Were sure it exists and is pervasive throughout intergalactic space capture celestial radiation more efficiently. In the case of the CCD
(which was once thought to be a vacuum) because we can detect (charge-coupled device), trickle-down technology has allowed small
its gravitational influence on the stuff we can see, such as galaxies. amateur telescopes to act as though they were four or five times
But no one has a cogent clue as to what this so-called dark matter larger. Augmented by effective software, CCDs have caused a
might be. revolution among hobbyists, who, after nearly a century-long hiatus,
Masers, first created in laboratories in 1953, were found in can once again contribute to mainstream astrophysical research.
space only 12 years later. These intense emitters of coherent Increasingly, astronomers are no longer limited to gathering
microwave radiation have enabled astronomers to vastly improve electromagnetic radiation. Beginning late in the last century, they
distance determinations to giant molecular clouds and, especially, started to routinely sample neutrinos, elementary particles that
to the centre of our Galaxy. allow us to peek at such inaccessible things as the earliest times in
A scientific war was fought in the 1960s as to whether clusters the life of the universe and the innards of exploding stars. And the
of galaxies themselves clustered. Now even the biggest of these so- gravitational-wave detectors being commissioned at the time of
called superclusters are known to be but bricks in gigantic walls this writing should allow glimpses of the fabric of spacetime itself.
stretching across hundreds of millions of light-years. These walls Astronomy has involved extensive international collaborations
contain most of the universes visible matter and are separated for well over a century. The cross-disciplinary nature of
from each other by empty regions called voids. contemporary research makes such collaborations even more
The discovery of quasars in 1963 moved highly condensed compelling in the future. Furthermore, efforts to build the next
matter on to astronomys centre stage. To explain their enormous generation of instruments on the ground and especially in space
and rapidly varying energy output, a tiny source was needed, and are so expensive that their funding will demand international
only a black hole having a feeding frenzy could fill the bill. Thus participation.
too was born the whole subdiscipline of relativistic astrophysics, Where do astronomers go from here? Towards the unknown
which continues to thrive. Quasars are now regarded as having the may seem like a clich, but it isnt. With so much of the universe
highest energies in a diverse class called active galaxies. invisible or unsampled, there simply have to be many enormous
Gamma-ray bursts, the most powerful outpourings of energy surprises awaiting!
known in the universe, only came under intense scrutiny by When it comes to the Big Questions, I dont know whether we
astronomers in the 1990s (they had been detected by secret are children unable to frame our thoughts, or teenagers at sea, or
military satellites since the 1960s). The mechanism that leads to adults awash in obfuscating information. Researchers find the
this prodigious output is still speculative, though a young, very plethora of new discoveries despite myriad loose ends and
massive star collapsing to form a black hole seems favoured. conundrums to be very exciting, for it attests to the vibrancy and
A decades-long quest for extrasolar planets and closely related maturation of the science. Yet, as we enter the 21st century,
brown-dwarf (failed) stars came to an abrupt end in 1995 when astronomers are still a very long way from answering the two most
the first secure examples of both entities were found. (By a common and profound questions people ask: what kind of
somewhat arbitrary convention, planets are regarded as having universe do we live in, and is life pervasive?
masses up to several times that of Jupiter; brown dwarfs range
from about 10 to 80 Jupiters.) Improved search strategies and
techniques are now discovering so many of both objects that Leif J. Robinson
ordinary new ones hardly make news. Editor Emeritus, Sky & Telescope magazine
absolute temperature
AAO Abbreviation of ANGLO-AUSTRALIAN OBSERVATORY a corrected lens. Examples are the composite OBJECTIVES
A
projected on to a flat surface, such as a photographic film,
AAVSO Abbreviation of AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF VARI- the image may be in focus in the centre or at the edges,
ABLE STAR OBSERVERS but not at both at the same time. Astronomers using CCD
cameras on telescopes can use a field flattener to produce
Abbot, Charles Greeley (18721961) American a well-focused image across the whole field of view. Often
astronomer who specialized in solar radiation and its this is combined with a focal reducer to provide a wider
effects on the Earths climate. He was director of the field of view.
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory from 1907. Distortion occurs where the shape of the resulting
Abbot made a very accurate determination of the solar image is changed. Common types of distortion are pin-
constant, compiled the first accurate map of the Suns cushion and barrel distortion, which describe the effects
infrared spectrum and studied the heating effect of the seen when an image of a rectangle is formed. Some binoc-
solar corona. He helped to design Mount Wilson Solar ular manufacturers deliberately introduce a small amount
Observatorys 63-ft (19-m) vertical solar telescope. of pin-cushion distortion as they claim it produces a more
natural experience when the binoculars are panned across
Abell, George Ogden (192783) American astronomer a scene. Measuring the distortion in a telescope is
who studied galaxies and clusters of galaxies. He is best extremely important for ASTROMETRY as it affects the pre-
known for his catalogue of 2712 rich clusters of galaxies cise position measurements being undertaken. Astromet-
(1958), drawn largely from his work on the PALOMAR ric telescopes once calibrated are maintained in as stable a
OBSERVATORY SKY SURVEY. The Abell clusters, some of condition as possible to avoid changing the distortion.
which are 3 billion l.y. distant, are important because they
define the Universes large-scale structure. Abell Abetti, Giorgio (18821982) Italian solar physicist,
successfully calculated the size and mass of many of these director of ARCETRI ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY
clusters, finding that at least 90% of the mass necessary to (192152). As a young postgraduate he worked at Mount
keep them from flying apart must be invisible. Wilson Observatory, where pioneering solar astronomer
George Ellery HALE became his mentor. Abetti designed
aberration (1) (aberration of starlight) Apparent and constructed the Arcetri solar tower, at the time the
displacement of the observed position of a star from its best solar telescope in Europe, and used it to investigate
true position in the sky, caused by a combination of the the structure of the chromosphere and the motion of
Earths motion through space and the finite velocity of sunspot penumbras (the EvershedAbetti effect).
the light arriving from the star. The effect was discovered
by James BRADLEY in 1728 while he was attempting to ablation Process by which the surface layers of an object
measure the PARALLAX of nearby stars. His observations entering the atmosphere (for example a spacecraft or a
revealed that the apparent position of all objects shifted METEOROID) are removed through the rapid intense
back and forth annually by up to 20 in a way that was heating caused by frictional contact with the air. The heat
not connected to the expected parallax effect. shields of space vehicles have outer layers that ablate,
The Earths movement in space comprises two parts: preventing overheating of the spacecrafts interior.
its orbital motion around the Sun at an average speed of
29.8 km/s (18.5 mi/s), which causes annual aberration, absolute magnitude (M) Visual magnitude that a star
and its daily rotation, which is responsible for the smaller would have at a standard distance of 10 PARSECS. If m =
of the two components, diurnal aberration. The former apparent magnitude and r = distance in parsecs:
causes a stars apparent position to describe an ELLIPSE M = m 5 5 log r
over the course of a year. For any star on the ECLIPTIC, this For a minor planet this term is used to describe the
ellipse is flattened into a straight line, whereas a star at the brightness it would have at a distance of 1 AU from the
pole of the ecliptic describes a circle. The angular dis- Sun, 1 AU from the Earth and at zero PHASE ANGLE (the
placement of the star, , is calculated from the formula SunAsteroidEarth angle, which is a physical
tan = v/c, where v is the Earths orbital velocity and c is impossibility).
the speed of light.
Diurnal aberration is dependent on the observers posi- absolute temperature Temperature measured using
tion on the surface of the Earth. Its effect is maximized at the absolute temperature scale; the units (obsolete) are
the equator, where it produces a displacement of a stellar A. This scale is effectively the same as the modern
position of 0.32 to the east, but drops to zero for an thermodynamic temperature scale, wherein temperature
observer at the poles.
Bradleys observations demonstrated both the motion of
the Earth in space and the finite speed of light; they have
influenced arguments in cosmology to the present day.
angle of
aberration
aberration (2) Defect in an image produced by a LENS
or MIRROR. Six primary forms of aberration affect the
quality of image produced by an optical system. One of
these, CHROMATIC ABERRATION, is due to the different
amount of refraction experienced by different
wavelengths of light when passing through the boundary
between two transparent materials; the other five are
distance light travels
independent of colour and arise from the limitations of aberration Aberration can
the geometry of the optical surfaces. They are cause displacement in the
sometimes referred to as Seidel aberrations after Ludwig position of a star relative to its
von Seidel (182196), the mathematician who true position as viewed in a
investigated them in detail. telescope. Bending of the light
The five Seidel aberrations are SPHERICAL ABERRATION, path away from the optical axis
COMA, ASTIGMATISM, curvature and distortion. All but produces coma, drawing the
spherical aberration are caused when light passes through star image into a tail (3). Offset
the optics at an angle to the optical axis. Optical designers of the stars position (2) can
strive to reduce or eliminate aberrations and combine lens- 1 2 3 reduce the effectiveness of the
es of different glass types, thickness and shape to produce telescope for astrometry.
1
absolute zero
is defined via the properties of the Carnot cycle. The zero and he was the first to prove that the sine theorem is valid
A point of the scale is ABSOLUTE ZERO, and the freezing and
boiling points of water are 273.15A and 373.15A,
for spherical surfaces (for example, the celestial sphere).
Abul-Waf a discovered irregularities in the Moons
respectively. 1A is equivalent to 1 K and kelvins are now motion which were explained only by advanced theories
the accepted SI unit. See also CELSIUS SCALE of celestial mechanics developed centuries later.
absolute zero Lowest theoretically attainable Acamar The star Eridani, visual mag. 2.88, distance
temperature; it is equivalent to 273.15C or 0 K. 161 l.y. Through small telescopes it is seen to be double.
Absolute zero is the temperature at which the motion of The components are of mags. 3.2 and 4.3, with spectral
atoms and molecules is the minimum possible, although types A5 IV and A1 Va. The name comes from the Arabic
that motion never ceases completely because of the akhir al-nahr, meaning rivers end, for in ancient times it
operation of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. (This marked the southernmost end of Eridanus, before the
principle states that an object does not have a measurable constellation was extended farther south to ACHERNAR.
position and momentum at the same time, because the
act of measuring disturbs the system.) Absolute zero can acapulcoitelodranite Association of two groups of
never be achieved in practice, but temperatures down to ACHONDRITE meteorites. They show a range of properties
0.001 K or less can be reached in the laboratory. The that grade into each other, with similar oxygen isotopic
COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND means that 2.7 K is the compositions. Acapulcoitelodranites are thought to be
minimum temperature found naturally in the Universe. partial melts of chondritic precursors. They have been
described as primitive achondrites, suggesting that they
absorption As a beam of light, or other are a bridge between CHONDRITES and achondrites.
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION, travels through any
material medium, the intensity of the beam in the acceleration of free fall Acceleration experienced by a
direction of travel gradually diminishes. This is partly body falling freely in a gravitational field. A body in free
due to scattering by particles of the medium and partly fall follows a path determined only by the combination of
due to absorption within the medium. Energy that is its velocity and gravitational acceleration. This path may
absorbed in this way may subsequently be re-radiated at be a straight line, circle, ellipse, parabola or hyperbola. A
the same or longer wavelength and may cause a rise in freely falling body experiences no sensation of weight,
temperature of the medium. hence the weightlessness of astronauts, since the
The absorption process may be general or selective in spacecraft is continuously free falling towards the Earth
the way that it affects different wavelengths. Examples while its transverse motion ensures that it gets no closer.
can be seen in the colours of various substances. Lamp The free fall acceleration is 9.807 m/s2 at the Earths
black, or amorphous carbon, absorbs all wavelengths surface. It varies as the inverse square of the distance
equally and reflects very little, whereas paints and pig- from the Earths centre.
ments absorb all but the few wavelengths that give them
their characteristic colours. accretion Process by which bodies gain mass; the term
Spectral analysis of starlight reveals the selective absorp- is applied both to the growth of solid objects by
tion processes that tell us so much about the chemical and collisions that result in sticking and to the capture of gas
physical conditions involved. The core of a star is a hot, by the gravity of a massive body. Both types of accretion
incandescent, high-pressure gas, which produces a CON- are involved in the formation of a planetary system from
TINUOUS SPECTRUM. The atoms of stellar material are a disk-shaped nebula surrounding a PROTOSTAR. When
excited by this high-temperature environment and are so newly formed, such a disk consists mostly of gas, with a
close together that their electrons move easily from atom to small fraction (c.1%) of solid material in small dust
atom, emitting energy and then being re-excited and so on. particles, with original sizes of the order of a
This gives rise to energy changes of all possible levels micrometre. Grains settle through the gas towards the
releasing all possible colours in the continuous SPECTRUM. central plane of the disk; they drift inwards toward the
The cooler, low-pressure material that comprises the protostar at rates that vary with their sizes and densities,
atmospheres of both star and Earth, and the interstellar resulting in collisions at low velocities. Particles may
medium that lies between them, can be excited by con- stick together by several mechanisms, depending on
stituents of this continuous radiation from the star core, their compositions and local conditions, including
thus absorbing some of the radiation. Such selective surface forces (van der Waals bonding), electrical or
absorption produces the dark ABSORPTION LINES that are magnetic effects, adsorbed layers of organic molecules
so typical of stellar spectra. These lines are not totally forming a glue, and partial melting of ices. This
black; they are merely fainter than the continuum because sticking produces irregularly shaped fluffy aggregates,
only a fraction of the absorbed energy is re-radiated in the which can grow further by mechanical interlocking.
original direction. See also FRAUNHOFER LINES; MOR- When bodies reach sizes of the order of a kilometre or
GANKEENAN CLASSIFICATION larger, gravity becomes the dominant bonding mecha-
nism. Such bodies are called PLANETESIMALS. Mutual
absorption line Break or depression in an otherwise perturbations cause their orbits to deviate from circulari-
CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM. An ABSORPTION line is caused ty, allowing them to cross, which results in further colli-
by the absorption of photons within a specific (usually sions. The impact velocity is always at least as large as
narrow) band of wavelengths by some species of atom, the escape velocity from the larger body. If the energy
ion or molecule, any of which has its own characteristic density exceeds the mechanical strength of the bodies,
set of absorptions. Absorption lines are produced when they are shattered. However, a large fraction of the
electrons associated with the various species absorb impact energy is converted into heat, and most frag-
incoming radiation and jump to higher energy levels. The ments move at relatively low velocities, less than the
analysis of absorption lines allows the determination of impact velocity. These fragments will fall back to the
stellar parameters such as temperatures, densities, surface common centre of gravity, resulting in a net gain of mass
gravities, velocities and chemical compositions (see unless the impact velocity greatly exceeds the escape
SPECTRAL CLASSIFICATION). velocity. The fragments form a rubble pile held together
by their mutual gravity. As this process is repeated, bod-
absorption nebula See DARK NEBULA ies grow ever larger. At sizes greater than a few hundred
kilometres gravitational binding exceeds the strength of
Abul-Wafa al Buzjan, Muhammad (940997/8) geological materials, and the mechanical properties of
Persian astronomer and mathematician. His Kitab al- the planetesimals become unimportant.
kamil (Complete Book [on Astronomy]) and his Accretion is stochastic, that is, the number of colli-
astronomical tables were used by many later astronomers, sions experienced by a body of a given size in an interval
2
achromat
of time is a matter of chance. This process produces a tem is a WHITE DWARF, as in a CATACLYSMIC VARIABLE,
distribution of bodies of various sizes. Often, the size dis-
tribution can be described by a power law, with an index
the inner part of the disk will radiate in the ultraviolet,
while the outer part radiates mostly in the visible. The A
s, defined so that the number of objects more massive MASS TRANSFER in such systems is often unstable, caus-
than a specific mass, m, is proportional to ms. If s is less ing DWARF NOVAE outbursts.
than 1, most of the mass is in the larger objects; for larg- In an X-RAY BINARY the accreting star is a NEUTRON
er values of s, the smaller bodies comprise most of the STAR or stellar-mass BLACK HOLE and the inner disk radi-
mass. Power law size distributions may be produced by ates in X-rays. Unstable mass transfer across these disks
either accretion or fragmentation, with the latter tending produces soft X-RAY TRANSIENTS and sometimes relativis-
to have somewhat larger s values. However, accretion of tic JETS. The greatest amounts of energy are released when
planetesimals subject to gravitational forces can produce matter accretes on to a SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLE at the
another type of distribution. If relative velocities are low centre of a galaxy. This is the power source of an ACTIVE
compared with a bodys escape velocity, its gravity can GALACTIC NUCLEUS, the central region of which radiates in
deflect the trajectories of other objects, causing impacts ultraviolet and X-ray and can produce relativistic jets.
for encounters that would otherwise be near misses. This
gravitational focusing is more effective for more mas- ACE Acronym for ADVANCED COMPOSITION EXPLORER
sive bodies, and it increases their rate of mass gain by
accretion, allowing the largest bodies to grow still more Achernar The star Eridani, visual mag. 0.46, distance
rapidly. In numerical simulations of accretion, the first 144 l.y. Achernar is the ninth-brightest star in the sky and
body to reach a size such that its escape velocity exceeds has a luminosity over a thousand times that of the Sun. Its
the mean relative velocity experiences runaway growth, spectral type is B3 V with additional features that suggest
quickly becoming much larger than the mean size. Its it is a SHELL STAR. The name, which comes from the
own perturbations then stir up velocities of the smaller Arabic meaning rivers end (the same origin as ACAMAR),
bodies near its orbit, preventing them from growing in was given to this star in Renaissance times when the
the same manner. At greater distances, its effects are constellation Eridanus was extended southwards.
weaker, and the process can repeat in another location.
The result is a series of PROTOPLANETS in separated Achilles First TROJAN ASTEROID to be recognized, by Max
orbits; these can grow further by sweeping up the resid- WOLF in 1906; number 588. It is c.147 km (c.91 mi) in size.
ual population of small planetesimals.
In the inner Solar System, the final stage of accretion achondrite STONY METEORITE that formed from melted
probably involved collisions between protoplanets. parts of its parent body. Achondrites usually have
Impacts of this magnitude would have involved enough differentiated compositions. They generally do not
energy to melt the planets; such an event is theorized to contain CHONDRULES, and they have very low metal
be responsible for the origin of the Moon. If a protoplan- contents. There are many different groups of
et attained sufficient mass before dissipation of the achondrites, some of which can be linked to form
SOLAR NEBULA, then its gravitation could overcome the associations allied with specific parents. The separate
pressure of the nebular gas, and it could accrete gas from associations have little, if any, genetic relationship to each
the nebula. This process can begin at a critical mass that other. See also ACAPULCOITELODRANITE; ANGRITE;
depends on a number of factors, including the density AUBRITE; BRACHINITE; HOWARDITEEUCRITEDIOGENITE
and temperature of the gas, and the protoplanets dis- ASSOCIATION; LUNAR METEORITE; MARTIAN METEORITE;
tance from the Sun. The rate at which gas is accreted is UREILITE; WINONAITE
limited by the escape of energy, which must be radiated
away by the gas as it cools. The original protoplanet achromat (achromatic lens) Composite LENS designed absorption line The visible
would then become the CORE of a planet that consists to reduce CHROMATIC ABERRATION. The false colour light spectrum of the cool giant
mostly of hydrogen. Plausible estimates imply that the introduced into an image by a lens can be reduced by star Arcturus ( Botis) is
critical mass is at least a few times Earths mass, but pro- combining the action of two or more lenses with shown here. The dark vertical
toplanets of this size could have accreted in the outer different characteristics. In an achromat, two lenses of lines in the spectrum are
Solar System. Jupiter and Saturn probably formed by different materials are used together. caused by atoms in the stars
accretion of gas. See also COSMOGONY The most common example is the OBJECTIVE of a good atmosphere absorbing
quality but inexpensive astronomical REFRACTOR. This is radiation. Because each
accretion disk Disk of matter that surrounds an usually made of a crown glass lens and a flint glass lens element absorbs radiation at
astronomical object and through which material is that have different refractive indices and introduce differ- characteristic wavelengths, the
transferred to that object. In many circumstances, ent levels of dispersion. By making one lens diverging and spectrum of a star can be used
material does not transfer directly from one astronomical the other converging the optical designer can produce a to determine which elements
object to another. Instead, the material is pulled into converging composite lens that brings light of two differ- are present.
equatorial orbit about the object before accreting. Such
material transfer systems are known as ACCRETION disks.
Accretion disks occur in protostellar clouds, close BINARY
STAR systems and at the centre of galaxies.
Accretion disks are difficult to observe directly
because of their small size or large distance from Earth.
The disks that appear the largest (because they are near-
est) are PROTOPLANETARY DISKS, around 100 AU in size,
some of which have been imaged by the Hubble Space
Telescope. Accretion disks in CLOSE BINARIES range in
diameter from a few tenths to a few solar radii. Details
about size, thickness and temperature of accretion disks
can be provided by observing eclipses occurring between
the disk and the secondary star from which the material
is being pulled.
The energy output of the material being accreted
depends on the mass and radius of the accreting object.
The more massive and the smaller the accreting object,
the higher the speed of material arriving, and the greater
the amount of energy released on impact. Energy contin-
ues to be radiated as the material loses energy by slowing
down within the disk. If the accreting star in a binary sys-
3
Acidalia Planitia
ent wavelengths to a focus at the same point. This celestial object across the sky, its mirror is subject to
A reduces considerably the false colour that would be pro-
duced by a single lens, but it does not eliminate it alto-
changes in the forces acting upon it, as well as
temperature variations and buffeting from the wind,
gether: bright objects observed against a dark which can cause it to flex, giving rise to SPHERICAL
background, such as the Moon at night, will have a ABERRATION or ASTIGMATISM of the image.
coloured edge. There is also a reduction in overall con- Active optics compensate for these effects, through
trast compared with a completely colour-corrected opti- the use of a number of computer-controlled motorized
cal system such as an APOCHROMAT. mirror supports, known as actuators, which continually
monitor the shape of the mirror and adjust it into its cor-
Acidalia Planitia Main dark area in the northern hemi- rect form. These adjustments are typically only about
sphere of MARS (47.0N 22.0W). 1/10,000 the thickness of a human hair but are enough to
keep light from a star or galaxy precisely focused.
Acrux The star Crucis (of which Acrux is a For many years it was considered impossible to build
contraction), visual mag. 0.77, distance 321 l.y. Small telescopes of the order of eight metres in diameter using
telescopes split it into two components of mags. 1.3 and a single mirror because it would have had to be so thick
1.7. Their spectral types are B0.5 IV and B1 V, so both and heavy in order to maintain its correct shape as to
appear blue-white. Acrux is the southernmost first- make it impractical. The development of active optics
magnitude star, declination 63.1. technology has meant that relatively thin primary mir-
rors can now be built that are lighter and cheaper and are
actinometer (pyrheliometer) Instrument used for able to hold their precise shape, thereby optimizing
measuring at any instant the direct heating power of the image quality. The system also compensates for any
Suns radiation. Sir William HERSCHEL first noted, in imperfections in the surface of the mirror caused by
1800, that the heating effect of the Suns rays was minor manufacturing errors. See also ADAPTIVE OPTICS;
greatest beyond the red end of the spectrum. This SEGMENTED MIRROR
INFRARED RADIATION was further investigated by his son
Sir John HERSCHEL, who invented the actinometer active region Region of enhanced magnetic activity on
around 1825. the Sun often, but not always, associated with SUNSPOTS
and extending from the solar PHOTOSPHERE to the
active galactic nucleus (AGN) Central energy- CORONA. Where sunspots occur, they are connected by
producing region in some GALAXIES. AGNs are distinct in strong magnetic fields that loop through the
having substantial portions of their energy output coming CHROMOSPHERE into the low corona (coronal loops).
76-0005 from processes that are not associated with normal stars Radio, ultraviolet and X-ray radiation from active regions
and their evolution. The observed guises of this energy is enhanced relative to neighbouring regions of the
release define the various types of active nuclei. chromosphere and corona. Active regions may last from
At the lowest power levels are LINERS (Low Ionization several hours to a few months. They are the sites of
Nuclear Emission-line Regions), generally recognized intense explosions, FLARES, which last from a few minutes
only by the ratios of fairly weak EMISSION LINES; not all to hours. NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric
LINERS are genuine active nuclei. Activity character- Administration), which monitors solar activity, assigns
ized by strong, broad emission lines occurs in SEYFERT numbers to active regions (for example, AR 9693) in
GALAXIES, most of which are spirals; Seyfert types 1 and order of their visibility or appearance. The occurrence
2 have different patterns of line width. Seyfert galaxies and location of active regions varies in step with the
also show strong X-ray emission and, often, far-infrared approximately 11-year SOLAR CYCLE. Loops of gas seen
radiation. RADIO GALAXIES are most notable for their as FILAMENTS or PROMINENCES are often suspended in
Acidalia Planitia When this strong radio emission, usually from a pair of lobes sym- magnetic fields above active regions.
area of Mars was originally metrically placed about the galaxy, often accompanied
imaged by Viking some by JETS and radio emission from the nucleus itself. This Adams, John Couch (181992) English
astronomers interpreted the activity may have little or no trace in the optical region, mathematician and astronomer who played a part in the
linear feature as an ancient although some radio galaxies do have spectacular optical discovery of Neptune. In 1844, while at St Johns
shoreline. Mars Global emission lines similar to those of both types of Seyfert College, Cambridge, he began to investigate the orbital
Surveyor images showed that it galaxy. Higher-luminosity objects are QUASISTELLAR irregularities of Uranus, which he concluded could be
is actually layered rock. OBJECTS (QSOs), which are known as QUASARS (quasi- accounted for by gravitational perturbations by an
stellar radio sources) if they exhibit strong radio emis- undiscovered planet. He calculated an orbit for this
sion. These objects are so bright that the surrounding planet, and identified a small region of sky where it
galaxy can be lost for ordinary observations in the light might be found. He approached James CHALLIS, director
of the nucleus. Members of another class, BL LACERTAE of the Cambridge Observatory, and George Biddell AIRY,
OBJECTS, show featureless spectra and rapid variability, the Astronomer Royal. However, communications
suggesting that they are radio galaxies or quasars seen
along the direction of a relativistic jet, the radiation of
which is strongly beamed along its motion. These cate-
gories share features of strong X-ray emission, large
velocities for the gas seen in emission lines, and a very
small emitting region as seen from variability. Many
show variation in the ultraviolet and X-ray bands on
scales of hours to days, implying that the radiation is
emitted in a region with light-crossing time no longer
active optics The active than these times.
optics actuators on the reverse The most popular model for energy production in all
of the primary mirror of the these kinds of active galactic nuclei involves material
WIYN telescope at Kitt Peak around a supermassive BLACK HOLE (of millions to a few
National Observatory allow the thousand million solar masses). The power is released
mirror to be flexed continually to during ACCRETION, likely in an ACCRETION DISK, while
compensate for the effects of jets may be a natural by-product of the disk geometry
gravity as the telescope moves. and magnetic fields.
This system means that far
thinner mirrors can be used active optics Technique for controlling the shape and
without risking distortion of the alignment of the primary MIRROR of a large reflecting
images and data obtained. TELESCOPE. As a telescope tilts to track the path of a
4
aerolite
shot of the image from a star or galaxy many times a sec- adaptive optics
ond and sends a signal back to the deformable mirror,
which is placed just in front of the focus of the telescope.
Telescopes using adaptive
optics, such as the Very Large A
The mirror is very thin and can be flexed in a controlled Telescope (VLT), have far better
fashion hundreds of times a second, compensating for the resolving power than earlier
varying distortion and producing an image almost as ground-based telescopes.
sharp as if the telescope were in space. The control signals Here the light from a close
must be sent from the wavefront detector to the mirror binary pair with a separation of
fast enough so that the turbulence has not changed signif- only 0.03 has been reflected
icantly between sensing and correction. See also ACTIVE from the primary mirror on to a
OPTICS; SPECKLE INTERFEROMETRY subsidiary mirror, which is
continually adjusted to
ADC Abbreviation of ASTRONOMICAL DATA CENTER compensate for variations in
between Adams and Airy did not run smoothly, and no the Earths atmosphere; it is
search was mounted from Britain. When the Uranus- Adhara The star Canis Majoris, visual mag. 1.50, then computer processed.
disturbing planet, Neptune, was located on 1846 distance 431 l.y., spectral type B2 II. It has a 7th-
September 23, it was by Johann GALLE and Henrich magnitude COMPANION, which is difficult to see in very
DARREST, observing from Berlin and guided by a small telescopes as it is drowned by Adharas light. The
position calculated independently by Urbain LE VERRIER. name comes from an Arabic phrase meaning the
Adams was a brilliant scientist, but shy and rather retir- virgins, given to an asterism of four of five stars of
ing, and he refused a knighthood in 1847. He returned to which Adhara was the brightest.
Cambridge as Lowndean Professor in 1858, becoming
director of the Cambridge Observatory in 1860. Adams adiabatic Process in thermodynamics in which a change
subsequent researches on the lunar parallax and other in a system occurs without transfer of heat to or from the
small motions, and the celestial mechanics of meteor environment. Material within the convective regions of
streams following the 1866 Leonid storm, won him stars moves sufficiently rapidly that there is little exchange
numerous honours. In spite of the Neptune affair, which of energy except at the top and bottom of the region. The
led to arguments over the conduct of British science and a material therefore undergoes adiabatic changes, and this
souring of Anglo-French scientific relations, Adams leads to a simple pressure law of the form:
enjoyed the friendship of Airy, Challis and Le Verrier. P = k5/3
where P is the pressure, the density, and k a constant.
Adams, Walter Sydney, Jr (18761956) American Such a pressure law is called polytropic, and it enables the
astronomer, born in Syria to missionary parents, who region to be modelled very simply.
succeeded George Ellery HALE as director of Mount
Wilson Observatory (192346). At Yerkes Observatory Adonis Second APOLLO ASTEROID to be discovered, in
(18981904), Adams became an expert at using 1936. It was lost but became numbered as 2101 after its
spectroscopic techniques to determine stellar radial recovery in 1977. Because of its low inclination orbit,
velocities. He followed Hale to Mount Wilson, where a Adonis makes frequent close approaches to the Earth. It
great new observatory specializing in solar astronomy has been suggested to be the parent of a minor METEOR
was being built. Adams and Hale obtained solar spectra SHOWER, the CapricornidSagittariids, and may,
showing that sunspots were cooler than the rest of the therefore, have originated as a cometary nucleus. See
Suns surface, and by measuring Doppler shifts in solar table at NEAR-EARTH ASTEROID
spectra he was able accurately to measure our stars
differential rotation, which varies with latitude. In 1914 Adrastea One of the inner moons of JUPITER, discovered
he began studying the intensity of spectral lines of stars in 1979 by David Jewitt (1958 ) and Edward Danielson
beyond the Sun, which could be used to calculate the in images obtained by the VOYAGER project. It is irregular
stars absolute magnitudes; during his Mount Wilson in shape, measuring about 25 20 15 km (16 12
years, Adams computed and catalogued the radial 9 mi). It orbits near the outer edge of Jupiters main ring,
velocities of 7000 stars, determining the absolute 129,000 km (80,000 mi) from the planets centre, taking
magnitudes of another 6000. 0.298 days to complete one of its near-circular equatorial
Adams discovered that the intensities differed for orbits. See also METIS
main-sequence, giant and dwarf stars, and used this
knowledge to identify Sirius B as the first example (1915) Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) NASA
of a white dwarf. His calculations showed that Sirius B is spacecraft launched in 1997 August. It is equipped with
an extremely hot, compact star containing 80% of the nine instruments to determine and compare the isotopic
Suns mass packed into a volume roughly equal to that of and elemental composition of several distinct samples of
the Earth. Ten years later he was able to measure a matter, including the solar CORONA, interplanetary
Doppler shift of 21 km/s (13 mi/s) for Sirius B, a result medium, interstellar medium and galactic matter. The
predicted by Arthur EDDINGTONs model of white dwarfs, craft was placed into the EarthSun Lagrangian point, or
which, because they are very dense, produce powerful L1, 1.5 million km (940,000 mi) from Earth, where it
localized gravitational fields manifested in just such a remains in a relatively constant position with respect to
spectral redshift. Adams discovery was therefore regard- the Earth and the Sun.
ed as an astrophysical confirmation of Albert EINSTEINs
theory of general relativity. In 1932 Adams found that the aerolite Obsolete name for STONY METEORITE
atmosphere of Venus is largely composed of CO2; he also
discovered that the interstellar medium contained the Advanced Composition
molecules CN and CH. The climax of Adams career Explorer ACEs nine
was his role in the design and building of Mount Palo- instruments sample a wide
mars 200-inch (5-m) Hale Telescope. range of accelerated particles
from the Sun and interstellar
adaptive optics Technique that compensates for and galactic sources. One of
distortion caused in astronomical images by the effects of their main functions is to give
atmospheric turbulence, or poor SEEING. warning of geomagnetic
Adaptive optic technology uses a very thin, deformable storms that might endanger
mirror to correct for the distorting effects of atmospheric astronauts and disrupt power
turbulence. It operates by sampling the light using an supplies and communications
instrument called a wavefront sensor. This takes a snap- on Earth.
5
aeronomy
aeronomy Study of the physics and chemistry of the Aglaonike Ancient Greek, the first woman named in the
A upper ATMOSPHERE of the Earth and other planets. On
Earth, this region is rather inaccessible, being generally
recorded history of astronomy. She was said to have
predicted eclipses, and some of her contemporaries
above the height that meteorological balloons can reach, regarded her as a sorceress who could make the Moon
so research techniques rely heavily on the use of rockets disappear at will.
and satellites together with remote sensing by radio
waves and optical techniques. AGN Abbreviation for ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEUS
The primary source of energy for the processes inves-
tigated is incident solar energy absorbed before it reaches airglow Ever-present faint, diffuse background of light
the surface of the planet. This energy may ionize the in the night sky resulting from re-emission of energy by
upper atmosphere to form ionospheric plasma or may atmospheric atoms and molecules following excitation
cause chemical changes, such as the photodissociation of during daylight by solar radiation. Airglow emissions,
molecules to form atoms or the production of exotic which occur in the upper ATMOSPHERE, mean that
molecules such as ozone and nitrous oxide. Some minor Earths night sky is never completely dark.
constituents have an important catalytic role in the Prominent among airglow emissions is green light
chemistry of the upper atmosphere, hence, for example, from excited oxygen, at 557.7 nm wavelength, which is
the significant influence of chlorine compounds on the found mainly in a roughly 10 km (6 mi) deep layer at
ozone concentration in the STRATOSPHERE. around 100 km (60 mi) altitude. Red oxygen emissions at
Consideration of the atmosphere as a fluid leads to an 630.0 nm and 636.4 nm occur higher in the atmosphere;
understanding of the various winds and circulation pat- together with those from sodium, these emissions become
terns. Fluid oscillations include atmospheric tides, inter- more prominent in the twilight airglow. The night-time
nal gravity waves and disturbances that propagate airglow varies in brightness, probably in response to
because of buoyancy forces. The tides are predominant- changing geomagnetic activity. The day-time airglow is
ly caused by solar heating, rather than by gravitational about a thousand times more intense than that seen at
forces, and, on Earth, are the principal component dri- night but is, of course, a great deal more difficult to study
ving the wind system at an altitude of about 100 km because of the bright sky background.
(about 60 mi). Under certain conditions the upper
atmosphere may become turbulent, which leads to mix- Airy, George Biddell (180192) English astronomer,
ing and enhanced heat transport. the seventh ASTRONOMER ROYAL. The son of an excise
Optical phenomena include AIRGLOW, in which pho- officer, he grew up in Suffolk and won a scholarship to
toemission may be caused by a range of physical and Trinity College, Cambridge. Airy became a professor at
chemical processes, and AURORAE, where the visible the age of 26, and was offered the post of Astronomer
emissions are produced by charged particles from the Royal in 1835, having already refused a knighthood on
MAGNETOSPHERE. Associated with aurorae are electric the grounds of his relative poverty. (He turned down
current systems, which create perturbations in the mag- two further offers, before finally accepting a knighthood
netic field. There are other currents in the upper atmos- in 1872.) Academic astronomy in Airys day was
phere caused by tidally driven dynamos. dominated by celestial mechanics. Astronomers across
Europe, especially in Germany, were making meticulous
aether All-pervasive fluid through which observations of the meridional positions of the stars and
electromagnetic waves were originally thought to planets for the construction of accurate tables. These
propagate. Electromagnetic theory showed that light tables provided the basis for all sorts of investigations in
needed no such medium to propagate and experimental celestial mechanics to be able to take place. As a
tests such as the MICHELSONMORLEY EXPERIMENT failed Cambridge astronomy professor and then as
to detect signs of such a medium, so the idea of aether Astronomer Royal at Greenwich, Airy was to be
was dropped from physical theory. involved in such research for 60 years.
In addition to such mathematical investigations, Airy
Agena Alternative name for the star Centauri. Also was a very practical scientist, who used his mathematical
known as HADAR knowledge to improve astronomical instrument design,
Agena The Agena target data analysis, and civil and mechanical engineering.
vehicle is seen here from Agena One of the most successful US rockets. It was Upon assuming office as Astronomer Royal he began a
Gemini 8 during the used extensively for rendezvous and docking fundamental reorganization of the Royal Observatory,
rendezvous. Testing docking manoeuvres in the manned GEMINI PROJECT, launching Greenwich. He did little actual observing himself, but
procedures was vital to the satellites and as a second stage for US lunar and developed a highly organized staff to do the routine busi-
success of the Apollo missions. planetary missions. ness, leaving him free for analytical, navigational and
government scientific work. Airy was quick to seize the
potential of new science-based techniques such as elec-
tric telegraphy, and by 1854, for instance, the Observa-
tory was transmitting time signals over the expanding
railway telegraph network.
It is sad that in the popular mind Airy is perhaps best
remembered as the man who failed to enable John
Couch ADAMS to secure priority in the discovery of Nep-
tune in 1846. Yet this stemmed in no small degree from
Adams own failure to communicate with Airy and to
answer Airys technical questions. Airy made no single
great discovery, but he showed his generation how
astronomy could be made to serve the public good.
6
Aldebaran
amount of light reflected by a body to the total amount Airy, George Biddell
falling on it, albedo values range from 0 for a perfectly
absorbing black surface, to 1 for a perfect reflector or
Portrait in ink of controversial
19th-century Astronomer A
white surface. Albedo is commonly used in astronomy Royal George Biddell Airy.
to describe the fraction of sunlight reflected by planets,
satellites and asteroids: rocky bodies have low values
whereas those covered with clouds or comprising a high
percentage of water-ice have high values. The average
albedo of the MOON, for example, is just 0.07 whereas
VENUS, which is covered in dense clouds, has a value of
0.76, the highest in the Solar System. The albedo of an
object can provide valuable information about the
composition and structure of its surface, while the
combination of an objects albedo, size and distance
determines its overall brightness.
7
Alderamin
Arabic meaning the follower Aldebaran appears to years. The name may come from the Arabic al-jabha,
A follow the Pleiades cluster across the sky. meaning the forehead, referring to its position in a
much larger figure of a lion visualized by Arab
Alderamin The star Cephei, visual mag. 2.45, distance astronomers in this region.
49 l.y., spectral type A7 V. Its name comes from an
Arabic expression referring to a forearm. Algol Prototype of the ALGOL STARS, a subtype (EA) of
ECLIPSING BINARY stars. It is now known, however, that
Aldrin, Edwin Eugene (Buzz), Jr (1930 ) American Algol is somewhat atypical of its eponymous subtype.
astronaut. After setting a record for space-walking The first recorded observation of Algol was made by
during the Gemini 12 mission in 1966, Aldrin was Geminiano MONTANARI in 1669. In 1782 John
assigned to Apollo 11 as Lunar Module pilot, and on GOODRICKE established that Algols variability was period-
1969 July 20 he became the second man to walk on the ic, with a sudden fade occurring every 2.867 days. Gradu-
Moon, after Neil ARMSTRONG. ally, the concept of an eclipsing companion became
accepted and was finally confirmed when, in 1889, Her-
Alfvn, Hannes Olof Gsta (190895) Swedish mann VOGEL showed that the radial velocity of Algol var-
physicist who developed much of the theory of ied with the same period as that of the eclipses.
MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS, for which he was awarded By this time, Algol was known to be a triple system. In
the 1970 Nobel Prize for Physics. In 1942 he predicted 1855 F.W.A. ARGELANDER had observed that the period
the existence of what are now called ALFVN WAVES, between primary minima had shortened by six seconds
which propagate through a plasma, and in 1950 he since Goodrickes observations. Fourteen years later he
identified synchrotron radiation from cosmic sources, noted that the period between the times of minima varied
helping to establish radio astronomy. in a regular fashion with a period of about 680 days. This
was attributed to the variation in the distance that the light
Alfvn waves Transverse MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC from the system had to travel because of orbital motion
waves that can occur in a region containing plasma and a around the common centre of gravity with a third star
magnetic field. The electrically conducting plasma is (Algol C).
linked to and moves with the magnetic field. Sometimes In 1906 the Russian astronomer Aristarkh Belopolski
this phenomenon is referred to as the plasma and (18541934) confirmed the existence of Algol C by show-
magnetic field being frozen-in to each other. The ing that radial-velocity variations in the spectral lines of
plasma follows the oscillations of the magnetic field and Algol also had a period of 1.862 years superimposed on the
modifies those oscillations. Alfvn waves may transfer period of 2.867 days for Algol AB. Several years later, Joel
energy out to the solar CORONA, and they are also found STEBBINS, a pioneer in stellar photometry, found that there
in the SOLAR WIND and the Earths MAGNETOSPHERE. was a secondary minimum of much smaller amplitude
They are named after Hannes ALFVN. occurring exactly halfway between the primary eclipses.
This showed for the first time that the companion was not
Algenib The star Pegasi, visual mag. 2.83, spectral dark at all, but merely much fainter than A. Photoelectric
type B2 IV, distance 333 l.y. It is a BETA CEPHEI STAR a observations showed the depth of the secondary minimum
pulsating variable that fluctuates by 0.1 mag. with a to be 0.06 mag. and that the light from star A increased as
period of 3.6 hours. The name Algenib comes from the the secondary minimum approached. This was interpreted
Aldrin, Edwin Eugene Arabic meaning the side; it is also an alternative name as a reflection of light from the body of star B.
(Buzz), Jr As well as piloting for the star Persei (see MIRPHAK). There are two stars, of spectral types B8 and G, rotat-
the lunar module of Apollo 11, ing about each other. The B8 star is a dwarf and is the vis-
Buzz Aldrin also deployed and Algieba The star Leonis, visual mag. 2.01, distance ible component. The fainter star (whose spectrum was
monitored experiments on the 126 l.y. Small telescopes show it to be a beautiful double only observed directly for the first time in 1978) is a sub-
Moons surface. Here, he is star with golden-yellow components of mags. 2.6 and giant. The orbit is inclined to the line of sight by 82,
seen with the Solar Wind 3.5, spectral types K1 III and G7 III. The pair form a which results in mutual eclipses corresponding to a drop
Composition experiment. genuine binary with an orbital period of nearly 620 in light of 1.3 mag. when A is eclipsed by B. Hipparcos
data give a distance to Algol of 93 l.y. This corresponds to
luminosities of 100 and 3 for A and B respectively. From
the length and depth of the eclipses, sizes of 2.89 and 3.53
solar radii have been derived for A and B respectively. The
corresponding masses are 3.6 and 2.89 solar masses, and
this apparent anomaly gives rise to what is known as the
Algol paradox.
In current theories of STELLAR EVOLUTION, stars
advance in spectral type as they evolve, and the rate at
which they do so is a function of their initial masses.
Thus, if two stars form together from interstellar materi-
al, the more massive of the two should evolve more
quickly. In Algol the more evolved star is the less massive
and the cause seems to be MASS TRANSFER from B to A.
A stream of material between the two stars has been
detected in the radio observations, and the current trans-
fer rate is thought to be at least 107 solar masses per
year. Optical spectra have shown very faint lines, which
are thought to be emitted by a faint ring of material sur-
rounding star A.
Algol C was first resolved by speckle interferometry in
1974 and on several occasions since. Its angular separa-
tion has never exceeded 0.1, which explains why the
star has never been seen by visual observers.
The real nature of the Algol system is still far from
clear. Even after 200 years of continuous observation it
still evokes considerable interest from astronomers.
8
Almagest
exhibit distinct, well-separated primary minima. Arabic phrase referring to a group of mourners
Secondary minima may be detectable, depending on the
characteristics of the system. Outside eclipses, the light-
accompanying a coffin formed by the quadrilateral of
stars which is now known as the bowl of the PLOUGH A
curve is essentially flat, although it may exhibit a small, (commonly referred to in the US as the Big Dipper).
gradual increase and decrease around secondary
minimum, which is caused by the reflection effect, Allan Hills 84001 (ALH 84001) METEORITE that was
where light from the bright (MAIN SEQUENCE) primary found in Antarctica in 1984 and identified as a MARTIAN
irradiates the surface of the cooler secondary, thus METEORITE in 1994. It has a mass of c.1.93 kg. A
raising its temperature and luminosity. The components complex igneous rock, it has suffered both thermal and
of the binary system may be DETACHED or, as in ALGOL shock processes. In composition, it is an orthopyroxenite
itself, one component may be SEMIDETACHED. Systems rich in carbonates, which form patches up to c.0.5 mm
in which the semidetached component is transferring across. Few hydrated minerals have been identified
mass to the non-evolved component are sometimes amongst the alteration products in ALH 84001, so it has
described as being Algol-type or Algol-like binaries. been proposed that the carbonates were produced at the
In the Algol-type binaries, the detached component is surface of Mars in a region of restricted water flow, such
a main-sequence star and its less-massive companion is a as an evaporating pool of brine. Tiny structures
red SUBGIANT that fills its ROCHE LOBE. Such systems are (c.200 nm in size) within the carbonates have been
differentiated physically from the closely related BETA interpreted by some as fossilized Martian bacteria;
LYRAE STARS by the fact that an ACCRETION DISK is never however the claim is controversial, and it is subject to
present around the detached component. continued investigation.
Some systems that begin as Algol stars (with detached
components) may evolve into BETA LYRAE systems, with a Allegheny Observatory Observatory of the University
high rate of MASS TRANSFER and massive accretion disks. of Pittsburgh, located 6 km (4 mi) north of Pittsburgh.
When the mass-transfer rate drops, the accretion disks The observatory, which dates from 1859, became part of
disappear to reveal the unevolved stars, and the systems the university in 1867. During the 1890s its director was
display all the characteristics of an Algol-like binary. James E. KEELER, who used a 13-inch (330-mm)
The eventual fate of an Algol system depends on many refractor to discover the particulate nature of Saturns
factors, most notably on the stars masses, which deter- rings. Later, Allegheny was equipped with the 30-inch
mine their rates of evolution. If the main-sequence star in (76-cm) Thaw telescope (the third-largest refractor in the
an Algol system is comparatively massive, it will evolve USA) and the 31-inch (0.79-m) Keeler reflector. The
rapidly and expand to fill its Roche lobe while the com- observatory now specializes in astrometric searches for
panion star is still filling its own Roche lobe. The result is EXTRASOLAR PLANETS.
a CONTACT BINARY in which both stars share the same
photosphere. These binaries are often called W URSAE Allende METEORITE that fell as a shower of stones in the
MAJORIS STARS after the prototype for this subtype. state of Chihuahua, Mexico, on 1969 February 8. More
If the main-sequence star in an Algol system evolves than 2 tonnes of material is believed to have fallen.
slowly, then its companion may become a WHITE DWARF Allende is classified as a CV3 CARBONACEOUS
before the primary swells to fill its Roche lobe. When the CHONDRITE. Studies of components, such as CAIs and
primary finally does expand to become a RED GIANT, gas CHONDRULES, within Allende have been instrumental in
flows across the inner Lagrangian point and goes into understanding the structure, chemistry and chronology
orbit about the white dwarf, forming an accretion disk. of the pre-solar nebula. The first INTERSTELLAR GRAINS
Such systems, called U GEMINORUM STARS or DWARF (nanometre-sized diamonds) to be identified in
NOVAE, exhibit rapid irregular flickering from the turbu- meteorites were isolated from Allende.
lent hot spot where the mass-transfer stream strikes the
accretion disk. However, most of these systems are not Allen Telescope Array (ATA) Large-area radio
eclipsing pairs. It is important to note that eclipsing vari- telescope formerly called the One-hectare Telescope
ables only appear to fluctuate in light because of the (1hT) that will consist of 350 steerable parabolic
angle from which they are observed. antennae 6.1 m (20 ft) in diameter. The ATA is a joint
undertaking of the SETI Institute and the University of
Algonquin Radio Observatory (ARO) One of California at Berkeley. When completed in 2005, it will
Canadas principal RADIO ASTRONOMY facilities, operated permit the continuous scanning of up to 1 million nearby
by the National Research Council and situated in stars for SETI purposes, and will serve as a prototype for
Ontarios Algonquin Provincial Park, well away from local the planned SQUARE KILOMETRE ARRAY.
radio interference. Instruments include a 32-element
ARRAY of 3-m (10-ft) dishes for solar observations and a ALMA Abbreviation of ATACAMA LARGE MILLIMETRE
46-m (150-ft) fully steerable radio dish for studies of stars ARRAY
and galaxies. The ARO began work in 1959, and the 46-m
dish was built in 1966. Almaak The star Andromedae, visual mag. 2.10,
distance 355 l.y. It is a multiple star, the two brightest
ALH 84001 Abbreviation of ALLAN HILLS 84001 components of which, mags. 2.3 and 4.8, are divisible
by small telescopes, forming a beautiful orange and blue
Alhena The star Geminorum, visual mag. 1.93, pairing, spectral types K3 II and B9 V. The fainter star
distance 105 l.y., spectral type A1 IV. The name comes has a close 6th-magnitude blue companion that orbits it
from an Arabic term that is thought to refer to the neck of every 61 years. Its name comes from the Arabic
a camel, from a former constellation in this area. referring to a caracal, a wild desert cat, and is also
spelled Almach and Alamak.
Alioth The star Ursae Majoris, visual mag. 1.76,
distance 81 l.y. It is one of the so-called peculiar A stars, Almagest Astronomical treatise composed in c.AD 140
of spectral type A0p with prominent lines of chromium. by PTOLEMY. It summarizes the astronomy of the
It is, by a few hundredths of a magnitude, the brightest Graeco-Roman world and contains a star catalogue and
star in the PLOUGH (Big Dipper). Its name may be a rules for calculating future positions of the Moon and
corruption of the Arabic for tail. planets according to the PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. The
catalogue draws from that of HIPPARCHUS, though to
Alkaid (Benetnasch) The star Ursae Majoris, visual what extent is a matter of controversy. In its various
mag. 1.85, distance 101 l.y., spectral type B3 V. The forms the Almagest was a standard astronomical textbook
name comes from an Arabic word meaning the leader. from late antiquity until the Renaissance. Its original
Its alternative name, Benetnasch, is derived from an name was Syntaxis ([Mathematical] Collection), but it
9
almanac, astronomical
became known as Megiste, meaning Greatest [Treatise]. Blanc, one of the Moons greatest mountains, is nearly
A Around AD 700800 it was translated into Arabic,
acquiring the prefix Al- (meaning the). It was
3500 m (11,500 ft) tall.
subsequently lost to the West but was treasured in the Alpes Vallis (Alpine Valley) Darkened gap 200 km
Islamic world; it was reintroduced to European scholars (120 mi) long that cuts through the lunar mountain
via Moorish Spain in the form of a translation of the range known as the Montes ALPES. The Alpine Valley is a
Arabic version into Latin completed in 1175 by Gerard GRABEN that developed as a result of Mare IMBRIUMS
of Cremona (c.111487). It remained of great tectonic adjustment. Varying in width from 7 to 18 km
importance until the end of the 16th century, when its (411 mi), it irregularly tapers away from Mare
ideas were supplanted by those of Nicholas COPERNICUS, Imbrium. Two delicate faults cut at right angles across
Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler. the valleys floor, which has otherwise been smoothed by
the lavas that have filled it. Running down the middle of
almanac, astronomical Yearbook containing the valley is a SINUOUS RILLE, which seems to originate in
information such as times of sunrise and sunset, dates for a vent crater, which may be a volcanic feature, probably
phases of the Moon, predicted positions for Solar System a collapsed lava tube.
objects and details of other celestial phenomena such as
eclipses. For astronomical and navigational purposes the Alpha Unofficial name for the INTERNATIONAL SPACE
leading publication is The ASTRONOMICAL ALMANAC. STATION
Alnair The star Gruis, visual mag. 1.73, distance Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum star (ACV) Type of
101 l.y., spectral type B7 V. Its name means bright one, main-sequence VARIABLE STAR that exhibits photometric,
from an Arabic expression meaning bright one from the magnetic and spectral fluctuations, primarily as a result of
fishs tail, given by an unknown Arab astronomer who stellar rotation. Periods range from 0.5 to 150 days;
visualized the tail of the southern fish, Piscis Austrinus, as amplitudes from 0.01 to 0.1 mag.; and spectra from B8p
extending into this area. to A7p. The subtype ACV0 exhibits additional low-
amplitude (c.0.1 mag.) non-radial pulsations, with
Alnath The star Tauri, visual mag. 1.65, distance periods of 0.003 to 0.1 days. See also SPECTRUM VARIABLE
131 l.y., spectral type B7 III. The name, which is also
spelled Elnath, comes from the Arabic meaning the Alpha Capricornids Minor METEOR SHOWER, active
butting one it marks the tip of one of the horns of from mid-July until mid-August and best seen from
Taurus, the bull. lower latitudes. Peak activity occurs around August 2,
from a RADIANT a few degrees north-east of
Alnilam The star Orionis, visual mag. 1.69, distance Capricorni. Rates are low, about six meteors/hr at most,
about 1300 l.y. A blue-white supergiant, spectral type but the shower produces a high proportion of bright,
B0 Ia, it is the central star of the three that make up the flaring meteors with long paths. The meteor stream may
belt of Orion and is marginally the brightest of them. Its be associated with the short-period (5.27 years) comet
name comes from an Arabic phrase meaning string of 45P/HondaMrkosPajdusakov; it has a low-inclination
pearls, referring to the belt. orbit close to the ecliptic. Spreading of stream
METEOROIDS by planetary perturbations means that the
Alnitak The star Orionis, visual mag. 1.74, distance radiant is rather diffuse.
820 l.y. It is a binary, with individual components of
mags. 1.9 and 4.0, spectral types O9.5 Ib and B0 III, and Alpha Centauri (Rigil Kentaurus, Toliman) Closest
an orbital period of around 1500 years. A telescope of naked-eye star to the Sun, 4.4 l.y. away, with a visual mag.
75-mm (3-in.) aperture or more should show both stars. of 0.28, making it the third-brightest star in the sky.
Alnitak is a member of the belt of Orion, and its name Small telescopes reveal that it is a triple system. The two
comes from the Arabic meaning belt. brightest components are of solar type, mags.0.01 and
1.35, spectral types G2 V and K1 V, forming a binary
Alpes (Montes Alps) Cross-faulted lunar mountains that with an orbital period of 79.9 years. The third member of
rise 13 km (36009800 ft) above the north-east margins the system is the red dwarf PROXIMA CENTAURI, which is
Alpha Regio This Magellan of Mare IMBRIUM. The Alps are 290 km (180 mi) long, the closest star of all to the Sun. Alpha Centauri is also
radar image shows multiple and are traversed by the ALPES VALLIS. The majority of known as Rigil Kentaurus (Rigil Kent for short), from the
volcanic domes in Alpha Regio the bright peaks have altitudes between 2000 and 2500 m Arabic meaning centaurs foot. An alternative name,
on Venus. (60008000 ft), but some are significantly higher: Mount Toliman, is derived from an Arabic term meaning
ostriches, the figure visualized by Arab astronomers in
the stars of this region.
10
altazimuth mounting
11
altitude
counter FIELD ROTATION. Some amateur instruments, (1873), PULKOVO OBSERVATORYs 30-inch (0.76-m)
A especially DOBSONIAN TELESCOPES, are now being
equipped with these three-axis drive systems, controlled
(1878), Leander McCormick (Charlottesville, Virginia)
Observatorys 28-inch (0.7-m) (1883), LICK OBSERVATO-
by personal computers. RYs 36-inch (0.9-m) (1888), LOWELL OBSERVATORYs
24-inch (0.6-m) (1896) and YERKES OBSERVATORYs
altitude Angular distance above an observers horizon of 40-inch (1-m) (1897). In addition to these large profes-
a celestial body. The altitude of a particular object sional instruments, the firm made numerous smaller
depends both on the location of the observer and the time refractors, 46 inch (100150 mm) in aperture, which are
the observation is made. It is measured vertically from 0 prized by todays collectors of antique telescopes.
at the horizon, along the great circle passing through the
object, to a maximum of 90 at the ZENITH. Any object Alvarez, Luis Walter (191188) American physicist
below the observers horizon is deemed to have a negative who first identified the layer of clay enriched by the
altitude. See also AZIMUTH; CELESTIAL COORDINATES element iridium that appears in the strata separating the
Cretaceous and Tertiary geological periods, known as the
al-Tus, Nas r al-D n (Latinized as Nasireddin or K/T boundary. Since meteorites contain much higher
Nasiruddin) (120174) Arab astronomer and amounts of iridium than do terrestrial rocks and soil,
mathematician from Khura sa n (in modern Iran) who Alvarez discovery supported the hypothesis that a giant
designed and built a well-equipped observatory at meteorite impact (see CHICXULUB) may have caused a
Mara gha (in modern Iraq) in 1262. The observatory mass extinction event on our planet 65 million years ago.
used several quadrants for measuring planet and star
positions, the largest of which was 3.6 m (12 ft) in al-Zarqali, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya (Latinized
diameter. Twelve years of observations with these as Arzachel, and other variants) (102887) Arab
instruments allowed him to compile a table of precise astronomer who worked in Toledo, Spain, and prepared
planetary and stellar positions, titled Z j-i ilkha n. Al- the famous Toledan Tables of planetary positions, which
Tu ss careful measurement of planetary positions corrected and updated the work of Ptolemy and
convinced him that the Ptolemaic Earth-centred model of Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwa rizm (c.780c.850). Al-
the Solar System was incorrect. His work may have Zarqa l also accurately determined the annual rate of
influenced COPERNICUS. apparent motion of the Earths aphelion relative to the
stars as 12, remarkably close to the correct value of 11.8.
aluminizing Process of coating the optics of a reflecting
telescope with a thin, highly reflecting layer of aluminium. Amalthea Largest of JUPITERS inner satellites. Amalthea
The optical component to be aluminized is first was the fifth Jovian moon to be found, in 1892 by E.E.
thoroughly cleaned and placed in a vacuum chamber, BARNARD, and the first since the four much larger
together with pure aluminium wire, which is attached to GALILEAN SATELLITES were discovered in 1610. The
tungsten heating elements. After removing the air from the discovery was made visually, the last such discovery for a
chamber, the heating elements are switched on, vaporizing planetary satellite. Amalthea is irregular in shape,
the aluminium, which then condenses on to the clean measuring about 270 165 150 km (168 103
surface of the optical component. This forms an evenly 93 mi). Amalthea orbits Jupiter at a distance of only
distributed coating, usually just a few micrometres thick. 181,400 km (112,700 mi), under SYNCHRONOUS
ROTATION with a period of 0.498 days such that it always
Alvan Clark & Sons American firm of opticians and keeps the same blunt end towards the planet. Its orbit is
telescope-makers whose 19th-century refracting near-circular, inclined to the Jovian equator by only 0.4.
TELESCOPES include the largest in the world. After a Amalthea is notable as being the reddest object in the
career as a portrait painter and engraver, Alvan Clark Solar System, possibly because of the accumulation of a
(180487) started an optical workshop in 1846 under the surface covering of sulphur derived from the EJECTA of
family name with his sons, George Bassett Clark IOs volcanoes. Amalthea has considerable surface relief,
(182791) and Alvan Graham Clark (183297), the with two large craters, called Pan and Gaea, and two
latter joining the firm in the 1850s. Alvan Graham Clark mountains, named Mons Ida and Mons Lyctos. Some
discovered over a dozen new double stars, including, in sloping regions appear very bright and green, the cause of
1862, the 8th-magnitude Sirius B. this phenomenon being unknown.
During the second half of the 19th century, Alvan
Clark & Sons crafted the fine objective lenses for the amateur astronomy, history of From at least as early
largest refracting telescopes in the world, including the as the 17th century until around 1890, astronomical
UNITED STATES NAVAL OBSERVATORYs 26-inch (0.66-m) research in Britain was invariably undertaken by those
who worked for love and considered themselves
amateurs (from Latin amat, he loves). The reasons
zenith
were political and economic, as successive governments
celestial
object operated low-taxation, low-state-spending policies that
encouraged private rather than public initiatives. Amateur
astronomy, while it existed on Continental Europe, was
less innovative, largely because the governments of
France, Germany and Russia taxed more heavily and
invested in professional science as an expression of state
W N O power. The United States had a mixed astronomical
observer
research tradition, with outstanding amateurs, such as the
spectroscopist Henry DRAPER, engaged in front-rank
altitude azimuth
research, and major professional observatories financed
by millionaire benefactors.
S E Although the British astronomical tradition was
predominantly amateur, its leading figures were Grand
plane of horizon Amateurs in so far as fundamental research was their
altitude The altitude of a dominant concern. In the Victorian age, wealthy
celestial object relative to an gentleman scientists were willing to spend huge sums of
observer is measured on a money to pursue new lines of research and commission
scale of 090 from the ground-breaking technologies, such as big reflecting
observers horizon to the zenith telescopes. The quality of Grand Amateur research
the point directly overhead. enjoyed peer recognition from European and American
12
Ambartsumian, Viktor Amazaspovich
later designs, such as the SCHMIDTCASSEGRAIN and Alvarez, Luis Walter Many
DOBSONIAN TELESCOPES, owed much to amateur
observers and remain extremely popular. The numbers
years after Alvarez first
proposed that an anomaly in A
of amateur observers grew rapidly, particularly in the the iridium levels at the
United States. It is no coincidence that the boundary between the
ASTRONOMICAL LEAGUE (1946) and the ASSOCIATION OF Cretacious and Tertiary
LUNAR AND PLANETARY OBSERVERS (1947) were formed geological periods might have
at this time. A watershed for professionalamateur been caused by a meteor
collaboration came in 1956 with the establishment of the impact, geologists looking for
Moonwatch programme, in anticipation of satellite oil found evidence of a massive
launches for the International Geophysical Year impact centred near Chicxulub
(195759). Energized by the Soviet Unions launch of on Mexicos Yucatn Peninsula.
Sputnik 1, and guided by astronomers at the Smithsonian Shown here is a radar image of
Astrophysical Observatory, Moonwatch galvanized the impact site.
amateurs around the world in a unique and grand
professionals, while its own esprit de corps was proam effort.
expressed through membership of the ROYAL The appearance of affordable charge-coupled devices
ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY and the Royal Society in (CCDs) in the final decade of the 20th century had an
London, academic honours and a clearly defined social even greater impact on amateurs than had the war-
network. This was, indeed, professional-quality research surplus items of two generations before. Digital data,
paid for by private individuals. Grand Amateurs exponentially increasing computing power, and ever
pioneered work on the gravitation of double star systems, more sophisticated commercial SOFTWARE together
cosmology, planetary studies, selenography, photography created a revolution. They allowed amateurs to become
and spectroscopy, and included between 1820 and 1900 competitive with ground-based professionals in the
such figures as John HERSCHEL, William DAWES, Lord quality of data obtained in such areas as astrometry,
ROSSE, Admiral William SMYTH, William LASSELL, photometry and the imaging of Solar System objects.
William HUGGINS, Norman LOCKYER and the master- New organizations with new ideas sprang up. The
builder and astrophotographer Isaac Roberts INTERNATIONAL AMATEURPROFESSIONAL PHOTOELECTRIC
(18291904). The results of their researches PHOTOMETRY group, founded in 1980, is the prototype
transformed our understanding of the Universe. organization representing this new era. It encourages joint
Yet Victorian Britain also saw a fascination with amateurprofessional authorship of technical papers.
astronomy spreading to the less well-off middle and even Similar, though focused on campaigns to study
working classes. School teachers, modest lawyers, cataclysmic variable stars, is the Center for Backyard
clergymen and even artisans took up astronomy; the self- Astrophysics. One of the latest groups to form is The
educated telescope-maker John Jones worked for a few Amateur Sky Survey, a bold venture to develop the
shillings per week as a labourer on Bangor docks, Wales. hardware and software needed to patrol automatically the
People with modest and often home-made instruments sky in search of objects that change in brightness or move.
(especially after the silvered glass mirror replaced Other groups, such as the INTERNATIONAL OCCULTATION
speculum in the 1860s) did not expect, like the Grand TIMING ASSOCIATION, have graduated from visual
Amateurs, to change the course of astronomy, but observations of lunar events to video recordings that
enjoyed practical observation as a serious and instructive determine the profiles of asteroids. The INTERNATIONAL
hobby. The Reverend Thomas WEBBs celebrated Celestial DARK-SKY ASSOCIATION campaigns on an issue of concern
Objects for Common Telescopes (1859) became the bible to professionals and amateurs alike.
for these serious amateurs. As the present era of mammoth all-sky surveys from
The big-city astronomical societies of Leeds (1859, Earth and space culminates, the need for follow-up
1892), Liverpool (1881), Cardiff (1894), Belfast observations particularly continuous monitoring of
(c.1895) and others became the foci for these observing selected objects will grow dramatically. In a traditional
amateurs, with their lectures, meetings and journals. In sense, because of their numbers and worldwide
1890 the BRITISH ASTRONOMICAL ASSOCIATION (BAA) distribution, sophisticated amateurs are ideally suited for
became the national organizing body for British such tasks, not as minions but as true partners with
amateurs, with branches in Manchester (1892, 1903) and professionals. And, in the era of the Internet, amateurs
elsewhere, many of which later became independent should be able to plumb online sky-survey DATABASES
societies. Unlike the Royal Astronomical Society, they all just as readily as professionals can. The challenge facing
admitted women as members. These societies, which the entire astronomical community today is to educate
dominated amateur astronomy well into the 20th century, both camps about rewarding possibilities through Amalthea The bright streak
remained predominantly middle-class, and it was not mutual cooperation. to the left on Amaltheas
until the major social and economic changes in Britain surface is about 50 km (30 mi)
following 1945 that the demographic base of British Ambartsumian, Viktor Amazaspovich (190896) long. It is not clear whether this
amateur astronomical societies began to widen Armenian astronomer who became an expert on stellar feature (called Ida) is the crest
significantly. The BAA established a system whereby evolution and founded Byurakan Astrophysical of a ridge or material ejected
amateurs would send their observations to a central Observatory. His development of the theory of radiative from the crater to its right.
clearing house where they would be synthesized by an
expert and the collective results published. The great
majority of amateurs who contribute observations on
behalf of science continue to operate within such systems
(see also THE ASTRONOMER).
Amateur astronomy changed dramatically after World
War II, and much of the emphasis moved across the
Atlantic. Before the war, in the 1920s, the ranks of active
amateur observers were swelled with the founding of the
amateur telescope-making (ATM) movement by Russell
PORTER and Albert G. Ingalls (18881958). Now that
inexpensive war-surplus optical equipment was widely
available, it was no longer essential for an amateur
astronomer to build a telescope from the ground up as a
rite of passage. By the mid-1950s, a wide variety of
commercial instruments had entered the marketplace;
13
AM Canum Venaticorum
at 5-day intervals throughout Amor asteroid Any member of the class of ASTEROIDS
the course of a year. The Sun is that approach, but do not cross, the orbit of the Earth;
at the top of the figure 8 at the
50
their perihelion distances range from the terrestrial
summer solstice and at the aphelion at 1.0167 AU to an arbitrary cut-off at 1.3 AU.
bottom at the winter solstice. Like the other MARS-CROSSING ASTEROIDS, Amor
asteroids have limited lifetimes because of the chance of a
40 collision with that planet. Over extended periods of time
elevation
many Amors will evolve to become APOLLO ASTEROIDS,
reducing their lifetimes further because of the greater
chance of an impact on the Earth, or one of the other
30
terrestrial planets. The disparity of compositional types
observed indicates that Amors derive from various
sources, including extinct cometary nuclei, the KIRKWOOD
20 GAPS (through jovian perturbations) and the inner MAIN
BELT (through perturbations imposed by Mars).
The first Amor-type asteroid to be discovered was
10 EROS, in 1898, but the archetype giving them their
10E S 10W collective name is (1221) Amor. That object was found in
1932, the same year as the first Apollo asteroid. Over 760
Amors had been discovered by late 2001. Notable
transfer allowed him to show that T Tauri stars are examples listed in the NEAR-EARTH ASTEROID table
extremely young. He greatly advanced the understanding include (719) ALBERT, (887) Alinda, (1036) GANYMED,
of the dynamically unstable stellar associations and (1580) Betulia, (1627) Ivar, (1915) Quetzalcoatl, (3552)
extended principles of stellar evolution to the galaxies, Don Quixote and (4954) Eric.
where he found much evidence of violent processes in
active galactic nuclei. amplitude In the study of VARIABLE STARS, the overall
range in magnitude of a variable, from maximum to
AM Canum Venaticorum Unique blue VARIABLE STAR minimum. This definition is in contrast to the normal
with fluctuating period of about two minutes. It has usage in physics, where the term is applied to half of the
primary and secondary minima, the latter sometimes peak-to-peak value assumed by any parameter.
disappearing. It is probably a SEMIDETACHED BINARY of
two white dwarfs, an ACCRETION DISK and a hot spot. Am star Metallic-line class A STAR with high
abundances of particular metals. These class 1
American Association of Variable Star Observers CHEMICALLY PECULIAR STARS (CP1) extend to class Fm.
(AAVSO) Organization of amateur and professional Am stars are enriched by factors of 10 or so in copper,
astronomers, based in the USA but with an international zinc, strontium, zirconium, barium and the rare earths,
membership. Founded in 1911, it originally collected but are depleted in calcium and scandium. As slow
mainly visual estimates of the changing brightnesses of rotators that lack outer convection layers, these stars are
mainly long-period variable stars, but its programme apparently braked by the gravitational effects of close
now encompasses all manner of variable objects, from companions. In the quiet atmospheres, some atoms fall
pulsating RR LYRAE STARS and ECLIPSING BINARIES to under the action of gravity, while others rise by means of
exotic GAMMA-RAY BURSTERS. The AAVSO continues to radiation pressure. Sirius is an Am star.
provide timely data to researchers, including those using
instruments on board spacecraft such as HIPPARCOS and amu Abbreviation of ATOMIC MASS UNIT
High-Energy Transient Explorer 2. By 2001 the
AAVSO International Database contained more than analemma Long, thin figure-of-eight shape obtained
9 million observations. by plotting (or photographing) the position of the Sun
on the sky at the same time of day at regular intervals
Ames Research Center NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND throughout the year. The elongated northsouth
SPACE (NASA) research institute
ADMINISTRATION variation is due to the INCLINATION of the Earths
located at Moffett Field, California, in the heart of equator to its orbit, and the much shorter eastwest
Silicon Valley. It is NASAs centre of excellence for variation is due to the ECCENTRICITY of the Earths
information technology and its lead centre in Aeronautics orbit. A considerable degree of patience and technical
for Aviation Operations Systems. Ames also develops skill is required to record the analemma
science and technology requirements for current and photographically.
future flight missions relevant to astrobiology. Moffett
Field has been a government airfield since 1933, but was
closed as a military base in 1994. It is now a shared
facility known as Moffett Federal Airfield.
14
Andromeda Galaxy
15
Andromedids
Reflector at the Palomar Observatory, California. Baade 2900 1400 l.y. About 30 novae can be detected in M31
A succeeded in resolving stars in the Andromeda Galaxys
central bulge; they appeared to be mainly old and red,
each year by large telescopes. M31 was the site, in 1885
August, of the first SUPERNOVA to be observed beyond the
substantially fainter than the bright blue stars of the outer Milky Way: it was designated S Andromedae and reached
regions, and apparently similar to those in globular clus- a peak apparent magnitude 6.
ters. Baade referred to the bulge stars as Population II, It might be expected that the proximity of M31 would
labelling the hot disk stars as Population I (see POPULA- mean that it could make a substantial contribution to theo-
TIONS, STELLAR). This distinction remains in current use ries for the development of spiral structure. Instead, it has
and is an essential feature of accepted theories of star for- contributed controversy, partly because the galaxy is so
mation, and stellar and galaxy evolution. close to edge-on that details of the spiral structure are hard
The discovery of the two stellar populations led in turn to delineate. Indeed, it is not even known how many spiral
to a crucial finding for cosmology. The Cepheid variables arms there are. Halton ARP has proposed two trailing spi-
turned out to be of two subsets, one belonging to each pop- ral arms, one of these disturbed by the gravitational pull of
ulation, obeying different period-luminosity rules. Since the M32. A. Kalnajs proposes instead a single leading spiral
Cepheids observed by Hubble were of Population I, the arm, set up via gravitational resonance with M32. The
derived distance of M31 had to be revised upwards by a dust clouds do not help in deciding between these two
factor of two as, were all other distances to galaxies, which models. Resolution of the debate will ultimately advance
had used the Andromeda Galaxy as a stepping stone. our understanding of the mechanism generating spiral
The neutral hydrogen (HI) distribution in M31 has structure (see DENSITY WAVE THEORY).
been extensively studied by radio astronomers, observing M31 is surrounded by a halo of globular clusters, which
the TWENTY-ONE CENTIMETRE EMISSION LINE. Neutral is some three times more extensive than the halo around
hydrogen is a constituent of the galaxys gas and is distrib- our Galaxy. The stars in these clusters show a generally
uted like other Population I components. The gas shows a higher metallicity than is found in our own Galaxys globu-
ZONE-OF-AVOIDANCE near the galactic centre, which is lars. The great spread in element abundances in the M31
where Population II stars dominate. The gas is distributed globular clusters suggests slower and more irregular evolu-
in a torus, the innermost parts of which seem to be falling tion than has occurred in the Milky Way.
towards the nucleus. Nearly every galaxy in the Universe shows a REDSHIFT,
Radial velocities of hot gas clouds across the galaxy indicative of recession from the Milky Way. The spectrum
have been mapped. Together with HI observations, these of M31, however, shows it to be approaching at a velocity
measurements allow a rotation curve to be constructed as of about 35 km/s (22 mi/s). In some 3 billion years, M31
a function of galactic radius. HI measurements, particu- and the Milky Way will collide and merge eventually to
larly, suggest that the outer regions of M31 contain sub- form a giant elliptical galaxy.
stantial amounts of unseen additional mass. Such halos of M31 is our sister galaxy, the nearest spiral galaxy that
DARK MATTER are crucial to current theories of galaxy for- is similar in most attributes to the Milky Way. Much of
mation and clustering, and cosmology. our home Galaxy is hidden from our perspective by mas-
Andromeda Galaxy The Observations with the HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE in sive dust clouds; we rely on the Andromeda Galaxy for
Andromeda Galaxy, M31, is the 1993 showed the nucleus of M31 to be double, with its an understanding of our own Galaxy, as well as of the rest
largest member of the Local components separated by about 5 l.y. This may be the of the Universe.
Group and is the farthest result of a comparatively recent merger between the
object that can be seen with Andromeda Galaxy and a dwarf companion. Several Andromedids (Bielids) METEOR SHOWER associated
the naked eye. Many of the small satellite galaxies surround M31, the most promi- with comet 3D/BIELA. The parent comet split into two
star-like points in this image are nent being M32 (NGC 221) and M110 (NGC 205). fragments in 1845 and has not been definitely seen since
in fact globular clusters within The disk of M31 shows a number of star clouds, the 1852; it is now considered defunct. Swarms of
its galactic halo. most obvious being NGC 206, which covers an area of METEOROIDS released from the comet have given rise to
spectacular meteor showers. Its name derives from its
RADIANT position, near Andromedae.
The showers first recorded appearance was in 1741,
when modest activity was observed. Further displays
were seen in 1798, 1830, 1838 and 1847, in each case
during the first week of December. The 1798 and 1838
displays produced rates of over 100 meteors/hr. When
seen in 1867 the Andromedids appeared on the last day
of November. The NODE, where the orbit of the mete-
oroid swarm and the orbit of the Earth intersect, is sub-
ject to change as a result of gravitational perturbations by
the planets. The Andromedid node is moved earlier
(regresses) by two or three weeks per century.
In 1867 the association between a meteor shower and
a comet was demonstrated by Giovanni SCHIAPARELLI in
the case of the PERSEIDS; other such connections were
sought. It was known that the orbit of Bielas comet
approached that of the Earth very closely, so that its
debris could conceivably give rise to a meteor shower,
and when the radiant was calculated it was found to agree
closely with that of the meteor showers previously seen to
emanate from Andromeda.
Bielas comet, if it still existed, would have been in the
vicinity of the Earth in 1867, and since the meteoroid
swarm would not be far displaced from its progenitor, a
display could be expected. A good, though not spectacu-
lar, Andromedid shower was seen on November 30, con-
firming the prediction. Since the orbital period was about
6.5 years, Edmund Weiss (18371917), Heinrich DAR-
REST and Johann GALLE, who had made the first calcula-
tions, predicted another display for 1872 November 28.
Soon after sunset on 1872 November 27, a day earlier
than expected, western European observers were treated
16
angular momentum
to an awesome spectacle; meteors rained from the sky at Anglo-Australian Observatory (AAO) Australias
the rate of 6000 per hour. The event caused less alarm
and terror among the general population than it might
principal government-sponsored organization for optical
astronomy, funded jointly by Australia and the UK. The A
have done, there having occurred only six years previously AAO operates the 3.9-m (153-in.) ANGLO-AUSTRALIAN
an equally dramatic LEONID display, which had caused no TELESCOPE (AAT) and the 1.2-m (48-in.) UNITED
harm. Although the Andromedids were about as numer- KINGDOM SCHMIDT TELESCOPE (UKST) at SIDING SPRING
ous as the 1866 Leonids, they were less brilliant due to OBSERVATORY near Coonabarabran in New South Wales. A
their lower atmospheric velocity, at 19 km/s (12 mi/s) laboratory in the Sydney suburb of Epping, 350 km
compared with the Leonids 70 km/s (43 mi/s). (200 mi) from the telescopes, houses the AAOs scientific,
The shower of 1872 led, incidentally, to a mysterious technical and administrative staff; while the operations staff
episode in astronomical history. E.F. Wilhelm Klinkerfues are based at Coonabarabran. Of increasing importance
(182784), at Gttingen Observatory, reasoning that it within the AAO is its External Projects Division, which
should presumably be ahead of the meteoroid swarm, contracts to build large-scale instrumentation for, among
suggested that the comet should be visible in the opposite others, the GEMINI TELESCOPES, the SUBARU TELESCOPE
part of the sky direction to the Andromedid radiant. He and the VERY LARGE TELESCOPE.
accordingly cabled to Norman POGSON, an astronomer at
Madras (the comet would not be visible from high north- Anglo-Australian Telescope (AAT) Optical telescope
ern latitudes): Biela touched Earth 27 November search funded jointly by the British and Australian
near Theta Centauri. On December 2, Pogsons search governments, located at SIDING SPRING OBSERVATORY in
found a comet near the indicated position. New South Wales. It is operated by the ANGLO-
The object was observed again the following night, but AUSTRALIAN OBSERVATORY. Inaugurated in 1974, the 3.9-
then clouds intervened and when a clearance finally came, m (153-in.) AAT remains the largest optical telescope in
there was no sign of it. The observations were inadequate Australia, although both partner countries now have
for the calculation of an orbit and the prediction of future access to larger southern-hemisphere instruments. Its
positions, so the comet, if such it was, was lost. If Bielas IRIS2 infrared imager and 2dF (two-degree field)
comet still existed and was pursuing its original orbit, it system, which allows the spectra of 400 target objects to
would have passed the position indicated by Klinkerfues be obtained simultaneously, provide unique facilities for
some months previously. We must conclude that if Pog- wide-field observations.
son, who was an experienced observer, did see a comet, it
was not 3D/Biela, and was either a fragment of that object angrite Subgroup of the ACHONDRITE meteorites.
or another comet that just happened to be there at the Angrites are medium- to coarse-grained basaltic igneous
time. Both alternatives are hard to believe, and the ques- rocks. Although the angrites have similar oxygen isotopic
tion remains open. compositions to the HOWARDITEEUCRITEDIOGENITE
The next encounter was badly timed, and no shower ASSOCIATION (HEDs) meteorites, they are unrelated.
was seen. In 1885, two revolutions after the 1872 event,
European observers were delighted and thrilled by an ngstrm, Anders Jonas (181474) Swedish
even greater meteor storm on November 27, during physicist who helped prepare the ground for the
which Andromedid rates were estimated (counting was application of spectroscopy in astronomy. He used
virtually impossible) at 75,000 per hour. This rate com- diffraction gratings to make high-precision measurements
pares with that of 140,000 per hour estimated for the of the Suns spectral lines, and in 1868 he published an
1966 Leonid peak. The most intense activity in the 1885 atlas of the solar spectrum. It contained measurements of
Andromedids was over in about six hours (such meteor over a thousand lines, expressed in units of 107 mm, a
storms are invariably short-lived), though lower rates were quantity later named the ANGSTROM UNIT in his honour.
detected for a few days to either side. This suggests that
the core filament in the Andromedid meteor stream in angstrom unit (symbol ) Unit of length, formerly
1885 had a width of about 160,000 km (100,000 mi). used to express the wavelength of light, particularly in
The fall of an iron METEORITE at Mazapil, Mexico, spectroscopy; it is equal to 1010 m. It is named after
during the 1885 Andromedid display can be dismissed as Anders Jonas NGSTRM, who first used it in his atlas of
coincidence. Meteoroids shed by comets are generally the solar spectrum in 1868. The angstrom has now been
small, have a dusty composition, and never survive ABLA- replaced by the SI measurement the NANOMETRE (nm).
TION in Earths atmosphere.
Since 1885 the Andromedids have been quite undistin- angular measure Measure of the apparent diameter of
guished, and the shower is now to all intents and purposes a celestial object, or the distance between two objects,
defunct. Planetary perturbations have shifted the orbit of expressed as an angle, usually in degrees, arcminutes or
the meteoroid swarm so that it does not at present meet arcseconds. The angle subtended by an object is
that of the Earth. A fairly strong display occurred on 1892 determined by its true diameter and its distance from
November 23, while on 1899 November 24 about 200 the observer; if the distance to an object is known, its
Andromedids per hour were seen. W.F. DENNING record- true diameter may be calculated by measuring its
ed 20 Andromedids per hour in 1904, and visual observa- apparent diameter.
tions in 1940 yielded rates of about 30 per hour on
November 15. A few individual shower members were angular momentum Property of rotating or orbiting
caught by the Harvard Super-Schmidt meteor cameras in bodies that is the rotational equivalent of the momentum
the USA in 1952 and 1953. A computer model of the of an object moving in a straight line. It is the product of
Andromedid stream by David Hughes (1941 ), of the the angular velocity and the moment of inertia (I). The
University of Sheffield, UK, suggests that further plane- moment of inertia is the rotational equivalent of mass,
tary gravitational perturbations will bring the shower back and for a small particle it is given by the mass of that
to encounter the Earth around 2120. particle multiplied by the square of its distance from the
rotational axis. For large objects the overall moment of
Angara New fleet of Russian satellite launch vehicles to be inertia must be found by adding together the individual
operational in about 2003 to replace the PROTON launch moments of inertia of its constituent particles. A planet
vehicle. The Angara will be based on a first stage, which orbiting the Sun may be regarded as a small particle and
forms the basic vehicle for flights to low Earth orbit. This so has a moment of inertia of I = MpRo2, where Mp is the
stage can be clustered together with two types of upper mass of the planet and Ro the distance of the planet from
stage, forming a more powerful first stage, for flights to the Sun. A spherical, uniform, rotating planet will have
geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). The largest Angara, I = 0.4 MpRp2 where Rp is the radius of the planet.
with five core first stages and a high-energy KVRD upper Angular momentum is always conserved (that is, its total
stage, will be able to place 6.8 tonnes into GTO. value for the system remains constant) during any changes.
17
Ann Arbor Observatory
The rotational kinetic energy is given by I2/2, where is PERIGEE to perigee. An anomalistic month is shorter than
A the angular velocity (compare this with the kinetic energy
of an object moving in a straight line: Mv2/2).
the more commonly used SYNODIC MONTH, being
equivalent to 27.55455 days of MEAN SOLAR TIME. See
For a planet in an elliptical orbit, Ro is smaller at PERI- also DRACONIC MONTH; MONTH; SIDEREAL MONTH;
HELION than at APHELION; conservation of angular TROPICAL MONTH
momentum therefore means that the orbital angular
velocity, o, must decrease from perihelion to aphelion in anomalistic year Period of a single orbit of the Earth
order that the product, Roo, remains constant. Keplers around the Sun, measured from PERIHELION to perihelion.
second law of planetary motion is thus the result of con- Equivalent to 365.25964 days of MEAN SOLAR TIME, an
servation of angular momentum. Similarly conservation anomalistic year is about 4m 43s.5 longer than a SIDEREAL
of angular momentum results in ACCRETION DISKS form- YEAR because of the gradual eastward movement of the
ing in CLOSE BINARY stars where mass is being exchanged, point of perihelion. See also TROPICAL YEAR
and so is linked to many types of VARIABLE STAR including
NOVAE and Type I SUPERNOVAE. anomaly Angular measurement used for describing the
position of a body in an elliptical orbit, measured around
Ann Arbor Observatory (University of Michigan the orbit in the direction of motion from the pericentre. It
Detroit Observatory) Historic institution in Ann Arbor, can be defined as a true, eccentric or mean anomaly. In
58 km (36 mi) west of Detroit. It was founded (c.1854) the diagram the point X represents the position of the
as part of the universitys bid for pre-eminence in body, and the angle PSX is the true anomaly. The mean
scientific teaching and research. It is equipped with a 12 - anomaly is measured similarly, but to the position of an
inch (320-mm) refractor dating from 1857. Today, the imaginary body that orbits at constant angular speed with
observatory is used largely for public outreach, having the same period as the real body. It cannot be indicated by
been restored in 1999 as a centre for 19th-century a simple geometrical construction. The eccentric anomaly
science, technology and culture. is the angle PCX, where X is the position of the body
projected on to a circumscribing circle. The eccentric and
annual parallax (heliocentric parallax) Difference in the mean anomalies are intermediate angles used in the
apparent position of a star that would be measured by calculation of the position of the object in its orbit at any
hypothetical observations made from the centre of the time. The difference between the true and mean anomaly
Earth and the centre of the Sun. is the equation of the centre. See also ELLIPSE
Due to the Earths movement in its orbit around the
Sun, nearby stars appear to shift their position relative to anorthosite Type of basaltic rock found in the lunar
more distant, background stars, over the course of a year, highland crust. Highland basalts are richer in aluminium
describing a path known as the parallactic ellipse. When and calcium, and poorer in iron, magnesium and titanium,
observed six months apart from opposite sides of the than basalts found in the lunar maria (low-lying plains).
Earths orbit, the position of a nearby star will appear to
have shifted by an angle . Half of this angle, , gives the ansae Term applied by early telescopic observers to
annual PARALLAX, which is equal to the angle subtended at define the opposite extremities of Saturns ring system,
the observed star by the semimajor axis of the Earths which, when viewed foreshortened from Earth, resemble
orbit. The reciprocal of annual parallax in arcseconds handles to the planet.
gives the distance to the star in PARSECS. See also DIURNAL
PARALLAX; TRIGONOMETRIC PARALLAX antapex Point on the CELESTIAL SPHERE from which the
Sun and the entire Solar System appears to be moving
annular eclipse Special instance of a SOLAR ECLIPSE, away, at a velocity of around 1920 km/s (c.12 mi/s),
occurring when the Moon is close to APOGEE, such that relative to nearby stars. The antapex lies in the direction
the Sun has a significantly greater apparent diameter than of the constellation Columba at around RA 6h dec. 30.
the Moon. As a result, the Moons central passage across It is diametrically opposite on the celestial sphere to the
the solar disk leaves a ring or annulus of bright sunlight APEX, the direction towards which the Sun and Solar
visible at mid-eclipse. Such events, while interesting in System appear to be moving.
their own right, are not generally considered as dramatic
as a total solar eclipse, since they do not allow the solar Antarctic astronomy Collective term for the
corona and prominences to become visible, or cause a astronomical activities conducted in the special conditions
noticeable darkening even at their maximum extent. of the Earths south polar continent. The
annular eclipse The bright Under favourable circumstances, the annular phase, with AmundsenScott South Pole Station sits atop a 2800-m
photosphere of the Sun can be the dark body of the Moon silhouetted against the Suns (9200-ft) cap of ice the coldest, driest place on Earth.
seen surrounding the Moon brilliant photosphere, can last up to 12m 30s. This venue is ideal for astronomers who want to work at
during an annular eclipse. This infrared, submillimetre and millimetre wavelengths.
eclipse was photographed on anomalistic month Time taken for the Moon to These portions of the electromagnetic spectrum are
1994 May 10 from Mexico. complete a single orbit around the Earth, measured from compromised by water vapour, which is pervasive at most
other locations on Earth and makes observations at these
long wavelengths difficult or impossible. But at the pole,
the vapour is frozen out, leading to a dark, transparent
sky ideal for investigating star-formation processes in
molecular clouds and the evolution of protostars and
other young objects. Similarly, distant, primeval galaxies
can be effectively studied because their visible light has
been redshifted to long wavelengths. The pole is also a
premier site for assaying variations in the so-called
COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND (CMB), subtle
differences that reflect the large-scale distribution of
matter and energy in the very early Universe.
In addition, of course, a polar site features a totally dark
sky 24 hours a day during midwinter, which allows con-
tinual monitoring of targets. And during midsummer the
Sun can also be watched continuously, which was crucial
in the 1980s, during the early days of HELIOSEISMOLOGY,
when we got the first glimpse of the interior of our star.
Antarctic astronomy was born around 1980, spurred
18
anthropic principle
Antares The star Scorpii, marking the heart of anomaly The position of a
Scorpius, the scorpion, distance 604 l.y. An irregular
variable, it fluctuates between visual mags. 0.9 and 1.2
body (X) in an elliptical orbit can
be described in terms of its A
X and is the brightest member of the ScorpiusCentaurus angular distance in the
Association, the nearest OB ASSOCIATION. Antares is a red direction of motion from the
supergiant of spectral type M1 Ib, about 400 times the pericentre. The true anomaly is
X Suns diameter and more than 10,000 times as luminous. described by the angle PSX in
It has a much smaller and hotter companion, mag. 5.4 the diagram here. The
and spectral type B2.5 V, which orbits it in about 900 eccentric anomaly, PCX, is
years; this companion can be seen through telescopes given by projecting the bodys
P with apertures of 75 mm (3 in.) or more. The name position on to a circumscribing
C S Antares reflects its pronounced red colour: it comes from circle, and can be used as a
a Greek expression that can be translated either as like matter of convenience in orbital
Mars or rival of Mars. calculations.
19
antimatter
possible interpretation of the SAP is that our Universe is young man, Antoniadi made many fine drawings of
A just one of an ensemble of many different universes, and
that by chance its properties are optimized for the exis-
sunspots and the planets Mars, Jupiter and Saturn using
3- and 4 -inch (75- and 110-mm) telescopes. This work
tence of life. This idea is consistent with the many- attracted the attention of the French astronomer and
worlds or sum-over-histories approach of quantum writer Camille FLAMMARION, who had built a fine private
cosmology (see QUANTUM GRAVITY), which requires the observatory at Juvisy, France. From 1894 to 1902
existence of many possible real other universes. Antoniadi used Juvisys 9 -inch (240-mm) Bardou
refracting telescope to make detailed studies of the
antimatter Matter consisting of particles with opposite planets, especially Mars. From 1896 to 1917 he directed
quantum numbers to normal particles. The marriage of the British Astronomical Associations Mars Section,
the QUANTUM THEORY with SPECIAL RELATIVITY led Paul publishing ten Memoirs that collected and discussed the
Dirac (190284) in 1929 to propose the existence of observations of the sections members; many of the
electrons with positive charge and spin opposite that of observations were by Antoniadi himself, made with the
normal electrons. This anti-electron, commonly known as Juvisy telescope and the great 33-inch (0.83-m) refractor
a positron, was the first hint that antimatter existed. The at Meudon, France.
tracks characteristic of positrons were subsequently found At a time when the canals supposedly seen on Mars by
in COSMIC RAY cloud chamber experiments by Carl Giovanni SCHIAPARELLI and Percival LOWELL were gener-
Anderson (190591) in 1929, proving the existence of ally accepted as real features by many astronomers, Anto-
these particles and of antimatter in general. niadi interpreted these linear markings as optical illusions
Consequently, quantum theorists now associate every produced by the tendency of human vision to transform
known particle with a complementary antiparticle and disconnected features into continuous lines. His observa-
most have been seen in high-energy physics experiments. tions of Mars during the 1909 opposition convinced him
If the particle and its antimatter partner interact, they that the canals were natural features similar to Earths val-
mutually annihilate and the rest mass is converted into leys; two years later he correctly described the clouds
electromagnetic energy via Einsteins formula E = mc2. obscuring the planets surface as due to windblown sand
Antimatter has played important roles in cosmology and and dust from the Martian deserts. In 1924 he made one
extragalactic astronomy. The question of why the of the first sightings of the Tharsis volcanoes. Antoniadi
Universe consists primarily of ordinary matter and very summarized both his own and historical observations of
little antimatter has defied explanation. If entire galaxies Mars in the classic book La Plante Mars (1930). Four
of antimatter existed, the effects of these galaxies should years later he wrote another classic work, La Plante Mer-
be seen. These effects have not been observed. cure, which remained a standard for decades. Antoniadi
It was proposed that quasars might actually be galax- was also an expert on ancient languages, a skill he used to
ies of ordinary matter and antimatter galaxies colliding, research and write LAstronomie Egyptienne (1940).
but this model quickly gave way to the more common
idea of massive black holes in the centres of protogalax- Antoniadi scale Standard scale of SEEING conditions
ies. Antimatter is definitely present in astrophysical devised in the early 1900s by Eugne ANTONIADI to
objects, but not in significant amounts. For instance, pair describe the conditions under which lunar and planetary
production is the creation of an electronpositron pair observations are made. The five gradations on this scale
from a gamma ray scattering off a baryon. This is are: (I) perfect seeing, without a quiver; (II) slight
thought to be a prominent process in both pulsars and undulations, with periods of calm lasting several
quasars. The opposite process, pair annihilation, forms a seconds; (III) moderate seeing, with larger tremors; (IV)
gamma-ray photon, which has energy of 0.511 MeV poor seeing, with constant troublesome undulations;
(million electron volts); this spectral line is seen in the and (V) very bad seeing, scarcely allowing a rough
spectra of ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI (AGN). sketch to be made.
Antiope MAIN-BELT ASTEROID, number 90, which in Apache Point Observatory (APO) Major
2000 was found to be binary in form. The two optical/infrared observatory owned and operated by the
components of Antiope are each c.80 km (c.50 mi) in Astrophysical Research Consortium (ARC) of several
size, and they orbit their mutual centre of gravity with a prominent US universities. Located at an elevation of
separation of c.160 km (c.100 mi). 2790 m (9150 ft) in the Sacramento Mountains of New
Mexico approximately 225 km (140 mi) south-east of
antitail COMET tail that appears to point towards the Albuquerque, this world-class observatory site is managed
Sun. Solar radiation pressure drives the dust tails of by the New Mexico State University on the ARCs behalf.
comets away from the Sun. Under certain circumstances, Its principal instrument is a 3.5-m (138-in.) reflector, a
however, active comets may be observed to have a general-purpose telescope with a lightweight spun-cast
sunward-pointing spike or fan. Such antitails result from mirror. The APO is also home to the 2.5-m (98-in.)
ejection of dust from the comet nucleus in thin sheets, telescope of the SLOAN DIGITAL SKY SURVEY.
which, when viewed in the plane of the comets orbit, can
appear to point towards the Sun as a result of perspective. ap-, apo- Prefixes referring to the farthest point of an
Perhaps the best-known example is the antitail sported by orbit from the primary body, as in APASTRON, APHELION,
Comet ARENDROLAND in 1957; antitails were also shown APOGEE, apocentre, apoapse. See also APSIDES
by comets KOHOUTEK and HALEBOPP.
apastron Point in an orbit around a star that is farthest
Antlia See feature article from that star. The term is usually used to describe the
positions of the two components in a binary star system,
Antoniadi, Eugne Michael (18701944) French moving around their common centre of mass in an
astronomer, born in Turkey of Greek parents, who elliptical orbit, when they are farthest away from one
became an expert observer of planetary features. As a another. See also APSIDES
20
apogee
Aphrodite Terra Largest and most extensive of the aphelion Halleys Comet
continent-like highland regions on VENUS. About the size
of Africa, Aphrodite Terra exhibits considerable variation
has a highly eccentric orbit: its
aphelion its greatest distance A
in physiography. It extends for 10,000 km (6200 mi) from the Sun is 35.295 AU
from 45 to 210E in a roughly eastwest direction along (roughly halfway between the
aphelion and south of Venus equator. The western and central mean orbits of Uranus and
mountainous regions, known respectively as Ovda Regio Pluto), while its perihelion its
and Thetis Regio, rise to between 3 and 4 km closest approach to the Sun
(1.92.5 mi) above the mean planetary radius. East of the is just 0.587 AU, well within
central massif is a complex regional fracture system with Venus orbit.
east-north-east-trending ridges and linear troughs, the
most prominent of which are Dali and Diana Chasmata,
et
om
2077 km (1291 mi) and 938 km (583 mi) in length
C
y
s
lle respectively. Each trough or rift valley is at least 1 km
Ha
(0.6 mi) deep. Diana Chasma may be tectonic in origin.
To the south is the semicircular Artemis Chasma, thought
Sun to be a massive corona-type structure (a concentric
arrangement of ridges and grooves). In the east the broad
upland dome of Atla Regio, with its fissured surface and
volcanic centres, is somewhat higher than the western and
perihelion central mountainous districts, but is itself overshadowed
by the imposing volcanic peaks Ozza Mons (6 km/4 mi
high and 500 km/310 mi across) and Maat Mons
that cut through the range are probably shock fractures (9 km/6 mi high and 395 km/245 mi across). The
from the impact that created Mare Imbrium. absence of craters suggests the whole region is of
comparatively recent origin.
aperture Clear diameter of the primary lens or mirror of
a TELESCOPE. The aperture is the single most important apochromat Composite LENS designed to be free of
factor in determining both the RESOLVING POWER and CHROMATIC ABERRATION. Modern materials and design
light-gathering ability of the instrument. techniques make it possible to produce lenses that
introduce no discernible false colour into the image.
aperture synthesis ARRAY of RADIO TELESCOPES that Apochromatic refractors used in astronomy usually have
work together to observe the same astronomical object an OBJECTIVE made of three separate pieces of glass,
and to produce an image with higher resolution than the each of different materials with different characteristics.
telescopes individually could achieve. Resolution Some or all of the materials may be highly specialized
approaching that of Earth-bound optical telescopes and expensive, but the overall effect is to produce some
say, one arcsecond would require a single radio dish of the best optical systems that are currently available to
several kilometres in diameter. To construct such a radio amateur astronomers.
telescope, and make it steerable to observe anywhere in Telescopes incorporating apochromatic objectives are Aphrodite Terra The
the sky, has been impossible in the past, so aperture sometimes referred to as fluorites or ED telescopes, the surface of this upland region of
synthesis has been a most valuable tool for mapping in names being derived from the materials used. Venus is extremely varied,
detail small-scale structure. The individual radio Apochromats may also be incorporated into eyepieces containing deep troughs and
telescopes play the role of different parts of the surface and BARLOW LENSES. The smaller sized lenses make these high ridges as well as
of a hypothetical super-telescope, which is synthesized more common and affordable than apochromatic objec- volcanoes. The area to the left
by correctly combining their outputs. The technique is tives. They are particularly useful with reflecting tele- of the ridge shown in this
further enhanced by using Earths rotation to fill in scopes that are inherently free of chromatic aberration. Magellan radar image was first
missing parts of the super-telescope via the movement See also ACHROMAT interpreted as a landslide but is
of the telescopes relative to the astronomical target. This now thought to be simply an
technique of using Earths rotation was developed by apogee Point in the orbit of the Moon or an artificial effect of the image-processing
Martin RYLE. Usually some parts of the super-telescope satellite that is farthest from the Earth. See also APSIDES methods used.
surface are missing, that is, it is not fully filled, causing
defects in the map such as bands or rings of spurious
emission. The problem can be overcome to some extent
either by complementing the map with an observation
made by a single large radio telescope, or by computing
techniques such as maximum-entropy methods which
clean up the defects. The Cambridge One-mile
telescope and the VERY LARGE ARRAY are examples of
aperture synthesis telescopes.
21
Apollo asteroid
22
apsides
reasonably representative selection of different surface 1968 Oct. Eisele Earth orbit;
spacecraft studies. In the case of Apollo 11, a near- Apollo 8 Borman orbited Moon, 10 only CSM used;
equatorial site provided the simplest landing and redocking 1968 Dec. Lovell no landing first manned
conditions, with a relatively smooth and level descent path 2127 Anders circumnavigation of Moon
and landing point. A location in Mare Tranquillitatis was Apollo 9 McDivitt Earth orbit only both LM and CSM put into
chosen, not too far from the impact point of Ranger 8 and 1969 Mar. Scott Earth orbit; undocking and
the landing point of Surveyor 5. Neil ARMSTRONG and 313 Schweickart docking; 151 revolutions
Buzz ALDRIN became the first men to step on the Moon. Apollo 10 Stafford orbited Moon, 31 first full test of complete
Apollo 12 was again targeted for an equatorial site on 1969 May Young no landing spacecraft (except LM landing
Oceanus Procellarum, very close to the earlier landing site 1826 Cernan and lift-off); LM 4 solo orbits
of Surveyor 3. This enabled the astronauts to inspect and Apollo 11 Armstrong south-west part of 30 0.9 2.5 21 first lunar landing, in the
return spacecraft samples that had been exposed to the 1969 July Aldrin Mare Tranquillitatis actual spot now officially
lunar environment for two and a half years. 16 (20)24 Collins 0.8N 23.46E named Statio Tranquillitatis
The ill-fated Apollo 13 was targeted for Fra Mauro, a Apollo 12 Conrad south-east part of 45 1.3 7.7 34 landed close to Surveyor 3,
near-equatorial site in the lunar highlands that was 1969 Nov. Bean Oceanus Procellarum parts of which were removed
thought to be covered by ejecta from the impact event 14 (19)24 Gordon 3.04S 23.42W and returned to Earth
that produced the Imbrium Basin. Unfortunately, an Apollo 13 Lovell no landing made 0.5 0 0 0 mission aborted owing
oxygen tank in the SM exploded halfway to the Moon, 1970 Apr. Swigert to oxygen tank explosion in
hardships, the astronauts returned safely. Apollo 14 was Apollo 14 Shepard north of Fra Mauro 34 1.4 9.4 43 first landing in lunar
targeted for the same landing location and was completely 1971 Jan. 31 Mitchell (highlands area) highlands; first use of
successful. The exploration by astronauts Alan SHEPARD Feb. (5)9 Roosa 3.65S 17.48W push-cart to carry equipment
and Stuart Roosa (1933 ) was aided by a wheeled trolley Apollo 15 Scott Hadley Rille and 74 2.8 18.5 77 first use of lunar rover, and of
known as the Modular Equipment Transporter. 1971 July 26 Irwin Apennine Mountains semi-automatic metric and
The three remaining missions touched down well away (30)Aug. 7 Worden 26.08N 3.66E panoramic cameras in SM
from the equator and had the benefit of a battery- Apollo 16 Young north of Descartes, 64 3.0 20.3 94 generally similar to
powered roving vehicle that widened the field of 1972 Apr. Duke Cayley Plains previous mission
exploration. The Apollo 15 landing site combined a mare 16 (21)27 Mattingly 8.97S 15.51E
region (Palus Putredinis), a nearby sinuous valley Apollo 17 Cernan Taurus-Littrow, 75 3.1 22.1 110 first mission with
(Hadley Rille) and very high mountains (the Apennines). 1972 Dec. Schmitt east Mare Serenitatis fully trained
Apollo 16 landed in a highlands area, on the so-called 7 (11)19 Evans 20.17N 30.77E geologist (Schmitt)
Cayley Formation the loose material that fills in craters *EVA = extra-vehicular activity (on lunar surface)
and covers the lower slopes here but very close to the
Descartes Formation, which was thought to represent apparent solar time Local time, based on the position
possible highlands volcanism. of the Sun in the sky, and as shown by a sundial.
The choice of the Taurus-Littrow site for the final Apparent noon occurs when the Sun crosses the local
mission resulted largely from the Apollo 15 observations MERIDIAN at its maximum altitude. The length of a solar
of small, dark-haloed craters, identified as possible day measured this way is not uniform. It varies
volcanic vents, in the area. Additionally, the valley floor throughout the year by as much as 16 minutes because of
was one of the darkest mare surfaces on the Moon. the elliptical orbit of the Earth and the fact that the Sun
Geologist-astronaut Harrison Schmitt (1935 ) was the appears to move across the sky along the ecliptic, rather
only scientist to set foot on the Moon. than the celestial equator. Clock time is therefore based
The quantity of data resulting from the Apollo on the uniform movement of a fictitious mean Sun. The
programme was overwhelming. The 380 kg of rock and difference between apparent and MEAN SOLAR TIME is
soil samples have attracted particular attention, having called the EQUATION OF TIME.
been subjected to every kind of test and analysis
imaginable. However, many of the stored samples have apparition Period of time during which it is possible to
yet to be examined. observe a celestial body that is only visible periodically.
Another major archive is the collection of many The term is usually used to describe a particular
thousands of photographs taken during the transit and appearance of a comet, such as the 198586 apparition of
orbital phases of the missions. In particular, the metric Comet HALLEY.
and panoramic cameras used on the last three missions
produced high-resolution, wide-angle, stereoscopic appulse Close approach in apparent position in the sky
coverage of about 20% of the lunar surface. Of the 16 or between two celestial bodies. Unlike an OCCULTATION,
so other experiments conducted from orbit, ten were when one body passes directly in front of another, such
concerned with remote sensing, allowing a comparison as a planet occulting a star, an appulse occurs when
with data from the landing sites. their directions of motion on the celestial sphere
About 25 different types of experiment were carried converge, the two just appearing to touch. The
out or deployed on the surface. These included impression is caused by a line-of-sight effect, the two
seismometers, magnetometers and heat-flow bodies actually lying at greatly differing distances from
experiments to investigate the subsurface structure and the observer. See also CONJUNCTION
properties. Laser reflectors helped to refine the
MoonEarth distance. apsides The two points in an elliptical orbit that are
nearest to and farthest away from the primary body.
apparent magnitude Apparent brightness of a star (a The line joining these two points is the line of apsides.
measure of the light received at Earth) measured by the For an object orbiting the Sun the nearest apse is termed
stellar magnitude system. Because stars are at different the PERIHELION and the farthest apse is the APHELION.
distances from us and the interstellar medium has a For the Moon or an artificial satellite orbiting the Earth
variable absorption, apparent magnitude is not a reliable the apsides are the PERIGEE and APOGEE. The
key to a stars real (intrinsic) LUMINOSITY. components of a binary star system are at PERIASTRON
23
Ap star
mag. 3.8; Aps is a wide double, with red and orange components, mags. 4.7 Arab astronomy See ISLAMIC ASTRONOMY
and 5.3.
Arago, (Dominique) Franois (Jean) (17861853)
French scientist and statesman, director of Paris
Observatory from 1830, who pioneered the application of
AQUARIUS (GEN. AQUARII , ABBR . AQR )
the photometer and polarimeter to astrophysics. He
discovered that two beams of light polarized at right
enth-largest constellation and one of the signs of the zodiac. It represents a angles do not interfere with each other, allowing him to
T water-bearer (possibly Ganymede in Greek mythology) and lies between Pega-
sus and Piscis Austrinus. Aquarius is a rather inconspicuous constellation; its bright-
develop the transverse theory of light waves. Arago
supervised the construction in 1845 of Paris
est stars, Aqr (Sadalmelik) and Aqr (Sadalsuud), are both mag. 2.9. Aqr is a Observatorys 380-mm (15-in.) refractor, at the time one
visual binary with pale yellow components, mags. 4.4 and 4.6, separation 1.9, peri- of the worlds largest telescopes.
od 856 years. The constellations deep-sky objects include M2 (NGC 7089), a
mag. 7 globular cluster; and two planetary nebulae: the HELIX NEBULA (NGC 7293) Aratus of Soli (315245 BC) Ancient Greek poet (born
and the SATURN NEBULA (NGC 7009), respectively mag. 7 and 8. The ETA AQUARID, in what is now modern Turkey) whose Phaenomena
DELTA AQUARID and IOTA AQUARID meteor showers radiate from this constellation. elaborated upon the descriptions of the classical
constellations given a century before by EUDOXUS. Aratus
BRIGHTEST STARS
patron, King Antigonus of Macedonia, was so inspired by
Name RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance the Phaenomena that he had the constellation figures
h m mag. mag. type (l.y.)
described in the epic poem painted on the concave
Sadalmelik 22 06 00 19 2.95 3.9 G2 759 ceilings of the royal palace, thus creating what was
Sasalsuud 21 32 05 34 2.90 3.5 G0 612 probably the earliest celestial atlas.
Skat 22 55 15 49 3.27 0.2 A3 160
Arcetri Astrophysical Observatory Observatory of
the University of Florence, situated at Arcetri, south of
when they are closest together and at APASTRON when the city. The present observatory was built by Giovanni
farthest apart. For objects orbiting, say, the Moon or DONATI in 1872, replacing a much older one in the city
Jupiter, one sometimes sees terms such as periselenium centre. A solar tower was added in 1924. Arcetri is now a
or perijove. Such terms are rather cumbersome, major centre of Italian astrophysics, and its scientists use
however, and it has become more usual to use the both national (GALILEO NATIONAL TELESCOPE) and
general terms pericentre and apocentre (or less international (mainly EUROPEAN SOUTHERN
commonly periapse and apoapse) for all cases where the OBSERVATORY) facilities. It has a major role in the
primary is not the Sun, the Earth or a star, or when development of the LARGE BINOCULAR TELESCOPE.
discussing elliptic motion in general.
archaeoastronomy Study of ancient, essentially
Ap star Class A STAR with peculiar chemical prehistoric, astronomical theories and practices through
composition. Ap stars extend to types Fp and Bp. In evidence provided by archaeology, the interpretation of
these class 2 CHEMICALLY PECULIAR STARS (CP2), ancient artefacts, the written records (if available) and
elements such as silicon, chromium, strontium and the ethnological sources such as tribal legends (sometimes
rare earths are enhanced (europium by a factor of 1000 called ethnoastronomy).
or more). The odd compositions derive from diffusion, in Many ancient peoples for example the Stone Age
which some atoms sink in the quiet atmospheres of slowly populations of the European countries and the Eastern
rotating stars, whereas others rise. The strong, tilted Mediterranean are known to have been fully aware of
magnetic fields of Ap stars concentrate element celestial phenomena, as manifested in the alignments of
enhancements near the magnetic poles. As the stars their megalithic monuments such as Stonehenge, New-
rotate, both the fields and spectra vary. grange and the dolmens of north-west France. Measure-
ments of the Egyptian pyramids show that they are
Apus See feature article orientated within a small fraction of a degree in the
northsouth and eastwest directions, and this must have
required considerable practical observational skill (see
AQUILA (GEN. AQUILAE , ABBR . AQL )
EGYPTIAN ASTRONOMY).
Ancient astronomical observations were not limited to
quatorial constellation, representing an eagle (possibly that belonging to Zeus the Old World: for example, Meso-American peoples
E in Greek mythology), between Sagitta and Sagittarius. ALTAIR, its brightest
star, marks one corner of the SUMMER TRIANGLE and is flanked by two slightly
such as the Maya (see NATIVE AMERICAN ASTRONOMY) and
the Aztec have left codices and other evidence which
fainter stars, (Tarazed) and Aql, forming an unmistakable configuration. Aql reveal knowledge of celestial events and the determination
is one of the brightest Cepheid variables (range 3.54.4, period 7.18 days). Van of celestial cycles.
Biesbroecks Star, a mag. 18 red dwarf, is one of the intrinsically faintest stars In some ancient civilizations, observation of the HELI-
known, absolute mag. 19.3. NGC 6709 is an open cluster of about 40 stars fainter ACAL RISING of Sirius provided a reference point that
than mag. 9. enabled their luni-solar calendar to be corrected to
match the true solar year. This was essential to the civili-
BRIGHTEST STARS
sation if the calendar was to be used to decide the prop-
Name RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance er time for planting crops.
h m mag. mag. type (l.y.)
What may be called applied historical astronomy
Altair 19 51
08 52 0.76 2.2 A7 17 makes use of ancient records to derive data of value to
Tarazed 19 46
10 37 2.72 3.0 K3 460 modern astronomical research. For example, ancient
19 05
13 52 2.99 1.0 A0 83 observations of eclipses from Babylon, China, Europe and
20 11 00 49 3.24 1.5 B9.5 287 the Islamic world can be used to determine the variation in
19 25
03 07 3.36 2.4 F0 50 the Earths rotational period over the past 2700 years. In
19 06 04 53 3.43 0.5 B9 125 addition, ancient records of the extremely rare outbursts
of supernovae, often recorded as guest or new stars, are
24
Argelander, Friedrich Wilhelm August
25
Argelander step method
26
Armagh Observatory
27
armillary sphere
28
Arzachel
29
ASCA
rugged, 1500-m-high (4900-ft-high) central peak ASP Abbreviation of ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF THE
northsouth across the east side of Arzachels floor. aspect Position of the Moon or a planet, relative to the
Sun, as viewed from Earth. The angle on the celestial
ASCA Abbreviation of Advanced Satellite for Cosmology sphere between the Sun and another Solar System body
and Astrophysics. See ASUKA is known as the ELONGATION of that body. When the
elongation is 0, that body is said to be at CONJUNCTION.
ascending node () Point at which an orbit crosses When it is 180, and the two are opposite one another in
from south to north of the reference plane used for the the sky, it is at OPPOSITION. When the elongation is 90,
orbit. For the planets the reference plane is the ECLIPTIC. the body is at QUADRATURE.
For satellites it is usually the equator of the planet. See also
INCLINATION; ORBITAL ELEMENTS association, stellar Group of stars that have formed
together but that are more loosely linked than in a star
Asclepius APOLLO ASTEROID, number 4581. On its cluster. Stellar associations lie in the spiral arms of the
discovery as 1989 FC it caused a media furore because of Galaxy and help to define the shape of the arms, being
its close approach to the Earth, to within 685,000 km highly luminous. OB ASSOCIATIONS are groups of massive
(426,000 mi), which is less than twice the lunar distance. O and B stars. R associations illuminate REFLECTION
Its discovery stimulated political action in the United NEBULAE and are similar stars but of slightly lower mass
States aimed at taking steps to determine whether any (3 to 10 solar masses). T ASSOCIATIONS are groups of T
possible asteroid impact on the Earth might be foreseen TAURI STARS.
and perhaps obviated. See table at NEAR-EARTH ASTEROID
Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers
Ascraeus Mons Shield volcano situated in the THARSIS (ALPO) Organization of amateur observers that collects
region of MARS (11.9N 104.5W). It is 18 km (11 mi) reports of observations of all Solar System objects (Sun,
high, with complex caldera. Moon, planets, comets, meteors and meteorites),
founded in 1947. These observations, especially of Mars,
Aselli Latin name meaning the asses applied to the stars Jupiter and Saturn, are summarized annually in the
and Cancri, which lie north and south, respectively, of organizations Journal, which provides synopses of
the star cluster PRAESEPE, the manger. Cancri (known notable happenings on these dynamic bodies.
as Asellus Borealis, the northern ass) is of visual mag.
4.66, 158 l.y. away, and spectral type A1 V. Cancri Association of Universities for Research in
(Asellus Australis, the southern ass) is visual mag. 3.94, Astronomy (AURA) Consortium of US universities and
136 l.y. away and spectral type K0 III. other educational and non-profit organizations; it was
founded in 1957. It operates world-class astronomical
ashen light (Fr. lumire cendre, ash-coloured light) observatories. Current members include 29 US
Expression sometimes given to EARTHSHINE on the institutions and six international affiliates. The facilities
Moon, but more precisely given to the faint coppery glow operated by AURA include the GEMINI OBSERVATORY, the
infrequently seen on the dark side of VENUS, where the NATIONAL OPTICAL ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY and the
planet is visible as a thin crescent near INFERIOR SPACE TELESCOPE SCIENCE INSTITUTE. In addition, AURA
CONJUNCTION. Sometimes the entire night hemisphere is has a New Initiatives Office formally established in
affected, at other times the glow is patchy and localized, January 2001 to work towards the goal of a 30-m (98-ft)
but it has no preferred position. In appearance the GIANT SEGMENTED-MIRROR TELESCOPE.
phenomenon is analogous to earthshine, although it is
produced in a very different way. The ashen light was A star Member of a class of white stars, the spectra of
apparently seen by Giovanni Battista RICCIOLI in 1643, which are characterized by strong hydrogen ABSORPTION
but it was first accurately described in 1715 by the LINES. Ionized metals are also present. MAIN-SEQUENCE
English cleric William Derham, Canon of Windsor. It is dwarf A stars (five times more common than B stars)
possibly the oldest unsolved mystery in the observational range from 7200 K at A9 to 9500 K at A0. Their zero-age
history of the Solar System. masses range from 1.6 to 2.2 times that of the Sun, and
The ashen light phenomenon is rare, fugitive and sus- their zero-age luminosities from 6 to 20 times that of the
pect. It is only seen, and then with extreme difficulty, if Sun. Their lifetimes range from 2.5 billion to 900 million
Venus is observed on a dark sky and has its bright part years. Evolved A DWARF STARS can have masses up to three
hidden by an occulting device located inside the eyepiece times that of the Sun. Class A GIANT STARS and
of the telescope. Even this precaution is insufficient to dis- SUPERGIANTS are distinguished by the narrowing of the
pel thoughts of illusion, and in the absence of photograph- hydrogen lines with increasing luminosity.
ic confirmation there is a natural tendency towards Though A dwarfs can rotate rapidly, averaging from
scepticism. Still, too many experienced observers have 100 km/s (60 mi/s) at A9 to 180 km/s (110 mi/s) at A0,
claimed sightings of ashen light to completely discount the their envelopes are not in a state of convection, and they
phenomenon. lack solar-type chromospheres. A dwarfs exhibit a variety
Volcanic activity, phosphorescence of the surface, self- of spectral anomalies, especially among the slower rota-
luminosity, accidental combustion and other illuminating tors. Metallic-line AM STARS are depleted in calcium and
processes, including lightning, have all been proposed by scandium, while enriched in copper, zinc and the rare
way of explanation. The only conceivable physical mecha- earths. The AP STARS (A-peculiar) have strong magnetic
nism that would be dependent on the phase or position of fields that range to 30,000 gauss. They exhibit enhance-
Venus as viewed from Earth would in fact be earthlight, ments of silicon, chromium, strontium and the rare earths
but calculation clearly demonstrates that theoretical earth- (europium is enriched by over 1000 times), which are
light falls well below the threshold of visibility. Possibly the concentrated into magnetic starspots. These odd compo-
cause is to be found in an electrical phenomenon in sitions result principally from diffusion, in which some
Venus upper atmosphere. Another possibility emerged in chemical elements gravitationally settle, while others are
1983 when David A. Allen (194694) and John W. Craw- lofted upwards by radiation. Rare LAMBDA BOTIS stars
ford imaged the planet in infrared and found cloud pat- have weak metal lines.
terns on its night side. These clouds, with a retrograde DELTA SCUTI STARS (Population IA dwarfs and sub-
rotation period of 5.4 0.1 days, are thought to be at a giants) pulsate in under a day with multiple periods and
lower level than the ultraviolet features and may be suffi- amplitudes of a few hundredths of a magnitude (the large-
ciently lit by radiation scattered from the day side to amplitude variety are known as dwarf Cepheids). Popula-
become visible occasionally in integrated light. tion II RR LYRAE STARS (A and F horizontal branch) have
30
asteroid
similar pulsation periods, but amplitudes of a few tenths impossible to detect asteroids smaller than a few hundred
of a magnitude.
Bright A stars include Sirius Alm V, Vega A0 V, Altair
metres in size, even if they are in the vicinity of the Earth.
In the late 1980s the introduction by the SPACEWATCH A
A7 V and Deneb A2 Ia. project of charge-coupled devices for asteroid searching
made it feasible to detect objects only a handful of metres
asterism Distinctive pattern formed by a group of stars in size during passages through cis-lunar space. A
belonging to one or more constellations. Perhaps the most convenient size at which to draw a line is 10m (30ft): larger
famous asterism is the PLOUGH (Big Dipper), a shape solid objects may be regarded as being asteroids, while
formed by seven stars in Ursa Major. Other famous smaller ones may be classed as METEOROIDS.
asterisms within individual constellations include the The total mass of all the asteroids in the inner Solar
SICKLE OF LEO and the TEAPOT in Sagittarius. The System (interior to Jupiters orbit) is about 4 1021 kg,
SQUARE OF PEGASUS is an example of an asterism that is which is about 5% of the mass of the Moon. A large
composed of stars from two constellations (in this case, fraction of that total is held in the three largest asteroids,
Andromeda and Pegasus); another is the SUMMER Ceres, PALLAS and Vesta. A decreasing fraction of the
TRIANGLE. The term is also used for smaller groupings of overall mass is represented by the smaller asteroids:
stars visible in binoculars or telescopes, some of which although there may be over a million main-belt asteroids
have been given descriptive names such as the each about 1 km (0.6 mi) in diameter, their total mass is
COATHANGER (in Vulpecula) and Kembles Cascade (in less than that of a single asteroid of diameter 200 km
CAMELOPARDALIS). (120 mi). As a rule of thumb the number of asteroids
increases by about a factor of one hundred for each
asteroid (minor planet) Rocky, metallic body, smaller in tenfold decrease in size. Because the mass depends upon
size than the major planets, found throughout the Solar the cube of the linear dimension, the smaller asteroids
System. The majority of the known asteroids orbit the thus represent a decreasing proportion of the total mass
Sun in a band between Mars and Jupiter known as the of the population.
MAIN BELT, but asteroids are also found elsewhere. There When an asteroid is found its position is reported to
is a population known as NEAR-EARTH ASTEROIDS, which the International Astronomical Unions Minor Planet
approach the orbit of our planet, making impacts Center, and it is allotted a preliminary designation. This
possible. Other distinct asteroid classes include the is of the form nnnn pq, where nnnn is the year and pq
TROJAN ASTEROIDS, which have the same orbital period as represents two upper-case letters. The first letter (p)
Jupiter but avoid close approaches to that planet. Farther denotes the half-month in which the discovery was made,
out in the Solar System are two further categories of body January 115 being labelled A, January 1631 as B, and
that are at present classed as asteroids, although in so on. The letter I is not used, so that December 1631 is
physical nature they may have more in common with labelled Y in this convention, and the letter Z is also not
comets in that they seem to have largely icy compositions. used. The second letter (q) provides an identifier for the
These are the CENTAURS and the TRANS-NEPTUNIAN particular asteroid; in this case Z is used but not I, making
OBJECTS, members of the EDGEWORTHKUIPER BELT. 25 letters/asteroids in all. Thus the third asteroid reported
Although it is likely that there might be larger bodies in in the second half of March 1989 was labelled as 1989
the EdgeworthKuiper belt awaiting discovery (see FC. Until the last couple of decades this designation asteroid Plots of the larger
VARUNA), the largest asteroid in the inner Solar System is system was adequate because no more than 25 asteroids known asteroids: most of them
(1) CERES, which is c.933 km (c.580 mi) in diameter. It were being discovered in any half-month, but now lie in the main belt between the
was discovered in 1801. Through a telescope, asteroids thousands are reported and so an additional identifier is orbits of Mars and Jupiter,
generally appear as pin-pricks of light, which led to the required. This takes the form of a subscripted numeral. while the Trojans move in the
coining of the term asteroid, meaning star-like, by Thus 1999 LD31 was the 779th asteroid reported in the same orbit as Jupiter, 60 in
William HERSCHEL. Broadly spherical shapes are attained first half of June 1999. Many asteroids are reported front of or behind it.
by asteroids if their self-gravity is sufficient to overcome
the tensile strength of the materials of which they are
composed, setting a lower limit for sphericity of about
200 km (120 mi); there are about 25 main-belt asteroids Trojans
larger than this. All other asteroids are expected to be
irregular in shape (see CASTALIA, DEIMOS, EROS, GASPRA,
GEOGRAPHOS, GOLEVKA, IDA, KLEOPATRA, MATHILDE,
PHOBOS, TOUTATIS, VESTA). Use of the HUBBLE SPACE
TELESCOPE, sophisticated techniques employing ground-
based telescopes and the application of radar imaging
have recently led to the ability to resolve the shapes of Jupiter
some asteroids. OCCULTATIONS also allow asteroid sizes
and shapes to be determined observationally: on rare
occasions when asteroids pass in front of brighter stars,
observers on the ground may see a fading or
disappearance of the star, the duration of which (usually a
Earth
few seconds) defines a cord across the asteroid profile.
main belt
For many asteroids, sizes have been calculated on the Mars
basis of a comparison of their brightness both in scattered Sun
visible light from the Sun and also in the thermal infrared
radiation emitted, which balances the solar flux they
absorb. Such measurements allow the ALBEDO to be
derived. In most cases, however, sizes are estimated
simply on the basis of the observed absolute magnitude
and an assumed value for the albedo.
The lower limit on size at which a solid body might be Trojans
considered to be an asteroid is a matter of contention.
Before the application of photography, starting in the
1890s, asteroids were discovered visually. Long
photographic exposures on wide-field instruments, such as
astrographic cameras and Schmidt telescopes, led to many
thousands of asteroids being detected thereafter. However,
the limited sensitivity of photographic emulsions makes it
31
asteroid belt
several times at different epochs, and so receive multiple C-types at greater distances suggest that the volatile-
A designations of this form.
After an asteroid has been observed for a sufficient
rich asteroids formed farther from the Sun, as a result of
the presumed temperature gradient in the SOLAR NEBULA.
length of time, such that our determination of its orbit is Similarly, the homogeneous composition of the HIRAYAMA
secure (this generally requires three oppositions), it is FAMILIES suggests that most asteroids remain in orbits
allocated a number in the master list, which begins with similar to those where they formed in that nebula.
(1) Ceres and continues with (2) Pallas, (3) Juno, (4) Another important clue to the nature of asteroids
Vesta and so on. This list exceeded 25,000 during the comes from their spin rates. The rotation period of an
ARIES (the Ram)
year 2001. Upon numbering, the discoverers of each asteroid may be measured from observations of its
asteroid have the right to suggest a name for it to the repeating trends in brightness variation, generally
naming committee of the International Astronomical displaying two maxima and two minima in each
Union, and in most cases that suggestion is adopted. revolution. This pattern indicates that the changes in
Certain conventions apply to distinct categories of brightness are dominated by the effect of the asteroids
asteroid, such as the Trojans and the Centaurs. In the non-spherical shape, rather than any albedo distribution
past, before strict rules were adopted for numbering and across its surface. Typical amplitudes are only up to 0.2
naming, a few exceptions to these procedures occurred, mag., or 20% in the brightness, although some near-
such as with ALBERT and HERMES. Earth asteroids, such as Geographos, vary by a much
Although some asteroids may be cometary nuclei that greater amount, as a result of their elongated shapes.
have become dormant or extinct, most of these bodies Typically, asteroids have rotation periods in the order of
are thought to have originated in the region of the ten hours, although a few are much longer (some
present main belt. They seem to be the remnant debris weeks), possibly due to the damping effect of a
from a large complex of PLANETESIMALS that failed to companion satellite (as with Ida, EUGENIA and PULCOVA).
form a major planet due to the gravitational stirring At the other end of the scale, short rotation periods are
effect of Jupiter. Soon after their formation, some of the of interest because self-gravitation cannot hold together
larger proto-asteroids underwent sufficient internal an asteroid having a rotation period of less than about
heating, through radioactive decay, to melt to some two hours. Until recently all asteroids for which light
degree, acquiring metallic cores and layered mantles. curves were available displayed periods in excess of this
This chemical DIFFERENTIATION is represented in the amount, meaning that they could be rubble piles held
variety of known METEORITE classes these being in together by gravity. (Another piece of evidence pointing
effect asteroid fragments. to such a structure is the presence of voids within
A consequence of this differentiation is that asteroids asteroids, as indicated by the low average densities
present a variety of spectroscopic classes, representing determined for some of them, for example Ceres and
different surface (and, assumedly, bulk) compositions. Mathilde.) The first asteroid to be measured to have a
The most abundant group is called C-type (for shorter period (about 97 minutes) was 1995 HM, which
carbonaceous) asteroids, these being especially prevalent thus appears to be a monolith. Since then several other
as one moves outwards through the main belt. C-type asteroids have been shown to have even higher spin rates,
asteroids reflect more light at the red end of the spectrum, with periods as short as ten minutes. These must
but their low albedos (below 0.05) make them very dark, similarly be single rocks rather than rubble piles, being
so they may be thought of as being black-brown. They held together by their tensile strength.
are thought to contain the same materials as The meteoroids that produce meteorites, and indeed
CARBONACEOUS CHONDRITE meteorites. The inner part of some complete asteroids, leave the main belt through a
the main belt is dominated by S-type (stony or variety of mechanisms. Inter-asteroid collisions may
silicaceous) asteroids. These have moderate albedos grossly change their orbits (evidence of past collisions
(0.150.25) and are thought to be analogous to the derives from the Hirayama families), and such collisions
metal-bearing stony meteorites known as ordinary also change the spin rates discussed above. A more
CHONDRITES. The third most populous class are the M- significant avenue through which asteroids can escape the
type (metallic) asteroids. These also have moderate main belt is the rapid dynamical evolution that occurs if
albedos and are thought to be derived, like nickel-iron an object acquires an orbital period that is a simple
meteorites, from the metal-rich cores of large fraction of that of Jupiter. This leads to depleted regions
differentiated parent bodies that have become exposed by of orbital space known as the KIRKWOOD GAPS. Asteroids
collisional break-up. Members of a less common class, leaving those regions tend to acquire high-eccentricity
the E-types (enstatite), have elevated albedos of 0.40 or orbits, which can lead to them either being ejected from
more, as has the V-class Vesta. There are many other the Solar System by Jupiter, or else joining the population
subdivisions of each of these classes, and other rare of MARS-CROSSING ASTEROIDS or near-Earth asteroids.
categories that have been recognized as being distinct Viewed in three dimensions, the main belt is a
from the common groupings. The distributions of the somewhat wedge-shaped torus, increasing in thickness
various asteroid types in the main belt the from its inner to its outer edge. The median inclination
preponderance of S-types at the inner edge but with more increases from about 5 to about 9, whereas the median
orbital eccentricity is around 0.15 throughout the main
belt. Most asteroids, therefore, follow heliocentric orbits
that are only a little more inclined than those of the
planets, and with modestly greater eccentricities. It follows
that the majority of main-belt asteroids move among the
stars, as seen from the Earth, in a similar way to the
planets: they stay close to the ecliptic, and retrograde
through opposition. There are, however, exceptions
among various dynamical classes such as the near-Earth
asteroids, the Trojans, and various specific main-belt
classes that are grouped together in terms of common
dynamical behaviour rather than composition or origin.
asteroid Because they asteroid belt General term for the region between the
have low albedos, asteroids are orbits of Mars and Jupiter in which the orbits of most
very difficult to spot and it is asteroids lie. See MAIN-BELT ASTEROID
often only their proper motion
relative to the background stars asteroseismology Study of the internal structure of
that gives away their presence. stars using observations of the frequencies and strengths
32
Astro E
33
astrograph
astrograph Telescope specially designed for taking and find the time. Its function of representing the night sky
A wide-angle photographs of the sky to measure star
positions. Traditionally, astrographs are refracting
for a certain latitude at various times is reproduced in the
modern PLANISPHERE. The astrolabe can be used as an
telescopes characterized by their OBJECTIVES, which have analogue computer for many problems in spherical
relatively fast FOCAL RATIOS (sometimes as fast as f/4) and trigonometry, and it was used even for terrestrial surveying
fields of view up to 6 wide large by astronomical work such as determining the altitude of a tower.
standards. The objectives may have three or four The mariners astrolabe is a simplified instrument
component lenses to achieve this performance, and the designed for observing the altitudes of the Sun and stars
biggest astrographs have lenses 50 cm (20 in.) or so in while at sea, as an aid to navigation. It was developed by
diameter. Astrographs are always placed on EQUATORIAL the Portuguese and was used mainly in the 17th century,
MOUNTINGS, which are motor-driven to allow the being supplanted by the SEXTANT.
telescope to follow the apparent motion of the sky. The precision (or prismatic) astrolabe is a 19th-
The first recognizable astrograph was built in 1886 at century instrument for determining local time and latitude
the Paris Observatory. It had an aperture of 330 mm by accurately measuring when a star reaches a certain alti-
(13 in.) and its objective was designed to give the best tude. It was further developed as the impersonal astro-
images in blue light, early photographic emulsions being labe (so called because it eliminates the observers
insensitive to other colours. The success of this telescope personal error) by Andr DANJON in 1938.
led, in 1887, to a major international conference of
astronomers agreeing to embark on a photographic sur- astrology In its modern form, a pseudoscience that
vey of the whole sky the CARTE DU CIEL. The Paris astro- claims to be able to assess personality traits and predict
graph was adopted as a standard model for this ambitious future events from the positions of celestial objects,
project, and several similar telescopes were built with focal particularly the visible planets. Today, more newspaper
lengths of 3.4 m (134 in.) and objectives corrected for space is devoted to horoscopes than to astronomy, and if
colour and COMA, including one at Greenwich in 1890. anything the influence of astrology is probably
Astrographic photographs were always taken on glass increasing. Yet there is no scientific justification for the
plates rather than film, which lacks the stability of glass. claims made by astrologers.
The instruments were principally used for ASTROMETRY, Astrology has a long history and was of great impor-
the accurate measurement of star positions, but have now tance to primitive and superstitious peoples. The positions
been superseded by the SCHMIDT CAMERA. of the planets and the constellations at the time of a per-
sons birth were believed to have a great influence on their
Astrographic Catalogue See CARTE DU CIEL subsequent life and career.
Unusual celestial events such as eclipses of the Sun and
astrolabe Early disk-shaped astronomical instrument, Moon, and the appearance of comets and guest stars,
for measuring positions on the celestial sphere, were significant in times when most people believed that
equippped with sights for observing celestial objects. The the heavens could influence their fates, and there emerged
classical form, known as the planispheric astrolabe, a class of astrologers who made their living from the gulli-
originated in ancient Greece, attained its greatest bility of their clients. Kings often employed astrologers
refinement in the hands of medieval Arab astronomers whose job was to keep up the morale of their subjects by
(see ISLAMIC ASTRONOMY) and reached the Christian assuring them that the dates of particular events such as
West in about the 10th century AD. The basic form royal births were auspicious ones. The efforts of
consists of two flat disks, one of which (the mater) is fixed astrologers and priests to predict such apparently omi-
and represents the observer on the Earth. The other (the nous events as eclipses helped to establish astronomy as a
rete) is movable and represents the celestial sphere. The legitimate subject of study.
altitudes and azimuths of celestial bodies can be read. A
pointer or alidade can be used for measuring altitudes astrometric binary BINARY STAR system in which one
when the instrument is suspended by a string. component is too faint to be observed directly. Its binary
Given the latitude, the date and the time, the observer nature is detected by perturbations in the visible
can read off the altitude and azimuth of the Sun, the bright components PROPER MOTION, caused by the orbital
stars and the planets, and measure the altitude of a body motion of the unseen companion. Some astrometric
binaries, just beyond the limit resolution, appear as a
single elongated image, with the orientation of the long
axis changing as a result of orbital rotation.
34
Astronomical Almanac, The
Point of Aries are established, the positions of stars can be value is 11.3 l.y.) for the nearby binary star SIXTY-ONE
measured relative to these by further observations.
Measuring stellar positions in this way provides
CYGNI. From his work on the fundamental catalogue he
also found that the proper motion of SIRIUS was not A
fundamental observations of the celestial bodies since constant and he correctly attributed this wobble to the
they are measured with respect to an inertial reference presence of an unseen companion pulling Sirius from its
frame rather than to other fixed stars. The initial, raw path. The companion was discovered in 1862, making
observations from the transit circle first need to be Sirius the first example of an ASTROMETRIC BINARY.
corrected for the Earths movement through space, that Further fundamental catalogues followed with those of
is, referred to the centre of the Sun (heliocentric Simon NEWCOMB (1872, 1898) and Arthur AUWERS
coordinates), and also corrected for the individual (1879) being especially important. The latter was the first
motions of the stars themselves. The components of these in the Fundamental Katalog series compiled in Germany,
motions across the line of sight are called proper motions the latest of which is the FK5 Part II. This catalogue
and were first discovered in 1718 by Edmond HALLEY. provides mean positions and proper motions at equinox
The observations are first referred to the centre of the and epoch J2000.0 for 3117 new FUNDAMENTAL STARS.
Earth by allowing for the effect of REFRACTION, diurnal The European Space Agency also has plans for a next-
parallax and diurnal ABERRATION. By making further generation astrometric satellite, called GAIA. Instead of
corrections for PRECESSION, NUTATION and polar drift, the orbiting the Earth, GAIA will be operated at the L1
coordinates are then referred to the fundamental plane of SunEarth Lagrangian point, located 1.5 million km (0.9
the equator. Heliocentric coordinates are obtained by million mi) from Earth in the direction away from the
correcting for the orbital motion of the Earth by allowing Sun. Here it will have a stable thermal environment and
for the effects of ANNUAL PARALLAX and aberration. It is will be free from eclipses and occultations by the Earth.
then possible to go one step further and make a The purpose of the satellite will be repeatedly to measure
correction for the motion of the Sun itself, which appears positions of more than a billion stars to an accuracy of a
reflected in the proper motions of nearby stars. The few microarcseconds, the goal being to achieve 10-
ultimate accuracy of our measurement of stellar positions microarcsecond precision for stars as faint as 15th
therefore depends on our knowledge of the astronomical magnitude, with potentially four or five microarcseconds
constants of precession, aberration, nutation and the achievable for stars brighter than 10th magnitude. This
stellar proper motions. will be more than a hundred times more accurate than the
In the past, much of our knowledge of positions, observations from Hipparcos.
parallaxes and proper motions was achieved through
photographic astrometry, undertaken over many years astronautics Science of space flight. See also APOLLO
using long-focus telescopes to obtain photographic plates PROGRAMME; ROCKET ASTRONOMY
of individual areas of the sky. The stellar images on these
plates were then measured very accurately on dedicated Astronomer Royal Honorific title conferred on a
measuring machines to determine their relative positions. leading British astronomer. Until 1971 the Astronomer
Nowadays our knowledge comes from instruments Royal was also the director of the ROYAL GREENWICH
such as the Carlsberg Meridian Telescope (CMT) at the OBSERVATORY. Those who have held the position are listed
Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on the Canary in the accompanying table.
Island of La Palma and the astrometric satellite The post of Astronomer Royal for Scotland was cre-
HIPPARCOS. The Carlsberg Meridian Telescope is ated in 1834 initially to provide a director for the Royal
dedicated to carrying out high-precision optical Observatory, Edinburgh; the present holder, appointed in
astrometry and is currently being used to map the 1995, is John Campbell Brown (1947 ). The last
northern sky using a CCD detector. This will provide Astronomer at the Cape, working originally at the Royal
accurate positions of stars, allowing a reliable link to be Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope (now in South
made between the bright stars measured by the Hipparcos Africa), was Richard Hugh Stoy (191094); the post was
satellite and fainter stars seen on photographic plates. So abolished in 1968. The post of Royal Astronomer for
far, the CMT has made measurements of some 180,000 Ireland was created to provide a director for the DUNSINK
positions, proper motions and magnitudes for stars down OBSERVATORY. It lapsed in 1921; the last incumbent was
to magnitude 15, and over 25,000 positions and Henry Crozier Plummer (18751946).
magnitudes of 180 Solar System objects, ranging from the
outer planets including Pluto to some of the many Astronomical Almanac, The Publication containing
asteroids that orbit the Sun between Earth and Mars. fundamental astronomical reference data for each calendar
Hipparcos was the first space experiment designed year. It includes positions of the Sun, Moon and planets,
specifically for astrometry. The satellite, which operated data for physical observations, positions of planetary
between 1989 and 1993, extended the range of accurate satellites, sunrise and sunset times, phases of the Moon,
parallax distances by roughly l0 times, at the same time eclipses, locations of observatories and astronomical
increasing the number of stars with good parallaxes by a constants. It is published jointly by the US Naval
much greater factor. Of the 118,218 stars in the Observatory and Her Majestys Nautical Almanac Office.
Hipparcos catalogue, the distances of 22,396 are now
known to better than 10% accuracy. Prior to Hipparcos,
this number was less than 1000. The companion Tycho ASTRONOMERS ROYAL
database, from another instrument on the satellite, Name Held office
provides lower accuracy for 1,058,332 stars. This includes John FLAMSTEED (16461719) 16751719
nearly all stars to magnitude 10.0 and many to 11.0. Edmond HALLEY (16561742) 172042
Information on star positions, parallaxes and proper James BRADLEY (16931762) 174262
motion is published in FUNDAMENTAL CATALOGUES and Nathaniel BLISS (17001764) 176264
between 1750 and 1762 James BRADLEY compiled a Nevil MASKELYNE (17321811) 17651811
catalogue that was to form the basis of the first John POND (17671836) 181135
fundamental one ever made, by Friedrich BESSEL, in George Biddell AIRY (180192) 183581
1830. By comparing Bradleys work with that of William CHRISTIE (18451922) 18811910
Giuseppe PIAZZI in Palermo in about 1800, Bessel was Frank DYSON (18681939) 191033
able to calculate values of proper motions for certain Harold Spencer JONES (18901960) 193355
bright stars and also to derive the constants of precession Richard WOOLLEY (190686) 195671
for the epochs involved. Bessels name is also inextricably Martin RYLE (191884) 197281
linked with two other aspects of astrometry. He was the Francis GRAHAM-SMITH (1923 ) 198290
first, in 1838, to measure the TRIGONOMETRIC PARALLAX Arnold Wolfendale (1927 ) 199194
of a star and derived a distance of 9.3 l.y. (the modern Martin REES (1942 ) 1995
35
Astronomical Data Center
Astronomical Data Center (ADC) Part of the Space of Mars or Venus from two widely separated places on
A Sciences Directorate at NASAs GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT
CENTER, located in Greenbelt, Maryland. The ADC
the Earths surface, and calculating the planets distance
by triangulation. Keplers third law was then used to
specializes in archiving and distributing astronomical compute the SunEarth distance. The first such attempt
datasets, most of which are in the form of machine- was made by Giovanni Domenico CASSINI, who got
readable catalogues rather than images. The Centers data within 7% of the true value. Some improvement was
collection is accessible via the World Wide Web. achieved by measuring the distances of asteroids, espe-
cially close-approaching ones, such as 433 Eros. Such
Astronomical Journal Major US journal for the refinements were achieved in the late 19th century by
publication of astronomical results. Founded in 1849 by David GILL and by Harold Spencer JONES in the 20th.
Benjamin GOULD, the journal is published monthly by the The current technique makes use of radar measure-
University of Chicago Press, with a bias towards ments, and the probable error has been reduced by sev-
observational rather than theoretical papers. Historically, eral orders of magnitude compared to the best
the AJ emphasized traditional fields of astronomy, such as visible-light values.
galactic structure and dynamics, astrometry, variable and
binary stars, and Solar System studies. It has now astronomy, history of Astronomy is the oldest of the
broadened its coverage to all aspects of modern astronomy. sciences and predates the written word.
ARCHAEOASTRONOMY has shown that early peoples made
Astronomical League (AL) Blanket organization for use of astronomical observations in the alignment of their
amateur astronomers in the United States. It is the largest megalithic monuments.
astronomical organization in the world, with nearly Written records of astronomical observations in Egypt,
20,000 members from some 250 local societies. Its goal is Babylon and China (see EGYPTIAN ASTRONOMY; BABYLON-
to promote amateur astronomy through educational and IAN ASTRONOMY; CHINESE ASTRONOMY) and Greece date
observational activities. Founded in 1946, the AL holds a from pre-Christian times and it is to the Greeks that we owe
nationwide meeting every year and publishes a quarterly the beginnings of scientific theorizing and systematic efforts
newsletter, The Reflector, which describes amateur to understand the Universe. The main legacy of Greek
activities throughout the country. astronomy was a system of thought dominated by the work
of ARISTOTLE, though many other Greek scientists of great
Astronomical Society of Australia Australian originality contributed to early astronomical knowledge.
organization for professional astronomers, founded in Greek ideas survived the medieval period, largely
1966. The Society publishes a peer-reviewed journal, through the ALMAGEST of Ptolemy, a Graeco-Roman com-
PASA (Publications of the Astronomical Society of pendium of astronomical knowledge preserved by schol-
Australia). In 1997 it introduced an electronic ars in the Islamic world and the Byzantine Empire (see
counterpart (called el-PASA) to improve international MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN ASTRONOMY; ISLAMIC ASTRONOMY).
access to Australian astronomical research. Modern astronomy can be said to have begun with
the rejection by Nicholas COPERNICUS of Aristotles com-
Astronomical Society of the Pacific (ASP) Claimed plex picture of planetary orbits, which assumed that the
to be the largest general astronomy society in the world, Sun was the centre of the Universe. Although Copernicus
founded in 1889 by Californian amateur and professional put forward a simpler and more logical view, which
astronomers. It retains its function as a bridge between placed the planets at distances from the Sun that
the amateur and professional worlds, and it has developed increased with their periods, its details were very complex
into a leading force in astronomy education. It publishes a and unconvincing to many of his contemporaries (see
monthly magazine, Mercury, and original research is COPERNICAN SYSTEM). Only after the meticulous obser-
reported in the Publications of the ASP. The Societys vations of Tycho BRAHE and their interpretation by
headquarters are in San Francisco. Johannes KEPLER did the new ideas begin to gain general
acceptance (see RENAISSANCE ASTRONOMY).
Astronomical Technology Centre (ATC) UKs The invention of the telescope and its exploitation by
national centre for the design and production of state-of- GALILEO began an era of astronomical discovery that com-
the-art astronomical technology. It is located on the site of pletely destroyed the picture formulated by the ancients.
the ROYAL OBSERVATORY EDINBURGH (ROE). It was Building on the mathematical and physical discoveries of
created in 1998 to replace the instrument-building the 17th century, Isaac NEWTON produced a synthesis of
functions of both ROE and the ROYAL GREENWICH ideas which explained earthly mechanics and planetary
OBSERVATORY. The ATC provides expertise from within motions, based on his three laws of motion and his
its own staff and encourages collaborations involving inverse-square law of gravitational attraction.
universities and other institutions. Customers include the The last few centuries show an ever-increasing number
GEMINI OBSERVATORY (for which ATC was a prime of astronomical discoveries. As early as the 17th century,
contractor for the GMOS multi-object spectrometers), Ole RMER showed that the speed of light is finite. Investi-
the Herschel Space Observatory, the UK INFRARED gations of the heavens beyond the Milky Way began in the
TELESCOPE and the JAMES CLERK MAXWELL TELESCOPE. 1700s and are principally associated with William HER-
SCHEL. He also began the trend towards building tele-
astronomical twilight See TWILIGHT scopes of greater and greater power, with which the
Universe could be explored to ever-increasing distances.
astronomical unit (AU) Mean SunEarth distance, or The 19th century saw the development of astrophysics
half the semimajor axis of the Earths orbit, used as a unit as the centre of astronomical interest: astronomers
of length for distances, particularly on the scale of the became interested in the physics of celestial phenomena
Solar System. Its best current value is and the nature of celestial bodies, rather than just describ-
149,597,870.66 km. ing their positions and motions. The development of stel-
The determination of the astronomical unit was one lar SPECTROSCOPY and its use by William HUGGINS and
of the most important problems of astronomy until com- others led the way to understanding the nature of the
paratively recent times. From the ancient Greeks up to many nebulous objects in the sky. ASTROPHOTOGRAPHY
the early 18th century, the EarthSun distance was emerged as a sensitive and reliable technique that allowed
known very imperfectly because it depended on very fine sky maps to be prepared in an objective and repeatable
angular measurements that were beyond the capabilities way. Sky SURVEYS began to be made that showed up spiral
of the available instruments. Johannes Keplers best esti- nebulae and variable phenomena that had been beyond
mate, for example, was only one-tenth of the actual the reach of purely visual techniques.
value. In the 18th and 19th centuries attempts to mea- At the start of the 20th century were two astounding
sure the AU were made by making accurate observations discoveries that revolutionized physics and astronomy:
36
astrophotography
Max PLANCKs realization that energy is quantized (1901), and not lunar phenomena. In the United States, G.P.
and Albert EINSTEINS theory of special relativity (1905).
They were the heralds of what was to come. Observation-
BOND pursued stellar photography with improved equip-
ment and considerable success. A
al astronomy has grown exponentially ever since. The An improvement came in the 1870s with the intro-
giant telescopes in excellent climates promoted by George duction of the more convenient dry photographic plates,
Ellery HALE soon led to the discovery by Edwin HUBBLE and talented individuals such as Lewis RUTHERFORD and
that the spiral nebulae are external galaxies and that the Henry DRAPER in the United States, and subsequently
Universe is expanding. The morphology of our own Andrew COMMON and Isaac Roberts (18291904) in
Galaxy began to be understood. Britain, pushed forward the frontiers of astrophotogra-
The great outburst of technological development asso- phy. In 1880 Draper succeeded in taking a photograph
ciated with World War II led to the development of sensi- of the Orion Nebula (M42), and a few years later Com-
tive radio and infrared detectors that allowed the Universe mon and Roberts obtained excellent photographs of
to be investigated at wavelengths where new phenomena M42. There were also significant advances in photo-
such as pulsars and quasars were discovered. In the late graphic spectroscopy, by Draper, William HUGGINS,
1950s space probes had been developed that could take E.C. PICKERING and others.
X-ray and gamma-ray detectors above the Earths atmos- The 1880s marked photographys breakthrough in
phere and open yet further vistas to astrophysics. Even astronomy. In 1882 David GILL obtained the first com-
visible-light observations have been improved by the pletely successful image of a comet. He was impressed by
development of CCD detectors many times more sensi- the huge numbers of stars on the images, accumulated in
tive than photographic plates. exposures lasting up to 100 minutes. With Jacobus
The early 21st century is characterized by a new gener- KAPTEYN, he set out to construct a photographic star map
ation of giant telescopes and a vigorous investigation of of the southern sky; the resulting catalogue contained the
conditions near the time when the Universe was formed. magnitudes and positions of over 450,000 stars. Equally
Massive data-handling techniques are allowing surveys of enthusiastic were the HENRY brothers at Paris Observato-
unprecedented detail to be made, searching for new phe- ry, who helped to instigate the international project to pre-
nomena hitherto unobserved or unobservable because of pare a major photographic sky chart that became known
their faintness or rarity. See also AMATEUR ASTRONOMY, as the CARTE DU CIEL.
HISTORY OF; INFINITE UNIVERSE, IDEA OF With the new century came a desire to discern the
true nature of astronomical bodies by photographing
astrophotography Recording images of celestial objects their spectra. Increasing telescope apertures enabled
on traditional photographic emulsion (film), as opposed greater detail to be resolved in the spiral nebulae by, for
to electronic means. From the late 19th century until the example, James KEELER and George RITCHEY. Edwin
last two decades of the 20th, almost all professional HUBBLE and others, using the 100-inch (2.5-m) Hooker
astronomical observations were made using photography. Telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory, showed these
From its introduction in 1839, it was 50 years before objects to be other galaxies far beyond the Milky Way,
photography became accepted as a legitimate research and spectroscopy showed them to be receding from
tool by professional astronomers, and another quarter of Earth, in an expanding Universe.
a century before improvements to equipment and plates As the 20th century progressed, photographic materi-
had made it vital to the progress of astronomical research. als became increasingly sensitive and pushed the bound-
What the human eye cannot see in a fraction of a sec- aries of the known Universe ever outward. But by the end
ond it will never see, whereas with both photography and of the century the technique that had contributed so much
electronic imaging light is accumulated over a period of to astronomy had been dropped far more rapidly than it
time, revealing objects that are invisible even through the was ever accepted, in favour of electronic imaging using
largest telescope, and creating a permanent record that is CCDs. Although astrophotography was well established
not affected by the observers imagination or accuracy. and initially cheaper, their greater light sensitivity, linear
However, early astrophotography suffered from insuffi- response to light and digital output saw CCDs rapidly
ciently accurate TELESCOPE DRIVES, lack of sensitivity sweep the board. As CCDs have become larger and
(speed) in film, and films inability to record light equally cheaper, electronic imaging has almost completely
well across the whole visible spectrum for many years it replaced astrophotography
was blind to red. Astrophotography at major observatories may be a
Despite these drawbacks, the new technology was put thing of the past, but many amateur astronomers still use
to immediate use, mainly by enthusiastic amateurs. In conventional film, despite the availability of CCDs and
this first form of practicable photography, a silvered cop- digital cameras, partly because of its simplicity but also
per plate sensitized with iodine vapour was exposed, because it continues to yield results of superlative quality
developed with mercury vapour and fixed with sodium at low cost. Some advanced amateurs use film for the
hyposulphite to produce a Daguerrotype, named after exposures themselves, but then scan the images for
Louis-Jacques-Mand Daguerre (17891851), who per- manipulation on a computer, borrowing one of the main
fected the process. The Moon was an obvious (because advantages of digital photography.
bright) target, and the first successful Daguerreotype of For astrophotography and CCD imaging alike, the
it is attributed to John DRAPER (1840 March); the expo- telescope or camera must be driven so as to follow
sure time was 20 minutes, and the image showed only objects as they are carried across the sky by the Earths
the most basic detail. Hippolyte FIZEAU and Lon FOU- rotation. The long exposure times required by photo-
CAULT obtained a successful Daguerreotype of the Sun graphic film, often over an hour, necessitate a means of
in 1845 April. In 1850 W.C. BOND obtained excellent monitoring the accuracy of tracking and making correc-
images of the Moon and the first star images, of Vega tions to the drive rate: either a separate GUIDE TELESCOPE
and Castor. or an OFF-AXIS GUIDING system. In simple systems the
With the replacement of Daguerrotypes by the faster astrophotographer looks through an eyepiece equipped
and more practical wet plate collodion technique in the with cross-wires and adjusts the drive rate manually,
early 1850s came a more systematic approach to while more advanced systems use an AUTOGUIDER,
astrophotography. John HERSCHEL proposed using pho- which makes automatic corrections if the chosen guide
tography on a daily basis to record sunspot activity, and star starts to drift out of the field of view. Autoguiders on
this solar patrol was taken up and directed by Warren amateur instruments incorporate a CCD whose purpose
DE LA RUE. This trail-blazing work, which continued is to monitor the guide star the imaging task may be left
until 1872, was continued and developed by Walter to the superior data acquisition of photography.
MAUNDER and Jules JANSSEN. De La Rue subsequently Virtually every type of film has its use in amateur
obtained excellent images of the 1860 July 18 total solar astrophotography. An important characteristic of film is
eclipse, which proved that the prominences were solar its graininess: the surface is covered with minute light-sen-
37
Astrophysical Journal
sitive grains, which are visible under high magnification the continuum. The fact that the lines appear dark indi-
A after exposure. Fine-grained films provide excellent
sharpness and contrast, but are relatively insensitive to
cates that the outer layers are cooler, and indeed the tem-
perature generally is expected to decrease outwards from
light. More sensitive films can record images with shorter the centre of any star. For the Sun and certain other stars
exposure times, or fainter objects in a given exposure some bright lines are also seen, particularly in the far-
time, but have the disadvantage of coarse grain. Negative ultraviolet region, indicating that in these the temperature
films generally record a wider range of brightness than is rising again in extended, extremely tenuous layers of the
transparency films, but require more effort afterwards to outer atmosphere. The strengths, widths and polarization
get a satisfactory print. This drawback is now largely over- of spectral lines give information on the chemical compo-
come with the ready availability of film scanners, comput- sition, ionization state, temperature structure, density
er manipulation and high-quality colour printers. structure, surface gravity, magnetic field strength, amount
HYPERSENSITIZATION is an advanced technique to increase of turbulent motion within the atmosphere of the star and
the sensitivity and speed of film for long exposures. stellar rotation.
As CCDs become cheaper and capable of recording A striking result of astronomical spectroscopy is the
images of ever higher resolution, even amateur astropho- uniformity of chemical composition throughout the Uni-
tography is declining in importance. It is rare to find verse (see ASTROCHEMISTRY), extending even to the most
advanced amateurs using film for planetary imaging or for distant galaxies. Although the atomic constituents of the
supernova patrolling, for example. It remains ideal for Universe are everywhere the same, the proportions of
aurora and total eclipse photography, and for general con- these elements are not identical in all astronomical objects.
stellation shots. Many deep-sky photographs, particularly Measurements of these differences give information on
of wide fields, remain firmly in the province of film. It is the nuclear processes responsible for the formation of the
not hard to foresee the day when even ordinary film is elements and the evolutionary processes at work. A star is
hard to find, but until then, photography will still have a kept in a steady state for a long time by the balance of the
place in amateur astronomy. inward pull of gravity and the opposing force arising from
the increase of pressure with depth that is maintained by a
Astrophysical Journal Foremost research journal for very high central temperature. For a star like the Sun
theoretical and observational developments in astronomy (mass of 2 1030 kg, radius 700,000 km/435,000 mi) the
and astrophysics. Dating from 1895, when it was central temperature is about 15,600,000 K. The energy
launched by George Ellery HALE and James KEELER, the from such hot matter works its way tortuously outwards
ApJ reported many of the classic discoveries of the 20th through the star until it is radiated away from the atmos-
century. In 1953 The Astrophysical Journal Supplement pheric region near its surface. This process yields a rela-
Series was introduced to allow the publication of extensive tionship between the masses and luminosities of stars,
astronomical data papers in support of the main journal. with the luminosity increasing very dramatically with
mass. Thus the luminosities of stars within the relatively
astrophysics Branch of astronomy that uses the laws of small range of masses between 0.1 and 10 times that of the
physics to understand astronomical objects and the Sun differ by a factor of over a million. The high rate of
processes occurring within them. The terms astronomy loss of energy requires a powerful energy-producing
and astrophysics are however often used as synonyms. process within the star, identified as thermonuclear fusion
Astrophysics effectively dates from the first applications of light atomic nuclei (mainly hydrogen nuclei) into heav-
of the SPECTROSCOPE to study astronomical objects. Sir ier ones (mainly helium nuclei). The transformation of
William HUGGINS identification of some of the chemical hydrogen into helium in the case of the Sun a small star
elements present in the Sun and stars in the 1860s was makes enough energy available to enable it to shine as it
the first major result of astrophysics. Today, the use of does today for a total of about 1010 years. In contrast, the
computers for data processing, analysis and for modelling lifetime of massive, very luminous stars, which burn up
objects and processes is an integral part of almost all their hydrogen very rapidly, can be as short as a million
aspects of astrophysics. years. During this burning process the core contracts, and
SPECTROSCOPY is the most powerful technique available it eventually becomes hot and dense enough for helium
in astrophysics. Individual atoms, ions or molecules emit itself to ignite and to form carbon and oxygen. Although
or absorb light at characteristic frequencies (or lines, the contraction of the core is thus halted, the star then has
from their appearance in a spectroscope) and can thus be a rather complicated structure, with two nuclear burning
identified and their quantity assessed. Information on the zones, and may become unstable. Later stages in the evo-
physical and chemical state of an object can be obtained lutionary cycle present many possibilities depending prin-
from an analysis of the way its SPECTRUM is modified by cipally on the initial mass of the star. It may become a
the collective environmental conditions within the object. WHITE DWARF, such as the companion of Sirius, which is a
Line-of-sight velocities of the whole object or regions very dense, hot star with about the mass of the Sun but a
within it are indicated by the DOPPLER SHIFT. The most radius nearer that of the Earth. The immense pressures
intensively studied spectral region is the ground-accessible built up in such stars result in the matter forming them
optical region (the NEAR-ULTRAVIOLET to the NEAR- becoming DEGENERATE.
INFRARED), but much information now comes from More massive stars than the Sun progress to advanced
observations in the RADIO, MICROWAVE, FAR-ULTRAVIOLET, stages of NUCLEOSYNTHESIS, experiencing ignition of suc-
X-RAY and GAMMA-RAY regions. cessively heavier nuclei at their cores. In some rare cases
Stellar spectra characteristically show a continuous much of the outer layers of the star may be violently eject-
bright background that by its colour distribution approxi- ed in a SUPERNOVA outburst in which heavy elements
mately indicates the surface temperature (but is made up (some synthesized in the explosion) are scattered widely
of radiation contributed in some measure from through- into the general interstellar medium. Out of this enriched
out the whole of the stellar atmosphere). Several different material later generations of stars are formed. The
processes produce these continua. In cooler stars (like the residues of these events may be NEUTRON STARS, which
Sun) the interaction chiefly involves electrons and hydro- can be observed as PULSARS, and represent a still higher
gen atoms; in hotter stars, electrons and protons; and in state of compression than white dwarfs, with electrons and
the hottest stars, electrons alone. The dark spectral lines protons crushed together to form a degenerate neutron
superimposed on the continuum, which are due to atoms, gas. On the other hand, a star may go on contracting until
ions and molecules, strictly do not arise from absorption it becomes a BLACK HOLE, whose violent accretion of near-
by a cooler outer layer as a simple visualization suggests, by material makes its influence observable by strong emis-
but in a complex depth-dependent manner in which radi- sion in the X-ray region.
ation dominantly escapes from outer and therefore cooler A great deal of theoretical work has gone into explain-
(darker) regions of the atmosphere near the centre of an ing how the distribution of radiation over the spectrum of
absorption line, or deeper, hotter (brighter) regions for a star depends on the structure of its outermost layers,
38
atlas, star
and, more broadly, the processes occurring during the life notable pair with the smaller crater Hercules to the west.
cycles of stars. The latter includes the stars formation
from collapsed regions of the interstellar medium, their
Atlas walls vary in altitude between 2750 and 3500 m
(900011,500 ft). The floor of Atlas is uneven and has A
active burning phases, and their deaths, which can range been observed to glitter. It contains a group of central
from being an event in which a star mildly fades away to hills, which resemble a ruined crater ring, many craterlets
being a violent explosion that at its maximum brightness and a very noticeable cleft on the east side. To the north is
can appear as brilliant as a whole galaxy. OKell, a large, heavily eroded, ancient ring.
Such applications of physics to astronomical problems
in general are progressing strongly on most fronts and Atlas One of the small inner satellites of SATURN,
much success has been achieved. Currently a great deal of discovered in 1980 by Richard Terrile during the
attention is being directed towards the processes that VOYAGER missions. It is spheroidal in shape, measuring
occurred during the earliest phases of the formation of the about 38 34 28 km (24 21 17 mi). Atlas has a
Universe, very close to the time of the Big Bang. But here near-circular equatorial orbit just outside Saturns A
astronomers and physicists are venturing out hand in RING, at a distance of 137,700 km (85,600 mi) from the
hand, for not only is our knowledge of the behaviour of planets centre, where its orbital period is 0.602 days. It
the Universe incomplete, but so too is our knowledge of appears to act as a SHEPHERD MOON to the outer rim of
physics itself. New physical theories unifying all forces of the A ring.
nature are needed before we can begin to understand the
most fundamental properties of the evolving Universe Atlas One of the USAs primary satellite launchers. It
and, indeed, the origin of matter itself. began its career as the countrys first intercontinental
ballistic missile in 1957. The Atlas was equipped with a
Asuka Japans fourth cosmic X-ray astronomy satellite. It Centaur upper stage in 1962 and, since that failed
is called the Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and maiden flight, has operated in a number of Atlas
Astrophysics (ASCA), also known as Astro D. It was Centaur configurations, making over 100 flights. This
launched in 1993 February, equipped with four large- configuration later became known as the Atlas 2, 2A and
area telescopes. ASCA was the first X-ray astronomy 2AS, which by 2001 had together made almost 50
mission to combine imaging capability with a broad- flights. The new Atlas 3, which first flew in 1999, and
wavelength bandwidth, good spectral resolution and the Atlas 5 fleets (there is no Atlas 4) will use a Russian
large-area coverage, as well as the first to carry charge- first-stage engine. The Atlas 2 fleets will be retired in
coupled devices (CCDs) for X-RAY ASTRONOMY. 2002, leaving the Atlas 3 and 5 offering launches to
geostationary transfer orbit within the 4- to 8.6-tonne
Atacama Large Millimetre Array (ALMA) range. The Atlas 5 has been built primarily as a US Air
Millimetre-wavelength telescope planned by a major Force launcher, under the Evolved Expendable Launch
international consortium that includes the NATIONAL Vehicle programme.
RADIO ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY (USA), the PARTICLE
PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY RESEARCH COUNCIL (UK) and atlas, star Collection of charts on which are plotted the
the EUROPEAN SOUTHERN OBSERVATORY, planned for positions of stars and, usually, numbers of deep-sky
completion in 2010. The instrument, at an elevation of objects, over the whole of the sky or between certain
5000 m (16,400 ft) at Llano de Chajnantor in the limits of declination, down to a certain LIMITING
Chilean Andes, will consist of at least 64 antennae 12 m MAGNITUDE. The classic star atlases of the 17th and
(39 ft) in diameter, allowing resolution to a scale of 0.01. 18th centuries in particular are now appreciated for Atlas An Atlas 2 is launched
The high altitude will give ALMA access to wavebands their beauty. The 19th century saw a division appear in 1966. The rocket is carrying
between 350 m and 10 mm, otherwise accessible only between atlases produced for professional and for an Agena target vehicle
from space. amateur astronomers, and the emergence of the towards a rendezvous with
photographic atlases. Todays professionals have little Gemini 11.
ataxite See IRON METEORITE
39
atmosphere
use for printed atlases, and amateurs are beginning to gen and helium. However, these major planets are also
A rely more on virtual atlases than on printed ones.
Until the 17th century, accuracy of position in atlases
surrounded by envelopes of escaped hydrogen. Titan,
too, is associated with a torus of neutral hydrogen atoms,
was often the victim of artistic licence, stars being placed which have escaped from the satellites upper atmos-
where they looked best on intricately drawn constellation phere and populate the satellites orbit. It is also possible
figures. The first truly modern atlas was Johann BAYERs for a body to gain a temporary atmosphere through a
Uranometria of 1603, which plotted accurate positions collision with an object containing frozen gases, such as a
from Tycho BRAHEs star catalogue, distinguished between cometary nucleus.
different magnitudes, and introduced the practice of The gaseous layers of an atmosphere are divided into a
labelling stars with Greek letters (see BAYER LETTERS); the series of regions organized on the basis of the variation of
atmosphere The Earths allegorical constellation figures were depicted faintly to the temperature with altitude. For worlds with definite solid
atmosphere consists of the stars. Other notable atlases, based on observations by their surfaces, such as the Earth, Venus, Mars and Titan, the
troposphere, extending from originators, were those of Johannes HEVELIUS and John levels start from the ground and relate to existing obser-
ground level to a height of FLAMSTEED. The last great general all-sky artistic star vations. The outer planets are huge gaseous bodies with
between 8 and 17 km atlas was Johann BODEs Uranographia (1801), which no observable solid surface, and with atmospheres that
(510 mi); the stratosphere showed over 17,000 stars and nebulae on huge pages with have been investigated to just beneath the cloud tops.
extends up to about 50 km beautifully engraved constellation figures. Consequently, the characteristics of the lowest layers are
(30 mi); the mesosphere, The 19th and 20th centuries saw the introduction of based upon theoretical models and the levels usually start
between 50 and about 80 km photographic atlases for the professional, such as the from a reference level at which the pressure is 1 bar. The
(50 mi); the thermosphere from CARTE DU CIEL and the PALOMAR OBSERVATORY SKY SUR- names given to the various structured layers of the terres-
about 80 up to 200 km VEY, and the appearance of atlases for amateur trial atmosphere are also applied to all other planetary
(125 mi); beyond this lies the observers. The most venerable is perhaps Nortons Star atmospheres. The precise variation of the atmospheric
exosphere. Atlas, by Arthur Philip Norton (18761955), first pub- temperature with altitude depends on the composition of
lished in 1919 and with its 20th edition planned for the atmosphere and the subsequent solar (and internal)
600 km 2002. The lavish two-volume Millennium Star Atlas heating and long-wave cooling at the various levels.
Hubble (R.W. Sinnott and M. Perryman, 1997), showing stars The lowest layer is the TROPOSPHERE, which on the
pressure Space to magnitude 11, may be the last such large printed star Earth extends from sea level, where the average pressure
1035mb Telescope
atlas for the amateur observer, now that virtual atlases is 1 bar, to the TROPOPAUSE, at an altitude of between
are readily available (see SOFTWARE). 58 km (35 mi) at the poles and 1418 km (911 mi) at
the equator. This region contains three-quarters of the
atmosphere Gaseous envelope that surrounds a planet, mass of the atmosphere; it is the meteorological layer,
exosphere satellite or star. The characteristics of a body that containing the cloud and weather systems. The tropos-
1022mb 400 km determine its ability to maintain an atmosphere are the phere is heated from the ground and the temperature
temperature of the outer layers and the ESCAPE decreases with height to the tropopause, where the tem-
VELOCITY, which is dependent on the bodys mass. perature reaches a minimum of approximately 218 K at
International Small bodies, such as the Moon, Mercury and the the poles and 193 K over the equator. Above the
Space Station
satellites of the planets in our Solar System (apart from tropopause, the temperature increases with height
350 km TITAN and TRITON), do not have any appreciable through the STRATOSPHERE because the heating from
permanent atmosphere. The escape velocity for these ozone (03) absorption dominates the long-wave cooling
bodies is sufficiently low for it to be easily exceeded by by CO2. The temperature increases to about 273 K at an
gas molecules travelling with the appropriate thermal altitude of 50 km (31 mi), which marks the stratopause.
speeds for their masses and temperature. The speed of a In the Earths atmosphere, the region between 15 and
1016mb 300 km gas molecule increases with temperature and decreases 50 km (9 and 31 mi), where the ozone is situated, is
with the molecular weight. Consequently, the lighter often called the ozonosphere. Beyond the stratopause the
Space molecules, such as hydrogen, helium, methane and temperature again decreases with altitude through the
Shuttle ammonia, escape more readily to space than the heavier MESOSPHERE to the atmospheric minimum of 110173 K
species, such as nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. at the mesopause, which lies at an altitude of 86 or
MERCURY has a transient, tenuous atmosphere, 100 km (53 or 62 mi) at different seasons. The atmos-
250 km consisting of material that it captures from the SOLAR phere at these levels is very tenuous and is therefore sen-
WIND, which it retains for a short period. In the cold sitive to the heating from the Sun. Consequently, this
thermosphere outer reaches of the Solar System, PLUTO and Triton region and the further layers of the atmosphere have a
have potential atmospheric gases frozen out on their significant diurnal temperature cycle. Beyond the
surfaces. When Pluto is close to perihelion (as in the late mesopause, we enter the THERMOSPHERE, where the tem-
1010mb 200 km 20th century), the gases sublime to produce a tenuous perature increases with height until it meets interplane-
atmosphere of methane and ammonia. It is estimated tary space. The heating that produces this layered
that these gases will refreeze on to the surface by about structure is primarily created by the absorption of far-
the year 2020. ultraviolet solar radiation by oxygen and nitrogen in the
aurorae The primary atmospheres of the bodies in the Solar atmosphere. Solar X-rays also penetrate through to the
System originated from the gaseous material in the mesosphere and the upper atmospheric layers, which are
150 km SOLAR NEBULA. The lighter gases were lost from many of therefore sensitive to changes in the solar radiation and
these objects, particularly the terrestrial planets VENUS, atmospheric chemistry. The solar ultraviolet radiation
EARTH and MARS, which now have secondary atmos- photo-ionizes the atmospheric constituents in these
pheres formed from internal processes such as volcanic outer layers to produce ionized atoms and molecules;
mesosphere
eruptions. The main constituent of the atmospheres of this results in the formation of the IONOSPHERE at an alti-
103mb 100 km Venus and Mars is carbon dioxide (CO2); the main con- tude of about 60500 km (40310 mi). This region is
meteor trails stituents of the Earths atmosphere are nitrogen and oxy- also the domain of METEORS and AURORAE, which regu-
gen (approximately 78% and 21% by volume, larly occur in the upper atmosphere. Above 200700 km
respectively). Free oxygen in the Earths atmosphere is (120430 mi) is the EXOSPHERE, from which the atmos-
uniquely abundant and is believed to have accumulated pheric molecules escape into space.
50 km
as a result of photosynthesis in algae and plants. Earths The individual planetary atmospheres each possess
ozone layer is thus regarded by some authorities as a tertiary atmos- some or all of these basic structures but with specific
stratosphere phere. The only other significant nitrogen atmosphere variations as a consequence of their size, distance from
found in the Solar System is on Titan, the largest satellite the Sun, and atmospheric chemistry. The massive CO2
Concorde
of Saturn, although nitrogen gas produces the active atmosphere of Venus has a deep troposphere, which
103mb 10 km geyser-like plumes observed on Triton. Only the giant extends from the surface to an altitude of about 100 km
troposphere
outer planets, JUPITER, SATURN, URANUS and NEPTUNE, (62 mi). About 90% of the volume of the atmosphere is
Mount Everest 8850m still retain their primordial atmospheres of mainly hydro- contained in the region between the surface and 28 km
40
atom
41
atomic mass unit
Fe26
56.9354 (2.2%). An isotope may also be written down as structure of the atom and so the properties of the chemical
A the element name or symbol followed by the number of
nuclear particles, for example iron-56 or Fe-56 or in the
elements. For n = 1, the other quantum numbers must be
l = 0, ml = 0, and ms = . The K shell can thus contain at
previous notation Fe2656. most two electrons, with quantum numbers, n = 1, l = 0,
ml = 0, ms = and n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, and ms = .
atomic mass unit (amu) Unit used for the masses of Thus we have helium with two electrons in the K shell and
ATOMS. It is defined as one-twelfth of the mass of the a nucleus with two protons and (normally) two neutrons.
carbon-12 isotope. It is equal to 1.66033 1027 kg. Hydrogen has just one electron in the K shell. But the
third element, lithium, has to have one electron in the L
atomic structure The gross structure of an ATOM shell as well as two in the K shell, and so on. The maxi-
comprises a nucleus containing PROTONS and NEUTRONS, mum number of electrons in each shell is 2n2, so the L
together with a surrounding cloud of ELECTRONS. The shell is filled for the tenth element, neon, and the eleventh,
nucleus has a density of about 2.3 1017 kg/m3 and is a sodium, has two electrons in the K shell, eight in the L
few times 1015 m across. The atom as a whole has a size a shell, and one in the M shell. Atoms with completed shells
few times 1011 m (note that neither the size of the nucleus are chemically very unreactive, giving the noble gases,
nor of the atom can be precisely defined). Although there helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon.
is structure inside the nucleus, the term atomic structure
is usually taken to mean that of the electrons. atomic time System of accurately measuring intervals
Quantum mechanics assigns a probability of existence of time based on the transitions between energy levels of
to each electron at various points around the nucleus, the caesium-133 atom. When an atom of caesium
resulting in electron orbitals. While the quantum mechan- changes from a lower-energy level to a higher one, it
ical description may be needed to describe some aspects absorbs radiation of a very precise frequency, namely
of the behaviour of atoms, the conceptually simpler 9,192,631,770 Hz. This varies by less than one part in
BohrSommerfeld model is adequate for many purposes. 10 billion and has therefore been used to define the
This model was proposed in 1913 by the Danish physicist basic unit of time, the SI second, which is used in
Niels Bohr (18851962). It treats the subatomic particles international timekeeping. In 1967 the SI second was
as though they are tiny billiard balls and the electrons defined as being the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods
move in circular orbits around the central nucleus. Differ- of the radiation corresponding to the transition between
ent orbits correspond to different energies for the elec- two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-
trons, and only certain orbits and hence electron energies 133 atom.
are permitted (that is, the orbits are quantized). Arnold Prior to this, the second was defined in terms of the
Sommerfeld (18681951, born in East Prussia at Knigs- mean solar day and astronomical observations provided a
berg, now Kaliningrad) modified the theory in 1916 by definitive measure of time to which clocks were accord-
adding elliptical orbits. When an electron changes from ingly adjusted to keep them in step. The Earth, however,
one orbit to another a PHOTON is emitted or absorbed, the is not a good timekeeper; its rotation rate is irregular and
wavelength of which corresponds to the energy difference slowing due to the effects of tidal braking. With the advent
between the two levels. Since the orbits are fixed, so too of more accurate quartz clocks, followed in 1955 by the
are the energy differences, and thus the photons are emit- caesium-beam atomic clock, it therefore became neces-
ted or absorbed at only specific wavelengths, giving rise to sary to re-define the standard unit for measuring time.
the lines observed in a SPECTRUM. Todays atomic clocks are now accurate to one second
The electron energies are determined by quantum within a few thousand years and are used to form INTER-
numbers; the principal quantum number, n, the azimuthal NATIONAL ATOMIC TIME (TAI). See also TIMEKEEPING
quantum number, l, the magnetic quantum number, ml,
and the spin, ms. These numbers can take values: n = 1, 2, AU Abbreviation of ASTRONOMICAL UNIT
3, 4, ... ; l = 0, 1, 2, ... n 1; ml = 0, 1, 2, ... l;
ms = . The value of n determines the shell occupied by aubrite (enstatite achondrite) Subgroup of the
the electron, with n = 1 corresponding to the K shell, ACHONDRITE meteorites. Aubrites are highly reduced
n = 2 to the L shell, n = 3 to the M shell, and so on. The meteorites with mineralogies and oxygen isotopic
value of l determines the ellipticity of the orbit, l = n 1 compositions similar to those of ENSTATITE
gives a circular orbit; smaller values of l correspond to CHONDRITES, leading to the suggestion that aubrites
increasingly more elliptical orbits. might have formed by partial melting of an enstatite
The PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE requires that no two chondrite precursor.
electrons within an atom can have the same set of quan-
tum numbers, and its operation determines the electron Aura Abbreviation of ASSOCIATION OF UNIVERSITIES FOR
RESEARCH IN ASTRONOMY
42
aurora
43
Australia Telescope Compact Array
the INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR of 195758. Cur- averted vision Technique for viewing faint objects
rent models owe much to the work of the Japanese through a telescope. The retina of the eye is equipped
researcher Syun-Ichi Akasofu (1930 ). with two different types of photoreceptors: cone cells
Continuing investigations of the aurora, which is the and rod cells. Cone cells are responsible for colour
most visible of several effects on near-Earth space result- vision and respond only to high levels of light; rod cells
ing from the Suns varying activity, are further aided by are more sensitive to light, but do not provide colour
observations from spacecraft, which can directly sample vision. This is why colours cannot be seen under low
particles in the solar wind and magnetosphere, and image levels of light. The fovea, a small area of the retina
the auroral ovals from above. located directly behind the lens, contains only cones, so
when one looks directly at an object, no rods are used. A
Australia Telescope Compact Array See AUSTRALIA dim object that cannot be seen when viewed directly will
TELESCOPE NATIONAL FACILITY often come into view if one looks slightly to the side.
This allows light from the object to fall on a region of
Australia Telescope Long Baseline Array See the retina populated by rods, which are about 40 times
AUSTRALIA TELESCOPE NATIONAL FACILITY (equivalent to a difference of 4 stellar magnitudes) as
sensitive as cones. The best averted vision is achieved
Australia Telescope National Facility (ATNF) Set of when the object is about 8 to 16 away from the fovea,
eight radio telescopes that can be used either individually towards the nose. The regions above and below the
or together. Six of the telescopes, at Narrabri in New fovea are almost as sensitive, but the area towards the
South Wales, constitute the Australia Telescope Compact ear should be avoided since the blind spot (where the
Array. Each dish has an aperture of 22 m (72 ft). A optic nerve enters the eye) is 13 to 18 in that direction.
seventh 22-m antenna, the Mopra Telescope, is located
near SIDING SPRING OBSERVATORY, 100 km (60 mi) to the Avior The star Carinae, visual mag. 1.86 (but slightly
south-west. The final component is the PARKES RADIO variable), distance 632 l.y., spectral type K3 III. The name
TELESCOPE, a further 220 km (140 mi) away. When all Avior is of recent application and its origin is unknown.
eight instruments are used together they constitute the
Australia Telescope Long Baseline Array. The ATNF is AXAF Abbreviation for Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics
funded by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Facility. It was renamed the CHANDRA X-RAY OBSERVATORY.
Research Organisation (CSIRO).
axion Elementary particle proposed to explain the lack of
autoguider Electronic device that ensures a TELESCOPE CP (Charge and Parity) violation in strong interactions.
accurately tracks the apparent movement of a celestial Axions have been proposed as a type of COLD DARK
object across the sky. Although a telescope is driven about MATTER, the mass of which contributes to the gravitational
its axes to compensate for the rotation of the Earth, it is still potential in galaxy haloes, thus helping to explain the radial
necessary to make minor corrections, particularly during velocity curves of galaxies. Recent background radiation
the course of a long observation. An autoguider achieves measurements and Hubble Space Telescope observations
this by using a photoelectric device, such as a quadrant of brown dwarfs in the haloes of galaxies have limited the
photodiode or a CCD, to detect any drifting of the image. need for axions in cosmology.
The light-sensitive surface of the detector is divided into
four quarters, with light from a bright guide star in the field axis Imaginary line through a celestial body, which joins
of view focused at the exact centre. If the image wanders its north and south poles, and about which it rotates or
from the centre into one of the four quadrants, an electrical has rotational symmetry. The angle between this spin
current is produced. By knowing from which quadrant this axis and the perpendicular to its orbital plane is called
emanated, it is possible to correct the telescope drive to the axial inclination, which in the case of the Earth is
bring the image back to the exact centre again. 23.45. In the cases of Venus, Uranus and Pluto, the
values exceed 90, because their axial spins are
autumnal equinox Moment at which the Suns centre RETROGRADE. The gravitational pull of the Sun and
appears to cross the CELESTIAL EQUATOR from south to Moon on the Earths equatorial bulge causes its
north, on or near September 23 each year at the FIRST rotational axis to describe a circle over a period of
POINT OF LIBRA. At the time of the EQUINOX, the Sun is 25,800 years, an effect known as PRECESSION. If a body
directly overhead at the equator and rises and sets due east possesses a magnetic field, its rotational and magnetic
and due west respectively on that day, the hours of daylight axes do not necessarily coincide. On the Earth the two
and darkness being equal in length. The term is also used are inclined at about 10.8 to one another, while on
as an alternative name for the First Point of Libra, one of Uranus the magnetic axis lies at 58.6 to the rotational
the two points where the celestial equator intersects the axis and is also offset from the centre of the planet.
ECLIPTIC. The effects of PRECESSION cause these points to
move westwards along the ecliptic at a rate of about one- azimuth Angular distance of an object measured
seventh of an arcsecond per day. See also VERNAL EQUINOX westwards around the horizon from due north at 0,
through due east at 90, due south at 180 and so on. An
Auwers, (Georg Friedrich Julius) Arthur objects azimuth is determined by the vertical circle
(18381915) German astronomer, a specialist in (meridian) running through it. Azimuth is one of the
astrometry, and a founder of Potsdam Astrophysical two coordinates in the horizontal (or horizon)
Observatory. He compiled many important star catalogues, coordinate system, the other being ALTITUDE. See also
and computed the orbits of the binaries Sirius and Procyon CELESTIAL COORDINATES
before astronomers confirmed the existence of those bright
stars faint companions by direct observation. Azophi Latinized name of AL-SU FI
44
Babylonian astronomy
BAA Abbreviation of BRITISH ASTRONOMICAL ASSOCIATION many instruments for the telescopes of Mount Wilson and
Palomar Observatories, including diffraction gratings,
Baade, (Wilhelm Heinrich) Walter (18931960) Ger- photometers, guiding electronics, polarizers and spectro-
B
man-American astronomer who used the large reflecting graphs. He was the first (1953) to propose the technique
telescopes at Mount Wilson and Palomar Observatories
to make many fundamental discoveries about the Milky
known as ADAPTIVE OPTICS.
B
Ways stellar POPULATIONS and the size of the observable Babylonian astronomy Astronomy as practised in
Universe. From 1919 to 1931 Baade worked at Ger- Mesopotamia by various cultures from early in the 2nd
manys Hamburg Observatory, where he made many millennium BC to about the 1st century AD. The city of
observations of a wide variety of celestial objects Babylon was the dominant influence in this region for
comets, asteroids, variable stars and star clusters, and much of this period. It was established by King
galaxies. He discovered the unusual asteroids HIDALGO Hammurabi (17921750 BC) on the banks of the
(1920) and ICARUS (1949). His skills as an observer were Euphrates, about 100 km (60 mi) south of Baghdad.
recognized by the Rockefeller Foundation, which award- Apart from periods of independence, it was successively
ed him a scholarship in 1929 to pursue his work at controlled by Hittites, Kassites, Assyrians and Persians
Mount Wilson Observatory. Two years later he became before its conquest in 311 BC by Alexander the Great.
a staff member there, where he remained until 1959, Thanks to the preservation of Babylonian written
using the 100-inch (2.5-m) Hooker Telescope and, later, records on baked clay tablets from around 700 BC
Mount Palomars 200-inch (5-m) Hale Telescope, to onwards, Babylonian mathematics and astronomical
accumulate a large number of high-quality photographic observations can be traced further back than those of
plates of the Milky Ways stars, clusters and nebulae, as other peoples. From Babylon came the sexagesimal
well as many galaxies. system of numbers, based on 60 rather than our familiar
In 1934 Baade proposed, with Fritz ZWICKY, that neu- 10. The subdivisions of the hour into 60 minutes and
tron stars were the end product of SUPERNOVAE and that the minute into 60 seconds, and of the degree into 60
many cosmic rays originated from these violent explo- arcminutes and the arcminute into 60 arcseconds, are
sions of supermassive stars. With Zwicky and Rudolph the legacy of this system.
MINKOWSKI he classified supernovae into two types that Like many other ancient peoples, the Babylonians used
differed in their absolute magnitudes and spectral char- a mixed luni-solar calendar, with extra months inserted
acteristics. With Minkowski, he identified the optical when necessary to correct for the fact that there are
counterparts of the Cygnus A and Cassiopeia A radio between 12 and 13 lunar months in one year. They kept
sources. Observing extensively during the World War II accurate records of celestial events and eventually (c.5th
blackout of Los Angeles, which darkened Mount Wil- century BC) recognized the METONIC CYCLE (that a times-
sons skies, Baade was able to resolve for the first time pan of 235 lunar months is very close to 19 solar years). Baades Window The
stars in the core of the ANDROMEDA GALAXY (M31), as They set up a predictable calendar based on this relation- partial clearing of dust clouds
well as in its companions, M32 and NGC 205. In 1944 ship. By studying the motions of the planets they were known as Baades Window
he announced that the Milky Way consists of younger, able to identify cycles in their behaviour and could con- allowed Walter Baade to
metal-rich, highly luminous (usually blue) Population I struct predictive almanacs (ephemerides). They also rec- observe stars near the centre
stars found mostly in our Galaxys spiral arms, and ognized that the annual apparent motion of the Sun of the Milky Way, including RR
older, reddish Population II stars of the galactic nucleus appears to be uneven, and they developed a simple model Lyrae variables. He used the
and halo. Baade also discovered that there are two popu- to allow for this when predicting its position. periodluminosity relation to
lations of CEPHEID VARIABLES. In 1952 and 1953 he used Although most of the surviving Babylonian records calculate their absolute
the new Hale Telescope to measure more accurately the date from after 700 BC, a compilation of celestial omens magnitude and thus calculated
brightness of Cepheid and RR LYRAE VARIABLES. He that supposedly warned of impending disasters, called the the distance of the Solar
found no Cepheids in M31, but they should have been Enuma Anu Enlil, contains references to events dating System from the centre of
visible if the galaxy lay at the distance then currently back to the 3rd millennium BC. This text was used to our Galaxy.
believed, so he reasoned that M31 had to be at least
twice as distant a discovery that necessitated the dou-
bling of the cosmic distance scale.
45
Bacchus
Bacchus Radar images of its location at the south-west limb and its broken-down
asteroid (2063) Bacchus have walls. Its rims rise to heights of 4250 m (14,000 ft) in
shown it to be about 1.5 km some places, but in others are barely discernible. Baillys
(0.93 mi) long. It also appears floor lacks a central peak, but it does include two
B to be smooth in texture in
comparison with such
sizeable craters, known as Bailly A and B, and many
smaller impact sites.
asteroids as Eros.
[S. Ostro (JPL/NASA)] Baily, Francis (17741844) English stockbroker and
amateur astronomer whose description of the phenome-
non visible during annular and total solar eclipses now
known as BAILYS BEADS, published in 1838, was the first
to attract attention. Baily also made the first highly accu-
rate calculation of the Earths mean density.
46
Barnard, Edward Emerson
resolution images of the Suns photosphere proved that that atom. The Balmer lines are named with Greek let-
solar GRANULATION was the product of internal convec- ters: H (or Balmer ), which connects levels 2 and 3,
tion. Higher-flying unmanned balloons were pioneered by falls at 656.3 nm; H , which connects levels 2 and 4,
Martin SCHWARZSCHILD with Stratoscope I, whose 0.3-m falls at 486.1 nm; H falls at 434.0 nm; H at 410.1 nm,
(12-in.) automated Sun-pointing telescope recorded
sharper images of the granulation and the photosphere
and so on. The series ends at the Balmer limit in the
ultraviolet at 364.6 nm. B
from an altitude of 24,000 m (79,000 ft). Stratoscope II,
which carried a 0.86-m (34-in.) telescope, obtained Bappu, (Manali Kallat) Vainu (192782) Indian
infrared spectra of the Martian atmosphere and red giant astronomer and director of the Kodaikanal Observatory
stars during its first flights in 1963. who, while at Mount Wilson and Palomar Observatories,
Large, high-altitude, unmanned helium balloons are discovered with Olin Chaddock Wilson (190994) the
still used for both astronomical observations and for trials WilsonBappu effect, relating the luminosity of a late-type
of new technologies and payloads for space missions. star to the strength of its calcium K line. He pioneered
Observations at X-ray, gamma-ray and infrared wave- ultra-low dispersion spectroscopy of stars and galaxies,
lengths continue to be made from balloons. Some of the and made important studies of red stars in the Magellanic
most significant balloon-borne campaigns of recent years Clouds and of planetary ring systems.
have involved studies of the CMB.
In the Boomerang experiment (1998/1999), a balloon- bar Non-SI unit by which pressure is measured. It is par-
borne 1.2-m (48-in.) telescope circumnavigated Antarcti- ticularly used in astronomy to describe the pressure in a
ca, taking measurements at four frequencies to separate planetary atmosphere, one bar being equivalent to the
faint galactic emissions from the CMB. The resultant map average atmospheric pressure on the Earth at sea level.
covered approximately 2.5% of the sky with an angular Atmospheric pressure is often quoted in millibars, one bar
resolution 35 times better than had been achieved by the being equal to 1000 millibars.
COSMIC BACKGROUND EXPLORER satellite, revealing varia-
tions as small as 0.0001 K in the temperature of the CMB. barium star Giant G STAR or K STAR with an excess of
Similar endeavours include MAXIMA (Millimetre carbon, barium, strontium and other heavy elements
Anisotropy Experiment Imaging Array), balloon-borne (including those from slow neutron capture) in its
millimetre-wave telescopes designed to measure fluctua- atmosphere. Barium stars have white dwarf companions.
tions in the CMB. MAXIMA 1 (1998 August) observed They most likely result from MASS TRANSFER that took
124 square degrees of sky, while MAXIMA 2 (1999 June) place when the current barium star was a dwarf and the
observed roughly twice that area. white dwarf was an evolving, chemically enriched, mass-
The CMB and interstellar dust in our Galaxy were also losing giant. Barium stars are loosely related to CH and
observed by submillimetre telescopes on the 3-t French dwarf CARBON STARS.
PRONAOS (Programme National dAstronomie Submil-
limtrique) stratospheric balloons in 1994, 1996 and Barlow lens Concave (negative) LENS placed between a
1999. The successor to PRONAOS is the Elisa interna- telescope objective and eyepiece to increase the magnifica-
tional project to observe the interstellar medium. 2000 tion, usually by two or three times. The negative lens balloon astronomy The
June saw the inaugural balloon flight of Claire, the first reduces the angle of convergence of the light cone, effec- Boomerang balloon is shown
gamma-ray telescope to use a separate detector and col- tively making it appear to the eyepiece that the primary here just before launch, with
lector. A follow-up flight with an improved version took has a longer focal length. It was invented in the early Mount Erebus in the
place in 2001 June. 1800s by English physicist Peter Barlow (17761872). background. At a height of
Extremely large balloons that can stay aloft for up to 35 km (22 mi), the balloon flew
100 days are now being designed. The 30-day maiden Barnard, Edward Emerson (18571923) American above 99% of the Earths
flight of NASAs Ultra Long Duration Balloon (ULDB), astronomer noted for his discoveries of comets and atmosphere for 10 days, which
carrying the Trans-Iron Galactic Element Recorder Jupiters satellite AMALTHEA, and for his use of photogra- allowed it to make
(TIGER) experiment, began in Antarctica on 2001 phy to map the Milky Way. While still an amateur unprecedented measurements
December 21. TIGER is designed to measure the abun- astronomer he came to notice for his discovery of eight of the cosmic microwave
dances of elements from iron to zirconium in galactic cos- comets, which allowed him to overcome poverty and gain background radiation.
mic rays. The ULDB is a pressurized balloon made of
extremely strong materials, such as polyester, inside which
the helium gas is sealed. The balloon maintains a constant
volume and so stays at the same altitude. The French pio-
neered the use of such balloons to explore other worlds.
Two helium balloons were delivered by Soviet VEGA
spacecraft into the atmosphere of Venus on 1985 June 11
and 15. Inflated about 54 km (34 mi) above the surface,
each lasted for about 46 hours, and travelled more than a
third of the way around the planet.
Traditional Montgolfier hot-air or zero-pressure
balloons are much lighter and more easily deployed than
their helium counterparts, and have potential for flights
above other planets. Infrared Montgolfiers could not
operate at Mars during the very cold nights, but a novel
hot-air venting system could allow repeated, precision
soft landings. Although they would be limited to daytime
flights up to 10 hours at lower Martian latitudes, or
perhaps months during the long polar summers such
balloons could drag an instrumented snake over the
surface or soft-land a large rover, re-ascend, and contin-
ue imaging before landing again, possibly with a
nanorover, at dusk. Other Montgolfier balloon missions
that could explore the atmospheres of Venus, Jupiter and
Titan are under study.
47
Barnards Loop
an education at Vanderbilt University. His observing skills in 1916 by Edward Emerson BARNARD, it has the largest
won him a position at the new Lick Observatory in 1887, PROPER MOTION of any star, 10.4 per year so fast that it
where he became the first astronomer to discover a comet moves across the sky a distance equivalent to the Moons
using photography. At Lick, Barnard used the 36-inch apparent diameter in under two centuries. In the 1960s
B (0.9-m) refractor to prove the transparency of Saturns
C Ring (1889) and to discover Amalthea (1892), the last
and 1970s the Dutch-American astronomer Peter Van de
Kamp (190195) reported an apparent wobble in the
planetary satellite to be found without the aid of photogra- proper motion of the star, which he attributed to the pres-
phy. Three years later, he moved to the Yerkes Observato- ence of two orbiting planets similar in size to Jupiter and
ry, where he remained for the rest of his life, making Saturn. This was not confirmed, and the stars apparent
numerous detailed visual observations of the planets and wobble seems to have been due to instrumental error (see
comets with the 40-inch (1-m) refractor. He used Yerkes also EXTRASOLAR PLANET).
10-inch (250-mm) Bruce Photographic Telescope to take
wide-field images of the Milky Ways star clouds, discov- barn-door mount See SCOTCH MOUNT
ering DARK NEBULAE. This work, culminating in his classic
A Photographic Atlas of Selected Regions of the Milky Way barred spiral galaxy SPIRAL GALAXY in which the distri-
(1927), continued photographic surveys of the Galaxy bution of stars near the nucleus is elongated in the disk
that Barnard had started at Lick in the 1890s using the 6- plane. Strong bars are reflected in the HUBBLE CLASSIFICA-
inch (150-mm) Willard wide-field telescope. He also dis- TION. Weaker bars are common among spirals, with the
covered (1916) the star with the largest proper motion, de Vaucouleurs types indicating that about 60% of spirals
named BARNARDS STAR in his honour. have distinct bars. Infrared observations, less sensitive to
dust absorption and the confusing influence of young
Barnards Loop (Sh2-276) Large, diffuse and very stars, may indicate an even greater fraction of spirals with
faint arc of nebulosity centred on the Orion OB ASSOCIA- small or weak bars, among them our Galaxy. Stellar
TION, which is the group of hot stars south of Orions dynamics in a disk can produce a bar because of instabili-
Belt. The nebula is visible only on the eastern and south- ties, and a bar in turn may dissolve into a ring structure
ern sides of the constellation. Barnards Loop was named over cosmic time. Indeed, many bars are accompanied by
after the pioneer astronomical photographer Edward stellar rings. Bars can alter the chemical content of a
Emerson BARNARD, who discovered it in 1894. If it were galaxys gas, since flow along the bar mixes gas originally
a complete ring, Barnards Loop would almost com- located at a wide range of radii, which thus started with
pletely fill the region between Betelgeuse and Rigel, cov- different chemical compositions.
ering almost 20 of sky. Barnards Loop appears to be a
structure resulting from clearance of dust and gas in the Barringer Crater See METEOR CRATER
interstellar medium by radiation pressure from the Orion
barred spiral galaxy NGC OB association stars. barycentre Centre of mass of two or more celestial bod-
1365 in Fornax has a prominent ies. For example, when computing the perturbing effect
bar and open arms. The blue Barnards Star Closest star to the Sun after the Cen- of the Earth and Moon on other planets it is usual to
areas in the spiral arms are tauri triple system, lying 5.9 l.y. away in the constellation regard the Earth and the Moon as a single body of their
regions of intense star Ophiuchus, with a visual magnitude of only 9.54, well combined mass, located at their barycentre. Similarly
formation, caused by the below naked-eye visibility. It is a red dwarf, spectral type when computing the orbits of the five outer planets one
gravitational influence of the bar. M4, with only 0.05% of the Suns luminosity. Discovered would treat the Sun and the four inner planets as a single
body of their combined mass located at their barycentre.
48
Bell Burnell, (Susan) Jocelyn
49
Benetnasch
built while she was still a graduate student of Antony physicist Giuseppe Occhialini, whose nickname was
HEWISH at Cambridge University, but she did not share Beppo. It carries four spectroscopes and two wide-field
the Nobel prize subsequently awarded to Hewish cameras. In 1997 it played a major role in identification of
GAMMA-RAY BURSTS by pinpointing X-ray emissions from
Benetnasch Alternative name for the star Ursae
B Majoris. See ALKAID
these events, so enabling their positions and cosmological
distances to be confirmed.
Bennett, Comet (C/1969 Y1) Bright long-period comet Berkeley Illinois Maryland Association (BIMA)
discovered by John Caister (Jack) Bennett, South Africa, Consortium consisting of the Radio Astronomy Labora-
on 1969 December 28. The comet reached perihelion, tory of the University of California (Berkeley), the Labo-
0.54 AU from the Sun, on 1970 March 20, approaching ratory for Astronomical Imaging at the University of
Earth in the following week. Comet Bennett became a Illinois (Urbana) and the Laboratory for Millimeter-Wave
prominent object in northern hemisphere skies, reaching Astronomy at the University of Maryland, which operates
peak magnitude 0.5 during April. At this time, Comet the BIMA Millimetre Array at HAT CREEK OBSERVATORY.
Bennett developed a strong dust tail 20 long and a very
active, rapidly changing ion tail. Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm (17841846) German
astronomer and mathematician who was the first to mea-
Bepi Colombo EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY (ESA) mission sure stellar PARALLAX. In 1804, while employed as a
to be launched in 2009 in conjunction with Japan to shipping clerk, he calculated the orbit of Halleys Comet,
explore the planet MERCURY. After a two-year journey, which impressed Wilhelm OLBERS sufficiently to recom-
including a fly-by of Venus, Bepi Colombo should mend that he be hired as assistant to Johann SCHRTER.
become the second spacecraft to orbit Mercury (after the At Schrters private observatory in Lilienthal, Ger-
Bennett, Comet One of US MESSENGER) and will deploy a lander and a small sub- many, Bessel observed Saturn and its rings and satellites,
the most spectacular comets satellite to study the magnetosphere. This surface pene- and comets. He continued to develop mathematical
for many years, Comet trator will send back data on the structure of the planet. methods for celestial mechanics; it was while trying to
Bennett approached the Earth Bepi Colombo will be powered by a solar electric propul- solve the three-body problem of celestial mechanics
closely enough for sion system and will be protected against temperatures (181724) that he developed the class of mathematical
astronomers to observe jets exceeding 673 K. functions that bear his name (see BESSELIAN ELEMENTS).
within the outer nucleus. The He reduced the positions for 3222 fundamental stars
changes in the structure of the BeppoSAX (Satellite for X-ray Astronomy) first observed by James BRADLEY at Greenwich Observa-
ion tail were caused by rapid ItalianDutch gamma-ray and X-RAY ASTRONOMY satel- tory between 1750 and 1762; his 1818 publication of
fluctuations in the solar wind lite. Soon after its launch in 1996 April, as the Satellite for over 63,000 star positions and proper motions, based on
close to solar maximum. X-ray astronomy, it was renamed in honour of Italian his and Bradleys observations, are considered the start
of modern ASTROMETRY. In 1809 Friedrich Wilhelm III
of Prussia appointed Bessel director of a new
observatory at Knigsberg.
Bessels most famous achievement was his 1838 mea-
surement of the parallax of the star 61 Cygni. He chose
this relatively obscure star because of its high proper
motion. Using Knigsbergs Fraunhofer heliometer,
Bessel determined that 61 Cygni has a parallax of 0.31
(very close to the modern value of 0.29), implying that
the star was 10 l.y. from Earth. The Royal Astronomical
Society awarded him its Gold Medal for this achievement,
which marked the first step towards accurately measuring
stellar distances. Bessels 1840 paper on perturbations to
Uranus orbit suggested the existence of an eighth planet,
six years before the discovery of Neptune by Johann
GALLE. In 1841/1844 he predicted the existence of dark
companions of Sirius and Procyon after discovering peri-
odic variations in their proper motions Sirius B was not
confirmed until 1862.
50
Beta Pictoris
apparent magnitude
ble-humped light-curve of Beta Lyrae indicates that the
stars are deformed into ellipsoids by their mutual gravi- B
3.8
tational interaction. Because the period is only 12.93854
days, the two stars must be so close to each other it
3.9
becomes inevitable that significant tidal distortion in
their shapes occurs. The light-curve can be explained by
the changing total amount of stellar surface area present- 4.0
ed to the Earth-based observer as the elongated stars
revolve about each other. 4.1
Spectroscopic observations in the 1950s established A A
that the primary star is a late-type B giant (B8.5II), but 4.2
classification of the secondary was confounded by pecu- 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
liar spectral features, some of which are caused by gas time (days)
flowing between the stars and around the system as a
whole. The secondary star is roughly four to five times forth. The resulting system clearly would resemble Beta Lyrae star The
more massive than the primary. According to the ALGOL. Beta Lyrae stars, which account for about 20% continuous light-curve of Beta
massluminosity relation, however, the more massive a of all eclipsing variables, are therefore an important but Lyrae stars is believed to be
star is, the brighter it is. Astronomers were puzzled temporary stage in the early evolution of CLOSE BINARY caused by an accretion disk of
because the massive secondary appeared significantly systems. See also STELLAR EVOLUTION material which surrounds the
under-luminous, much dimmer than the primary. secondary star and eclipses
Current theories about Beta Lyrae, supported by beta particle ELECTRON free of the atomic nucleus. It is the primary. This theory also
observations, suggest that the secondary star is a common by-product of nuclear reactions and decays. explains why the secondary
enveloped in a thick ACCRETION DISK of gas captured star appears to be dimmer
from the primary. Material surrounding the secondary Beta Pictoris MAIN-SEQUENCE A5 star in the constella- than the primary, despite being
so severely subdues its luminosity that the star itself is tion Pictor; it has visual magnitude 3.9 and is at a distance far more massive.
impossible to observe. The primary star is overflowing of 62 l.y. The star is surrounded by a PROTOPLANETARY
its ROCHE LOBE, and gas streams across the inner DISK, which is edge-on as seen from Earth. One of the
LAGRANGIAN POINT on to the disk at the rate of 105 nearest planetary systems, it has been imaged by the Hub-
solar masses per year. Ultraviolet spectra from the ble Space Telescope and ground-based telescopes. The
OAO-3 (Copernicus) and Skylab orbiting observatories disk is about 400 AU in diameter, some four times the
revealed clouds of gas at the L4 and L5 Lagrangian diameter of our Solar System. Both dust and hydrogen
points. Gas is constantly escaping from the system. gas have been detected in the disk. Spectroscopic studies
and dynamical modelling indicate that larger solid bodies
Beta Lyrae star ECLIPSING BINARY (subtype EB) that (PLANETESIMALS) are present, and planets may have
shows a continuous variation in brightness throughout formed or be in the process of formation.
the orbital period, which is generally of one day or more
in length. Both primary and secondary minima are
always present. Although once thought to be CONTACT
BINARIES (that is, systems that have tidally distorted com-
ponents with a common atmospheric envelope, as in W
URSAE MAJORIS STARS), the majority of Beta Lyrae stars
appear to be semidetached systems in which gas escap-
ing from a bloated primary star is falling on to an ACCRE-
TION DISK surrounding the secondary star. Such a
configuration is found in BETA LYRAE, which is the proto-
type for this type.
Astronomers now regard Beta Lyrae variables as
members of a broad class of double stars known as SEMI-
DETACHED BINARIES, so called because only one of the Beta Pictoris This Very
two stars fills its ROCHE LOBE. They are probably binaries Large Telescope (VLT) false-
near the end of the initial rapid phase of MASS TRANSFER. colour image of the
Thus, some Beta Lyrae variables may evolve into Algol- protoplanetary disk around Beta
type binaries (see ALGOL STAR). For example, as the pri- Pictoris shows that it is not even
mary star in a Beta Lyrae variable continues to evolve in composition. The visible kink
away from the main sequence, it will begin to resemble a in the disk is about 20 AU from
red subgiant. As the rate of mass transfer subsides, the the star, which corresponds
accretion disk shrouding the secondary may become roughly to the distance of
transparent and a massive unevolved star will shine Uranus from the Sun.
51
Beta Regio
Beta Regio One of the three main uplands on VENUS, 1947 Bethe explained the Lamb shift observed in the
discovered by the PIONEER VENUS orbiters radar. Beta spectrum of the hydrogen atom with a model that laid
Regios 2000 3000 km (1200 1900 mi) extent is tra- the foundations of a new branch of physics known as
versed by the northsouth trough of Devana Chasma, gen- quantum electrodynamics.
B erally inferred to be a fault complex comparable with the
East African Rift. Superimposed on the rift at the southern Bianca One of the small inner satellites of URANUS,
end of Beta Regio is Theia Mons, a huge volcano 226 km discovered in 1986 by the VOYAGER 2 imaging team.
(140 mi) in diameter and 5 km (3 mi) high. Satellite track- Belinda is about 44 km (27 mi) in size. It takes 0.435
ing shows that gravity is high over Beta Regio. days to circuit the planet at a distance of 59,200 km
(36,800 mi) from its centre in a near-circular, near-
Beta Taurids DAYLIGHT METEOR STREAM active between equatorial orbit.
June 5 and July 18, with peak around the end of June. The
stream is associated with Comet 2P/ENCKE and is encoun- Biela, Comet 3D/ COMET discovered by Jacques Mon-
tered again in October and November when it produces taigne at Limoges, France, on 1772 March 8 and again
the night-time TAURIDS. The TUNGUSKA airburst of 1908 by Jean Louis PONS on 1805 November 10. It was next
June 30 may have been produced by a particularly large noted by Wilhelm von Biela, an Austrian army officer
piece of debris from the Beta Taurid stream. and amateur astronomer, on 1826 February 27. He real-
ized that it was the same as that which had already been
Betelgeuse The star Orionis, marking the right shoul- observed in 1772 and 1805. It was subsequently named
der of Orion, distance 427 l.y. It is a red supergiant of Bielas Comet and shown to be periodic, with a period of
spectral type M2 Ib, about 500 times the Suns diameter 6.6 years. It was seen again in 1832 and 184546.
and 10,000 times as luminous. Betelgeuse is an irregular On 1845 December 19 the comet appeared elongated
variable with a considerable range, varying between about and by the end of the year had split in two. By 1846
mags. 0.0 and 1.3 over a period of years. At its average March 3 the two parts were over 240,000 km
value, magnitude 0.5, Betelgeuse is the 10th-brightest star. (150,000 mi) apart. At its next return, in 1852, the sepa-
The origin of the name is often said to be from the Arabic ration had increased to 2 million km (1.2 million mi). The
ibt al-jauza, meaning armpit of the central one but may comet was never seen again, but in November 1872 and
come from bait al-jauza, house of the twins, a reference 1885 tremendous showers of ANDROMEDID meteors
to neighbouring Gemini. produced by debris released on the comets disintegration
occurred on exactly the date when the Earth passed
Bethe, Hans Albrecht (1906 ) German-American close to the comets orbit.
atomic physicist who discovered the basic nuclear reac-
tions that generate energy inside stars. After receiving an Bielids Alternative name for the ANDROMEDIDS
education in theoretical physics and holding teaching posi-
tions at the universities in Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Munich Big Bang theory Theory concerning the explosive cre-
and Tbingen, Bethe emigrated to England, then to the ation of the Universe from a single point. The first real
USA, where he joined the faculty of Cornell University in strides in the study of cosmology occurred when Edwin
1935. During World War II he made significant contribu- HUBBLE and his collaborators noticed that all of the galax-
tions to the Los Alamos Science Laboratorys Manhattan ies in the Universe, except for those in our local cluster,
Project, which developed the first atomic bomb, but this were receding from us. This fact was determined by mea-
work convinced him of the importance of nuclear arms suring the REDSHIFT of the absorption lines in galaxy spec-
control, which he has since strongly advocated. tra. It was further noted that the more distant the galaxy,
In the 1930s and 1940s, Bethe developed his models the faster the velocity of recession. If the galaxy velocities
for stellar nuclear processes. He found that for stars of were extrapolated back into time, then all galaxies and
modest mass like the Sun, the most important nuclear stars apparently started at some time in the distant past at
Beta Regio The rift valley reaction converts two protons (atomic hydrogen nuclei) a single point. This cosmic singularity included not only
Devana Chasma in Beta Regio into helium; Bethe also discovered that several protons all of the gas, dust, stars, galaxies and radiation, but all of
is as much as 20 km (12 mi) can also combine with a carbon nucleus inside Sun-like SPACETIME as well.
wide and here has cut through stars to regenerate a carbon nucleus and helium ash. He Two types of models came out of these observations
an earlier impact crater, which demonstrated that the powerful gravity of NEUTRON and theoretical arguments from general relativity. The
is itself 37 km (23 mi) across. STARS, which are much more massive than the Sun, is STEADY-STATE THEORY pictured the Universe as expand-
The whole eastern side of the sufficient to fuse protons and electrons to make neu- ing, with matter created between separating galaxies and
crater has collapsed and fallen trons. Bethe also modelled the carbonnitrogen cycle of clusters at precisely the rate needed to keep the average
into the rift. reactions, which powers many types of massive stars. In properties of the Universe the same, that is, homogeneous
and isotropic. This idea suggested there was no beginning
and will be no end, just constant expansion and filling in.
The other major cosmological model, the Big Bang theo-
ry, held that the entire Universe emerged from a single
point in an explosive event called the Big Bang. GENERAL
RELATIVITY and the idea of a Big Bang are both consistent
with the fact that more distant galaxies separate from each
other more rapidly, following a mathematical relationship
known as the HUBBLE LAW.
The Big Bang model predicted that the temperature
of the very early universe was on the order of 109 K. At
the start of the expansion, between T = 0 and T = 1043
s (the PLANCK TIME), the laws of physics are not well
understood; in fact we would need a THEORY OF EVERY-
THING to be able to describe this era. The temperature
continued to drop as the universe expanded. Between
1043 and 1035 s the universe had just two fundamental
forces gravity and the GUT force. After 1035 s, the
strong force separated from the electroweak force, but
the universe was still far too hot for atoms to form. Final-
ly, after about 1012 s the weak and electromagnetic
forces became distinct and the four fundamental forces
looked as they do today. At 106 s the temperature had
52
binary pulsar
verse expanded rapidly and increased in size by a factor Betelgeuse The Hubble
of 1050. This rapid expansion was driven by Higgs field Space Telescopes first direct
symmetry breaking. Because the universe actually image of a star other than our
expanded faster than the speed of light, the horizons Sun revealed that Betelgeuse
were actually in causal contact in the early universe, thus
disposing of the horizon problem. The flatness and mag-
( Orionis) has a bright spot
more than 2000 K hotter than B
netic monopole problems also go away since we see only the rest of the stars surface.
a small part of the entire Universe. There remained a The exact nature of the spot is
problem. The density of the Universe derived from the not yet understood.
CBR should be equal to the critical density according to
the Big Bang theory with inflation. Observations of the
luminous matter in the Universe fell short of the critical
density by a factor of four or more.
As observations from space platforms improved, sci-
entists concentrated on trying to derive an accurate and
consistent value for the HUBBLE CONSTANT. Determining
this constant required the distances to distant galaxies to
be measured independently of the redshift using bright
standard candles like supernovae. Results from superno-
va studies indicated that the Universe was not expanding
according to a constant value for the Hubble constant,
but is accelerating. Far from invalidating the Big Bang
theory, however, it actually explains the aforementioned
dropped sufficiently for the nuclei of atoms to form. Sig- problems with the Big Bang theory. To explain the accel-
nificant NUCLEOSYNTHESIS could begin and the COSMIC eration, either the COSMOLOGICAL CONSTANT must be
ABUNDANCE of elements was determined, primarily non-zero or there exists a different form of unobserved
hydrogen and helium. The next significant event was at matter that has negative gravity, recently termed QUIN-
roughly T = 300,000 years after the Big Bang. At this TESSENCE. Either the non-zero cosmological constant or
time the universe became transparent to photons and the the presence of this exotic quintessence drives the
radiation decoupled from matter. As the universe contin- expansion of the Universe.
ued to expand, matter evolved separately from the COS-
MIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND (CMB) and atoms Big Bear Solar Observatory (BBSO) Optical solar
formed. Gravity caused small inhomogeneities in the observatory at Big Bear Lake, California, built by the CAL-
matter distribution to collapse and form stars, galaxies IFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY in 1969. Now man-
and galaxy clusters. aged by the New Jersey Institute of Technology, the
The Big Bang model made a significant prediction: observatory monitors the Sun with several optical tele-
the Universe should have a temperature, and the temper- scopes, the largest of which has an aperture of 0.65 m Big Bear Solar
ature could be measured by looking at the CBR that per- (26 in.). Its location in the middle of the lake provides sta- Observatory The suite of
meates the entire Universe. Calculations within the ble daytime observing conditions, eliminating the bad see- telescopes in the dome of the
framework of the Big Bang indicated that as the Universe ing caused by heat haze over land. BBSO participates in Big Bear Solar Observatory
expanded, the temperature of the CBR should constant- the GLOBAL OSCILLATION NETWORK GROUP. observe the Sun in visible,
ly drop and the current temperature should be around 5 near-infrared and ultraviolet
K. Two engineers from Bell Labs, Arno PENZIAS and Big Dipper Popular (chiefly US) name for the saucepan light, thus giving astronomers
Robert Wilson, were trying to determine why the shape formed by seven stars in Ursa Major, also known detailed information about
Holmdel horn antenna, used to communicate with satel- as the PLOUGH. different parts of the solar
lites, constantly picked up static at microwave frequen- surface and atmosphere. This
cies. They failed to find a terrestrial or electrical BIMA Abbreviation of BERKELEY ILLINOIS MARYLAND information helps them to
explanation for the static and it was finally deduced that ASSOCIATION monitor and understand the
the noise was actually the CBR. This discovery, that the way in which features on the
Universe has background radiation at a temperature very binary pulsar PULSAR orbiting another star, forming a Suns surface form and evolve.
close to the theoretical predictions of the Big Bang
model, was the most convincing piece of evidence that
the Universe actually began as a condensed cosmic sin-
gularity many billions of years ago. Later observations by
balloon-borne telescopes and the NASA satellite COBE
precisely mapped this background radiation, even mea-
suring anisotropies and our own motion relative to it.
Along with the successes of the Big Bang theory, there
were also some problems. The horizon problem, the flat-
ness problem, the lack of magnetic monopoles and the
smoothness of the CBR all presented problems for the
Big Bang model. Since the Universe is expanding rapidly
in all directions, the two opposite horizons would be out
of causal contact, and therefore would not have to show
the same level of homogeneity as they do; this is the crux
of the horizon problem. The flatness problem suggests
that the Universe is so close to critical density that the
initial conditions must have been fine tuned to extraordi-
nary precision. The lack of magnetic monopoles present
in the Universe was also considered a problem. After
completely mapping the CBR, there seemed to be dis-
crepancies between the amount of mass seen in the Uni-
verse and the critical density inferred from the
smoothness of the CBR. The idea of an INFLATION
epoch in the early universe solved both the horizon and
flatness problems. Inflationary theory postulates that in
the very early universe, just after T = 1034 s, the uni-
53
binary star
BINARY STAR system. The first binary pulsar to be discov- nosity of the system to fluctuate in a periodic manner.
ered was PSR 1913+16, in 1974, for which its discover- In general the nature of a binary system can be ascer-
ers, Joseph Taylor and Russell HULSE, were awarded the tained by the distance between the pair and thus the
1993 Nobel Prize for physics. The pulsar, with a period of orbital period. Widely separated pairs that do not influ-
B 0.059 seconds, orbits a neutron star with a period of
almost 8 hours. Pulses from the companion neutron star
ence each other are known as double stars. Common
proper motion pairs and visual binaries have the largest
have not been detected, but this might only be the result of separation and longest orbital periods, which can be up
an unfavourable viewing angle. The pulses from the pul- to several million years. Eclipsing and spectroscopic
sar arrive 3 seconds earlier at some times relative to others, binaries generally have the smallest separation, and their
showing that the pulsars orbit is 3 light-seconds across, orbital periods can be as short as a few hours. Binaries
approximately the diameter of the Sun. Since this is a with non-MAIN-SEQUENCE components, such as WHITE
binary system, the masses of the two neutron stars can be DWARFS, NEUTRON STARS or BLACK HOLES, can have
determined, and they are each around 13 times the mass orbital periods of as little as a few minutes, although
of the Sun. Observations have shown that the pulsars these systems are short-lived, with lifetimes less than
orbit is gradually contracting, due to the emission of ener- about 10 million years.
gy in the form of GRAVITATIONAL WAVES, as predicted by By convention, systems with orbital periods of less than
Einsteins theory of GENERAL RELATIVITY, causing the pul- 30 years are termed close binaries because the short
sar to reach PERIASTRON slightly early. Also, periastron orbital period implies separation of less than about 10 AU
advances 4 per year in longitude due to the gravitational (the distance of Saturn from the Sun). Stars that remain
field (thus the pulsars periastron moves as far in a day as within their own ROCHE LOBES are termed DETACHED
Mercurys moves in a century). BINARIES, while SEMIDETACHED BINARIES have one star
(often a red giant) filling its Roche lobe. In semidetached
binary star Double star in which the two components binaries, material can spill from the lobe-filling star
are gravitationally bound to each other and orbit their through the first LAGRANGIAN POINT on to its companion,
common centre of mass. More than half of stars often by transfer via an ACCRETION DISK. This MASS
observed are binary or belong to multiple systems, with TRANSFER has considerable effect on the evolution of the
three or more components. In a CLOSE BINARY the stars two components. If both stars fill their Roche lobes, they
interact directly with each other. Other double stars are are termed CONTACT BINARIES, and if material has escaped
optical doubles, which result when two stars appear to be from the lobes to surround both stars, the system is known
close because they lie almost on the same line of sight as as a common envelope binary.
viewed from Earth, but in reality lie at a vast distance The first visual binary star was discovered by Joannes
from each other. Binary systems are classified in a vari- Baptista RICCIOLI in 1650, when he observed MIZAR and
ety of ways, including the manner in which their binary saw that the star was actually double, with a separation of
nature is known. 14 (this was distinct from the known companion
Common proper motion binaries are seen as distinct ALCOR). Small numbers of binaries were accidentally
objects that move across the sky together. No orbital found by telescopic observers in the course of the next
motion is observed because they lie so far apart that their century, but it was not until 1767 that John MICHELL
orbital period is very long. argued that stars appearing close together really were
VISUAL BINARIES are pairs that are resolved into separate connected under the influence of some general law. The
components and for which orbital motion is observed. observational proof of Michells theory did not appear
ASTROMETRIC BINARIES are systems where only one until 1804. William HERSCHEL had originally set out to
binary star The two component is seen. This star is observed to wobble in a determine the parallactic shift of the brighter (and, there-
components of a binary periodic manner as it moves across the sky, a movement fore, closer) member of an unequal pair of stars with
system move in elliptical orbits caused by the gravitational pull of the unseen companion. respect to the fainter component. But for many stars, par-
around their common centre of Spectrum binaries are systems where a SPECTROGRAM ticularly CASTOR, the motion of the companion with
gravity (G), which is not half of an apparently single star reveals two sets of spectral respect to the primary star could be explained only if the
way between them but nearer lines characteristic of two different types of stars. two stars were regarded as physically connected, rotating
to the more massive SPECTROSCOPIC BINARIES are systems where only one around a common centre of gravity. Later observations
component. In accordance star is observed directly, but its spectrum shows one or showed that the apparent motion of the companion
with Keplers second law of two sets of spectral lines, which show a DOPPLER SHIFT, described an arc of an ellipse.
motion, they do not travel at indicating orbital motion. These are known as single- and In 1827 the French astronomer Flix Savary
uniform rates. In (2) they are double-lined spectroscopic binaries respectively. (17971841) was the first to calculate an orbit that would
greatly separated and moving ECLIPSING BINARIES are systems aligned so that one or predict the motion of the companion star with respect to
slowly. In (6) they are closer both members of the system are periodically observed to the primary. An important consequence of this was that
and moving more rapidly. pass in front or behind the other, causing the total lumi- the masses of the two stars were directly obtainable from
elements of the true orbit.
What is actually observed, the apparent orbit, is the
1 2 3
projection of the true orbit on to the plane of the sky. The
seven elements needed to define the size, shape and orien-
G tation of the true orbit are calculated from observations of
POSITION ANGLE and separation (see ORBITAL ELEMENTS).
G
G The position angle is the angle that the line between the
stars makes with the north point, and the separation is the
angular distance between the two stars in arcseconds. By
plotting position angle and separation from measurements
made at different times the apparent orbit can be drawn.
From the elements of the true orbit, the size of the semi-
major axis (a) and the period of revolution (P years) will
4 5 6
allow the sum of the masses of the two stars to be calculat-
ed, provided that the parallax of the binary is known. The
relation connecting these quantities is (from Keplers third
G law):
G G
42a3
M1 + M2 =
GP2
where M1 and M2 are in terms of the Suns mass and G is
the gravitational constant.
54
black body radiation
In order to derive individual masses, another relation trial origin of meteorites, after investigating the meteorite
between M1 and M2 is needed. This can be obtained by shower at LAigle, France, on 1803 April 26. The follow-
plotting the position of each star against the background ing year he accompanied the chemist Joseph-Louis Gay-
of fainter, relatively fixed stars in the same field. The two Lussac on a balloon flight, to an altitude of 4000 m
stars will both appear to describe ellipses, which vary only
in size depending on the mass of each star, thus:
(13,000 ft), in order to collect scientific data about the
upper atmosphere. B
M2 a2
= bipolar flow Non-spherical flow of material from a star.
M1 a1 Occasionally stars lose matter at copious rates, for exam-
where a1 and a2 are the semimajor axes of the apparent ple at the end of their protostellar lives, and during their
ellipses described by the two stars. This process is a very RED GIANT phases. If these flows are organized into two
time-consuming job, requiring measurements of hun- oppositely directed streams, they are called bipolar. This
dreds of images obtained over many years. It has only phenomenon is responsible for the creation of the rapidly
been carried out for a few systems. moving HERBIG-HARO OBJECTS, flying away from the pre-
The determination of masses from spectroscopic bina- cursors of T TAURI STARS. Very narrow, highly confined
ries is more difficult than for visual binaries because it is radio-emitting JETS characterize this youthful phase; these
not possible to determine the inclination of the apparent jets disturb the surrounding dark clouds and sweep up
orbit unless eclipses occur. The best that can be done is to larger volumes of much slower molecular gas, also bipolar
assume that the inclination is 90 and to calculate from in pattern. For older stars the outflows may lead to bi-
this the minimum values that the masses are likely to take. polar PLANETARY NEBULAE.
See also BLUE STRAGGLER; CATACLYSMIC VARIABLE; RECUR- Usually the stars that generate bipolar flows are sur-
RENT NOVA; X-RAY BINARY rounded by extensive, flattened, dusty envelopes huge
toroids orientated perpendicular to the stars rotation
binding energy Energy that is released when an atomic axis. The interplay of stellar rotation and mass outflow is
nucleus is formed; it is also called the mass defect believed to create the bipolar outflows. Binarity of the dri-
because it is the difference in energy terms between the ving star is implicated in at least some flows, as also may
mass of the nucleus and the sum of the masses of its pro- be magnetic fields.
tons and neutrons. A stars energy is the binding energy
that is released as hydrogen is built up to helium, carbon, Birr Castle astronomy Astronomy practised at Birr
oxygen, and so on. That process, however, stops at iron, Castle, near Birr, County Offaly (formerly Parsonstown,
for which the binding energy per nucleon is a maximum; Kings County) in Ireland, with the Leviathan of Parson-
building up heavier nuclei requires more energy than is stown, a 72-inch (1.8-m) telescope completed by William
released by the reaction. The consequent formation of Parsons, Third Earl of ROSSE, in 1845. Using local work-
an inert iron core in massive stars leads directly men whom he trained, Rosse cast mirrors of speculum
to type II SUPERNOVA explosions. See also FISSION; metal (a highly reflective coppertin alloy) and construct-
FUSION; NUCLEOSYNTHESIS ed first a 36-inch (0.9-m) reflecting telescope. Later came
the 72-inch, which remained the largest in the world until
binoculars Two, usually small, TELESCOPES mounted 1917, when Mount Wilson Observatorys 100-inch (2.5-
side by side so that both eyes can be used simultaneously. m) Hooker Telescope went into service. The Leviathans
Modern binoculars are usually refracting telescopes with 72-inch mirror had a focal length of 54 ft (16.5 m), and
fixed eyepieces and a set of built-in prisms to provide an the instrument was suspended between two walls 56 ft
upright, right-reading view (see PORRO PRISM). Binoculars (17.1 m) high. It could not be effectively driven, and was
are normally described by two numbers, for example, unsuitable for photography.
7 50. The first number is the MAGNIFICATION, and the Despite these drawbacks, the telescopes great size
second number is the APERTURE in millimetres. Conve- enabled Rosse to discern the spiral structure of certain
niently, the EXIT PUPIL in millimetres is calculated by nebulae which are now known to be galaxies, most
dividing the second number by the first (about 7 mm in notably the Whirlpool Galaxy (M51), which he
this example). sketched. Birr became an astronomical centre, and Rosse
True binocular vision, where both eyes are used to himself became a skilful observer, making his results
form a stereoscopic view and gauge the distance to an freely available. After his death in 1867, his son Lau-
object, is not effective when observing celestial objects. rence Parsons, later the Fourth Earl, took over the obser-
The distance from the objective lenses to the object is far vatory. J.L.E. DREYER was assistant at Birr between 1874
too great compared with the distance between the lenses. and 1878, during which period he accumulated much of
However, apparent brightness and resolution are each the information that was to be later published in his NEW
improved when both eyes are used. GENERAL CATALOGUE.
From 1900 activity gradually decreased; the Fourth
biosphere Shallow region over the surface of a planet Earl died in 1908, and the 72-inch was dismantled. In
that supports life. Earths biosphere includes the land to 1916 the last Birr astronomer, Otto Boeddicker
about 8 km (5 mi) above mean sea level, the oceans to (18531937), departed, and work ceased. In 199698
depths of at least 3.5 km (2 mi) and the atmosphere to a the 72-inch telescope was restored to working order with
height of about 10 km (6 mi): in total, it is less than a new glass mirror.
20 km (12 mi) thick. Recently discovered microbial
organisms called extremophiles (see LIFE IN THE UNI- BIS Abbreviation of BRITISH INTERPLANETARY SOCIETY
VERSE) occupy a secondary subsurface biosphere that is
believed to extend to 4 km (2.5 mi) beneath the surface of Blaauw, Adriaan (1914 ) Dutch astronomer who spe-
the continental crust and 7 km (4.3 mi) below the cialized in the structure of the Milky Way galaxy. His
seafloor. Specific habitats within a biosphere are known research has covered the processes by which stars form,
as biomes. Only Earth is known to possess a surface and star clusters and associations, and measuring the cosmo-
a subsurface biosphere. Mars, Europa and Titan are tar- logical distance scale. Blaauw has done much to advance
gets for future space missions that will search for extrater- European astronomy, playing a key role in founding the
restrial subsurface biospheres, and in Titans case, EUROPEAN SOUTHERN OBSERVATORY and establishing the
perhaps a surface biosphere as well. leading journal Astronomy & Astrophysics. He helped to
plan the HIPPARCOS astrometric satellite.
Biot, Jean-Baptiste (17741862) French physicist
who co-discovered the BiotSavart law, which concerns black body radiation Radiation emitted by an idealized
the intensity of a magnetic field produced by a current perfect radiator. It has a CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM that
flowing through a wire. He demonstrated the extraterres- depends only on the temperature of the source.
55
black drop
By KIRCHHOFFS LAWS the efficiency of the emission by and it is doubtful whether our Galaxy is old enough for
a heated object at a particular wavelength is proportional any to have cooled sufficiently to enter this state. See also
to the efficiency of its absorption at the same wavelength. STELLAR EVOLUTION
Thus an object that absorbs with 100% efficiency over the
B whole spectrum, known as a black body, will also be the
most efficient when it comes to emitting radiation. A good
Black Eye Galaxy (M64, NGC 4826) SPIRAL GALAXY in
the constellation Coma Berenices (RA 12h 56m.7 dec.
practical approximation to a black body is a small hole in 2141). It has a prominent lane of dark material close to
the side of an otherwise closed box. its nucleus. The galaxy was originally discovered by J.E.
The emission from a black body, known as black body BODE in 1779. It has apparent dimensions of 9.2 4.6
radiation, is a good fit to the emission from many astro- and magnitude 8.5. The Black Eye Galaxys true diame-
nomical objects, including stars and interstellar dust ter is 65,000 l.y., and it lies 24 million l.y. away.
clouds (spectrum lines are mostly minor deviations from
the overall emission). Black body radiation follows a bell- black hole Object that is so dense and has a gravitational
shaped distribution given by the PLANCK DISTRIBUTION. field so strong that not even light or any other kind of radi-
The peak of the distribution shifts to shorter wavelengths ation can escape: its escape velocity exceeds the speed of
as the temperature increases (see WIENS LAW). This leads light. Black holes are predicted by Einsteins theory of
to the common experience that at moderate tempera- GENERAL RELATIVITY, which shows that if a quantity of
tures objects glow a dull red, then change colour succes- matter is compressed within a critical radius, no signal can
sively through bright red, yellow, white to blue-white as ever escape from it. Thus, although there are many black
the temperature is increased. The total emitted energy hole candidates, they cannot be observed directly. Candi-
increases rapidly with temperature, leading to the STE- dates are inferred from the effects they have upon nearby
FANBOLTZMANN LAW. matter. There are three classes of black hole: stellar, pri-
mordial (or mini) and supermassive.
black drop Optical effect observed during the initial A stellar black hole is a region of space into which a
(ingress) and final (egress) stages of a TRANSIT of MER- star (or collection of stars or other bodies) has collapsed.
CURY or VENUS. Once the planet is fully projected on the This can happen after a star massive enough to have a
Sun at ingress, but before its trailing edge breaks apparent remnant core of more than 2.3 solar masses (the Lan-
contact with the solar limb, the expectation is of instanta- dauOppenheimerVolkov limit for NEUTRON STARS)
neous separation. Instead, the planet seems to lengthen, reaches the end of its thermonuclear life. It collapses to a
with a dusky ligament appearing briefly to link it to the critical size, overcoming both electron and neutron degen-
Suns limb. This effect is the black drop, which may be eracy pressure, whereupon gravity overwhelms all other
likened to a drop of water before it falls from a tap. It is forces (see DEGENERATE MATTER).
again seen at egress as the planets leading edge approach- Primordial black holes, proposed by Stephen HAWK-
es the opposite limb. The effect may be physiological in ING, could have been created at the time of the BIG BANG,
Black Eye Galaxy The origin, but it has also been attributed to atmospheric tur- when some regions might have got so compressed that
prominent dust lane that gives bulence and to instrument defects. they underwent gravitational collapse. With original mass-
the Sb-type spiral galaxy M64 es comparable to that of Earth or less, these mini-black
its name is just detectable with black dwarf Ultimate state of a WHITE DWARF star. A holes could be of the order of 1 cm (about half an inch) or
large amateur instruments. white dwarf does not have a means of maintaining its smaller. In such small black holes, quantum effects
Larger instruments or image heat, and it therefore cools steadily. Given long enough, become very important (see QUANTUM THEORY). It is pos-
processing are needed to it cools to invisibility, and is then called a black dwarf. sible to show that such a black hole is not completely
resolve the outer spiral arms. Such objects are hypothetical: none have been observed, black, but that radiation can tunnel out of the event hori-
zon at a steady rate; such radiation is known as HAWKING
RADIATION. This then could lead to the evaporation of the
hole. Primordial black holes could thus be very hot, and
from the outside they could look like WHITE HOLES, the
time-reversals of black holes.
It seems that supermassive black holes of the order
of 100 million solar masses lie at the centres of ACTIVE
GALACTIC NUCLEI, extreme examples of which are
QUASARS. It is thought there may also be supermassive
black holes at the centres of ordinary galaxies like the
Milky Way.
The lifetime of a black hole can be shown to be propor-
tional to the cube of its mass. For black holes of stellar
mass, their potential lifetime is of the order of 1067 years.
Many primordial black holes will have evaporated away
completely by now.
There are various different models of black holes. The
most straightforward is that of the Schwarzschild black
hole, a non-rotating black hole that has no charge. In
nature, however, it is expected that black holes do rotate
but have little charge, so the model of a rotating Kerr black
hole with no charge is probably the most applicable. A
KerrNewman black hole is rotating and has a charge. A
ReissnerNordstrm black hole is a non-rotating black
hole with a charge.
The radius of a non-rotating Schwarzschild black hole
of mass M is given by 2GM/c2, where G is the gravita-
tional constant and c is the speed of light. When a star
becomes smaller than this SCHWARZSCHILD RADIUS, grav-
ity completely dominates all other forces. The Schwarz-
schild radius determines the location of the surface of the
black hole, called the EVENT HORIZON. Only the region
on and outside the event horizon is relevant to the exter-
nal observer; events inside the event horizon can never
influence the exterior. There is no lower limit to the
56
blink comparator
radius of a black hole. Some of the primordial black black hole Radio jets,
holes could be truly microscopic. spewing from the centre of a
When a stellar black hole first forms, its event horizon galaxy, and lobes of radio
may have a grotesque shape and be rapidly vibrating. With- emission are the signatures of a
in a fraction of a second, however, the horizon settles down
to a unique smooth shape. A Kerr black hole has an event
supermassive black hole. The
giant elliptical galaxy M87 B
horizon that is flattened at the poles rather than circular (NGC 4486) houses the radio
(just as rotation flattens the Earth at its poles). What hap- source Virgo A (false colours
pens to matter after it crosses the event horizon depends on indicate the strength of the
whether or not the star is rotating. In the case of a collapsing radio emission).
but non-rotating star that is spherically symmetric, the mat-
ter is crushed to zero volume and infinite density at the SIN-
GULARITY, which is located at the centre of the hole.
Infinitely strong gravitational forces deform and squeeze blazar Term compounded from BL LACERTAE OBJECT
matter out of existence at the singularity, which is a region and QUASAR; it refers to a specific kind of extragalactic
where physical theory breaks down. In a rotating Kerr black object. The blazars are the most active of the galaxies
hole, however, the singularity need not be encountered. with active nuclei, that is, the galaxies whose central
Rotating black holes have fascinating implications for hypo- regions are undergoing energetic processes that turn
thetical space travel to other universes. them into SEYFERT GALAXIES, BL Lacertae objects or
The density of matter in a star as it crosses the critical quasars. The blazars show variable optical brightness,
event horizon need not necessarily be very high: its densi- strong and variable optical polarization and strong radio
ty could even be less than that of water. This is because emission. The variations in the optical region may be on
the density of any body is proportional to its mass divided timescales as short as days.
by its radius cubed, and the radius of a black hole is, as we Much of the activity in ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI is relat-
have seen, proportional to its mass. These two facts com- ed to JETS of gas expelled from their central regions with rel-
bined imply that the density at which a black hole is ativistic velocities. The most probable explanation for the
formed is inversely proportional to the square of the mass. exceptional activity in blazars is that with these galaxies we
Take a supermassive black hole with a mass of from are viewing jets directed straight towards us.
10,000 to 100 million solar masses the mass of a black
hole that might be found at the centre of certain active Blazhko effect Periodic change in the light-curves and
galaxies. Such a collapsing mass would reach the black periods of some RR LYRAE VARIABLE STARS; it was discov-
hole stage when its average density was roughly that of ered by Sergei Nikolaevich Blazhko (18701956). The
water. If the mass of the collapsing sphere were that of an most likely cause is pulsation in two modes simultaneous-
entire galaxy, the average density of matter crossing the ly, although certain stars appear to be oblique rotators,
event horizon would be less than that of air. that is, stars in which the magnetic axis does not corre-
Attempts to discover stellar black holes must rely on the spond to the rotational axis.
influence of their gravitational fields on nearby matter,
and/or their influences on the propagation of radiation in Blaze Star Popular name for the T Coronae Borealis, the
the vicinity of the hole. Black holes within BINARY STAR sys- brightest known RECURRENT NOVA. Normally around 11th
tems are potentially the easiest to detect because of the magnitude, it has flared up to naked-eye brightness on
influence on their companion. Material is pulled from the two occasions, once in 1866 when it reached 2nd mag.
companion into the black hole via an ACCRETION DISK. The and again in 1946 when it peaked at 3rd mag. T Coronae
frictional heating within the disk leads to the emission of X- Borealis is a spectroscopic binary in which an M3 red
rays (see X-RAY BINARY). The first candidate where one giant orbits with a white dwarf every 227.5 days; gas
companion in a binary system is thought to be a black hole falling from the red giant on to the companion causes the
is the X-ray source CYGNUS X-1. At the position of this X- outbursts. A possible additional periodicity of 56.7 days
ray source lies a SPECTROSCOPIC BINARY star HDE 226868, may be caused by a third component.
which has a period of 5.6 days. More recently, all-sky mon-
itors on space-borne X-ray observatories have discovered blink comparator (blink microscope) Instrument that
soft X-ray transients (SXTs); objects that produce rare, enables two photographs of the same area of sky, taken at
dramatic X-ray outbursts (typically separated by decades). different times, to be rapidly alternated to compare them.
Around 75% of SXTs contain black hole candidates. Any object that has changed position or brightness during
The existence of supermassive black holes in quasars the photograph intervals will show up.
and as the central sources in active galactic nuclei is gener- The comparator has two optical paths so that the two
ally accepted as the means of explaining the phenomena photographs can be seen together in one viewing eyepiece.
observed. Many ordinary galaxies like our own show By careful adjustment, the separate images are brought into
enhanced brightening at their cores, along with anom- exact coincidence and then alternately illuminated, chang-
alously high velocities of objects near the centre, suggest- ing from one to the other about once a second. All features
ing the existence of a black hole. that are identical appear unchanged, but any object that is
There is also the MISSING MASS PROBLEM: the density of on only one of the photographs is seen to blink on and off.
the observable matter in our Universe is much less than An object that has changed its position between the times
the theoretically computed value needed to close the the photographs were taken appears to jump to and fro and
Universe (see CLOSED UNIVERSE), and it may be that at an object that has changed in brightness is seen to pulsate.
least some is in the form of black holes. The eye is very efficient at detecting the few varying
objects among what can be tens of thousands of star
Blagg, Mary Adela (18581944) English astronomer images. This simple technique makes possible the discov-
who catalogued and mapped lunar features. She standard- ery of stars of large proper motion, minor planets, comets
ized the nomenclature of the Moons topographic features or variable stars, without the need individually to compare
(190713), collating and correcting thousands of names every star image on two photographs.
assigned by previous lunar cartographers. In 1920 the These days blink comparators are particularly used by
International Astronomical Union (IAU) appointed Blagg hunters of novae and asteroids but past examples of their
to its newly established Lunar Nomenclature Commis- work include: the discovery of PLUTO by Clyde
sion; twelve years of further research produced the TOMBAUGH; the catalogue of over 100,000 stars brighter
authoritative Named Lunar Formations (1932, compiled than magnitude 14.5 with detectable proper motion, pro-
with Karl Muller). With W.H. Wesley, she composed a duced by W.J. LUYTEN; and the majority of the nearly
Map of the Moon (1935), which remained the IAUs offi- 30,000 known variable stars discovered at various obser-
cial lunar map until the 1960s. vatories around the world.
57
Blinking Planetary
Blinking Planetary (NGC 6826) PLANETARY NEBULA second full moon in a calendar month, something which
located in northern Cygnus (RA 19h 44m.8 dec. 5031). occurs about seven times every 19 years, and it is used in
The nebula has a compact 25 diameter and overall mag- everyday speech to denote a rare event.
nitude 8.8. The central star is a relatively bright magni-
tude 10.6, which results in the interesting illusion that if
B the observer alternates between direct and AVERTED
blue straggler In a GLOBULAR CLUSTER, star that
appears to be younger than the others because it still lies
VISION, the nebula appears to blink in and out of view. on the MAIN SEQUENCE after the majority of other cluster
members have evolved off. It is observed to be on the
Bliss, Nathaniel (17001764) English astronomer, the main sequence beyond the TURNOFF POINT: it is bluer in
fourth ASTRONOMER ROYAL (176264). Bliss was an able spectral terms than the stars at the turnoff point. Being
observer who successfully observed the 1761 transit of younger and more massive than the other stars in the clus-
Venus. Bliss assisted James BRADLEY at Greenwich Obser- ter poses a problem as to the blue stragglers origin. They
vatory, succeeding him as Astronomer Royal, but made are thought to be either stars in close binaries that have
little impression on the observatory, dying only two years been rejuvenated by mass transfer from their companions,
after his appointment. or stars that were produced by a stellar collision.
The Hubble Space Telescope has imaged many blue
BL Lacertae object Category of luminous ACTIVE stragglers situated in the cores of globular clusters. They
GALACTIC NUCLEUS, the defining characteristics of which have also been found in OPEN CLUSTERS and in the
include very weak or unobservable emission lines and DWARF GALAXY companions to the Milky Way. See also
rapid variability. The prototype, BL Lacertae itself, was STELLAR EVOLUTION
long listed as a variable star until its extragalactic nature
became apparent from observations of the faint sur- BN object See BECKLINNEUGEBAUER OBJECT
rounding galaxy. When the objects continuum light is
faintest, weak emission lines similar to those of quasars Bode, Johann Elert (17471826) German astronomer,
may be detected, and their bright cores often have exten- director of Berlin Observatory from 1772. He did much
sive haloes at radio wavelengths as well. These properties to popularize astronomy, founding the highly regarded
are well explained by a picture in which BL Lacertae Astronomisches Jahrbuch in 1774, which he edited for over
objects are QUASISTELLAR OBJECTS (QSOs) or RADIO half a century. In 1801 he published Uranographia, the
GALAXIES seen almost along the line of a relativistic JET, most beautiful star ATLAS ever drawn, with a catalogue of
so that the radiation seen from the jet is Doppler boosted over 17,000 stars and non-stellar objects. Bodes name is
in frequency and intensity. This geometry also amplifies most famously associated with the empirical relationship
small changes in the velocity or direction of the jet, between planetary distances known as BODES LAW,
accounting for the strong variability of these objects, and though he did not in fact discover it.
fitting with the fact that many of them have small-scale
radio jets showing superluminal motion. A few BL Lac- Bodes law (TitiusBode law) Simple numerical rela-
ertae objects have been detected at the highest photon tionship, first noticed by Johann Titius of Wittenberg, but
energies, 1 TeV; this implies that their radiation is being popularized by Johann Elert BODE in 1772, which match-
beamed into a small angle (as in gamma-ray bursts), oth- es the distances of the then known planets from the Sun.
erwise it would be lost to pair production within the The formula is produced by taking the numbers 0, 3, 6,
source. BL Lacertae objects and the broadly similar opti- 12, 24, 48, 96 and 192 (all, apart from the first two, being
cally violently variable (OVV) QSOs are often referred double their predecessor) and then adding four, giving
to collectively as BLAZARS. the sequence 4, 7, 10, 16, 28, 52, 100, 196. If the distance
of the Earth from the Sun is then taken to be 10, it is
blooming Natural film that formed on early uncoated found that Mercury falls into place at 3.9, Venus at 7.2,
lenses. It was noticed the bloom improved the transmission Mars at 15.2, Jupiter at 52.0 and Saturn at 95.4. The dis-
of the lenses and some opticians still use the term to refer to covery of Uranus at 191.8, by Sir William Herschel in
COATING. Blooming also refers to the loss of focus of a cam- 1781, initiated a hunt for the missing planet between
era sensor because of excessive brightness and the term Mars and Jupiter at 28. This led to the discovery in 1801
may occasionally have this meaning in astronomy. of the first minor planet, Ceres, and subsequently the
ASTEROID BELT. Neptune, at 300.7, does not fit the
blue moon Occasional blue colour of the Moon, due to sequence although Pluto, at 394.6, does. The relationship
effects in the Earths atmosphere. It can be caused by dust is now widely regarded simply as a mathematical curiosi-
particles, from volcanoes or forest fires, high in the upper ty, rather than indicating anything significant about the
atmosphere, which scatter light, making it appear blue. physical properties of the Solar System.
The expression sometimes refers to the occurrence of a
Bok, Bartholomeus Jan (Bart) (190683) Dutch-
American astronomer best known for his studies of the
Milky Way and his discovery of BOK GLOBULES. At Har-
vard University (192957), Bok worked closely with his
wife, Priscilla Fairfield Bok (18961975), to map the
spiral arms of our Galaxy by star-counting methods. In
the course of this work, the two astronomers made highly
detailed studies of the Carina region from Harvards
southern station in South Africa. During his tenure at
Harvard, Bok was an early advocate of radio astronomy
research, and he was instrumental in setting up Mexicos
National Observatory at Tonantzintla. At Mount Stromlo
(Australia) Observatory (195766), where he was direc-
tor, they carried out similar surveys for the Magellanic
Clouds. He was especially interested in the Galaxys
many different kinds of gas and dust clouds, and he was
the first to identify the opaque, cool (10 K), tiny
Blinking Planetary The (0.62 l.y.) condensations of gas and dust now named
blink of NGC 6826 is an after him that give rise to low-mass stars. The Boks wrote
optical effect rather than the classic book The Milky Way, which had run through
anything occurring within the five editions as of 1981. From 1966 to 1974, he directed
planetary nebula itself. the Steward Observatory of the University of Arizona;
58
Botes
Nb = gb (EbEa)/kT and 4.8, separation 2.9; and Boo, which has yellow and orange components,
e mags. 4.8 and 7.1, separation 7.1, period 152 years. There are no bright deep-sky
Na ga objects in the constellation. The Quadrantid meteor shower radiates from the
where Na and Nb are the number densities of atoms in exci- northern part of Botes, which now incorporates the former constellation Quad-
tation levels a and b, ga and gb are constants for the levels rans Muralis, after which the shower is named.
called statistical weights, Ea and Eb are the excitation ener-
gies of the levels, k is BOLTZMANNS CONSTANT and T is the BRIGHTEST STARS
temperature. The equation is used in understanding stellar Name RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance
spectra and processes occurring in stellar atmospheres. h m mag. mag. type (l.y.)
Arcturus 14 16 19 11 0.05 0.3 K2 37
Bond, George Phillips (182565) American astronomer Izar 14 45 27 04 2.35 1.7 A0 210
who in 1859 succeeded his father, William Cranch BOND, Muphrid 13 55 18 24 2.68 2.4 G0 37
as director of the HARVARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY. He Seginus 14 32 38 18 3.04 1.0 A7 85
made many contributions to the studies of double stars 15 16 33 19 3.46 0.7 G8 117
and stellar parallax. With his father, he discovered Sat-
Nekkar 15 02 40 23 3.49 0.6 G8 219
urns Crepe Ring (the C Ring) and its eighth satellite,
59
Borrelly, Comet 19P/
Borrelly, Comet 19P/ SHORT-PERIOD COMET discovered field, therefore, has a strong influence on the structure of
on 1904 December 28 by Alphonse Borrelly of Marseilles. the bow shock. A quasi-perpendicular bow shock, in
The comet is usually quite faint, reaching magnitude 8 which the magnetic field points mostly at right angles to
at favourable returns. Its orbital period is 6.86 years, with the shock surface normal, tends to be a very abrupt
B the most recent return to perihelion coming on 2001 Sep-
tember 14. At this return, Comet Borrelly was visited by
boundary. A quasi-parallel bow shock, in which the mag-
netic field is closely parallel to the shock surface normal,
the DEEP SPACE 1 probe, becoming the second comet allows any very energetic particles to escape back into the
(after 1P/HALLEY) to have its nucleus imaged. Results upstream solar wind; it is thus a more diffuse boundary.
from the spacecrafts September 22 flyby showed the Bow shocks and shock waves in general are efficient accel-
nucleus to be a dark, elongated (6 3 km/3.7 1.9 mi) erators of particles, and they may be responsible for ener-
body with three emerging gas jets. gization processes around planetary magnetospheres and
indeed in many wider astronomical phenomena.
boson Elementary particle that obeys BoseEinstein sta-
tistics. Bosons are symmetric particles, which have inte- Boyden Observatory Optical observatory dating from
gral spins (0/1). Common bosons are the helium nucleus, 1887, situated 26 km (16 mi) east of Bloemfontein, South
the pi meson and the photon. Africa. The observatory transferred from Peru to its pre-
sent site in 1926 and was then equipped with a 1.5-m (60-
Boss, Lewis (18461912) American astronomer who in in.) reflector, which remains the largest telescope on the
1895 began an ambitious programme to measure star site. Originally a southern station of HARVARD COLLEGE
positions and magnitudes with unprecedented accuracy, OBSERVATORY, Boyden has been operated since 1976 by
culminating in two important star catalogues, the Prelimi- the University of the Free State.
nary General Catalogue of 6,188 Stars (1910) and the Gen-
eral Catalogue of 33,342 Stars (1937), the latter work brachinite Subgroup of the ACHONDRITE meteorites. Bra-
completed decades after his death by his son Benjamin chinites are olivine-rich igneous rocks with approximately
Boss (18801970). Boss observed the stars visible from chondritic bulk composition. They have oxygen isotopic
Earths northern hemisphere from New Yorks Dudley compositions similar to the HOWARDITEEUCRITEDIOGEN-
Observatory, where he became director in 1876, and the ITE ASSOCIATION (HEDs). Like the ACAPULCOITELODRAN-
southern stars from Argentina. ITE association, brachinites are considered to be primitive
achondrites.
Bowditch, Nathaniel (17731838) Self-educated
American scientist, author and translator of Laplaces Brackett series Series of infrared EMISSION or ABSORP-
massive Trait de mcanique cleste (182939). Bowditch TION LINES in the HYDROGEN SPECTRUM resulting from
made many observations of meteors, comets and the electron transitions down to or up from the fourth energy
Moon, which he wrote up between 1804 and 1820 some level of that atom. The Brackett lines are named with
of the first publications based upon original astronomical Greek letters: Brackett , which connects levels 4 and 5,
observations to appear in America. lies at 4.0512 m; Brackett , which connects levels 4 and
6, lies at 2.6252 m, and so on. The series ends at the
Bowen, Edward George (191191) Welsh scientist Brackett limit at 1.4584 m.
who used radar and other equipment salvaged at the end of
World War II to help found Australian radio astronomy. Bradford Robotic Telescope Autonomous 400-mm
He played a key role in the design and construction of the (18-in.) optical telescope located on the moors of West
Parkes Radio Observatorys 64-m (210-ft) radio telescope, Yorkshire, England. It was the first instrument in the
which was used for several important surveys of radio world to provide remote access via the Internet, princi-
sources. Bowen pioneered the use of radio telescopes to pally for education.
detect the radio-wavelength echoes produced by meteors.
Bradley, James (16931762) English astronomer and
Bowen, Ira Sprague (18981973) American astrophysi- clergyman, Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford
cist who in 1927 showed that previously unidentified lines and, later, at Greenwich Observatory. In 1742 he suc-
in the spectra of nebulae were due not to a new element, ceeded Edmond HALLEY, becoming the third
nebulium, but to so-called FORBIDDEN LINES of ionized ASTRONOMER ROYAL. While searching for stellar parallax,
oxygen and nitrogen. As long-time director of the Mount by making meticulous measurements of the star Draco-
Wilson and Palomar Observatories (194664), Bowen nis, Bradley discovered the ABERRATION of starlight in
oversaw the construction of the 200-inch (5-m) Hale Tele- 1728; this was the first direct observational evidence of the
scope and the 48-inch (1.2-m) Oschin Schmidt telescope Earths orbital motion, confirming the Copernican model
used to make the PALOMAR OBSERVATORY SKY SURVEY. of the Solar System. His value for this constant was 20.5,
the modern value being taken as 20.47. Bradley calculat-
bow shock Sharp boundary standing in the SOLAR WIND ed the time it takes sunlight to reach the Earth as 8 min-
flow upstream of a planetary MAGNETOSPHERE or other utes 12 seconds, just 7 seconds shorter than the currently
obstacle, such as a cometary or planetary IONOSPHERE. accepted value. From observations covering a complete
The flow of the solar wind is supersonic and indeed faster revolution of the nodes of the Moons orbit (172748), he
than the various characteristic speeds associated with the found a periodic nodding or NUTATION of the Earths axis.
magnetic field and plasmas of which it is constituted. As a At Greenwich, Bradley catalogued the positions of thou-
consequence, information that the solar wind is approach- sands of stars because he took into account the effects of
ing a planetary magnetosphere is unable to propagate aberration and nutation, his catalogues contained more
upstream into the flow, and a curved standing shock wave accurate stellar positions than those of his predecessors.
is formed. At this shock, the solar wind plasma is rapidly He also made accurate measurements of Jupiters diame-
decelerated and deflected around the magnetosphere; the ter and carefully observed the eclipses and other phenom-
upstream flow kinetic energy is converted into plasma ena of its satellites.
heating. Thus a region of hot, slow-flowing, turbulent
solar wind plasma and magnetic field appears down- Brahe, Tycho (15461601) Danish astronomer who
stream in the planets magnetosheath (the region between used pre-telescopic instruments of his own design to
the bow shock and the MAGNETOPAUSE). obtain planetary and star positions of unprecedented
Since the solar wind plasma is collisionless, it was origi- accuracy, later used by his assistant Johannes KEPLER to
nally assumed that a classical bow shock wave could not derive his three fundamental laws of planetary motions.
form. However, the magnetic field imparts a collective Tycho was born into a noble family, his father Otto
behaviour to the plasma, which thus acts in much the Brahe serving as a privy councillor and governor at Hels-
same way as do molecules in a classical gas. The magnetic ingborg, Denmark (now in Sweden). He was raised by
60
breccia
his uncle, Jrgen Brahe, who left him a substantial inher- BransDicke theory Alternative theory of gravity to
itance. As a thirteen-year-old boy, Tycho was greatly Einsteins general theory of relativity. It was proposed by
impressed by astronomers accurate prediction of the Princeton physicists C.H. Brans and R.H. Dicke in
total solar eclipse of 1560 August 21. From 1559 to 1961. Based on the ideas of Ernst Mach about reference
1570, he attended the universities at Copenhagen,
Leipzig, Wittenberg, Rostock and Basel, studying law
frames being connected to the distribution of matter in
the Universe, Brans and Dicke modified GENERAL RELA- B
and the humanities but maintaining a strong interest in TIVITY, introducing a scalar field, to include Machs pro-
astronomy. In 1566 Tycho duelled with a rival student, posal. The strength of this field is governed by an
losing the tip of his nose, which he covered for the rest of arbitrary constant w, but experiments limited the
his life with a metal prosthesis. During this period, his BransDicke parameter w to values closer and closer to
teachers helped him make astronomical globes and sim- one, at which the BransDicke theory became indistin-
ple cross-staffs, forerunners of the more sophisticated guishable from general relativity.
instruments he would later use, and he read Ptolemys
Almagest, the only astronomy book then available. Brashear, John Alfred (18401920) American tele-
In 1563 August, Tycho had observed a conjunction of scope-maker who founded a renowned optical company
Jupiter and Saturn, noticing that the Copernican tables in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, named after himself, today
were grossly in error (by several days) in predicting this known as Contraves Corp. Brashear made the 30-inch
event. He decided to devote the rest of his life to improving (0.76-m) Thaw refracting telescope for Pittsburghs
planetary and stellar positions, acquiring a large quadrant Allegheny Observatory. Besides telescopes, Brashears
and building a private observatory at Skne in 1571. The firm made spectroscopes, prisms and gratings and other
next year, Tycho independently discovered a supernova in highly specialized astronomical equipment, including
Cassiopeia, and his report, De stella nova (1573), made him George Ellery HALEs spectroheliograph.
famous. The Danish king, Frederick II, gave him the Baltic
island of Hveen in 1576, where Tycho built two observato- Braun, Wernher Magnus Maximilian von (191277)
ries, URANIBORG and STJERNEBORG, carrying out 20 years German-American rocket scientist who played a major
worth of very accurate observations with instruments such role in the US space programme. His early career was
as the 6 -ft (2-m) mural quadrant. He described these spent at the rocket development and test centre at Peen-
instruments and his work at Hveen in two magnificent emnde in north-eastern Germany, which produced a
books, Astronomiae instauratae mechanica (1598) and series of rockets culminating in the A-4, renamed the V-2
Astronomiae instauratae progymnasmata (1602). when it and the team were absorbed into Germanys war
Whereas previous astronomers had contented them- effort. At the close of World War II, von Braun and many
selves with observing the planets at opposition and quad- other German rocket scientists were relocated first to
rature, Tycho obtained positions at many intermediate White Sands (New Mexico) Proving Grounds, then to
points in their orbits, accurate to 30 the best previous Huntsville, Alabama. At White Sands, the V-2s were put
planetary positions were accurate only to 15. He was the to peaceful use in high-altitude atmospheric and astro-
first astronomer to take atmospheric refraction into nomical research. At Huntsville, von Braun led teams that
account in correcting observed planetary and stellar posi- built and launched the Jupiter and Redstone missiles and,
tions. Tycho made the first truly scientific studies of on 1958 January 31, the USAs first artificial satellite, Brahe, Tycho The Danish
comets, observing the position, magnitude, colour and Explorer 1. He oversaw the development of the Saturn I, astronomers model of the
orientation of the tail of the Great Comet of 1577. These IB and V launch vehicles for the Apollo programme. Solar System, with a static
observations led him to conclude that the comets orbit, Earth at the centre. He thought
which he determined must have an elongated shape, lay breccia Rock comprising angular fragments set in a that the Moon and Sun orbited
beyond the Moon a novel idea at the time. Tychos care- fine-grained matrix. Breccias form as a result of rocks the Earth and the other planets
ful measurements of the Suns apparent movement being crushed by meteoroid impacts, tectonic faulting, moved around the Sun.
allowed him to determine the length of a year to within 1
second, forcing 10 days to be dropped from the Julian cal-
endar in 1582 after it was shown that the Julian year Saturn
exceeded the true year by this amount of time. He also
compiled a catalogue of 777 stars.
Jupiter
Tycho was not a Copernican, but created a TYCHON-
IAN SYSTEM with the planets revolving around the Sun,
and the Sun and Moon revolving around a fixed Earth. Mars
This model was widely accepted by many astronomers
until the mid-17th century. His observations of the
comet of 1577, which demonstrated that it moved
among the planets, defeated the Aristotelian notion that
the planets were contained within solid crystalline
spheres through which a body like the comet could not Venus
possibly move. Tycho ended his days as Imperial Mathe-
Mercury
matician under the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II in
Prague, where Kepler was one of his assistants. Kepler
Sun
later reduced much of Tychos data (which appeared in
the Rudolphine Tables of 1627) to discover the three fun-
damental laws of planetary motion (160919).
Moon
Brahmagupta (598c.670) Indian astronomer and
author of the Bra hmasphutasiddha nta (The Opening of Earth
the Universe), a scholarly discussion of algebra, geometry
and astronomy in verse form. Brahmagupta was an expert
on the phases of the Moon, eclipses of the Sun and Moon,
and the positions and movements of the planets.
61
bremsstrahlung
B ring Voyager 2s images Brorsen, Comet 5D/ Faint short-period COMET discov-
of Saturns rings revealed that ered by Theodor Brorsen, Germany, on 1846 February
they were made up of many 26. With an orbital period of 5.5 years, it was seen at five
thousands of narrow ringlets. returns. At the last of these, in 1879, it underwent a dra-
B The dark markings within the B
ring are known as spokes and
matic fade and almost certainly disintegrated. Comet
5D/Brorsen has not been seen since.
are thought to be caused by
the planets magnetic field. BrorsenMetcalf, Comet 23P/ Short-period COMET
discovered by Theodor Brorsen, Germany, on 1847 July
20. The comet reached peak magnitude 6.5 in mid-
August but was only observed over a short arc, leading to
uncertainties as to its orbital period. The comet was
rediscovered by Joel H. Metcalf on 1919 August 21,
reaching magnitude 4.5 around perihelion on October
17. The comet next returned to perihelion, 0.48 AU from
the Sun, on 1989 September 11, reaching magnitude 5,
and proving a readily observable object during this
apparition. Comet 23P/BrorsenMetcalf appears to be
subject to considerable NON-GRAVITATIONAL FORCE,
which modifies the orbital parameters. The comets cur-
rent period is 70.54 years.
violent volcanic eruptions and certain other geological
processes. Some METEORITES are breccias formed by Brouwer, Dirk (190266) Dutch-born expert in celestial
collisions of their parent bodies. Impact-generated brec- mechanics. He spent his career at Yale University, where
cias, which may also contain glass, are the most abun- he directed its observatory for a quarter-century and edit-
dant rocks in lunar highlands, and they were ed the Astronomical Journal. He was among the first to use
predominant among the rock samples returned by the computers to perform the complex and laborious calcula-
Apollo astronauts. tions demanded by the methods of celestial mechanics that
he developed for improving the orbital elements of planets,
bremsstrahlung See FREEFREE TRANSITION asteroids and comets. Brouwer extended these methods to
calculate the orbits of the first artificial Earth satellites.
bright nebula Interstellar gas or dust cloud that may be
seen in the visible by its own light, in contrast to DARK Brown, Ernest William (18661938) English mathe-
NEBULAE, which can only be seen when silhouetted against matician, a specialist in celestial mechanics, who moved to
a bright background. Bright nebulae include all types of America in 1891. Working at Yale University, Brown con-
EMISSION NEBULAE plus REFLECTION NEBULAE. structed tables of the Moons motion accurate to 0.01,
based in part on a century and a half of observations
Bright Star Catalogue (BS) Catalogue of all naked-eye made from Englands Greenwich Observatory. His
stars, first compiled by Frank SCHLESINGER and pub- advances in lunar theory showed that the Earths variable
lished as the Yale Bright Star Catalogue by Yale University rotation rate explained much of the irregularity in the
in 1930; it is now maintained by Dorrit HOFFLEIT. The Moons movements. Brown also made major contribu-
current (5th preliminary, 1991) edition, in electronic tions to our knowledge of the Trojan asteroids.
form, lists 9110 stars brighter than mv = 6.5 and gives
their position, parallax, proper motion, magnitude, spec- Brown, Robert Hanbury (19162002) English
tral type and other parameters. astronomer, born in India, who in the 1950s applied his
expertise in radar developed during World War II to the
brown dwarf The brown B ring Second major ring of SATURN, lying inside the A new science of radio astronomy. His major accomplish-
dwarf Gliese 229B (next to the RING at a distance between 82,000 km (51,000 mi) and ment was the invention of the intensity interferometer,
cool red star Gliese 229), in 117,600 km (73,100 mi) from the planetary centre. with which he was able to measure the diameters of stars,
images from the Hale something impossible with optical telescopes. Brown
Telescope (top) at Palomar and British Astronomical Association (BAA) Main orga- played a major role in conducting radio surveys of the sky
the Hubble Space Telescope nization co-ordinating the work of amateur astronomers from Jodrell Bank, and spent much of his later career at
(bottom). It is estimated to be in the UK, with a membership (2001) of around 2500. It the University of Sydney.
100,000 times dimmer than was founded in 1890 as an egalitarian alternative to the
our Sun. Royal Astronomical Society. The BAA has a number of brown dwarf Star with mass greater than about 0.01
observing sections, each dedicated to a specific area of solar mass but less than 0.08 solar mass; its core tempera-
astronomy. Reports are published in a bimonthly Journal, ture does not rise high enough to start thermonuclear
and the annual Handbook provides ephemerides for astro- reactions. It is luminous, however, because it slowly
nomical phenomena. shrinks in size and radiates away its gravitational energy.
As its surface temperature is below the 2500 K lower limit
British Interplanetary Society (BIS) Worlds longest- for RED DWARFS, it is known as a brown dwarf.
established organization that is devoted solely to sup- The first unambiguous detection and image of a brown
porting and promoting the exploration of space and dwarf, Gliese 229B (GL229B), was made in 1995.
astronautics; it was founded in 1933. Though its head- GL229B is a small companion to the cool red star Gliese
quarters are in London, the society has a world-wide 229, which is located 19 l.y. from Earth in the constellation
membership. Its monthly journal, Spaceflight, first of Lepus. It is estimated to be 20 to 50 times the mass of
appeared in 1956, the year before the launch of the first Jupiter. Infrared spectroscopic observations, made with the
artificial satellite, and it is regarded as an authoritative 200-inch (5-m) Hale telescope at Palomar, show that the
source on international space programmes and the com- brown dwarf has an abundance of methane, making it sim-
mercial exploration of space. ilar in composition to Jupiter and the other gas giant plan-
ets in the Solar System. More than 100 brown dwarf
Brocchis Cluster See COATHANGER candidates have since been discovered in infrared surveys,
many of which are warmer than GL229B but cooler than
Brooks, Comet (C/1893 U1) COMET discovered in M dwarf stars. A new class of L dwarf (see L STAR) has thus
1893, reaching peak magnitude 7.0. Its complex, been added to the SPECTRAL CLASSIFICATION system.
rapidly changing ion tail was one of the first to have its The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) has carried out a
activity photographed. survey of brown dwarfs, showing that there are more low-
62
Butterfly Cluster
mass brown dwarfs than high-mass ones. Brown dwarfs original STEADY-STATE THEORY, explains the COSMIC
are far more abundant than previously thought, but they MICROWAVE BACKGROUND. It proposes that matter is creat-
are probably not abundant enough to contribute signifi- ed by a series of mini Big Bangs at a rate of 1016 solar
cantly to the MISSING MASS. The HST survey also showed masses on timescales of duration c.1/H0 (the Hubble
that many brown dwarfs are free-floating isolated bodies
rather than members of CLOSE BINARY systems, suggesting
time). Burbidges cosmology suggests that the isotope 4He
is produced, not by the traditional Big Bang, but by stellar B
that they form in a manner similar to stars, not planets. hydrogen burning, as are other light isotopes, up to 11B.
However, some of the more massive EXTRASOLAR PLAN- He has also directed Kitt Peak National Observatory.
ETS may well be brown dwarfs. Margaret Burbidge has worked at most of the same
institutions as her husband, and has served as director of
Bruno, Giordano (15481600) Italian philosopher and Royal Greenwich Observatory (197273). In much of her
monk. A sharp critic of the cosmology of Aristotle and an work she has applied spectroscopy to determine the mass-
early supporter of Copernicus heliocentric theory, he was es and rotation rates of galaxies. In 1957 she, her husband,
burned at the stake in Rome for theological heresy and William FOWLER and Fred HOYLE published a seminal
suspicion of magical practices. Bruno postulated a cos- paper in which they set forth the basic processes that gov-
mology in which the universe was infinite, as elucidated in ern stellar nucleosynthesis. Their theory (known from the
his 1584 work De linfinito universo e mondi. initials of its proponents as the B2FH theory) explained
that younger stars convert their abundant supplies of
BS Abbreviation of BRIGHT STAR CATALOGUE hydrogen into helium and light, and as they age, the heli-
um is gradually burned into carbon, oxygen and other
B star Member of a class of blue-white stars, the spectra chemical elements. Heavier nuclei are formed when the
of which are characterized by neutral helium and strong carbon and oxygen atoms combine with protons or He
hydrogen lines. MAIN-SEQUENCE B dwarfs have a great nuclei Mg, Si, S, Ar and Ca can be synthesized this way.
range of stellar properties. Temperatures range from The Burbidges have made extensive investigations of
10,000 K at B9.5 to 31,000 K at B0, zero-age masses quasars and AGNs, finding that the two often coincide.
from 2.3 to 14 solar masses, zero-age luminosities from 25 They concluded that AGNs emit enormous amounts of
to 25,000 solar luminosities, and lifetimes from 800 mil- energy from relatively confined regions, and suggested
lion to 11 million years. B GIANTS and SUPERGIANTS have that BLACK HOLES are the power source. Margaret Bur-
increasingly narrow hydrogen lines, from which the Mor- bidge also helped develop the Faint Object Spectrograph
ganKeenan class can be determined. Average dwarf rota- for the HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE, which she has used to
tion speeds maximize at B5 at over 250 km/s (160 mi/s). study the ultraviolet flux of AGNs.
BE STARS are fast rotators surrounded by disks that radiate
emission lines. Slower rotators can be CHEMICALLY PECU- Burnham, Sherburne Wesley (18381921) American
LIAR STARS, appearing as MERCURYMANGANESE STARS. observer and cataloguer of double stars who worked at
AP STARS extend into the class as Bp. Lick Observatory (188892) and Yerkes Observatory
Because of their youth, B stars are found in the galactic (18941914), discovering over a thousand new pairs.
disk and in regions of star formation. Temperatures at B0 Burnham was able to use the largest refracting telescopes
and B1 are high enough to produce diffuse nebulae. Light of the day, including Licks 36-inch (0.9-m) and Yerkes
scattered by dust from cooler B stars creates reflection 40-inch (1-m). His lifes work culminated in the publica-
nebulae. Along with O STARS, B stars form loose, unbound tion of the massive two-volume General Catalogue of Dou-
OB ASSOCIATIONS. While rare (one for every 1000 or more ble Stars Within 121 Degrees of the North Pole, which
stars), B stars are thousands of times more common than contained data for over 13,000 doubles.
O stars, and help to outline the spiral arms of galaxies and
to give them their bluish colours. Butterfly Cluster (M6, NGC 6405) Bright OPEN CLUS- Butterfly Cluster The open
O dwarfs evolve into B supergiants, some of which TER containing 80 stars of magnitude 6 and fainter cluster M6 (NGC 6405) in
turn into luminous blue variables, which can have lumi- together with associated nebulosity; it is located a few Scorpius is predominantly
nosities up to two million times that of the Sun and mass degrees north of the Sting asterism marking the tail of composed of young, blue stars
loss rates up to a hundredth of a solar mass per year (Eta Scorpius (RA 17h 40m.1 dec. 3213). With an integrat- and is thought to be about 100
Carinae, for example). B dwarfs evolve into giants and ed magnitude 4.2, the Butterfly Cluster is visible to the million years old. It is some
may appear at some point as CEPHEID VARIABLES. Class B naked eye under good conditions. It was catalogued by 20 l.y. across.
also contains the Beta Cephei variables, all giants or sub-
giants that pulsate with multiple periods of hours and
amplitudes of a few hundredths of a magnitude. Bright
examples of B stars include Achernar B5 IV, Regulus B7
V, Rigel B8la and Spica BI V.
63
butterfly diagram
0 DUMBBELL
10
20 BY Draconis stars (BY) EXTRINSIC VARIABLE star, con-
30
sisting of an emission-line dwarf star (with dKedMe spec-
40
tra) that shows variations of 0.010.5 magnitude in
luminosity. The changes arise from axial rotation of stars
50
1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 with markedly non-uniform surface luminosity, caused by
large starspots and chromospheric activity. The spots are
larger than those on the Sun (covering up to 20% of the
butterfly diagram During PTOLEMY in the 2nd century AD as a little cloud. The stellar surface) and have little or no penumbra. Periods
the solar cycle, the latitude at cluster lies 2000 l.y. away in the direction of the galactic range from a fraction of a day to about 120 days. A number
which sunspots form changes. centre. It takes its popular name from the distribution of (approximately 20) of these red dwarf stars also exhibit
This is related to changes in the its stars in two fan-shaped wings. The Butterfly Cluster flare activity, in which case they are classed as FLARE STARS.
Suns magnetic field during its has an apparent diameter of 33.
cycle. Cycles usually overlap, Byurakan Astrophysical Observatory Optical obser-
with the first spots of a new butterfly diagram (Maunder diagram) Plot of the dis- vatory situated some 40 km (25 mi) north-west of Yere-
cycle forming concurrently with tribution in solar latitude of SUNSPOTS over the course of van, Armenia, at an elevation of more than 1500 m
the last spots of the old cycle. the approximate 11-year SOLAR CYCLE. At the start of a (4900 ft). The observatory was founded in 1946 by the
cycle, sunspots tend to appear at solar latitudes of up to Armenian Academy of Sciences, on the initiative of Viktor
40 north and south of the equator. Their numbers AMBARTSUMIAN. Its largest telescopes are a 1-m (40-in.)
increase and their latitude distribution moves toward the Schmidt and a 2.6-m (102-in.) reflector, opened in 1960
equator as the cycle progresses. This graphical represen- and 1976 respectively. The Schmidt is notable for the dis-
tation of sunspot latitudes against dates of observation was covery of MARKARIAN GALAXIES.
64
calendar
C C
caldera A Magellan radar
image of Sacajawea Patera, in
the western part of Ishtar Terra
on Venus. With a depth of
12 km (0.61.2 mi), this
caldera has a maximum
diameter of 420 km (252 mi).
Caelum See feature article calendar System for measuring longer intervals of time
by dividing it into periods of days, weeks, months and
CAI See CALCIUMALUMINIUM-RICH INCLUSION years. The length of the day is based on the average rota-
tion period of the Earth, while a year is based on the
Calar Alto Observatory German-Spanish optical orbital period of the Earth around the Sun.
observatory situated in the Sierra de los Filabres in The MONTH was originally the period between suc-
Andaluca, southern Spain, at an elevation of 2170 m cessive full moons (29.5 days), giving a lunar year of 354
(7120 ft). Dating from 1973, it is operated by the MAX- days, but in modern calendars it is now roughly one
PLANCK-INSTITUT FR ASTRONOMIE in Heidelberg; the twelfth of a year. Because there are not a whole number
Madrid Observatory also has a 1.5-m (60-in.) telescope of full moons in a year, the two cannot be simply recon-
there. Principal instruments of the German-Spanish ciled into a common calendar, and while the modern
Astronomical Centre are the 3.5-m (138-in.) and 2.2-m civil calendar is based on the year, the dates of religious
(87-in.) reflectors, dating from 1984 and 1979 respective- festivals (such as Easter) are still set by reference to the
ly. There is also a 1.2-m (48-in.) telescope and a small lunar month. The week is not based on any astronomical
Schmidt that was formerly at HAMBURG OBSERVATORY. phenomena but instead derives from the Jewish and
Christian tradition that every seventh day should be a
calciumaluminium-rich inclusion (CAI) In a METE- day of rest.
ORITE, an irregular-shaped refractory inclusion of oxide The ancient Egyptians were the first to use a calendar
and silicate minerals such as spinel, hibonite and melilite. based on a solar year, the Babylonians having used a lunar
CAIs can be up to c.1 cm (about half an inch) in size and year of 12 months, adding extra months when it became
frequently exhibit complex mineralogical zoning, both in necessary to keep the calendar in step with the seasons.
their rims and in their cores. They contain the daughter Our present calendar is based on that of the Romans,
products from now-extinct short-lived radionuclides, which originally had only ten months. Julius Caesar, on
indicating rapid solidification after production of the the advice of the Greek astronomer Sosigenes, intro-
nuclides. CAIs are the oldest solid objects from the pre- duced the Julian Calendar in 45 BC. This was a solar cal-
solar nebula. endar based on a year of 365.25 days, but fixed at 365
days, with a leap year of 366 days every fourth year to
caldera Large, roughly circular volcanic depression compensate. The year commenced on March 25 and the
formed by collapse over an evacuated MAGMA chamber. Julian Calendar, which was completed by Caesar Augus-
Small calderas (less than 5 km/3 mi in diameter) are tus in 44 BC, also established the present-day names,
common at the crests of terrestrial basaltic and andesitic lengths and order of the months.
volcanoes. Calderas as large as 75 km (47 mi) across The Julian year of 365.25 days is slightly different
have formed on Earth during volcanic ash flow erup- from the solar year of 365.2419 days (being 11m14s
tions. The summit caldera of the Martian volcano OLYM- longer) but accumulates an error of almost eight days
PUS MONS, the largest volcano in the Solar System, is every 1000 years. By the 16th century this error had
about 80 km (50 mi) across. become noticeable, the VERNAL EQUINOX, for example,
occurring 10 days early in 1582. To correct this error,
Caldwell Catalogue Listing of 109 deep-sky objects Pope Gregory XIII removed 10 days from the calendar
intended to complement those in the MESSIER CATA- so in 1582, October 15 followed October 4, and instigat-
LOGUE. Charles Messier omitted from his list several ed the use of a new system known as the Gregorian cal-
prominent objects, such as the Double Cluster in endar in which only century years divisible by 400 (for
Perseus, and southern-hemisphere objects of which he
was unaware. In 1993 English amateur astronomer
CAELUM (GEN. CAELI , ABBR . CAE )
Patrick MOORE, recognizing these omissions, gathered a
further 109 deep-sky objects in a catalogue that takes its
title from one of his middle names. The list enjoys some aint and obscure southern constellation, sandwiched between Columba and the
popularity among amateur observers who have observed
all the Messier objects and are seeking further targets.
F southern end of Eridanus, introduced by Nicolas Lacaille in the 1750s. It rep-
resents a sculptors chisel. Its brightest star, Cae, is only mag. 4.4.
See table, pages 6667
65
Caliban
example, 1600, 2000) should be leap years. The start of The two other major calendars in use today are the
the year was also changed to January 1. Jewish and Muslim calendars, both of which are based
By the time this New Style calendar, as it was known, on a lunar year. The Jewish is derived from the ancient
was adopted in Great Britain in 1752 the error had Hebrew calendar and is based on lunar months of 29
increased to 11 days, so that September 14 followed Sep- and 30 days alternately, with an intercalary month insert-
tember 2. This is why the British financial year ends on ed every three years. The length of the Muslim year is
April 5 the old New Years Day (March 25) plus the 11 also 12 months of alternate lengths 30 and 29 days,
C days lost in 1752.
Today the Gregorian calendar, which repeats every
except for the 12th month which can have either 29 or
30 days.
400 years since this equates to an exact number of weeks,
is used throughout the Western world and parts of Asia. Caliban One of the several small outer satellites of
It is also known as the Christian calendar since it uses the URANUS. It was discovered in 1997 by Brett Gladman
birth of Christ as a starting point, subsequent dates being and others. Caliban is about 60 km (40 mi) in size. It
designated anno domini (in the year of our Lord) and pre- takes 579 days to circuit the planet at an average
ceding dates being BC (before Christ). The accumulated distance of 7.23 million km (4.49 million mi). It has a
error between the Gregorian year and the true solar year RETROGRADE orbit (inclination near 141) with
now amounts to just three days in 10,000 years. eccentricity 0.159. In origin Caliban is thought to be a
CALDWELL CATALOGUE
RA (2000.0) Dec.
C NGC/IC Constellation Type h min Magnitude Size () Comment
1 188 Cepheus open cluster 00 44.4 85 20 8.1 14
2 40 Cepheus planetary nebula 00 13.0 72 32 10.7 1.0 0.7
3 4236 Draco Sb galaxy 12 16.7 69 27 9.6 23 8
4 7023 Cepheus reflection nebula 21 01.8 68 10 18 18
5 IC 342 Camelopardalis SBc galaxy 03 46.8 68 06 9.2 18 17
6 6543 Draco planetary nebula 17 58.6 66 38 8.1 22 16 CATS EYE NEBULA
7 2403 Camelopardalis Sc galaxy 07 36.9 65 36 8.4 18 10
8 559 Cassiopeia open cluster 01 29.5 63 18 9.5 4
9 Sh2-155 Cepheus bright nebula 22 56.8 62 37 50 10
10 663 Cassiopeia open cluster 01 46.0 61 15 7.1 16
11 7635 Cassiopeia bright nebula 23 20.7 61 12 8 15 8
12 6946 Cepheus SAB galaxy 20 34.8 60 09 8.9 11 10
13 457 Cassiopeia open cluster 01 19.1 58 20 6.4 13
14 869/884 Perseus open clusters 02 20.0 57 08 5.3 and 6.1 29 and 29 DOUBLE CLUSTER
15 6826 Cygnus planetary nebula 19 44.8 50 31 8.8 27 24 BLINKING PLANETARY
16 7243 Lacerta open cluster 22 15.3 49 53 6.4 21
17 147 Cassiopeia dE4 galaxy 00 33.2 48 30 9.3 13 8
18 185 Cassiopeia dE0 galaxy 00 39.0 48 20 9.2 12 10
19 IC 5146 Cygnus bright nebula 21 53.4 47 16 10 COCOON NEBULA
20 7000 Cygnus bright nebula 20 58.8 44 20 120 100 NORTH AMERICA NEBULA
21 4449 Canes Venatici Irregular galaxy 12 28.2 44 06 9.4 65
22 7662 Andromeda planetary nebula 23 25.9 42 33 8.3 17 14
23 891 Andromeda Sb galaxy 02 22.6 42 21 9.9 14 3
24 1275 Perseus Seyfert galaxy 03 19.8 41 31 11.6 3.5 2.5
25 2419 Lynx globular cluster 07 38.1 38 53 10.4 4.1
26 4244 Canes Venatici Scd galaxy 12 17.5 37 49 10.2 18 2
27 6888 Cygnus bright nebula 20 12.0 38 20 20 10
28 752 Andromeda open cluster 01 57.8 37 41 5.7 50
29 5005 Canes Venatici Sb galaxy 13 10.9 37 03 9.5 63
30 7331 Pegasus Sb galaxy 22 37.1 34 25 9.5 11 4
31 IC 405 Auriga bright nebula 05 16.2 34 16 37 19
32 4631 Canes Venatici Sc galaxy 12 42.1 32 32 9.3 17 3
33 6992/5 Cygnus SN remnant 20 56.8 31 28 60 8 Eastern VEIL NEBULA
34 6960 Cygnus SN remnant 20 45.7 30 43 70 6 Western VEIL NEBULA
35 4889 Coma Berenices E4 galaxy 13 00.1 27 59 11.4 32
36 4559 Coma Berenices Sc galaxy 12 36.0 27 58 9.8 13 5
37 6885 Vulpecula open cluster 20 12.0 26 29 5.9 7
38 4565 Coma Berenices Sb galaxy 12 36.3 25 59 9.6 16 2
39 2392 Gemini planetary nebula 07 29.2 20 55 9.2 0.25 ESKIMO NEBULA
40 3626 Leo Sb galaxy 11 20.1 18 21 10.9 32
41 Melotte 25 Taurus open cluster 04 27 16 0.5 330 HYADES
42 7006 Delphinus globular cluster 21 01.5 16 11 10.6 2.8
43 7814 Pegasus Sb galaxy 00 03.3 16 09 10.3 63
44 7479 Pegasus SBb galaxy 23 04.9 12 19 10.9 4.4 3.4
45 5248 Botes Sc galaxy 13 37.5 08 53 10.2 75
46 2261 Monoceros bright nebula 06 39.2 08 44 3.5 1.5 HUBBLES VARIABLE NEBULA
47 6934 Delphinus Globular cluster 20 34.2 07 24 8.7 5.9
48 2775 Cancer Sa galaxy 09 10.3 07 02 10.1 54
49 2237-9 Monoceros bright nebula 06 32.3 05 03 80 60 ROSETTE NEBULA
50 2244 Monoceros open cluster 06 32.4 04 52 4.8 24
51 IC 1613 Cetus irregular galaxy 01 04.8 02 07 9.2 12 11
52 4697 Virgo E4 galaxy 12 48.6 05 48 9.3 64
53 3115 Sextans SO galaxy 10 05.2 07 43 8.9 83
54 2506 Monoceros open cluster 08 00.2 10 47 7.6 7
55 7009 Aquarius planetary nebula 21 04.2 11 22 8.0 0.4 1.6 SATURN NEBULA
66
California Nebula
captured body, previously a CENTAUR. Other recently California Institute of Technology (Caltech) Small,
discovered outer Uranian satellites with a similar independent university dedicated to exceptional instruc-
suspected origin to Caliban are PROSPERO, SETEBOS, tion and research in engineering and science, located in
STEPHANO and SYCORAX; an object discovered in Pasadena, California, USA. Its off-campus facilities
VOYAGER 2 images in 1999 and provisionally designated include the JET PROPULSION LABORATORY, PALOMAR
as S/1986 U10 awaits confirmation. OBSERVATORY, OWENS VALLEY RADIO OBSERVATORY and
the W.M. KECK OBSERVATORY.
California Extremely Large Telescope (CELT)
Proposed 30-m (100-ft) optical/infrared telescope, California Nebula (NGC 1499) emission nebula in the
C
sponsored jointly by the University of California and the eastern part of the constellation perseus (RA 04h 00m.7
CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY. The instrument dec. 3637). The nebula is illuminated by the hot,
would build on the segmented-mirror technology used for young O-class star Persei. Although visually faint, the
the 10-m (33-ft) telescopes of the W.M. KECK nebula shows up well in long-exposure photographs
OBSERVATORY, and would have a mirror composed of 1080 taken on red-sensitive films. It takes its name from its
hexagonal segments. It would rely on ADAPTIVE OPTICS for resemblance, in outline, to the American state. The Cali-
high resolution, bringing the first generation of galaxies fornia Nebula covers an area of 160 40, elongated
within its grasp when fully operational in 201015. roughly northsouth.
67
Callisto
Callisto Asgard, a multi- Callisto Outermost and darkest of the GALILEAN SATEL-
ring impact basin on Callisto, LITES of JUPITER. It has an albedo of only 0.2. Callisto is
imaged by the Galileo heavily cratered and is the only member of the group to
spacecraft. Callistos icy show no clear surface signs of current or past geological
surface is heavily scarred by activity. Callistos density of 1.9 g/cm3 suggests that it is
impact cratering. composed of rock and ice in a 40:60 mixture. Gravity
measurements made by the Galileo orbiter during close
flybys of Callisto suggest that its interior is only weakly dif-
ferentiated (see DIFFERENTIATION), and that the rock is not
all concentrated into a core, in contrast to Callistos neigh-
bour GANYMEDE. Perplexingly, measurements made by
the Galileo orbiter hinted at a magnetic field, apparently
generated at a shallow depth within Callisto as a result of
its orbital passage through Jupiters MAGNETOSPHERE. One
way to explain this would be if Callisto has a salty ocean
no more than 100 km (60 mi) below its icy surface, but
this is hard to reconcile with the great age of the surface
implied by the density of CRATERS.
Although Callistos craters are clearly produced by
meteoroidal or cometary impact, they are rather different
from those found on the Moon. For example, Callisto has
very few craters less than about 60 km (40 mi) in diame-
ter, showing that the satellite was bombarded by a differ-
ent population of impactors from that responsible for
lunar craters. The largest craters have a subdued shape, as
if Callistos LITHOSPHERE has not been strong enough to
support their topography. There are also a few enormous
Caloris Planitia This vast impact basins marked by concentric rings of fractures; the
(1300 km/800 mi diameter) largest of these, named VALHALLA, is about 4000 km
multi-ring impact basin on (2500 mi) across. About a dozen linear chains of craters
Mercury was imaged during have been identified on Callisto, each of which was proba-
the Mariner 10 mission in 1974. bly produced by the serial impact of fragments of a comet
Shockwaves from the impact, broken up by tidal forces during a close passage of Jupiter
early in Mercurys history, have (see SHOEMAKERLEVY 9). See data at JUPITER
produced unusual geological
features on the opposite Caloris Planitia (Basin of Heat) Largest single feature
hemisphere of the planet. on MERCURY imaged by MARINER 10. It is situated near one
68
Cancer
69
Candy, Michael Philip
70
carbon star
71
Carina
72
Cassini Division
73
Cassiopeia
74
catena
75
Catharina
They are typically tens to hundreds of kilometres long and is the unwanted charge that is created by the natural ran-
consist of craters of less than one kilometre to tens of kilo- dom generation and recombination of electronhole pairs
metres in diameter. Catenae are most frequently chains of that occurs at temperatures above absolute zero. This
impact craters. Some catenae, such as those found on Io, thermally induced charge can mask the signal when
may be chains of volcanic craters. Drainage of surface observing very faint objects over a long period of time but
material into tectonic fault openings or collapsed lava can be effectively eliminated by cooling the CCD using
tubes may also form small catenae. liquid nitrogen. A low dark current makes it possible to
C Catharina Lunar crater (18S 24E), 88 km (55 mi) in
store the signal charge for long periods of time, thus allow-
ing exposures from a few tens of seconds to several hours
diameter. With THEOPHILUS and CYRILLUS, it forms a to be achieved.
trio of similar large craters. An older formation, CCDs can thus be used to accumulate signals from
Catharina shows much erosion, which gives its walls a very faint light sources. They are more sensitive than
highly irregular outline. Later impacts have almost photographic emulsion, are linear, spatially uniform and
completely destroyed its north-east wall. No terracing is stable with time. They are also sensitive over a broad
visible on Catharinas inner slopes, and its floor is range of the spectrum, have low noise levels and a large
devoid of a central peak. dynamic range so that they can be used to detect both
bright and faint objects at the same time. They can be
Cats Eye Nebula (NGC 6543) Comparatively bright used for direct imaging applications, surveying large
(magnitude 8.1) PLANETARY NEBULA; it shows a greenish areas of sky, for photometry or as spectroscopic detec-
tint when observed visually. Located in the northern con- tors. Because of their versatility, they have almost com-
stellation Draco, roughly midway between and (RA pletely replaced photographic plates.
17h 58m.6 dec. 6638), the Cats Eye has an apparent
diameter of 350. It has an 11th-magnitude central star. CD Abbreviation of CRDOBA DURCHMUSTERUNG
Caucasus Montes Lunar mountain range (36N 8E), cD galaxy Largest, most luminous kind of normal
dividing Mare IMBRIUM from Mare SERENITATIS. Some GALAXY. Often found at the centres of rich clusters, they
of its peaks rise to altitudes of 3650 m (12,000 ft). resemble giant ELLIPTICAL GALAXIES except for having a
Material ejected by the Imbrium impact has scoured the more extensive outer envelope of stars. Some cD galax-
Caucasus Mountains, which run roughly northsouth. ies can be traced over spans exceeding a million light-
The most southerly part of the range consists mainly of years. They may grow as a result of attracting stars that
isolated mountain peaks. were stripped from surrounding galaxies by tidal
encounters, either within the cluster as a whole or with
CCD (charge-coupled device) Small electronic imaging the cD galaxy. This class was recognized by William W.
device, widely used in astronomy, which is highly efficient MORGAN as part of the Yerkes system of galaxy classifica-
in its response to light and therefore able to detect very tion, along with N GALAXIES.
faint objects over a broad range of the spectrum.
CCDs consist of an oxide-covered silicon substrate CDS Abbreviation of CENTRE DE DONNES
with a two-dimensional rectangular array of light-sensitive ASTRONOMIQUES DE STRASBOURG
electrodes on the surface. These electrodes form a matrix
of pixels, or picture elements, each less than 0.03 nm in celestial coordinates Reference system used to define
size and capable of storing electronic charges created by the positions of points or celestial objects on the celestial
the absorption of light. sphere. A number of systems are in use, depending on
Photons imaged on to the surface of the CCD penetrate the application.
the electrode structure and enter the substrate, where elec- EQUATORIAL COORDINATES are the most commonly
tronhole pairs are generated via the photoelectric effect, used and are the equivalent of latitude and longitude on
in numbers precisely proportional to the number of inci- the Earths surface. DECLINATION is a measure of an
dent photons. The holes are conveniently lost by diffusion objects angular distance north or south of the CELESTIAL
down into the depths of the substrate, while the electrons EQUATOR, values north being positive and those south
migrate rapidly to the nearest biased electrode, where they negative. RIGHT ASCENSION, or RA, equates to longitude
collect as a single charge packet in a potential well. and is measured in hours, minutes and seconds eastwards
Since it is impractical to wire the output from each indi- from the FIRST POINT OF ARIES, the intersection of the
vidual electrode, the signal charge is transferred through the celestial equator with the ECLIPTIC. HOUR ANGLE and
array, from one pixel to the next, by changing the voltages POLAR DISTANCE can also be used as alternative measures.
on each one. Pixels in adjacent rows are said to be charge- The HORIZONTAL COORDINATE system uses the observ-
coupled and the signal can move in parallel from row to ers horizon as the plane of reference, measuring the ALTI-
row. As each row of signals reaches the end of the CCD it is TUDE (angular measure of an object above the horizon)
read off into a serial register from which it can be stored in a and AZIMUTH (bearing measured westward around the
computer, processed and the final image displayed. horizon from north).
Because the charge in each pixel is in proportion to the ECLIPTIC COORDINATES are based upon the plane of the
number of photons that have fallen on it, the output from ECLIPTIC and use the measures of CELESTIAL LATITUDE
a CCD is linear, which in turn means that the brightness and CELESTIAL LONGITUDE (also known as ecliptic latitude
of the final image produced is directly related to the and ecliptic longitude). Celestial latitude is measured in
brightness of object being observed, something which is degrees north and south of the ecliptic, while celestial lon-
not true for photographic emulsions. gitude is measured in degrees eastwards along the ecliptic
In order to generate electronhole pairs, photons have from the First Point of Aries.
to pass through the electrode structure, and some are The GALACTIC COORDINATE system takes the plane of
inevitably absorbed in this layer. Because of this, the quan- the Galaxy and the galactic centre (RA 17h 46m dec.
tum efficiency of front-illuminated CCDs is poor in the 2856) as its reference points. Galactic latitude is mea-
blue and UV regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. To sured from 0 at the galactic equator to 90 at the galactic
overcome this, the silicon substrate can be thinned to pole, while galactic longitude is measured from 0 to 360
around 15 m and the CCD back-illuminated, thus elimi- eastwards along the galactic equator.
nating the need for the photons to negotiate the electrode
structure. This process can increase the sensitivity of a celestial equator Projection on to the CELESTIAL
CCD by a factor of two and the use of anti-reflective coat- SPHERE of the Earths equatorial plane. Just as its terrestri-
ings can also improve quantum efficiency. al counterpart marks the boundary between the northern
One of the other problems that has to be overcome and southern hemispheres of the Earth and is the point
when using CCDs is the generation of dark current. This from which latitude is measured, so the celestial equator
76
celestial mechanics
delineates between the northern and southern hemi- have been used ever since for lunar and planetary theo-
spheres of the sky and is used as the zero point for mea- ries, but the variation of constants is still more suitable for
suring the celestial coordinate DECLINATION. many of the satellites. The latest theories used to calculate
the positions of the Moon and planets in the almanacs
celestial latitude (symbol , ecliptic latitude) Angular used by navigators and astronomers are those derived by:
distance north or south of the ECLIPTIC and one coordi- Simon NEWCOMB for the five inner planets, Uranus and
nate of the ecliptic coordinate system. Designated by the Neptune; by Ernest BROWN for the Moon; and by George
Greek letter , celestial latitude is measured in degrees
from the ecliptic (0) in a positive direction to the north
HILL for Jupiter and Saturn.
Overall, Newtons four laws and the techniques of
C
ecliptic pole (90) and a negative direction to the south celestial mechanics have proved successful at explaining
ecliptic pole (90). See also CELESTIAL LONGITUDE the motions of the planets and satellites. Problems with
the orbit of the Moon were eventually resolved by
celestial longitude (symbol , ecliptic longitude) Angu- improved theories, and anomalous perturbations of the
lar distance along the ecliptic from the FIRST POINT OF orbit of Uranus led John Couch ADAMS and Urbain LE
ARIES and one coordinate of the ecliptic coordinate sys- VERRIER to suspect the existence of a further planet,
tem. Designated by the Greek letter , celestial longitude which resulted in the discovery of Neptune in 1846 close
is measured from 0 to 360, eastwards of the First Point to the predicted position. Problems with the seemingly
of Aries. See also CELESTIAL LATITUDE unaccountably rapid advance of Mercurys perihelion
were eventually solved in 1915 with the publication of
celestial mechanics (dynamical astronomy) Discipline Einsteins general theory of relativity (see VULCAN). This
concerned with using the laws of physics to explain and is a more accurate representation of the laws of motion
predict the orbits of the planets, satellites and other celes- under the action of gravitation, but the differences from
tial bodies. For many years the main effort in the subject using Newtons laws are small, and only become notice-
was the development of mathematical methods to gener- able in strong gravity fields.
ate the lengthy series of perturbation terms that are need- By the early 20th century fairly good theories had been
ed to calculate an accurate position of a planet. The developed for the Moon and the planets, but these had
advent of computers has eased this task considerably, with just about reached the limit of what was possible with the
the result that the main emphasis of the subject has means then available, of mechanical calculators, mathe-
changed dramatically. Much effort is now devoted to the matical tables, and masses of hand algebra. There was
study of the origin, evolution and stability of various some further effort on theories for other satellites and
dynamical features of the Solar System, and in particular some asteroids, but much effort in the subject moved into
of the numerous intricate details of rings and satellite other areas, particularly into theoretical studies such as the
orbits revealed by the VOYAGER spacecraft. idealized THREE-BODY PROBLEM. With the advent of com-
The subject can be said to have started with the publi- puters, renewed effort on the development of lunar and
cation of Newtons PRINCIPIA in 1687, in which are stated planetary theories became feasible. The initial idea was to
his law of gravitation, which describes the forces acting on use the same techniques as before, but to do the vast
the bodies, and his three laws of motion, which describe amounts of algebraic manipulation involved on a comput-
how these forces cause accelerations of the motions of the er. Excellent theories of the Moon and some of the planets
bodies. Then the techniques of celestial mechanics are have been produced in this way. However it has proved to
used to determine the orbits of the bodies resulting from be more effective to use the less elegant but much simpler
these accelerations. One of the first results achieved by and more accurate method of integrating the equations of
Newton was to give an explanation of KEPLERS LAWS. motion by numerical techniques. The positions of the
These laws are descriptions deduced from observations of Moon and planets in the almanacs are now all computed
the motions of the planets as being elliptical orbits around in this way, but the old algebraic methods are still the most
the Sun, but until the work of Newton no satisfactory effective for most of the natural satellites.
explanation of these empirical laws had been given. How- With the task of planetary theory development that had
ever, Keplers laws are true only for an isolated system of occupied celestial mechanics for 300 years now effectively
two bodies; in the real Solar System the attractions of the solved, the main emphasis of the subject has changed dra-
other planets and satellites cause the orbits to depart sig- matically, with many problems of origin, evolution and
nificantly from elliptical motion and, as observational stability now being studied. The stability of the Solar Sys-
accuracy improved, these perturbations became apparent. tem has long been of considerable interest, and recent
The greatest mathematicians of the 18th and 19th cen- numerical integrations suggest that the orbits of the major
turies were involved in the effort of calculating and pre- planets are stable for at least 845 million years (about 20%
dicting the perturbations of the orbits, in order to match of the age of the Solar System), but the orbit of Pluto may
the ever-increasing accuracy and time span of the obser- be unstable over that time scale. Another problem that is
vations. The orbit of the Moon was the major problem, now close to a full solution after more than a century of
partly because the Moon is nearby, and so the accuracy of effort is to explain the origin of the KIRKWOOD GAPS in the
observation is high, but also because its orbit around the ASTEROID BELT, which occur at certain distances from the
Earth is very highly perturbed by the Sun. Sun that correspond to commensurabilities of period with
Various techniques were developed for calculating the Jupiter. The explanation that was found for the gap at the
perturbations of an orbit. An important technique is the 3:1 COMMENSURABILITY required the introduction of the
method of the variation of arbitrary constants, devel- concept of CHAOS into Solar System dynamics. Using a
oped by Leonhard EULER and Joseph LAGRANGE. An sophisticated combination of analytical and numerical
unperturbed orbit can be described by the six ORBITAL methods, it was found that over a long period of time the
ELEMENTS, or arbitrary constants, of the ellipse. The orbital elements of an object at the commensurability
effect of perturbations can be described by allowing these could have occasional large departures (termed chaotic
constants to vary with time. Thus, for example, the motion) from the small range of values expected from
eccentricity of the orbit may be described as a constant conventional analytical modelling of the motion. Subse-
plus a number of periodic terms. The resulting expres- quent work suggests that the same mechanism can explain
sions are called the theory of the motion of the body, the widest gap at the 2:1 commensurability. Many other
and can be very lengthy in order to achieve the desired instances of chaos have been identified, and with them is
accuracy, perhaps hundreds of periodic terms. Around the realization that the Solar System is not such a deter-
the middle of the 19th century an alternative method was ministic dynamical system as had been supposed.
developed in which the perturbations of the three coordi- It is now realized that TIDAL EVOLUTION has been a
nates of the body (for example, longitude, latitude and major factor in adjusting the orbits of satellites, and modi-
distance from the Sun) are calculated instead of the per- fying the spin rates of satellites and planets. There are
turbations of the six elements. Variants of this method many more occurrences of commensurabilities in the
77
celestial meridian
celestial sphere A useful lites, which can cause various effects such as clumping
north celestial pole
concept for describing (90dec.) around a ring, and radial variations of density. Other fea-
positions of astronomical tures are possibly caused by small unseen satellites orbit-
bodies. As shown, key points declination circle ing within the rings, but there are many features still to be
of reference the celestial pole explained, and no doubt many new dynamical mecha-
and celestial equator are nisms still to be discovered.
right ascension circle
projections on to the sphere of
C their terrestrial equivalents. An
objects position can be
celestial meridian Great circle on the CELESTIAL SPHERE
that passes through the north and south celestial poles,
defined in terms of right
equator
together with the ZENITH and the NADIR. The term is usual-
ascension and declination ly used to refer to that part of the circle which is above the
(equivalent, respectively, to declination observers horizon, intersecting it due north and due south.
celestial equator (dec.)
longitude and latitude).
vernal equinox celestial pole Either of the two points on the CELESTIAL
(Oh or 24h RA, 0 dec.)
SPHERE that intersect with a projection of the Earths axis
ecliptic
(Earths orbital plane) of rotation into space, and about which the sky appears to
rotate. Because their position is dictated by the orientation
right ascension of the Earths axis, the celestial poles are subject to the
(RA)
effects of PRECESSION. This causes them to slowly drift,
describing a circle in the sky of radius 23.5 (the inclina-
south celestial pole tion of the Earths axis) over a period of some 25,800
(90dec.)
years, the effect only being noticeable over a few decades.
At present, the north celestial pole is within 1 of the star
Solar System, particularly among the satellites, than Polaris, which is known as the POLE STAR, but in 3000 BC
would be expected by chance. It has been shown that the north Pole Star was THUBAN, in Draco and by AD
some of these could have been caused by orbital evolution 10,000 it will be DENEB. For an observer, the ALTITUDE of
due to tidal action, which would continue until a com- the celestial pole is always equal to their latitude.
mensurability was encountered, whereupon the satellites
would become trapped. Celestial Police Name given themselves by the 24
A theory of shepherding satellites was proposed to astronomers who collaborated to search for a planet
explain the confinement of the narrow rings of Uranus, between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, as predicted by
which were discovered by ground-based occultation BODES LAW. They were first convened in 1800 by Franz
observations. Subsequent images from the Voyager space- von ZACH, at Johann SCHRTERs observatory. Members
craft have discovered small satellites close to one of the of this international group, who also included Johann
rings, and similar satellites close to one of Saturns narrow BODE, William HERSCHEL, Nevil MASKELYNE, Charles
rings, thus at least partially supporting the shepherding MESSIER and Wilhelm OLBERS, discovered three asteroids
mechanism. Many other interesting problems of dynam- (Pallas, Juno and Vesta) between 1802 and 1807, after
ics have arisen following the Voyager observations, such as Giuseppe PIAZZI had found the first, Ceres, in 1801.
the cause of the intricate structure of Saturns rings, which
consist of hundreds of individual ringlets. Some of the fea- celestial sphere Inside of an imaginary sphere, with the
tures have been explained by resonances with the satel- Earth at its centre, upon which all celestial bodies are
assumed to be projected.
The stars and planets are so far away that everything
CENTAURUS (GEN. CENTAURI , ABBR . CEN )
we see in the sky appears to be projected on to an enor-
mous screen extending all around us, as if we were inside
arge, prominent southern constellation, the ninth-largest in the sky, a gigantic planetarium. This is the illusion of the celestial
L representing a centaur, a mythological beast with the legs and body of a horse
and the upper torso of a man. This particular centaur was said to be Chiron, who
sphere, half of which is always hidden from an observer
on the Earths surface, but upon which we base our charts
taught the princes and heroes of Greek mythology. The constellations brightest of the sky and against which we make our measurements.
star is ALPHA CENTAURI, a triple system that includes the red dwarf PROXIMA The illusion is so strong that the early astronomers postu-
CENTAURI, the closest star to the Sun. and Cen act as pointers to Crux, the lated the existence of a crystal sphere of very great radius
Southern Cross. An easy double is 3 Cen, with components of 4.6 and 6.1 to which the stars were fixed.
divisible with small apertures. R Cen is a variable MIRA STAR, ranging between 5th The most obvious behaviour of the celestial sphere is
and 12th magnitude in about 18 months. Cen is the brightest globular cluster in its apparent daily east to west rotation, due to the axial
the sky, so prominent that it was given a stellar designation by early observers. spin of the Earth. In the northern hemisphere we see
NGC 3766 and 5460 are open clusters for binoculars. NGC 5128 is a 7th- some stars that never set the CIRCUMPOLAR STARS; they
magnitude peculiar galaxy, also known as the radio source CENTAURUS A. appear to turn about the polar point near to the bright
NGC 3918 is a planetary nebula known as the Blue Planetary, resembling the star Polaris. There is, of course, a similar polar point in
planet Uranus in small telescopes. the southern hemisphere marked by the fifth magnitude
star, Octantis. The direction of the polar axis seems
BRIGHTEST STARS
fixed in space, but it is in fact slowly drifting because of
Name RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance the effects of PRECESSION.
h m mag. mag. type (l.y.)
Having recognized one easily observed direction within
Rigil Kent 14 40 60 50 0.28 4.07 G2 K1 4.4 the celestial sphere, it is possible to define another the
Hadar 14 04 60 23 0.61 5.42 B1 525 celestial equator. This is a projection of the Earths equa-
Menkent 14 07 36 22 2.06 0.70 K0 61 tor on to the celestial sphere, dividing the sky into two
Muhlifain 12 42 48 58 2.20 0.81 A1 130 hemispheres and enabling us to visualize a set of small cir-
13 40 53 28 2.29 3.02 B1 367 cles similar to those of latitude on Earth, known as DECLI-
14 36 42 10 2.33 2.55 B1 309 NATION, which allow us to specify the position of an object
13 56 47 17 2.55 2.81 B2.5 385 in terms of angle above or below the celestial equator.
12 08 50 44 2.58 2.84 B2 395 RIGHT ASCENSION, the celestial equivalent of longitude,
13 21 36 43 2.75 1.48 A2 59 is based upon the Earths orbital motion around the Sun
11 36 63 01 3.11 2.39 B9 410 and is measured eastwards along the ECLIPTIC, the appar-
14 59 42 06 3.13 2.96 B2 539 ent path of the Sun through the constellations. For half of
13 50 41 41 3.41 2.41 B2 475 each year the Sun is in the northern hemisphere of the
13 50 42 29 3.47 2.57 B2 527 sky and for the other half it is in the southern hemisphere.
On two dates each year, known as the EQUINOXES, it
78
Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams
crosses the equator and it is the point at which it crosses size (generally bigger than 50 km/30 mi). It is likely,
into the northern hemisphere, at the spring or VERNAL however, that these are only the largest members of the
EQUINOX, that is chosen as the zero of right ascension. overall population, with a much greater number of
This point on the celestial sphere, where the ecliptic and smaller objects awaiting identification.
the celestial equator intersect, is called the FIRST POINT OF The origin of the Centaurs is suspected to be as
ARIES. This was an accurate description of its position members of the EDGEWORTHKUIPER BELT, having
thousands of years ago, but precession has now carried it coalesced there when the rest of the Solar System
into the constellation Pisces.
Right ascension can be measured in angular terms.
formed over 4.5 billion years ago; they are thought to
have been inserted into their present unstable orbits
C
However, it is more common to use units of time (hours, during just the last million years or so. The dynamical
minutes, seconds or h m s). Astronomers measure time by instability of the Centaurs derives from the fact that they
the rotation of the Earth relative to the stars, that is exactly will inevitably make close approaches to one or another
360 of axial rotation, rather than to the Sun. Their sidere- of the giant planets, and the severe gravitational
al timescale has a day of 24 sidereal hours, which in terms perturbations that result will divert the objects in
of civil time, is 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds long. question on to different orbits. Some Centaurs will be
The beginning of the sidereal day is when the First ejected from the Solar System on hyperbolic paths;
Point of Aries lies on the MERIDIAN, the great circle linking others may fall into the inner planetary region and so
the north and south points and passing directly overhead. become extremely bright active comets.
After 24 sidereal hours it will be in that position again. The fact that Centaurs show characteristics of both
The right ascension figures work like the face of a clock so asteroids and comets leads to the convention for their
that when the first point of Aries is on the meridian the naming. In Greek mythology the Centaurs were hybrid
sidereal time is 0h. At 1h sidereal time the sky will have beasts, half-man and half-horse. The first Centaur object
rotated 15 and stars this angle east of the First Point of to be discovered was CHIRON, in 1977. The next was
Aries will then lie on the meridian. PHOLUS, in 1992. Others added since include (7066)
Apart from right ascension and declination, Nessus, (8405) Asbolus, (10199) Chariklo and (10370)
astronomers also use other systems of CELESTIAL COORDI- Hylonome. See also DAMOCLES; HIDALGO; JUPITER-
NATES to locate objects or points on the celestial sphere, CROSSING ASTEROID; LONG-PERIOD ASTEROID
dependent upon the particular application.
Although the stars seem relatively fixed in position, the Centaurus See feature article
Sun, Moon and planets (apart from Pluto) move across
the celestial sphere in a band of sky about 8 either side of Centaurus A (NGC 5128) Galaxy with powerful radio
the ecliptic. This belt of sky is known as the ZODIAC and is emission at a distance of around 3 Mpc (10 million l.y.).
divided into 12 signs named after the constellations they Optically it appears to be a normal elliptical galaxy, but it
contained at the time of the ancient Greeks. is crossed by a dark and very prominent dust lane. Very
deep photographs reveal the galaxy to be more than 1
Celsius, Anders (170144) Swedish astronomer, best across, and the radio image is much bigger. This enigmat-
known for inventing the Centigrade temperature scale, ic object appears to be two galaxies in collision, a massive
now known as the CELSIUS scale. He took part in the 1736 elliptical galaxy and a smaller dusty spiral (which can be
expedition to Lapland organized by the French seen in the infrared). Centaurus A is emitting a huge
astronomer Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis amount of energy at X-ray and optical wavelengths as well
(16981759) to measure the length of a meridian arc. The as at radio wavelengths.
results of this and a second expedition to Peru showed
that the Earth is oblate. Celsius was a pioneer of stellar Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams Bureau
photometry, using a series of glass filters to measure the that rapidly disseminates information on transient astro- Centaurus A Crossed by
relative intensity of light from stars of different magni- nomical events. It operates from the SMITHSONIAN ASTRO- a prominent dark lane, this
tudes, and he was one of the first to realize that the auro- PHYSICAL OBSERVATORY under the auspices of the elliptical galaxy (also designated
rae were related to Earths magnetic field. INTERNATIONAL ASTRONOMICAL UNION. The bureau NGC 5128) is a powerful radio
issues announcements concerning comets, asteroids, vari- and X-ray source.
Celsius scale Temperature scale on which the freezing
point of water is 0C and the boiling point of water is
100C. It is named after Anders CELSIUS. The magnitude
of 1C is the same as 1 K. It is also known as the Centi-
grade scale, although this name was officially abandoned
in 1948. See ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE
79
central meridian
3.75
centrifugal force Apparent force that appears when an
object is forced to move along a circular or curved path.
apparent magnitude
80
Chamaeleon
Ceres First ASTEROID to be discovered, on the opening Cetus See feature article
day of the 19th century, hence it is numbered 1. Ceres, a
MAIN-BELT ASTEROID, has a diameter of c.933 km CfA See HARVARDSMITHSONIAN CENTER FOR ASTRO-
(c.580 mi), although it is not precisely spherical; it is the PHYSICS
largest asteroid. Ceres mass, 8.7 1020 kg, represents
about 30% of the bulk of the entire main belt, or about CGRO Abbreviation of COMPTON GAMMA RAY OBSERVA-
1.2% of the mass of the Moon. Its average density, about TORY
1.98 g/cm3, is less than that of most meteorites. Ceres
rotates in about nine hours, its brightness showing little Challis, James (180382) English clergyman and
variation, which is indicative of a fairly uniform surface, astronomer, now chiefly remembered for his part in the
thought to be powdery in nature. It lies close to the mid- search for Neptune. He succeeded George Biddell AIRY
dle of the main belt, at an average heliocentric distance as Cambridges Plumian Professor (1836), and served
of 2.77 AU. until 1861 as director of Cambridge Observatory. There
The possibility of a planet between Mars and Jupiter in 1846 July, at the urging of John Couch ADAMS, who
had been suggested in the early 1600s by Johannes had calculated the theoretical position of a new planet
KEPLER, and in the late 18th century BODES LAW was from perturbations of Uranus, Challis initiated a rigor-
interpreted as implying the likely existence of such a ous search. He actually discovered Neptune on
body. In 1800 a group of European astronomers formed August 4, though he failed to recognize it as a planet
the so-called CELESTIAL POLICE, having the aim of before Johann GALLE and Heinrich DARREST of the
discovering this purported planet. Before they could Berlin Observatory announced the planets discovery,
begin their search, however, Ceres was discovered by on 1846 September 23.
Giuseppe PIAZZI from Palermo, Sicily. Piazzi was
checking Nicolas LACAILLEs catalogue of zodiacal stars Chamaeleon See feature article
when he found an uncharted body that moved over the
subsequent nights. Piazzi wanted to call the object Ceres
CHAMAELEON (GEN. CHAMAELEONTIS , ABBR . CHA )
Ferdinandea (Ceres is the goddess of fertility, the patron
of Sicily, while Ferdinand was the name of the Italian
king), but only the first part of that name was accepted mall and unremarkable constellation near the south celestial pole, introduced
by astronomers in other countries. Although he was
prevented by illness from following it for an extended
S at the end of the 16th century by Keyser and de Houtman, representing the
colour-changing lizard. Its brightest star is Cha, mag. 4.1. Cha is a binocular
period, Piazzis observations allowed Ceres to be double, mags. 4.4 and 5.5.
recovered late in 1801. It soon became apparent that it
81
Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder
Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder (18431928) Ameri- dwarf could not exceed 1.44 times that of the Sun the
can geologist who, with Forest R. MOULTON, conceived CHANDRASEKHAR LIMIT. Stars more massive than this
the planetesimal hypothesis for the origin of the Solar Sys- must end their lives as a NEUTRON STAR or BLACK HOLE.
tem, according to which a star passing through the solar He spent most of his career at the University of Chicago
neighbourhood caused the Sun to eject filaments of mate- and its Yerkes Observatory, where he was on the faculty
rial that condensed into planetesimals, which in turn from 1937 to 1995, and he served as editor of the presti-
accreted to form the major planets. Chamberlin set out gious Astrophysical Journal (195271).
C this theory, which arose in part from his research into
glaciation and Earths geologic history, in his 1928 book
Chandrasekhar revised the models of stellar dynamics
originated by Jan OORT and others by considering the
The Two Solar Families. effects of fluctuating gravitational fields within the Milky
Way on stars rotating about the galactic centre. His solu-
Chandler period 430-day period of variation in posi- tion to this complex dynamical problem involved a set of
tion of the Earths axis of rotation. This small movement twenty partial differential equations, describing a new
of the geographic poles is known as the Chandler wob- quantity he termed dynamical friction, which has the
ble after the American who first discovered it. It is dual effects of decelerating the star and helping to stabilize
thought to be caused by seasonal changes in the distribu- clusters of stars. Chandrasekhar extended this analysis to
tion of mass within the Earth. the interstellar medium, showing that clouds of galactic
gas and dust are distributed very unevenly. He also stud-
Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (191095) Indian- ied general relativity and black holes, which he modelled
Chamaeleon This American astrophysicist who was awarded the 1983 using two parameters mass and angular momentum.
complex of hot stars and Nobel Prize for Physics for his mathematical theory of
nebulosity was photographed black holes. At Cambridge University, he developed a the- Chandrasekhar limit Maximum possible mass for a
during testing of the Very Large oretical model explaining the structure of white dwarf WHITE DWARF. It was first computed, in 1931, by the Indi-
Telescope (VLT). Designated stars that took into account the relativistic variation of an astrophysicist Subrahmanyan CHANDRASEKHAR. The
Chamaeleon I, it lies close to mass with the velocities of electrons that comprise their value computed by Chandrasekhar applies to a slowly
the south celestial pole. degenerate matter. He showed that the mass of a white rotating star composed primarily of helium nuclei and is
about 1.44 solar masses.
A white dwarf is supported against its own gravitational
attraction by electron degeneracy pressure (see DEGENER-
ATE MATTER). The PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE states that
no two electrons can occupy exactly the same state so that
when all the low energy states have been filled, electrons
are forced to take up higher energy states. With white
dwarfs of progressively higher mass, as gravity attempts to
squeeze the star into a smaller volume, so the electrons are
forced into higher and higher energy states. They there-
fore move around with progressively higher speeds, exert-
ing progressively higher pressures.
The greater the mass, the smaller the radius and the
higher the density attained by a white dwarf before elec-
tron degeneracy pressure stabilizes it against gravity. As
the mass approaches the Chandrasekhar limit, electrons
are eventually forced to acquire velocities close to the
speed of light (that is, they become relativistic). As the
limit is reached, the pressure exerted by relativistic elec-
trons in a shrinking star cannot increase fast enough to
counteract gravity. Gravity overwhelms electron degener-
acy pressure, and a star that exceeds the Chandrasekhar
limit collapses to a much denser state. Electrons combine
with protons to form neutrons, and the collapse is eventu-
ally halted by neutron degeneracy pressure, by which time
the star has become a NEUTRON STAR.
82
Chi Cygni
is for mathematical models of meteorology, where a Chassigny METEORITE that fell in Haute Marne, France,
small change of some apparently insignificant parameter in 1815 October; approximately 4 kg of material was
of the system can cause a major change in the outcome recovered. Chassigny is the sole member of its subgroup
of the model after running it for a time span of several of MARTIAN METEORITES (SNCs). It is an unshocked,
days. It is important to note that the term chaos olivine-rich rock. It crystallized below the Martian surface
describes a property of the mathematical model, not of c.1.3 billion years ago.
the outcome of the model, which in the meteorological
case is still just normal weather. chemically peculiar stars Class A, B and F stars with
In CELESTIAL MECHANICS the term has become very odd chemical compositions caused by diffusion that
popular, and is used with various shades of meaning in enriches some chemical elements while depleting others.
different contexts. One of these is the problem of pre- Chemically peculiar (CP) stars are subdivided into CP1
dicting the orbit of an object, such as an asteroid, that (metallic-line AM STARS), CP2 (magnetic AP STARS), CP3
has a very close approach or repeated close approaches (class B MERCURYMANGANESE STARS) and CP4
to a planet. The initial orbit has inevitable uncertainties (HELIUM-WEAK B STARS). The CP1 Am stars extend to
due to limitations of the accuracy and coverage of posi- class Fm, and the CP2 Ap stars to Fp and Bp. LAMBDA
tional observations, and these uncertainties are magni- BOTIS STARS, not caused by diffusion, are sometimes
fied greatly following a close approach to a planet, to the included as well.
extent that the orbit after the close approach can be com-
pletely uncertain, or more likely that it is sufficiently Chicxulub Impact site in the Yucatn Peninsula, Gulf of
uncertain that it cannot be used for predicting subse- Mexico, where a huge METEORITE collided with the Earth.
quent close approaches. The crater is now buried, but geophysical surveys esti-
Another context in which the term arises is in the mate its diameter to be between 180 and 320 km (110 and
study of orbits at a COMMENSURABILITY. There are usual- 200 mi). The collision is linked with a period of mass
ly multiple resonant terms at a commensurability, associ- extinction, which marks the end of the Cretaceous Period,
ated with the eccentricity and inclination of each object. approximately 65 million years ago. There was a dramatic
In analytical studies it is necessary to simplify the prob- drop in the number of species present on the Earth: about
lem and to pick out just the single dominant term. How- 60% of all species suddenly disappeared.
ever numerical integrations over long time spans show
that in some cases the effects of the overlapping reso- Chi Cygni MIRA STAR of spectral type S7. It has the
nances can result in changes to the orbit that cannot be largest visual range of any known Mira star (at least 10
predicted by the analytical study. The nature of these magnitudes) and is very red at minimum, corresponding
changes is usually an increase in the eccentricity of the to a temperature of c.2000 K. Its period is 407 days. It has
orbit, which could perhaps lead to a close approach to a
planet causing the ejection of the body from the com-
mensurability. This mechanism is a likely explanation of
CHARON: DATA
the KIRKWOOD GAPS at the 3:1 and 2:1 commensurabili- Globe
ties with Jupiter. Diameter 1250 km
Density 1.7 g/cm3
charge-coupled device See CCD Mass (Earth = 1) 0.0003
Sidereal period of axial rotation 6.3872 days
Charlier, Carl Vilhelm Ludvig (18621934) Swedish Escape velocity 0.58 km/s
astronomer who worked at the University of Uppsala, Surface gravity (Earth = 1) 0.021
Stockholm Observatory and the University of Lund, Albedo 0.36
where he directed the observatory for thirty years. He Inclination of equator to orbit 0
made many detailed studies of the distribution and Surface temperature (average) 45 K
motions of stars and star clusters near the Sun, finding Orbit
that the Milky Way was shaped like a disk, and rotated. Semimajor axis 19,636 km
Charlier proposed a hierarchical grouping of galaxies in Eccentricity 0.01
an infinite universe. Inclination to Plutos equator 0
83
Chinese astronomy
a maximum observed magnitude of 3.3 and minimum engraved Song Dynasty (9601277) star map survives
14.2; its distance is 228 l.y. There is strong infrared excess from AD 1247 in a temple in Jiangsu province, containing
and circumstellar emission from molecules such as CO 1440 stars with a typical positional accuracy of 1.
and SiO. The gas lost from the stars surface cools to form In the early 17th century, Western influences began to
molecules and silicate dust grains in the circumstellar arrive with Jesuit missionaries such as Matteo Ricci
envelope. The dust then absorbs some of the stars radia- (15521610), and after the fall of the last imperial dynasty
tion, is itself heated, and radiates in the infrared, produc- Chinese astronomy became aligned with that of the out-
C ing the infrared excess. side world. The ancient Chinese records have proved use-
ful for, among other things, establishing the ages of
Chinese astronomy Astronomy as practised in the supernovae that were not recorded in the West; the super-
Chinese empire from ancient times until the overthrow nova of AD 1054 that led to the formation of the Crab Pul-
of the last imperial dynasty in 1911. Ancient Chinese sar and the Crab Nebula is a notable example.
astronomical records of eclipses and other unusual
events in the sky date from as early as 1500 BC and Chiron An outer Solar System body, c.180 km
formed part of the royal archives. Rulers could be made (c.110 mi) in diameter, given dual ASTEROID and COMET
or unmade by portents from heaven, which explains designations as (2060) Chiron and 95P/Chiron respec-
their concern with celestial matters. Of particular con- tively. Its orbit, with a period of just over 50 years, has
cern were solar and lunar eclipses, and other transient perihelion near 8.4 AU and aphelion at 18.8 AU. Chiron,
phenomena such as novae and supernovae (guest therefore, crosses the path of Saturn and also approaches
stars), comets, auroras and conjunctions of the Moon Uranus; consequently it is dynamically unstable. Over a
and planets. Official astrologers or tianwen had to time scale of order a million years (that is, much less than
explain any unusual celestial event and, if possible, fore- the age of the Solar System) it is to be expected that Chi-
warn of its occurrence. Other officials, called lifa, dealt rons orbit will change radically. It was the first object to
with the predictable parts of astronomy needed for cal- be discovered in a class of bodies known as the CEN-
endrical studies. The latter made observations, kept TAURS, these being characterized as large objects inhabit-
records and developed mathematical models. ing the outer planetary region and having rapidly
China experienced a violently unsettled period in the evolving orbits.
3rd century BC and many early records were destroyed. When found, in 1977 by Charles Kowal (1940 ),
However, by about 206 BC, the commencement of the Chiron appeared asteroidal in nature, but as its
Han Dynasty, a single calendar was in use everywhere. A heliocentric distance decreased, passing perihelion in 1996
luni-solar scheme was in use, with a correction of seven February, it began to develop characteristics associated
extra months in 19 years, according to the METONIC with comets. In 1988 Chiron rapidly brightened,
CYCLE, to keep pace with the seasons. Refinements were indicating the formation of some type of cometary coma;
made from time to time, and the predictive powers of the in the following years it developed a surrounding cloud of
almanacs were continuously improved. An interesting dust, and then the emission of cyanogen gas and other
achievement of Han astronomers was to record in detail volatiles was detected. It is generally regarded as an
the passage of Halleys Comet through the constellations escaped member of the EDGEWORTHKUIPER BELT that has
during its 12 BC apparition. migrated inwards towards the Sun. See also ELSTPIZARRO;
In contrast to early Western astronomy, the Chinese WILSONHARRINGTON
astronomers did not emphasize the zodiac. Instead, there
were 28 unequally spaced lunar mansions close to the Chladni, Ernst Florens Friedrich (17561827) Ger-
celestial equator. Their constellations were small and man physicist known as the founder of acoustics. He was
very numerous, and almost completely different from also a pioneer of meteoritics, the study of meteorites,
the Western ones. which he was convinced were of extraterrestrial origin
Observations making use of an instrument the a novel idea at the time. He assembled the first great col-
ARMILLARY SPHERE were made as early as 52 BC. The lection of meteorites.
imperial bureaucracy later encouraged the construction of
observatories and the compilation of star catalogues. An chondrite Most primitive and oldest of the
METEORITES. Chondrites are STONY METEORITES that
have not melted since their aggregation early in the histo-
ry of the Solar System. They are mostly characterized by
the presence of CHONDRULES, which are millimetre-sized
spherules of rapidly cooled silicate melt droplets. On the
basis of chemistry, chondrites are subdivided into three
main groups, the CARBONACEOUS CHONDRITES (C),
ORDINARY CHONDRITES (O) and ENSTATITE CHONDRITES
(E). There are also two smaller classes, the Rumurutiites
(R) and the Kakangari (K), each represented by only a
single example. The groups have different oxygen iso-
tope compositions, matrix, metal and chondrule con-
tents and chondrule properties (such as size, type, and
so on). The differences between the classes are primary,
76-0103
that is, they were established as the parent bodies accret-
ed in different regions of the SOLAR NEBULA. In addition
to these chemical classes, the chondrites are classified
according to the processing that they have experienced,
either thermal metamorphism or aqueous alteration.
These secondary characteristics were established on the
Chryse Planitia Located meteorites parent bodies. A petrologic type from 3 to 6
near the east of Valles indicates increasing thermal metamorphism. A petrolog-
Marineris, Chryse Planitia was ic type from 3 to 1 indicates increasing aqueous alter-
the landing site for the Viking 1 ation. Type 3 chondrites are the least altered; they are
surface probe in 1976. The further subdivided into 3.0 to 3.9, on the basis of silicate
region is dominated by outflow heterogeneity and thermoluminescence.
channels created at a past
epoch when liquid water chondrule Submillimetre to millimetre-sized spherules
flowed on Mars surface. of rapidly cooled silicate melt droplets found in METE-
84
circumstellar matter
85
cislunar
being ejected at velocities ranging from a few to many Circumstellar material also arises within CLOSE BINARY
thousands of kilometres per second. stars, when one star is losing mass to form an ACCRETION
Almost all stars may be expected to be surrounded by DISK around the other. It also arises as the stellar winds
circumstellar matter during and immediately after their from MIRA VARIABLES, WOLF-RAYET and other hot stars, as
formation. The collapse to a PROTOSTAR will leave material dust particles around carbon stars and red giants, as the
behind in the form of a flattened envelope surrounding regions producing emission lines within the spectra of
the star and a more amorphous gas cloud further out. P CYG, Be (see GAMMA CASSIOPEIAE STAR), T TAURI STARS
86
CME
escaping from the Roche lobe of the evolved red giant close binary In close
immerses the system in material, creating a common binary systems, the two stars
envelope binary that contains the core of the red giant (a may be completely detached
WHITE DWARF) and the companion star. Frictional forces (a). Semidetached systems
cause the two components to approach, and thus the have one star whose
orbital period shortens. The common envelope is ejected atmosphere fills its Roche lobe,
and a CATACLYSMIC VARIABLE is left, in which the mass leading to mass transfer to the
transfer from the companion on to the white dwarf causes
the periodic outbursts seen in NOVAE, RECURRENT NOVAE,
other component (b). Where
both stars fill their Roche lobes,
C
DWARF NOVAE and SYMBIOTIC STARS. the pair share a common
(a) If one component of a close binary is massive enough, atmosphere and the system
it may become a NEUTRON STAR or BLACK HOLE. Such becomes a contact binary (c).
binary systems are observed (see X-RAY BINARIES), but
often a supernova explosion will blow the system apart
into separate single stars.
87
CNO cycle
88
comet
89
cometary globule
comet Radiation pressure may appear to point towards the Sun from the coma,
and solar wind effects result in forming an ANTITAIL, as a result of perspective.
a comets tail always pointing Gas emerging from the nucleus is rapidly ionized by
away from the Sun. An solar ultraviolet radiation. Positively charged ions are
interesting consequence of this picked up by the interplanetary magnetic field in the
is that a comet therefore SOLAR WIND and dragged away from the coma to form an
departs the inner Solar System ion tail (also commonly described as a plasma tail). In
C tail-first.
Sun
contrast with the dust tail, a comets ion tail appears rela-
tively straight and may show a marked bluish colour,
which results from emissions at 420 nm wavelength, char-
acteristic of carbon monoxide (CO) excitation. The ion
tail can exhibit knots and twists resulting from changes in
the interplanetary magnetic field in the comets vicinity;
reversals of the fields polarity can result in complete
shearing of the ion tail a DISCONNECTION EVENT after
which a new, differently oriented ion tail may develop.
Comas and ion tails show emission spectra characteris-
solar radiation, particularly at distances substantially less tic of a number of molecular species comprising combina-
than that of Jupiter (5 AU) from the Sun, can crack to tions of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur,
expose fresh volatile material below. Sublimation of frozen such as water (H2O), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon
gases leads to development of a temporary atmosphere, or dioxide (CO2) and radicals such as cyanogen (CN) and
COMA, surrounding the nucleus. New comets, or known hydroxyl (OH). Methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3) are
PERIODIC COMETS returning to PERIHELION, are usually certainly present but are difficult to detect. When a comet
found at this stage, as fluorescence in the coma causes them is very close to the Sun, metallic emissions (particularly
to brighten and appear as a teardrop-shaped fuzzy spot. As from sodium) occur; observations of C/1995 O1
a comet approaches the Sun more closely, a TAIL or tails HaleBopp in 1997 revealed the presence of a third, dis-
may form. Brighter comets often show a straight ion tail tinct sodium tail.
(type I) and a curved dust tail (type II). Enveloped in the Although comets can be ejected from the Solar System,
coma, the nucleus is not directly visible to Earth-based tele- never to return, on hyperbolic trajectories following plane-
scopes, but a bright spot may mark its position, and jets of tary encounters, none has yet been shown to enter from
material can be seen emerging from it in the brightest and interplanetary space: the comets that we observe are grav-
most active comets. The occurrence of such features indi- itationally bound to the Sun. A vast reservoir of cometary
cates that much of the gas emission from a comet comes nuclei, the OORT CLOUD, surrounds the Solar System to a
from persistent active regions, which may cover 1520% of distance of 100,000 AU. Perturbations by passing stars or
the nucleus. As the nucleus rotates, active regions are alter- giant molecular clouds in the course of the Suns orbit
nately turned on by solar heating or abruptly shut down as around the Galaxy can cause Oort cloud nuclei to fall
they are carried into shadow. Such behaviour led to the dis- inwards. There is strong evidence that such nuclei accu-
tinctive spiral structure in the coma of C/1995 O1 mulate in a flattened disk the EDGEWORTHKUIPER BELT
HALEBOPP. Intermittent gas and dust emission can pro- at a distance of up to 1000 AU. From this region, further
duce other features, including hoods and shells in the coma. perturbations may lead nuclei to plunge inwards to peri-
The whole comet may be enveloped in a vast tenuous helion as new long-period comets. Close encounter with
cloud of hydrogen, detectable at ultraviolet wavelengths one of the planets, particularly Jupiter, can dramatically
from spacecraft. Gas jets emerging from the nucleus carry alter the comets orbit, changing some bodies from long-
away dust particles, which depart on parabolic trajectories to short-period comets.
to form a curved dust tail. Dust tails appear yellowish, the The division between short- and long-period comets is
colour of reflected sunlight as confirmed by spectroscopy. set purely arbitrarily at an orbital duration (perihelion to
The dust particles appear to be silicate grains, some 10 perihelion) of 200 years. Most comets have narrow ellipti-
micrometres in size. Bigger flakes of dusty material, per- cal orbits, which may be either direct or retrograde;
haps a few millimetres in size, are also carried away; in 1P/Halley, for example, has a 76-year retrograde orbit.
large numbers, these METEOROIDS can end up pursuing a Comet 2P/ENCKE has the shortest period, of 3.3 years. In
common orbit around the Sun as a METEOR STREAM. total, some 150 short-period comets are known.
Comets tails point away from the Sun. Under certain cir- Comets lose material permanently at each perihelion
cumstances, however, thin sheets of ejected dusty material passage and must eventually become defunct; the lifetimes
of short-period comets are probably of the order of
10,000 years. The ultimate fate of a short-period comet
MAIN SHORT-PERIOD AND NOTABLE LONG-PERIOD COMETS
appears to vary. Some disperse entirely into a diffuse
Designation Name Period (years) Inclination () Associated meteor stream cloud of dust and gas. Comet nuclei are fragile and may
1P Halley 76 162.2 Orionids, Eta Aquarids break into smaller fragments close to perihelion. Others,
2P Encke 3.3 11.8 Taurids depleted of volatile material, may simply become inert,
3D Biela 6.6 Andromedids leaving a dark asteroid-like core with no tail activity.
4P Faye 7.34 9.1 The brightness of a comet is expressed as the equiva-
5D Brorsen 29.4 lent stellar magnitude, as in the case of nebulae. Most
6P DArrest 6.51 19.5 comets show fadings and outbursts caused mainly by
7P PonsWinnecke 6.37 22.3 Pons-Winneckids varying nuclear jet activity and solar effects. Predicting the
8P Tuttle 13.51 54.7 Ursids apparent brightness of comets is notoriously difficult. It
9P Tempel-1 5.51 10.5 does appear that proximity to the Sun is a more significant
10P Tempel-2 5.47 12.0 factor than closeness to Earth. Comets are usually at their
21P GiacobiniZinner 6.61 31.9 Giacobinids most active and, therefore, brightest just after perihelion.
55P TempelTuttle 33.22 162.5 Leonids Comets are normally named after those who discover
109P SwiftTuttle 135 113.4 Perseids them, up to a maximum of three names. In some cases
C/1956 R1 ArendRoland hyperbolic 119.9 increasingly common early in the 21st century comet
C/1965 S1 IkeyaSeki 880 141.9 discovery by automated telescopes or spacecraft is reflect-
C/1969 Y1 Bennett 1680 90.0 ed in their names, examples including the many named
C/1975 V1 West 500,000 43.1 after LINEAR or SOHO. Some, notably 1P/Halley, 2P/Encke
C/1996 B2 Hyakutake 14,000 124.9 and 27P/CROMMELIN, are named after the analyst who
C/1995 O1 HaleBopp 2400 89.4 first determined their orbit. Short-periodic comets are
C/2002 C1 IkeyaZhang 341 28.1 identified by the prefix P/ and a number indicating the
90
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
order in which their orbit was defined. Defunct comets A similar effect occurs at the outer part of the ASTER-
have the prefix D/, while long-period comets are denoted OID BELT. The Hilda group of asteroids at the 3:2 com-
by C/. In addition to a name, long-period comets are iden- mensurability with Jupiter, and the asteroid Thule at 4:3,
tified by the year and date order of their discovery. The can only remain in orbits so close to Jupiter because their
year is divided into 26 fortnightly intervals for this pur- commensurabilities protect them from close approaches.
pose, starting with A and B for January, and so on. A The TROJAN ASTEROIDS are an extreme example of this
comet designated C/2002 B2 would be the second discov- effect, as they move in the same orbit as Jupiter, but their
ery made in the latter fortnight of 2002 January.
In most years, perhaps 25 comets become sufficiently
1:1 commensurabilities with Jupiter ensure that they
remain far from Jupiter close to 60 ahead or behind.
C
bright to be observed with amateur telescopes. Spectacu- There are many more commensurabilities in the satel-
lar naked-eye comets are rare and unpredictable: the lite systems of the major planets than would be expected
brightest are usually new discoveries, making one of their by chance, and there has been much recent effort to
first visits to the inner Solar System. The more pre- explain their origin. In the Jupiter system there is a com-
dictable, short-period comets tend to be fainter, having plex commensurability involving the three satellites Io,
already lost some of their volatile material. Among the Europa and Ganymede, which is a combination of two
brightest comets have been the KREUTZ SUNGRAZERS. 2:1 commensurabilities. It is likely that this was formed
It has been speculated that the frequency of truly bright by TIDAL EVOLUTION of the orbits due to the tides raised
great comets has been remarkably low in recent times in Jupiter by the satellites, combined with the effect of
compared with, say, the late 19th century. Statistically, energy dissipation of the tide raised in Io by Jupiter. In
however, the 20-year gap between C/1975 V1 WEST and the Saturn system, the 2:1 commensurability between
C/1996 B2 HYAKUTAKE is not atypical. The next spectac- Mimas and Tethys, and that between Enceladus and
ular comet may appear at any time. Dione, were also probably caused by tidal evolution. The
likely explanation of the 4:3 commensurability between
cometary globule Fan-shaped REFLECTION NEBULA that Titan and Hyperion is that Hyperion is the sole survivor
is usually closely associated with a pre-main-sequence from many objects originally in the region, and its reso-
star, such as a T TAURI STAR. The globules appearance nance has protected it from close approaches to Titan.
can superficially resemble that of a comet, but the two There are also many effects of commensurabilities in the
types of object are quite unrelated. There may be a bright ring systems of the planets.
rim to the head, and the tail can be several light-years in
length. Other recognized shapes for cometary globules Common, Andrew Ainslie (18411903) English engi-
include: an arc; a ring, sometimes with a star at the centre neer and amateur astronomer who designed and built
or on the rim; a biconical (hourglass) nebula with star at large reflecting telescopes and took some of the finest
the waist; and a linear wisp protruding from a star. Most astronomical photographs of his time. In the late 1870s he
cometaries shine by reflecting the light of their allied star, obtained a 36-inch (0.9-m) mirror from the English opti-
though some are ionized by the ultraviolet radiation of hot cian George Calver (18341927) and designed and
central stars (see HII REGION). supervised the construction of a telescope and a rotating
The heads of globules are denser regions within a larg- observatory to house the instrument. In 1880 Common
er nebula. The ultraviolet radiation and STELLAR WIND took his first photographs with this telescope, and for the
from the associated star ionizes the gases on the outer sur- next five years he continued to improve his photographic
face of the globule causing it to glow, so producing the technology. His photographs of the Orion Nebula (M42),
bright rim around the head. The gas and radiation pres- which showed stars that were invisible to visual observers, cometary globule A
sure also drives away surrounding material to leave the demonstrated the value of ASTROPHOTOGRAPHY. strong outflowing stellar wind
dark tail formed of nebula material sheltered by the head. from a recently formed star
Recently, the biconical type of nebula has been general- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research draws this diffuse nebula into a
ized to include any bipolar system that consists of two sep- Organisation (CSIRO) One of the worlds largest and comet-like shape. The young
arate nebulae with a star lying between. Enlarging the class most diverse scientific research organizations, with a his- stars intense ultraviolet
to incorporate the bipolar nebulae makes cometary glob- tory dating back to 1916. CSIRO is the umbrella organi- radiation ionizes gas in the
ules evolutionarily less homogeneous. The subclass of zation for the AUSTRALIA TELESCOPE NATIONAL FACILITY. nebula.
bipolar nebulae are not all indications of stellar youth:
some RED GIANTS lose mass by a BIPOLAR FLOW, thereby
generating bipolar nebulae.
The stars associated with cometary globules are often
embedded within dusty equatorial disks, which are some-
times thick enough to render the stars optically invisible.
Bright infrared sources are observed instead, which are
the result of emission from the dust. The various
cometary globule shapes may all be explained as viewing
from different directions the basic model of a star plus a
dust disk, with the disk constraining the stars light to
shine into a bicone. See also HUBBLES VARIABLE NEBULA
91
compact object
92
convection
Greeks, although it actually originated around 4000 years from the stars has escaped the Roche lobes and surrounds
ago with the Sumerian people of the Middle East. The the components in a common envelope. Other observed
Chinese and Egyptian systems were completely different. stable contact binaries have massive early-type compo-
In particular, the Chinese of the 3rd century AD had 283 nents or consist of cool SUPERGIANTS.
constellations incorporating nearly 1500 stars. Many of If a star in a contact binary is much more massive and
the Chinese figures were small and faint, and some con- larger than its companion, then it may undergo a cata-
sisted merely of single stars. strophic tidal instability, with the less massive star being
A constellation pattern has no real significance: the
stars are at very different distances from us and appear
pulled into its envelope. Resulting shock waves dissipate
energy, expelling the outer envelope of the massive com-
C
close together only because of a line-of-sight effect. This is ponent and slowing the orbit of the binary system. PLAN-
well demonstrated by and Centauri, which lie side-by- ETARY NEBULAE with double cores may be the result of
side in the sky although in fact is 4 l.y. away while is such a process.
over 100 times as distant.
PTOLEMY gave a list of 48 constellations in his continuous creation Idea that matter is constantly cre-
ALMAGEST. He did not include the far southern sky, which ated in the gaps between galaxies so that the PERFECT
was below the horizon from his observing site in Alexan- COSMOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE applies in an expanding uni-
dria, and there were gaps between his constellations; but verse. This was a necessary feature in the STEADY-STATE
all the figures he listed are retained by modern THEORY of cosmology.
astronomers, although with somewhat different bound-
aries. Many of those he named are drawn from ancient continuous spectrum (continuum) SPECTRUM
mythology; for example the legend of Perseus and containing photons with a smooth distribution of
Andromeda is well represented. The gaps left by Ptolemy wavelengths; it has no breaks or gaps and no
were filled in by others, notably Johannes HEVELIUS. ABSORPTION LINES or EMISSION LINES, though these can
Twelve new southern constellations, mostly represent- be superimposed.
ing exotic animals, including a bird of paradise and a fly-
ing fish, were formed in around 1600 by two Dutch continuum Property that is seamless or has no smallest conjunction Superior
navigators, Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de value. A continuum can be subdivided into infinitely planets come to conjunction
Houtman. A far more detailed survey of the southern sky small pieces and is still the same thing, whereas a quan- with the Sun when on the far
was made in 175152 by the Frenchman LACAILLE, who tized medium has a smallest quantity. Space in Isaac side of it, as seen from Earth
catalogued nearly 10,000 stars from the Cape of Good Newtons theory of mechanics is a continuum, and (and are therefore lost from
Hope, modern South Africa. He introduced 14 new con- spacetime in relativity is a continuum. view). The inferior planets,
stellations to fill the gaps between Keyser and de Hout- Mercury and Venus, can
mans figures, mostly named after instruments of science Contour NASA DISCOVERY programme mission, to be undergo conjunction at two
and the arts, such as the Microscope, the Telescope and launched in 2002 July, to fly past three comets, taking stages in their orbit. At superior
the Painters Easel. Lacaille also divided up the large images, making comparative spectral maps of their nuclei conjunction, they lie on the far
Greek constellation Argo Navis into three more manage- and analysing the dust flowing from them. The spacecraft side of the Sun from Earth,
able sections Carina, Puppis and Vela. will fly past Comet 2P/ENCKE in 2003 November, Comet while at inferior conjunction
After Lacaille there was a period when almost every 73P/SCHWASSMANNWACHMANN-3 in 2006 June and they are between the Sun and
astronomer who produced a star map felt obliged to intro- Comet 6P/DARREST in 2008 August. the Earth. Under certain
duce new constellations, often with cumbersome names circumstance, Mercury and
such as Globus Aerostaticus, the hot-air balloon, Machina convection Process of energy transfer in a gas or liquid Venus can transit across the
Electrica, the electrical machine, and Officina Typograph- as a result of the movement of matter from a hotter to a Suns disk at inferior
ica, the printing shop, all of which have been rejected. colder region and back again. For astronomy, convection conjunction.
Another of these rejected constellations Quadrans
Muralis, the Mural Quadrant, invented by the Frenchman
conjunction
J.J. Lalande is remembered because of the January mete-
or shower called the QUADRANTIDS, which radiates from
the area it once occupied.
Finally, in 1922, the INTERNATIONAL ASTRONOMICAL et
UNION put matters on a more systematic footing. They lan
rp
rio
tiny but brilliant CRUX. It is also true that there are some
constellations that seem to have no justification for a sepa-
rate existence, HOROLOGIUM and LEO MINOR being good Sun
examples. Only three constellations have more than one
first-magnitude star (taking the first-magnitude limit as greatest greatest
the conventional 1.49) CENTAURUS, CRUX and ORION. elongation elongation
east west
Note also that although Ophiuchus is not reckoned as a
zodiacal constellation, it does cross the zodiac between inferior conjunction
SCORPIUS and SAGITTARIUS. See also individual constella-
tions; table, pages 9495
quadrature quadrature
contact binary BINARY STAR in which both components
fill their ROCHE LOBES. Common envelope binaries are
systems in which material has escaped from the Roche Earth
lobes to surround both stars. The exchange of mass and
energy within contact binaries is not well understood.
The best-known stable contact binaries are the W
URSAE MAJORIS STARS, which consist of stars of spectral opposition
type G and K, with a typical mass ratio of 2:1. Material
93
Cooke, Troughton & Simms
is mostly of significance in stellar interiors and in plane- over which hydrogen is ionizing. In regions of stars
tary atmospheres. In planetary atmospheres, convective where convection is occurring, the process transfers
circulation combined with Coriolis forces leads to the for- almost all the energy outwards. In other regions the ener-
mation of HADLEY CELLS, where warm gas rises and gy is transferred by radiation. For the Sun, convection
moves away from the equator, eventually cooling and occurs over the outer third of its radius and although it
returning at lower levels. Convection in stars is still poorly stops just below the visible surface, its effects can still be
understood, although numerical models are improving. seen as solar GRANULATION.
C The models are based upon mixing length theory. This
assumes that the convective elements move a characteris- Cooke, Troughton & Simms English firm of telescope
tic length, known as the mixing length, releasing all their and scientific instrument manufacturers. John
excess energy only at the top of their movement, or Troughton, Sr (c.171688) made high-precision sex-
absorbing their entire energy deficit only at the bottom. tants, quadrants and other scientific instruments from the
The transfer of energy thus occurs as a result of both the mid-1750s. Around 1780, his nephew John Troughton,
upward and downward phases of convective motion. Jr (c.17391807) perfected a means of precisely dividing
Between the top and bottom of the mixing length the the circular scales for surveying and astronomical
material changes ADIABATICALLY. For convection to occur, devices. John, Jrs brother, Edward Troughton
material moving upwards and changing adiabatically must (17561835), made the first mural circle, an innovative
be at a lower density than the surrounding material, so transit telescope, designed in 1806 and completed in
that it experiences a buoyancy force, and continues its 1812 for GREENWICH OBSERVATORY.
upward motion. This requirement gives the SCHWARZ- William Simms (17931860) improved methods for
SCHILD criterion for convection to occur: dividing transit circles. In 1824 he joined forces with the
d loge T Troughtons, forming the partnership of Troughton &
K Simms. He was eventually succeeded by his son William
d loge P Simms, Jr (18171907) and the latters cousin, James
where T is the temperature and P the pressure inside the Simms (18281915); James two sons, William Simms
star, and K a constant with the value of about 0.4 for III (18601938) and James Simms, Jr (18621939),
completely ionized plasmas and about 0.1 for regions also joined the familys optical business.
CONSTELLATIONS
Constellation Name Genitive Abbr. Area First-magnitude stars
(sq deg)
*Andromeda Andromeda Andromedae And 722
Antlia The Air Pump Antliae Ant 239
Apus The Bird of Paradise Apodis Aps 206
*Aquarius The Water Carrier Aquarii Aqr 980 Z
*Aquila The Eagle Aquilae Aql 652 Altair
*Ara The Altar Arae Ara 237
*Aries The Ram Arietis Ari 441 Z
*Auriga The Charioteer Aurigae Aur 657 Capella
*Botes The Herdsman Botis Boo 907 Arcturus
Caelum The Chisel Caeli Cae 125
Camelopardalis The Giraffe Camelopardalis Cam 757
*Cancer The Crab Cancri Cnc 506 Z
Canes Venatici The Hunting Dogs Canum Venaticorum CVn 465
*Canis Major The Great Dog Canis Majoris CMa 380 Sirius
*Canis Minor The Little Dog Canis Minoris CMi 183 Procyon
*Capricornus The Sea Goat Capricorni Cap 414 Z
Carina The Keel Carinae Car 494 Canopus
*Cassiopeia Cassiopeia Cassiopeiae Cas 598
*Centaurus The Centaur Centauri Cen 1060 Alpha, Beta Centauri
*Cepheus Cepheus Cephei Cep 588
*Cetus The Whale Ceti Cet 1231
Chamaeleon The Chameleon Chamaeleontis Cha 132
Circinus The Compasses Circini Cir 93
Columba The Dove Columbae Col 270
Coma Berenices Berenices Hair Comae Berenices Com 386
*Corona Australis The Southern Crown Coronae Australis CrA 128
*Corona Borealis The Northern Crown Coronae Borealis CrB 179
*Corvus The Crow Corvi Crv 184
*Crater The Cup Crateris Crt 282
Crux The Southern Cross Crucis Cru 68 Alpha, Beta Crucis
*Cygnus The Swan Cygni Cyg 804 Deneb
*Delphinus The Dolphin Delphini Del 189
Dorado The Goldfish Doradus Dor 179
*Draco The Dragon Draconis Dra 1083
*Equuleus The Foal Equulei Equ 72
*Eridanus The River Eridani Eri 1138 Achernar
Fornax The Furnace Fornacis For 398
*Gemini The Twins Geminorum Gem 514 Z Pollux
Grus The Crane Gruis Gru 366
*Hercules Hercules Herculis Her 1225
Horologium The Pendulum Clock Horologii Hor 249
*Hydra The Water Snake Hydrae Hya 1303
Hydrus The Little Water Snake Hydri Hyi 243
Indus The Indian Indi Ind 294
* Ptolemys original 48 constellations
94
Copenhagen Observatory
The Englishman Thomas Cooke (180768), a similar object. An example of such a pair is the Saturnian
maker of high-quality refracting telescope lenses, was satellites EPIMETHEUS and JANUS. In some cases small
joined by his sons Charles Frederick Cooke satellites may occupy the LAGRANGIAN POINTS associated
(183698) and Thomas Cooke, Jr (18391919). At with one of the larger moons of the giant planets, for
their Buckingham Works in York, England, Thomas example, CALYPSO and TELESTO, the satellites of Saturn
Cooke & Sons made many fine large refracting linked with TETHYS. Ring systems might also be regarded
telescopes for observatories round the world. The as being sets of tiny co-orbiting satellites. See also
telescope built in 1881 for Lige University, with a 10-
inch (250-mm) lens, was widely regarded as one of their
SHEPHERD MOON; TROJAN ASTEROID
C
finest. In 1871 the firm completed what was then the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) Tmescale
worlds largest refractor, a 25-inch (0.63-m) instrument derived from atomic clocks and based on civil time as kept
for Robert Sterling Newall (181289). Cookes master at the Greenwich meridian. Popularly known as GREEN-
optician was Harold Dennis Taylor (18621943), who WICH MEAN TIME (GMT), UTC is used as the basis for
invented the Cooke photographic lens in the 1880s. In generating radio time signals. However, variations in the
1892 he made the first three-element apochromatic lens, Earths rotation mean that time as kept by atomic clocks
designed to virtually eliminate chromatic aberration and (UTC) and that derived from observations of the stars
to have sufficient colour correction for use in visual (UT1, see UNIVERSAL TIME) gradually diverge. If this were
studies and photography. allowed to go unchecked, the long term effect would be
In 1922 Thomas Cooke & Sons bought out for time kept by clocks and that as shown by the Sun to
Troughton & Simms, forming by merger the firm of become increasingly out of step. In order to avoid this, the
Cooke, Troughton & Simms, Ltd. The company two are kept within 0.9 second of one another through the
continued to make telescopes and other scientific periodic introduction of a LEAP SECOND into the UTC
instruments until the late 1930s, when it sold its timescale, thus causing it to differ from INTERNATIONAL
telescope-making operation to GRUBB, PARSONS & CO. ATOMIC TIME (TAI) by an integral number of seconds.
co-orbital satellite Natural satellite or moon of one of Copenhagen Observatory One of the worlds oldest
the major planets occupying the same orbital distance as a astronomical institutions, established in 1642 to provide
CONSTELLATIONS (CONTINUED)
Constellation Name Genitive Abbr. Area First-magnitude stars
(sq deg)
Lacerta The Lizard Lacertae Lac 201
*Leo The Lion Leonis Leo 947 Z Regulus
Leo Minor The Little Lion Leonis Minoris LMi 232
*Lepus The Hare Leporis Lep 290
*Libra The Balance Librae Lib 538 Z
*Lupus The Wolf Lupi Lup 334
Lynx The Lynx Lyncis Lyn 545
*Lyra The Lyre Lyrae Lyr 286 Vega
Mensa Table Mountain Mensae Men 153
Microscopium The Microscope Microscopii Mic 210
Monoceros The Unicorn Monocerotis Mon 482
Musca The Fly Muscae Mus 138
Norma The Set Square Normae Nor 165
Octans The Octant Octantis Oct 291
*Ophiuchus The Serpent Bearer Ophiuchi Oph 948
*Orion Orion Orionis Ori 594 Rigel, Betelgeuse
Pavo The Peacock Pavonis Pav 378
*Pegasus The Winged Horse Pegasi Peg 1121
*Perseus Perseus Persei Per 615
Phoenix The Phoenix Phoenicis Phe 469
Pictor The Painter Pictoris Pic 247
*Pisces The Fishes Piscium Psc 889 Z
*Piscis Austrinus The Southern Fish Piscis Austrini PsA 245 Fomalhaut
Puppis The Stern Puppis Pup 673
Pyxis The Compass Pyxidis Pyx 221
Reticulum The Net Reticuli Ret 114
*Sagitta The Arrow Sagittae Sge 80
*Sagittarius The Archer Sagittarii Sgr 867 Z
*Scorpius The Scorpion Scorpii Sco 497 Z Antares
Sculptor The Sculptor Sculptoris Scl 475
Scutum The Shield Scuti Sct 109
*Serpens The Serpent Serpentis Ser 637
Sextans The Sextant Sextantis Sex 314
*Taurus The Bull Tauri Tau 797 Z Aldebaran
Telescopium The Telescope Telescopii Tel 252
*Triangulum The Triangle Trianguli Tri 132
Triangulum Australe The Southern Triangle Trianguli Australis TrA 110
Tucana The Toucan Tucanae Tuc 295
*Ursa Major The Great Bear Ursae Majoris UMa 1280
*Ursa Minor The Little Bear Ursae Minoris UMi 256
Vela The Sails Velorum Vel 500
*Virgo The Virgin Virginis Vir 1294 Z Spica
Volans The Flying Fish Volantis Vol 141
Vulpecula The Fox Vulpeculae Vul 268
* Ptolemys original 48 constellations
95
Copernican system
96
Coriolis effect
positions, lacking any basis in physical reality and 90. The four main volumes were completed by 1914,
impossible to confirm by astronomical observations. Most and a fifth was added in 1932 by Charles PERRINE.
astronomers continued to follow Aristotles physics, in Together with the BONNER DURCHMUSTERUNG and CAPE
which the Earth was viewed as a perfect, immovable body PHOTOGRAPHIC DURCHMUSTERUNG, which it comple-
rather than a transient, moving entity, while the Ptolemaic ments, the CD represents the last major survey made by
system actually gave more accurate planetary positions visual observations, before photographic surveys became
than Copernicus original scheme. Not until the the norm.
discoveries of Johannes KEPLER and GALILEO did the
Copernican system begin to make physical as well as Crdoba Observatory National observatory of
C
geometrical sense. As a consequence of Galileos writings, Argentina, founded in 1871, some 650 km (400 mi)
De revolutionibus was in 1616 placed on the Index of north-west of Buenos Aires; its most celebrated director
prohibited books by the Catholic Church. The book was was Benjamin GOULD, towards the end of the 19th centu-
not actually banned, however, but small alterations were ry. The observatory is best known for its determinations
introduced to make the Copernican system appear of stellar positions published in the CRDOBA DURCH-
entirely hypothetical. But by then Copernicus book was MUSTERUNG and the Astrographic Catalogue (see CARTE DU
already being superseded by Keplers Astronomia nova CIEL). It has a 1.5-m (60-in.) reflector, and its
(1609) and the Rudolphine Tables (1627), which provided astronomers also use major multinational facilities such as
the basis for explaining the irregularities in the motions of the GEMINI OBSERVATORY.
the planets that had not been satisfactorily accounted for
in Copernican system. core (planetary) Dense central region of a planet, having
a composition distinct from the outer layers (MANTLE and
Copernicus Large lunar crater (10N 20W), known for CRUST). A planetary core forms when heavier compo-
its complex system of EJECTA and bright RAYS. Situated nents sink to the planets centre during DIFFERENTIATION.
on the north shore of Mare Nubium, Copernicus Earths core, which makes up nearly a third of the planets
dominates the Moons north-west quadrant. The craters mass, is composed mostly of iron alloyed with nickel and
lava-flooded floor, 92 km (57 mi) wide with multiple lighter elements, of which sulphur is probably the most
central peaks, lies nearly 4 km (2.5 mi) below its highly abundant. The core is mostly liquid, but with a small
detailed walls. Dominating the inner ramparts of solid inner core. Convective motions in the liquid iron
Copernicus are massive arc-shaped landslides, which generate Earths magnetic field. Most of the cores prop-
formed by collapse and subsidence of the debris left over erties are inferred by SEISMOLOGY. Mercury, Venus and
from the violent impact that created the main crater. A Mars have iron cores as deduced from their densities and
bright, broad (30 km/20 mi) blanket of ejecta surrounds moments of inertia; the Moon is depleted in iron but may
the polygonal walls. Beyond this ring of bright material, have a small core. The larger icy satellites of the outer
Copernicus majestic rays, best seen at full moon, radiate planets probably possess rocky cores beneath icy mantles.
for hundreds of kilometres. These features testify to the The densities of the GAS GIANT planets imply that they
relative youth of Copernicus, which is 800 million years possess cores of rock and icy material with masses of
old. Numerous chains of craterlets curve outwards from order 10 times Earths mass; these cores probably formed
the main crater in every direction. by ACCRETION before the planets acquired their massive
Twin mountain ridges, running roughly eastwest and gaseous envelopes. See also COSMOGONY
separated by a spacious valley, divide the floor of Coper-
nicus in half. The north group of mountains is com- core (stellar) Innermost region of a star; it is the region in
posed of three major peaks of modest altitudes, the which HYDROGEN BURNING takes place when the star is on
highest peak attaining 750 m (2400 ft). The south ridge, the MAIN SEQUENCE. The Suns core is believed to extend
with a huge pyramidal mountain at its centre, is longer out to a quarter of the solar radius. Main-sequence stars of
than the north ridge. about 1.5 solar masses have radiative cores, in which the
most important method of energy transport is by RADIA- Copernicus One of the
Copernicus (OAO-3) US astronomy satellite launched TIVE DIFFUSION. Stars above this mass limit have convec- most prominent rayed craters
in 1972 August to study stellar ultraviolet and X-rays. It tive cores, in which energy transport is mainly by on the Moon, Copernicus has a
observed CYGNUS X-1, a BLACK HOLE candidate. It ceased CONVECTION. See also STELLAR INTERIOR diameter of 92 km (57 mi) and
operations in 1981. shows terraced walls and
Coriolis effect To an Earthbound observer, anything central peaks. The rays and
Cor Caroli The star Canum Venaticorum, visual that moves freely across the globe, such as an artillery shell ejecta blanket surrounding the
mag. 2.89 (but slightly variable), distance 110 l.y. It is of or the wind, appears to curve slightly to its right in the crater are well shown in this
spectral type A0p, with unusually prominent lines of northern hemisphere and to its left in the southern hemi- Hubble Space Telescope
silicon and europium. Cor Caroli is the prototype of the sphere. This is the Coriolis effect. In 1835 Gaspard de image.
class of ALPHA2 CANUM VENATICORUM STARS; like all
stars in this class, it varies slightly as it rotates, due to
surface patches of different composition brought about
by strong localized magnetic fields. Small telescopes
show it to be a double star, with an unrelated
companion of mag. 5.61. Cor Caroli is Latin for
Charles heart, a name bestowed by British royalists to
commemorate the beheaded King Charles I of England.
97
corona
corona (1) Loops in the the base of the corona. The F corona is caused by sunlight
Suns inner corona imaged by scattered from solid dust particles. The shape of the inner
the TRACE spacecraft in 1998. K corona reflects constraint of electrons by MAGNETIC
Like many other features in the FIELDS. At the base of coronal streamers, the electrons are
solar corona, these are shaped concentrated within magnetized loops rooted in the pho-
by magnetic fields. tosphere. Farther out, the streamers narrow into long,
radial stalks that stretch tens of millions of kilometres into
C space; some may reach as far as halfway to Earth.
At times of reduced activity, near the minimum of the
SOLAR CYCLE, coronal streamers are located mainly near
the solar equator. The coronal streamers are the source of
the low-speed SOLAR WIND. Near maximum in the activity
cycle, the corona becomes crowded with streamers both
near the equator and the Suns poles.
The coronas high temperatures are capable of strip-
ping iron atoms of 13 of their electrons, producing an ion-
ized form whose emission in green light at wavelength
530.3 nm was first detected at the total eclipse of 1869
August 7. Initially taken mistakenly to be the signature
of a new element (coronium), FeXIV emission provides
a useful tracer for coronal structure. Further evidence for
the coronas high temperatures comes from observation of
its radio emission. Gas in the corona is completely ion-
Coriolis (17921843) first explained that this apparent ized, and is therefore in the form of a PLASMA.
curvature was not caused by some mysterious force. It Recent observations of the corona from spacecraft sug-
simply shows that the observer is on a rotating frame of gest that at least some of the heat of the corona is related to
reference, namely the spinning Earth. The Coriolis the Suns ever-changing magnetic fields. These observa-
effect accounts for the direction of circulation of air tions have been made using a soft X-ray telescope on the
around cyclones. YOHKOH spacecraft, and with ultraviolet and extreme-
ultraviolet telescopes aboard SOHO and TRACE.
corona (1) Outermost region of the solar atmosphere, Images of the Sun at extreme-ultraviolet and X-ray
above the CHROMOSPHERE and TRANSITION REGION. The wavelengths reveal dark regions, called coronal holes,
corona (from Latin crown) becomes visible as a white and bright regions, known as coronal loops. Coronal
halo surrounding the Sun at a TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, and holes are characterized by open magnetic fields that allow
can be observed at other times using a special instrument hot material to escape. At least some of the high-speed
called a CORONAGRAPH. Coronal material is heated to tem- component of the solar wind flows out of the coronal
peratures of millions of Kelvin, and consequently emits holes nearly always present at the Suns poles. Coronal
energy at extreme-ultraviolet and X-ray wavelengths. holes extending towards the solar equator become com-
Observations at these wavelengths show the corona over mon close to the minimum of the solar cycle.
the whole of the Suns face, with the cooler, underlying The hottest and densest material in the low corona is
PHOTOSPHERE appearing dark. located in thin, bright magnetized loops that shape, mould
The visible, white light corona may be divided into the and constrain the million-degree plasma. These coronal
inner K CORONA, within two or three solar radii of the pho- loops have strong magnetic fields that link regions of
corona (2) A radar image tosphere, and the outer F CORONA. The K corona shines opposite polarity in the underlying photosphere. Coronal
of Artemis Corona obtained by by visible sunlight that is weakly scattered by free elec- heating is usually greatest where the magnetic fields are
the Magellan orbiter. Artemis trons. It is about one-millionth as intense as the photos- strongest. High-resolution TRACE images have demon-
Corona is the largest such phere. Observations of the K corona indicate there are up strated that the coronal loops are heated in their legs, sug-
feature on Venus. to ten million billion (1012) electrons per cubic metre at gesting the injection of hot material from somewhere near
the loop footpoints in the photosphere below.
Coronal loops can rise from inside the Sun, sink back
down into it, or expand out into space, constantly chang-
ing and causing the corona to vary in brightness and
structure. These changing magnetic loops can heat the
corona by coming together and releasing stored magnetic
energy when they make contact. This method of coronal
heating is termed MAGNETIC RECONNECTION. It can
occur when newly emerging magnetic fields rise through
the photosphere to encounter pre-existing ones in the
corona, or when internal motions force existing coronal
loops together.
There are about 50,000 small magnetic loops in the
low corona; these come and go every 40 hours or so,
forming an ever-changing magnetic carpet. SOHO obser-
vations indicate that energy is frequently released when
these loops interact and reconnect, providing another pos-
sible source of coronal heating. Bursts of powerful energy
released during magnetic reconnection can explain sud-
den, brief intense explosions on the Sun called FLARES.
Numerous low-level flares, called microflares or
nanoflares, might contribute to coronal heating. See also
E CORONA; T CORONA
98
cosmic abundance
coronagraph Instrument, used in conjunction with a istinctive northern constellation between Botes and Hercules, representing
telescope, that has an occulting disk to block out the
brightness of the Suns PHOTOSPHERE, providing an artifi-
D the crown worn by Ariadne when she married Dionysus, who later threw it
into the sky in celebration. Its brightest star is ALPHEKKA, mag. 2.22. CrB is an
cial eclipse, with additional precautions for removing all easy binocular double, mags. 5.2 and 5.4, while CrB, mags. 5.0 and 6.0, requires
traces of stray light. It was invented by Bernard LYOT. A a small telescope to divide. In the bowl of the crown is R CrB, a yellow supergiant
coronagraph is used to observe the faint solar CORONA in (spectral type F8 or G0) that can suddenly fade by up to 9 magnitudes. when
white light, or in all the colours combined, at any time. carbon accumulates in its atmosphere (see R CORONAE BOREALIS STAR). T CrB is a
The best images, with the finest detail, are obtained from recurrent nova known as the BLAZE STAR.
coronagraphs placed on satellites above the Earths atmos-
phere, whose scattered light otherwise degrades the image.
There are two coronagraph instruments aboard the coronal streamer See CORONA
SOHO spacecraft, for example.
coronium Chemical element initially hypothesized to
coronal hole See CORONA explain an unidentified green emission line observed in
the solar CORONA (as well as others found later). The
coronal mass ejection (CME) Transient ejection into coronium lines were eventually found to be FORBIDDEN
interplanetary space of plasma and magnetic fields from the LINES of highly ionized iron (Fe XIV) and other
solar CORONA, seen in sequential images taken with a CORO- common elements.
NAGRAPH. A coronal mass ejection expands away from the
Sun at supersonic speeds up to 1200 km/s (750 mi/s), correlation function Mathematical way of statistically
becoming larger than the Sun in a few hours and removing quantifying the distribution of galaxies in cosmology.
up to 50 million tonnes of material. CMEs are often associ- Two-point and three-point correlation functions are nor-
ated with eruptive PROMINENCES in the chromosphere, and mally calculated using the observed galaxy distributions,
sometimes with solar FLARES in the lower corona. and then compared with theoretical distributions derived
Coronal mass ejections are more frequent at the maxi- from cosmological models. Since correlation functions
mum of the SOLAR CYCLE, when they occur at a rate of are statistical in nature, if the models give the same cor-
about 3.5 events per day. They can, however, occur at any relation function as the actual data, then the model is
time in the solar cycle, and unlike coronal streamers, they successful, even though the exact locations of the indi-
are not confined to equatorial latitudes at solar minimum. vidual galaxies and/or clusters are not precisely what we
CMEs are most readily seen when directed perpen- see. See also BIG BANG THEORY
dicular to the line of sight, expanding outwards from the
solar limb; Earth-directed events are seen as diffuse, Corvus See feature article, page 100
expanding rings described as halo coronal mass ejec-
tions. Earth-directed CMEs can cause intense MAGNETIC Cos B European GAMMA-RAY ASTRONOMY satellite; it
STORMS, and trigger enhanced auroral activity. Coronal was launched in 1975 August. It remained in operation
mass ejections produce intense shock waves in the SOLAR until 1982 April, detecting 25 gamma-ray sources dur-
WIND, and accelerate vast quantities of energetic parti- ing its lifetime.
cles. A large CME may release as much as 1025 Joule of
energy, comparable to that in a solar flare. Like flares, cosmic abundance Relative amounts of elements pro-
CMEs are believed to result from release of stored mag- duced during the first three minutes of the BIG BANG.
netic stress. In view of their influence on the near-Earth The Big Bang model predicted how the amounts of vari-
space environment, CMEs are monitored by national ous elements were created under the conditions present
centres and defence agencies. in the early universe. Primarily hydrogen, helium and
99
Cosmic Background Explorer
100
cosmogony
101
cosmological constant
the model are likely to be proved wrong, but it provides a ture and composition, and so on, as well as on random
reference frame for scientific investigation. events, such as the proximity of other stars and the out-
It is generally accepted that planetary systems are not comes of collisions between protoplanets.
rare, but are a common product of star formation. Stars
form from clouds of interstellar gas, mostly hydrogen and cosmological constant Constant in Einsteins FIELD
helium, containing a small fraction of heavier elements, EQUATIONS of GENERAL RELATIVITY, originally added to
mostly in the form of dust grains. If the gas reaches a crit- stabilize the universe. If one writes down the general rela-
C ical density it begins to collapse under its self-gravity. This
collapse may be initiated by a number of phenomena:
tivistic equation for the universe, one finds that the uni-
verse cannot be static, but must either expand or contract.
cooling of the gas; loss of a supporting magnetic field; or When Einstein derived his universe equation,
an external perturbation that compresses the gas. Most astronomers had no idea the Universe was actually in a
star formation is observed to occur in clusters, as portions state of expansion. Therefore, Einstein added another
of a large cloud, with a total mass perhaps thousands of term in the field equations multiplied by a constant:
times that of the Sun, collapse over an interval of millions R g g = 8G/c2T
of years. The most massive stars have short lifetimes and where is the cosmological constant, R is the Riemann
explode as SUPERNOVAE within the cloud, mixing their tensor, g is the metric tensor, G is Newtons universal
material back into the medium and triggering further col- constant of gravitation, c is the speed of light and T is the
lapses by their shock waves. As a stellar-mass portion of stress-energy tensor.
the cloud collapses, it loses energy by infrared radiation This cosmological constant can provide an attractive
from dust grains and molecules. ANGULAR MOMENTUM is or repulsive force that operates throughout the entire
conserved, and any initial rotation increases in speed as universe and causes expansion, contraction or stability
the cloud contracts. Clouds with larger amounts of angu- depending on its value. Shortly after Einstein published
lar momentum may produce a BINARY STAR. For lesser the addition to his theory, Edwin HUBBLE announced his
amounts, turbulence and magnetic coupling redistribute observations of galaxies that showed the Universe was
angular momentum, allowing most of the mass to fall indeed in a state of constant expansion. Einstein quickly
towards the centre, while a portion remains in a rotating retracted his cosmological constant as being unnecessary
PROTOPLANETARY DISK orbiting the PROTOSTAR. and announced it as his biggest blunder. Even after
The protoplanetary disk is heated by the kinetic energy astrophysicists realized that no cosmological constant
of its infall. Its inner part becomes hot enough to vaporize was needed, some kept it and gave it a very small value,
the dust, and the gas nearest the protostar is ionized. In or a time-dependent value (in the case of inflationary
the outer part, grains of interstellar dust may survive; as theory). Lately, new observations of universal accelera-
the disk cools, heavier elements recondense in the inner tion combined with the low mass density seen in the
region. Dust grains collide and stick together to produce Universe indicate that it might be necessary after all. See
centimetre-sized aggregate particles, which settle towards also BIG BANG THEORY
the central plane of the disk, where they form a thin, dense
particle layer. Particles in this layer are subject to drag cosmological distance scale Methods and scales with
exerted by the gas, which causes bodies of different sizes which astronomers determine the distance between galax-
to move at different rates; they may also collide due to tur- ies and clusters in the visible Universe. In order to under-
bulence. They continue to grow, forming PLANETESIMALS stand our Universe, the distances to galaxies must be
of kilometre size. At this stage they are less affected by the determined. In order to measure these tremendous dis-
drag of the nebular gas, and gravitational interactions tances, astronomers rely on a variety of methods.
become important. Their perturbations stir up eccentrici- Distances in the Solar System can be measured by
ties and inclinations, causing the orbits of the planetesi- radar, and nearby stellar distances can be measured by
mals to cross, which results in frequent collisions. These direct stellar PARALLAX. In order to determine the dis-
collisions may produce both growth and fragmentation, tances to more distant stars, model-dependent methods
but the energy loss in inelastic collisions ensures that like main-sequence fitting and the periodluminosity rela-
growth dominates. By this process of ACCRETION, a small tionship for CEPHEID VARIABLES must be used. Measuring
number of large bodies, or PROTOPLANETS, forms. Colli- the distances to nearby galaxies relies upon detection of
sions among them continue for millions of years until the Cepheid variables or other bright stellar phenomena such
remaining bodies are few and widely separated, yielding as supernovae in those galaxies. These methods are fairly
planets on stable orbits. The Moon is believed to have accurate for nearby galaxies, but become more difficult
formed from debris after a Mars-sized protoplanet collid- and uncertain for more distant galaxies. Other methods
ed with the still-growing Earth. The final sweeping up of such as the TULLYFISHER RELATION can be used for dis-
smaller bodies takes tens of millions of years. tance estimates of spiral galaxies, while distances to ellipti-
Farther from the protosun, cooler temperatures allow cal galaxies require assumptions about the average size of
ice to condense, providing more material and allowing giant ellipticals in a cluster. Farther and farther out into
growth of larger protoplanets. If these protoplanets reach the Universe, distance measurement becomes more and
a critical size, several times Earths mass, they can capture more uncertain. Until recently this has prevented us from
gas from the protoplanetary disk, growing into giant plan- determining what type of universe we live in.
ets like Jupiter and Saturn. After a few million years the This series of methods is also called the cosmic dis-
gaseous component of the disk is driven off by activity of tance ladder, where each rung represents a method to
the newly formed star as it goes through its T TAURI phase. determine the distance to more distant objects. Each
Still farther out, the growth times of the protoplanets are method also depends on the previous one for accurate cal-
too long, and the disk may dissipate before they can cap- ibration. The final rung of the cosmological distance scale
ture large amounts of gas; planets like Uranus and Nep- is the HUBBLE LAW. This relationship is used for objects so
tune result, their makeup being dominated by the far away that we cannot image individual stars, molecular
accretion of icy cometary planetesimals. clouds, or even individual supernovae, and it is essential to
This model for planetary formation provides a plausi- have a reliable value for the HUBBLE CONSTANT to use it.
ble qualitative explanation for the major features of the
Solar System, although some parts are uncertain and cosmological model Any of several theories or ideas
many details remain to be worked out. The degree to that attempt to describe and explain the form and evolution
which our planetary system is typical or unique is not of our UNIVERSE. The original cosmological model held that
known. The existence of extrasolar planets in systems the Earth was the centre of the Universe, with the Sun,
quite unlike our own shows that other outcomes are possi- Moon and planets orbiting around us and the stars affixed
ble. The final form of a planetary system probably to the CELESTIAL SPHERE. This geocentric (Earth-centred)
depends on both systematic factors, such as the mass and model was in favour for over 1000 years after PTOLEMY first
angular momentum of a protostellar cloud, its tempera- wrote it down. This model failed to explain the elliptical
102
cosmology
shapes of planetary orbits, the westward drift or retrograde Attempts to determine the nature of the reshifts and the
motion of the planets, and the phases of Venus. The geo- expansion rate have occupied much of the available time on
centric model was subsequently replaced by the more pow- large telescopes. Today the question is still unresolved.
erful heliocentric or Sun-centred model. The heliocentric However, perhaps the most important cosmological
model was capable of explaining retrograde motion much problems that remain at the beginning of the 21st century
more easily than its predecessor. Although COPERNICUS was are to determine the rate at which the universal expansion
the first to show that the heliocentric model was far better in is taking place (determining the Hubble constant), how it
explaining the observations than the geocentric model, it
was not until after GALILEOs time that it became politically
has expanded in the past and how it will continue to
behave in the future. To these must be added the question
C
acceptable to publish such an idea. The current accepted of whether the overall geometry of the Universe is closed
cosmological model, called the BIG BANG, is based on Ein- or open. In an OPEN UNIVERSE, the total volume of space
steins theory of GENERAL RELATIVITY and maintains that at is infinite, the universe has no boundary and will expand
one moment SPACETIME was collapsed into an infinitely for ever. CLOSED UNIVERSES contain a finite amount of
small point, and subsequently the entire Universe expanded space, may or may not have boundaries and will eventual-
and continues to expand. Other cosmological models ly collapse back on themselves.
include the anisotropic models, the STEADY-STATE THEORY Attempts to obtain a grand view of the Universe have
and BRANSDICKE THEORY. led to the construction of cosmological models. A starting
point for many cosmologists has been the finding that the
cosmological principle Assumption that SPACETIME is Universe appears much the same in all directions (the so-
homogeneous and isotropic on the largest of scales and called ISOTROPY) and at all distances (HOMOGENEITY).
that we do not live in a preferred place in the Universe. However, the expansion of the Universe would at first
This sweeping principle allows us to solve Einsteins FIELD seem to suggest that the overall density of the distribution
EQUATIONS and to build COSMOLOGICAL MODELS that can of galaxies must decrease so that they become more
be tested with observations. sparsely distributed as time goes on.
Cosmological models have included the STEADY-STATE
cosmological redshift Shift of spectral lines due to the THEORY of Hermann BONDI, Thomas GOLD and Fred
expansion of the Universe. Galaxies and clusters are locat- HOYLE in which the Universe is the same not only in all
ed in SPACETIME, which is uniformly expanding and car- places but also at all times. It therefore had no beginning,
rying the galaxies along with it; thus the galaxies exhibit a will have no end and never changes at all when viewed on
velocity relative to a distant observer. The Doppler-type the large scale. This theory required matter to be created
effect is not a result of the sources velocity in spacetime, as the Universe expanded in order that the overall density
but is caused by the expansion of spacetime itself. Edwin of galaxies should not decrease. For this reason it is also
HUBBLE showed in 1929 that the Universe is expanding, referred to as the CONTINUOUS CREATION model.
and further that the cosmological velocity is linearly relat- On the other hand, according to supporters of the BIG
ed to the distance of the source. See also HUBBLE LAW BANG models originally proposed by George GAMOW,
Ralph Alpher (1921 ) and Robert Herman (191497),
cosmology Study of the structure of the Universe on the the whole Universe was created in a single instant about
largest scale. Contained within it is COSMOGONY. 20 billion years ago and is presently expanding (the mod-
Our early view of the Universe was prejudiced by the ern consensus value is about 15 billion years). In the
belief that we occupied a special place within it at the future it may continue to expand or possibly collapse back
centre. Only in the 20th century have we realized that the on itself depending on the total amount of matter and
Earth is but a small planet of a dim star, located in the energy in it, that is, whether or not the Universe is open or
outer suburbs of a typical galaxy. Perhaps the most impor- closed. An important cosmological question is the MISS-
tant astronomical discovery of the early 20th century was ING MASS PROBLEM: the amount of matter we see in the
HUBBLES realization that the dim NEBULAE he observed Universe is far smaller (by a factor of about 100) than the
were in fact enormous systems of thousands of millions of amount we infer from the motions of the galaxies.
stars lying far outside our Galaxy. Soon after this discov- Definitive observations to discriminate between cosmo-
ery, astronomers realized that these galaxies were all reced- logical models are hard to make. The most informative
ing from the Earth. Hubble, along with other astronomers, parts of the Universe are those farthest away. Unfortunate-
obtained optical spectra of many galaxies and found that ly, the objects we observe in such regions are faint and their
their spectral lines were always shifted towards the red nature is unknown. It is extremely difficult to tell to what
(longer wavelengths). He interpreted these REDSHIFTS as extent quasars, for example, are similar to the nearer and
being a universal DOPPLER EFFECT, caused by the expan- more familiar objects. And if we cannot make compar-
sion of the Universe. Furthermore, the speed he inferred isons, we cannot use them as standards to test cosmologi- cosmological constant
was found to be proportional to the galaxys distance, a cal models. It is also not known if our Earth-derived A supernova (arrowed) in a
relationship known as the HUBBLE LAW. physical laws are applicable in the Universe at large. high-redshift galaxy, imaged
It is now known that both the shift and the speeddis- Cosmologists have made several important discoveries, by the Hubble Space
tance proportionality follow naturally from an overall including an attempt to determine the Hubble constant. Telescope. Observations of
expansion of the scale size of the Universe. Galaxies are The DECELERATION PARAMETER, which determines objects such as this support
redshifted because the Universe has a different scale size whether the Universe will expand for ever or eventually the suggestion that a
now compared with the size it was when the light was emit- collapse back on itself, has also been estimated. Recent cosmological constant might,
ted from the galaxies. Nevertheless, time has shown that observations of supernovae have shed some light on the after all, be required to
Hubble was correct in his interpretation that the speed of values of these important cosmological parameters. They describe the expansion of the
recession is proportional to distance. Today, the constant indicate that the Universe is probably accelerating and will Universe.
of proportionality bears his name (see HUBBLE CONSTANT). never collapse back again.
Close to the Sun, the distance of galaxies can be deter- Another important discovery in cosmology was the
mined from the properties of some VARIABLE STARS they COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND radiation, which pro-
contain such as the Cepheids or from the size of HII vided strong evidence against the steady-state theory. Its
regions. As we move farther out into the Universe, however, discovery also brought with it problems of its own: we do
these methods become increasingly inaccurate. Eventually, not understand how this background radiation can be so
distances can only be estimated by measuring the redshift uniform in all directions when it comes from different
and relying on the accuracy of the Hubble relation. parts of the Universe that have never been in communica-
Unfortunately, for some of the most distant objects, such tion with each other. Attempts have been made to invoke a
as QUASARS, we do not have adequate confirmation that this very rapid period of expansion in the Universes history in
procedure for determining distances is valid. Some order to remove this difficulty (the so-called inflationary
astronomers believe that at least part of the quasar redshifts universe), but these attempts appear to many cosmolo-
may originate from unknown non-cosmological causes. gists to be less than convincing (see INFLATION).
103
Cosmos satellite
coud focus In this persion SPECTROSCOPES, which are too large or heavy to be
optical configuration, mirrors mounted on a moving telescope, may be placed at the
direct light from the telescope coud focus, which is often located in an adjacent room or
along the polar axis to a fixed secondary mirror declination axis even separate floor. A series of auxiliary mirrors is used to
observing position. This has direct the converging beam of light from the SECONDARY
several advantages for MIRROR, down the hollow polar axis of the telescope mount,
observations that require use of to the slit of the spectrograph. The word coud is French
C heavy or bulky detectors. for elbow, and describes the bending of the light path.
104
crater, lunar
105
Crpe ring
106
Curtis, Heber Doust
tial conditions of a stellar system to be erased, all scale pro- Crux One of the southern
portionally to the crossing time. For stars in our part of the skys most distinctive
Milky Way, the crossing time is about 60 million years. constellations. The long axis
points to the south celestial
cross-staff Simple 14th-century instrument consisting pole, while the dark nebulosity
of two attached pieces of wood in the shape of a cross and of the Coalsack can be seen at
used as a sighting device for determining the angular dis- lower left.
tance between two objects. C
Cruithne EARTH-CROSSING ASTEROID with an orbital
period very close to one year; number 3753. Discovered
in 1986, the peculiar orbital properties of Cruithne were
not identified until 1997. There are no known TROJAN
ASTEROIDS of the Earth occupying the LAGRANGIAN
POINTS, but Cruithne has a regular dynamical relationship
to our planet, delineating a horseshoe-shaped path
relative to us as it orbits the Sun. The Saturnian moons
JANUS and EPIMETHEUS also follow horseshoe orbits, but
centred on that planet. Cruithne is about 5 km (3 mi) in
size. See table at NEAR-EARTH ASTEROID
107
curvature of spacetime
taken of nebulae. He found that spiral nebulae were scarce (17441852), who imagined them to be the polar snows.
along the galactic plane (the ZONE OF AVOIDANCE) and that They have been extensively observed (187782) by ti-
many spirals showed dark dust lanes along their horizontal enne Lopold Trouvelot (182795) and many others
planes, similar to the Milky Ways. These observations and since. At first thought to be illusory, the cusp caps feature
his spectroscopic work convinced him that the bright, dif- conspicuously on photographs taken in ultraviolet by
fuse nebulae resided inside our Galaxy, but that the spiral Frank E. Ross at Mount Wilson during the favourable
nebulae were other galaxies lying at much greater dis- evening elongation of 1927. They are now identified with
C tances. This was at variance with the metagalaxy model
proposed by Harlow SHAPLEY (see GREAT DEBATE).
the bright polar cloud swirls imaged by the MARINER 10
and PIONEER VENUS space probes. The caps vary in
Curtis became director of the Allegheny Observatory brightness, shape, size and position; sometimes they are
(192030), where he designed and built a wide variety of seen at both poles, at others at one alone.
astronomical equipment, including measuring engines
to obtain precise positions of celestial objects from CV Serpentis ECLIPSING BINARY star associated with the
photographic plates, and specialized instruments for bright hydrogen nebula E41. It has a period of 29d.64, and
observing solar eclipses. During the 1925 total eclipse its magnitude ranges from 9.86 to 10.81(mB). It has Wolf-
expedition to New Haven, Connecticut, he became the Rayet and O8-O9 stellar components. CV Serpentis
first to obtain an infrared spectrum of the solar corona exhibits strange behaviour in that eclipses are sometimes
and chromosphere. Curtis continued his solar astronomy observed when the Wolf-Rayet component eclipses the O-
at the University of Michigans observatory, which he type star, and sometimes when the O-type star is the eclips-
directed from 1930 to 1942, and at its McMath-Hulbert ing body. Also, predicted eclipses do not always occur.
Observatory, which he helped to found.
Cygnus See feature article
curvature of spacetime Distortion of the spacetime
CONTINUUM due primarily to the presence of mass. Ein- Cygnus A Strongest source of radio emission outside the
steins theory of GENERAL RELATIVITY is a geometric theory Galaxy, and the first RADIO GALAXY to be detected. It
in which the FIELD EQUATIONS describe how much effect emits a million times more energy in the radio part of the
mass-energy has on the shape of the four-dimensional spectrum than the Milky Way. Cygnus A is thought to be
SPACETIME continuum in which we live. Mass-energy two galaxies in collision; it has two radio LOBES centred on
curves or distorts spacetime, and particle paths are con- the parent galaxy. It is also an X-ray source.
strained to follow this curvature. If a particle is observed
approaching the Sun, it appears to be attracted to the Sun Cygnus Loop See VEIL NEBULA
by some force, or, equivalently, its path is seen to alter
because of the curvature of spacetime around the Sun. Cygnus Rift (Northern Coalsack) Northern part of a
large DARK NEBULA that runs along the Milky Way from
cusp Either of the two pointed extremities, or horns, of Cygnus through to Ophiuchus. The nebula as a whole is
the Moon or an inferior planet when at its CRESCENT known as the Great Rift. The clouds forming the Great
phase. The term literally means the point of meeting of two Rift are about 2000 l.y. away and have a mass of about one
curves, in this case the curves being the limb of the Moon million solar masses. The Great Rift causes the Milky Way
or planet and the TERMINATOR (the boundary between the to appear to split just below Deneb ( Cyg), with the main
illuminated and non-illuminated hemispheres). branch running down through Altair ( Aql) and a spur
forking towards Oph.
cusp caps of Venus Bright hoods or caps at the north
and south points of the planet, especially conspicuous at Cygnus X-1 Binary star system around 6000 l.y. (2 kpc)
the latter. They were discovered 1813 December 29 by away that is a strong source of X-rays. It is associated with
the German astronomer Franz Paula von Gruithuisen a faint star (HDE 226868), a blue supergiant, with an
orbital period of 5.6 days. The blue supergiant is around
30 times as massive as the Sun, and the invisible compan-
CYGNUS (GEN. CYGNI , ABBR . CYG )
ion has a mass of around 10 solar masses, which is too big
for a white dwarf or a neutron star, so it may be a black
arge and easily recognized constellation, also known as the Northern Cross, hole. The X-rays sometimes vary in intensity on a time-
L representing the swan into which the god Zeus turned himself before seducing
Leda, the queen of Sparta. Its brightest star, DENEB, is an immensely luminous
scale of milliseconds. Cygnus X-1 is also a radio source.
supergiant, a member of the so-called SUMMER TRIANGLE. Cyg, better known as Cygnus X-3 Source of X-rays, gamma rays and cosmic
ALBIREO, is a beautiful coloured double for the smallest apertures, while 61 Cyg is rays (and small radio flares), emitting more energy than all
an easy pair of orange dwarfs (see SIXTY-ONE CYGNI). CHI CYGNI is a red MIRA but a very few other objects in the Galaxy. Cygnus X-3
STAR, ranging between mags. 3.3 and 14 with a period of about 400 days; P CYGNI consists of a NEUTRON STAR orbiting a larger companion,
is a highly luminous variable. Cygnus lies in the Milky Way and contains rich with an orbital period of 4.8 hours. It is situated on the
starfields. Its largest nebula is the CYGNUS RIFT, a dark cloud that bifurcates the edge of the Galaxy, 36,000 l.y. from Earth.
Milky Way as it heads south. Near Deneb is the NORTH AMERICA NEBULA, NGC
7000, while near Cyg is the VEIL NEBULA, a supernova remnant. M39 is a large Cyrillus Polygonal lunar crater, 97 km (60 mi) in
open star cluster easily seen in binoculars and just on the naked-eye limit. diameter. With CATHARINA, it is a member of the
NGC 6826 is an 8th-magnitude planetary nebula popularly known as the THEOPHILUS chain. Its north-east wall is overlapped by the
BLINKING PLANETARY. Two celebrated objects in Cygnus within reach only of younger impact crater Theophilus. Cyrillus east rim is
professional instruments are CYGNUS X-1, a black hole X-ray source that is in orbit straightened, and its interior walls gradually slope to the
around a visible star, and CYGNUS A, a strong radio source thought to be two floor, which is broken at two places by lengthy landslips
galaxies in collision. parallel to the outer ramparts. The west rim of Cyrillus is
cut by a long northsouth cleft; a long, curvy ridge abuts
BRIGHTEST STARS the north-east walls. Cyrillus adjoins Catharina through a
Name RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance wide, shallow valley that cuts through its south wall. The
h m mag. mag. type (l.y.)
floor of Cyrillus shows much detail, including a group of
Deneb 20 41 45 17 1.25 8.73 A2 3230 three mountains lying east of centre. Although quite large,
Sadr 20 22 40 16 2.23 6.12 F8 1520 these mountains are lower and more heavily eroded than
Gienah 20 46 33 58 2.48 0.76 K0 72 Theophilus central mountains, thus proving that Cyrillus
19 45 45 08 2.86 0.74 B9.5 171 is the older crater. A sinuous rille originates at a volcanic
Albireo 19 31 27 58 3.05 2.31 K3 386 vent beyond Cyrillus south wall; it tops that wall,
21 13 30 14 3.21 0.12 G8 151 continues down to the south half of the craters floor and
extends towards a craterlet just south-west of centre.
108
dark nebula
D
galaxies indicate that more mass is present in the galactic
haloes than we actually see, so this matter must not be
emitting large amounts of light hence the term dark
matter. Another use of dark matter is in closing the Uni-
verse. See also CLOSED UNIVERSE; CRITICAL DENSITY;
DENSITY PARAMETER
109
DArrest, Comet 6P/
110
degenerate matter
de Chseaux, Comet (C/1743 X1) Brilliant multitailed with the asteroid 9969 BRAILLE at a distance of 15 km
comet of 174344, discovered independently by Dirk (9.3 mi) in 1999 July accomplished the prime objective of
Klinkenberg (170999) on December 9 and Philippe de the mission, although an imaging system malfunction pre-
Chseaux (171851) on December 13. It reached apparent vented any good images being taken. DS 1 was then
magnitude 7 around its 1744 March 1 perihelion. directed towards a bonus target a rendezvous with
Comet 19P/Borrelly in 2001 September. On the way to
decimetric radiation RADIO WAVES having wavelengths the comet, however, DS 1 experienced a serious problem
of a few tenths of a metre or a few decimetres, that is, when its star tracker was lost. A remarkable recovery by
from 0.1 up to 1 m (3 to 0.3 GHz). It includes most UHF engineers, who reconfigured computer software on the
radio frequencies and the upper part of the VHF band. spacecraft, enabled control to be restored.
declination (dec., ) Measure of angular distance, Deep Space Network (DSN) Three Deep Space
D
north or south of the CELESTIAL EQUATOR; it is one of the Communications Complexes used by NASA to track and
two coordinates of the EQUATORIAL COORDINATE system, communicate with space probes; they are operated by the
the other being RIGHT ASCENSION. Designated by the JET PROPULSION LABORATORY. The first to be completed,
Greek letter , declination is measured from 0 to 90 in 1966, is the Goldstone Tracking Station in Californias
between the celestial equator and the north celestial pole, Mojave Desert, near Goldstone Dry Lake, about 70 km
and from 0 to 90 between the celestial equator and north of Barstow. The other two are at Robledo de
the south celestial pole. Chavella, 60 km west of Madrid, Spain, and at
Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve, 40 km south-west of
deconvolution Removal of imperfections in the signal Canberra, Australia. Between them, they can maintain
received by an instrument. When an astronomical object contact with space probes as the Earth rotates. Each
is observed with any instrument (such as a telescope plus complex has two 34-m (110-ft) antennas, one 26-m
detector, for example), the instrument smears the radia- (85-ft) antenna and one 70-m (200-ft) antenna, which
tion in its own characteristic way. The most obvious can also be used as radio telescopes and for radar
examples are the spiking seen on the optical images of observations of nearby planets.
bright stars, caused by the spider support for the sec-
ondary mirror, and the broad spots on the image rather defect of illumination Proportion of the disk of a plan-
than single points for the stellar images. The process of etary body that does not appear illuminated to an observer
removing the effect of the instrument is called deconvolu- on Earth; measured as an angle in arcseconds. Also known
tion, and it involves understanding and modelling the as the TERMINATOR phase, the defect of illumination defines
effects very thoroughly with a computer. The instrumen- how much of a geometrical planetary disk is in darkness. It
tal effect (the instrumental profile) is often approximated can also be expressed in terms of the angle of the terminator
by a Gaussian distribution function because this is easy to or the ratio of illuminated to non-illuminated areas. At
correct computationally. OPPOSITION, there is no perceptible defect of illumination.
decoupling era Period when matter began to evolve deferent In the PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM and earlier systems,
separately from the COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND. the large circle centred on the Earth, around which was
During the early stages of the BIG BANG, the universe was supposed to move the centre of a small circle, the EPICY-
much smaller, denser and hotter than it is now, and it was CLE, around which a planet moved.
essentially radiation dominated. The photon density was
so high that the formation of normal atoms and molecules degenerate matter Matter that is so dense, atomic
was not possible. As the universe expanded and cooled, particles are packed together until quantum effects sup-
the radiation density decreased more rapidly than the mat- port the material. Material within WHITE DWARFS and Deep Space 1 Test firing of
ter density, and after several thousand years the universe NEUTRON STARS is degenerate. the xenon ion engine of Deep
became optically thin to radiation, and matter evolved At the enormous temperatures and pressures that exist Space 1. Launched in 1998
separately from the background radiation. This transition at the centres of stars, atoms are stripped of almost all of October, the spacecraft had a
is called decoupling and this era can be studied through their electrons, leaving a gas of nuclei and electrons. highly successful encounter
the cosmic microwave background radiation. Because these particles are much smaller than atoms, such with Comet 19P/Borrelly in
a gas can be compressed to much higher densities than an 2001 September.
Deep Impact NASA Discovery-class mission, to be
launched in 2004 January, to impact a 498-kg instru-
mented cylindrical copper projectile into the nucleus of
Comet 9P/Tempel 1 in 2005 July. The impact, at a speed
of 32,200 km/h (20,000 mph), will create a 100-m
(330-ft) diameter, 8-m (26-ft) deep crater, exposing pris-
tine interior material and debris from the comet, which
will be studied by a high-resolution camera and an
infrared spectrometer on the mother craft and by
ground- and space-based observatories.
111
Degree Angular-Scale Interferometer
ordinary gas. However, the PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE, built an instrument he called a photoheliograph, and used it
which states that no FERMION can exist in the same to prove that the prominences observed during total solar
quantum state, prevents particles getting too close together. eclipses were produced by the Sun itself.
In white dwarfs, or the centres of GIANT STARS and
76-0134
low-mass DWARF STARS, the electrons are degenerate; in Delaunay, Charles Eugne (181672) French engi-
neutron stars it is the neutrons that exert the degeneracy neer and mathematician, an expert in celestial mechanics.
pressure. In degenerate matter the motions of the Twenty years work on the lunar theory allowed Delaunay
constituent particles are not determined by temperature, to reckon the latitude, longitude and parallax of the Moon
as they are in a normal gas, so a degenerate gas does not to within 1. In 1870 he was appointed director of the
obey the usual gas laws. Degeneracy pressure is a PARIS OBSERVATORY.
mall but conspicuous northern constellation, representing a dolphin, between Denebola The star Leonis, visual mag. 2.14, distance
S Pegasus and Aquila. Its brightest stars are Del (Sualocin), mag. 3.8, and
Del (Rotanev), mag. 3.6; backwards their names read Nicolaus Venator, the
36 l.y., spectral type A3 V. Its name comes from the Ara-
bic meaning lions tail, which is where it lies.
Latinized form of the Italian name of Niccol Cacciatore (17801841), who was
assistant and successor to Giuseppe PIAZZI, in whose catalogue of stars (1814) the Denning, William Frederick (18481931) English
names first appeared. Del is a fine visual binary with orange and bluish-white amateur observer of meteors and comets who identified
components, mags. 4.3 and 5.2, separation 9.8. Deep-sky objects in Delphinus and mapped the radiants for many meteor showers. In
include NGC 7006, an 11th-magnitude globular cluster, which, at about 1899 he published a comprehensive catalogue of radiants
115,000 l.y. away, is one of the most distant known. and was able to prove that the radiant for the Perseid
meteor shower slowly drifted eastwards as the Earth
112
Deslandres, Henri Alexandre
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revo- de Sitter, Willem (18721934) Dutch astronomer and
lution of the Heavenly Spheres) Nicholas COPERNICUS theoretical physicist who publicized relativity and helped
masterpiece in which he set forth what is now called the to found 20th-century theoretical cosmology. His work
COPERNICAN SYSTEM, his heliocentric theory of the Solar was in CELESTIAL MECHANICS, including a re-determina-
System. Although it was published in 1543, the year of tion of the fundamental constants of astronomy and
Copernicus death, it took more than a century for its cos- refinement of the orbits of Jupiters satellites. His double-
mology to become widely accepted. Publication was over- star observations showed that the speed of light did not
seen by the German theologian Andreas Osiander depend on source velocity (1913). The de Sitter model,
(14981552), who without Copernicus knowledge insert- which arose from his solution (1917) of Einsteins FIELD
ed a preface stating that the heliocentric Solar System was EQUATIONS of general relativity, was based on a hypotheti-
not real, but merely an aid to calculating planetary posi- cal universe containing no matter. It suggested that the
tions. But the clear intention of the work itself is to promote Universe was expanding, a conclusion that Einstein did
a Sun-centred system. Much of De revolutionibus is con- not initially accept, choosing instead to prevent the
cerned with geometrical derivations and tables for predict- expansion mathematically by introducing the COSMOLOG-
ing the positions of the Sun, Moon and planets. Because ICAL CONSTANT. The Einsteinde Sitter model, pro-
the elliptical shape of planetary orbits had not yet been dis- posed by the two scientists in 1932, is a BIG BANG universe
covered, complicated epicycles were still required, as in the that expands for ever.
PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM, and in that respect the new theory
was not much of an improvement on the previous one. Deslandres, Henri Alexandre (18531948) French
astrophysicist, director of the Meudon and Paris Observa-
Descartes Concentric lunar crater (11.5S 15.5E), tories (190829). From studies of radial velocities and
50 km (31 mi) in diameter. The outline of Descartes is their effects on spectral lines, Deslandres made significant
difficult to discern; scattered hills are the sole remnants of contributions to the understanding of molecular spectra as
the impact sites south rim. A sizeable bowl crater sits they appear in stars and planetary atmospheres that were
atop the south-west rim. The floor of Descartes is not fully appreciated until the QUANTUM THEORY became
113
Despina
de Vico, Comet 122P/ Short-period comet discovered differential rotation Rotation of a gaseous or fluid body
on 1846 February 20 by Francesco de Vico (180548), at a rate that differs with latitude: the equatorial regions
Rome, Italy. During its discovery apparition, the comet rotate more quickly, and revolve faster, than higher-
reached a peak magnitude 5.0, but no definitive orbit latitude polar ones. The differential rotation of the Sun
was calculated. A comet discovered independently on persists from the PHOTOSPHERE down to the base of its
1995 September 17 by three Japanese observers (Yuji convective zone (see SOLAR INTERIOR). Differential
114
dipole
rotation is also shown by the GIANT PLANETS. A solid two photons simultaneously, the photons can then have a
body like the Earth cannot undergo differential rotation: it range of energies (that is, the absorption lines will be
must rotate so that the angular velocity and period of broad) since it is only the total energy of the two photons
rotation is the same everywhere. that has to equal the exact energy required for the transi-
tion. It is likely that there is more than one cause of the
differentiation Process by which a planetary body DIBs, so several of these suggestions could be correct. See
develops a layered structure. In a body that grows to a suf- also INTERSTELLAR MOLECULES
ficient size by ACCRETION, energy supplied by RADIOAC-
TIVITY, supplemented by kinetic energy of impacting diffuse nebula Term used in the mid-19th century for
bodies and gravitational compression, will cause melting any nebulous object in the sky that did not resolve into stars
in the interior. Under the action of gravity, denser material
will sink towards the centre, and less dense material will
when observed at high resolution. It thus included SUPER-
NOVA REMNANTS, PLANETARY NEBULAE, REFLECTION NEBU-
D
rise towards the surface. These displacements release LAE, distant galaxies and hot gas clouds.
gravitational potential energy, heating the body further Nowadays it is taken to refer only to the hot gas clouds,
and causing additional melting; once begun, differentia- and it is thus a somewhat archaic synonym for HII
tion proceeds to completion on a short timescale. Differ- REGIONS. Diffuse nebulae absorb ultraviolet radiation
entiation of a terrestrial planet yields a nickeliron CORE emitted by hot stars embedded within them. This IONIZES
and rocky MANTLE and CRUST. The larger ice-rich satel- the atoms within the nebula; the subsequent
lites of the outer planets have differentiated into rocky RECOMBINATION of an ion and electron leads to the
cores and icy mantles. The distinct compositions of some emission of the optical radiation. The nebulae vary
METEORITES, consisting of iron and/or igneous minerals, considerably in general appearance depending upon the
indicate that their parent asteroids differentiated and distribution of gas and stars within them, but the ORION
solidified before being disrupted by impacts. NEBULA and ROSETTE NEBULA are good examples. Nebulae
are often the sites of current or recent star formation.
diffraction Slight spreading of a beam of light as it
passes a sharp edge. If a beam of light strikes a hole, the Digges, Leonard (c.152059) and Digges, Thomas
beam that passes through the hole spreads slightly at the (c.154595) English father and son who applied mathe-
edges. A similar effect can be observed when waves in matical methods to surveying, navigation and ballistics.
the sea hit the narrow opening of a harbour: as they pass In 1553 Leonard Digges published A General Prognosti-
into the harbour they begin to spread out. Because their cation, one of the earliest astronomical almanacs. As well
wavelength is large compared to the harbour entrance as astronomical data, it contained practical information
the spread is large. The very short wavelength of light on instruments and methods, such as finding local time
means that the effect is rarely noticed unless the opening from star positions.
is extremely small. Thomas Digges published revised editions of his
However, the diffraction of light at the edges of a fathers works. Pantometria (1571) covers surveying and
telescope aperture gives rise to the AIRY DISK observed cartography and contains what some have interpreted as
when a star image is examined at high magnification. The a description of a reflecting telescope. Prognostication
larger the aperture, and the shorter the wavelength, the Everlasting (1576) reiterates Leonards support of the
smaller the Airy disk will be. Sun-centred COPERNICAN SYSTEM, and also makes a
Diffraction is used to good effect in a DIFFRACTION case for an INFINITE UNIVERSE. Thomas careful
GRATING, where many very narrow adjacent holes (usually observations of Tychos Star, the supernova of 1572,
in the form of long slits) cause the spreading light beams coupled with Tychos own observations of it, have
to interfere with each other thus producing a SPECTRUM. allowed modern astronomers to identify it with a known
supernova remnant.
diffraction grating Optical device used to disperse light differential rotation In a
into a SPECTRUM by means of a series of closely spaced, Digitized Sky Survey (DSS) See PALOMAR OBSERVATORY fluid body, such as a star or
equidistant, parallel grooves ruled on to its surface. A typ- SKY SURVEY gas giant planet, the equatorial
ical grating will have several thousand such grooves per regions rotate more rapidly
centimetre; light striking each individual slit is dispersed diogenite See HOWARDITEEUCRITEDIOGENITE ASSOCI- than the poles. As shown, a
by DIFFRACTION into a spectrum. The grooves may be ATION consequence of this is that a
ruled on glass, producing a TRANSMISSION GRATING, or on set of points lined up on the
metal to give a REFLECTION GRATING. Diffraction gratings Dione Fourth-largest SATELLITE of SATURN. It was dis- central meridian will become
produce quality high-dispersion spectra and are used in covered in 1684 by G.D. CASSINI. It is known to share its spread out in longitude over
astronomical SPECTROSCOPES and SPECTROGRAPHS. orbit with a small satellite, HELENE, which occupies a sta- the course of a rotation. Points
ble LAGRANGIAN POINT 60 ahead of it. Helene thus bears close to the equator will return
diffuse interstellar band (DIB) Broad ABSORPTION the same relationship to Dione as do some of the TROJAN to the central meridian earlier
LINES found on ultraviolet, visible and infrared spectra of ASTEROIDS to Jupiter. Dione is similar in appearance and than those near the poles.
distant stars (some definitions restrict the term to the size to TETHYS, which has the adjacent orbit inside that of
lines in the visible range of the spectrum, where the Dione. However, Dione has a wider range of crater densi-
strongest lines are at 443 and 618 nm). Diffuse interstel- ties; this is partly attributable to at least two separate local-
lar bands (DIBs) are found especially when the light from ized episodes of cryovolcanic flooding (see
the star has been strongly reddened by interstellar dust CRYOVOLCANISM), widely spaced in time, which affected
absorption along the line of sight. Over 200 such lines different regions. These episodes may be a result of TIDAL
have now been observed. Some of the DIBs are very HEATING caused by orbital interaction with ENCELADUS.
broad. For example, the line at 220 nm is some 40 to However, the resurfacing events on Dione must have
50 nm wide. Others are narrower but still broad com- taken place far longer ago than the most recent resurfac-
pared with the stellar lines: for example, the DIB at ing on Enceladus, because even Diones least cratered
578 nm is about 2 nm wide, while the stellar lines are areas have more craters than the most cratered areas on
0.1 nm or less. DIBs are clearly closely associated with Enceladus. See data at SATURN
INTERSTELLAR MATTER but their origin is still a matter of
debate. Current possible explanations include graphite Diphda Alternative name for the star Ceti. See DENEB
particles, OH radicals on the surfaces of silicate grains, KAITOS
silicate grains themselves, polycyclic aromatic hydrocar-
bons (molecules with carbon and hydrogen in hexagonal dipole Pair of equal and opposite electric charges or mag-
arrays) and complex carbon molecules such as Buckmin- netic poles separated by a finite distance. A dipole is also a
sterfullerene (C60). An alternative hypothesis suggests design of ANTENNA for a radio telescope. An ordinary bar
that the bands originate when hydrogen molecules absorb magnet is a dipole.
115
direct motion
direct motion (prograde motion) Orbital or rotational lens, a prism or a grating. Chromatic dispersion also
motion in the same direction as that of the Earth around occurs in fibre-optics, where the speed of propagation is
the Sun, that is, anticlockwise when viewed from above dependent on the colour.
the Suns north pole. For motion to be classed as direct,
the inclination of the axis of rotation or orbital motion dispersion measure Column density of free electrons
must be less than 90. The motion of all planets in the along the line of sight to an object. In practice it is of con-
Solar System, and most of the satellites, is direct. Direct cern mainly for PULSARS. The radio waves from the pul-
motion is also the term given to the regular west-to-east sar are delayed by interactions with the free electrons in
motion of bodies in the Solar System when viewed from space, with the lower frequencies being delayed more
Earth, relative to the background stars. than the higher ones. Thus an individual pulse from the
D disconnection event Shearing of a COMETs ion tail,
pulsar will have its high-frequency component received
on Earth before the lower-frequency component. The
resulting from a change in the polarity of the interplane- delay between the receptions of the components of a
tary magnetic field. Disconnection events often occur pulse is called the differential dispersion and it increases
when a comet encounters a sector boundary in the as the dispersion measure increases. The unit for disper-
SOLAR WIND; they are usually followed by the develop- sion measure is m2 but pc cm3 is often to be found in
ment of a new, differently oriented ion tail. Comets that the literature on the subject.
appear around the time of sunspot maximum, when the
solar wind is particularly turbulent, are especially prone distance modulus Difference between APPARENT MAG-
to disconnection events. NITUDE (corrected for interstellar absorption) and
ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDE of a star or galaxy. It is a measure
Discovery Name of the third SPACE SHUTTLE orbiter; it of the distance to an object, though absorption by the
first flew in 1984. interstellar medium must be considered (see REDDENING).
Discovery Name of a NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND diurnal motion Apparent daily motion of a heavenly
SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA) science programme with body across the sky from east to west, caused by the axial
the aim of flying diverse missions with a faster, better, rotation of the Earth. At the poles, a celestial body appears
cheaper approach. to describe a circle in the sky parallel to the horizon. At
other latitudes it describes an arc from horizon to horizon,
disk galaxy Name given to any kind of GALAXY in the the length of which varies with latitude and declination; its
form of a substantial thin disk of stars in roughly circular angle to the horizon varies with latitude alone.
orbits about the centre; the brightness of the galaxy
decreases with increasing distance from the centre. Disk diurnal parallax (geocentric parallax) Difference in the
galaxies include SPIRAL GALAXIES (ordinary and barred) apparent position of a celestial body as measured by an
and LENTICULAR (S0) systems. Some IRREGULAR GALAX- observer at the Earths surface and by a hypothetical
IES also appear to have thin disks in ordered rotation, observer at the centre of the Earth. The Earths daily
though their brightness profiles are less regular. Disks are rotation on its axis causes the positions of nearby objects
thought to have been formed while material was still in the to appear to shift in relation to the background stars. The
disk galaxy NGC 4945 is a form of interstellar clouds, rather than dense stars, so that effect is maximized when an object is on the horizon, but
classic disk galaxy at a cloud collisions could remove energy and flatten the distri- at a minimum if it is on the meridian. It is so small that it
distance of 13 million l.y. Disk bution into the existing disk. is only noticeable for objects within the Solar System. See
galaxies have their stars mainly also ANNUAL PARALLAX; SOLAR PARALLAX
confined to a flat, thin circular dispersion Separation of light into its constituent wave-
region surrounding the nucleus. lengths by refraction or DIFFRACTION; it is produced by a divided telescope (heliometer) Historical instrument
for measuring very small angles, consisting of a
REFRACTING TELESCOPE with an objective lens cut in
half. Each half was mounted on a graduated rack-and-
pinion mechanism, so that when the two semi-lenses
were slid against each other out of a common line of col-
limation, the observer saw a split image. The half-lenses
were mounted with high precision, and the superimposi-
tion of their respective images could then be used to
accurately measure very tiny angles. John DOLLOND in
London began to make divided achromatic lenses for
angle-measuring purposes in the 1760s, although it was
in the superb HELIOMETERS by Adolf Repsold
(17931867) of Munich after 1835 that the instrument
reached its peak of excellence.
116
Dorado
117
Double Cluster
Double Cluster (NGC 869 and 884) Pair of open star Drake, Frank Donald (1930 ) American radio
clusters in the northern constellation PERSEUS. The pair astronomer who pioneered SETI, the Search for Extra-Ter-
is visible to the naked eye as a hazy patch sometimes restrial Intelligence. Working at the NATIONAL RADIO
referred to as the Sword Handle; it is also catalogued as ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY, he played a key role in the first
h and Chi Persei. Each cluster contains several hundred SETI survey, called Project Ozma, which in 1960 looked
stars. NGC 869 (RA 02h 19m.0 dec. 5709) is the for artificial radio signals from the vicinity of the nearby
younger, with an estimated age of 6 million years. NGC stars Ceti and Eridani. He introduced the Drake
884 (RA 02h 22m.4 dec. 5707) is thought to be 14 equation as an attempt to estimate the number of planets
million years old. Both clusters are products of a burst of in our Galaxy capable of supporting intelligent life.
recent star formation, which has given rise to the Perseus
OB1 association in the next spiral arm of our Galaxy Draper, Henry (183782) American astronomer and
outwards from that occupied by the Sun. The distances equipment-maker. He took some of the best early pho-
of NGC 869 and NGC 884 are 7200 l.y. and 7500 l.y. tographs of the Moon, planets, comets, nebulae and the
respectively. Each has an apparent diameter of 29. solar spectrum with a 28-inch (0.71-m) telescope he
NGC 869 has overall magnitude 5.3 and NGC 884 completed in 1872. That year, he took the first photo-
magnitude 6.1. graph of the spectrum of a bright star, Vega. To honour
his work with photographic spectroscopy, his name was
Double Double (Epsilon Lyrae) Quadruple star system given to the HENRY DRAPER CATALOGUE, funded by a
near Vega (RA 18h 44m.3 dec. 3940), with two well- donation from his widow and astronomical assistant,
matched pairs separated by 208 (3.5), making the star a Mary Palmer Draper (18391914). Henrys father
naked-eye double. Telescopic examination shows each of was John William Draper (181182), an English scien-
the naked eye components to be double. Epsilon1 (pair tist who emigrated to America in 1832, and some time in
AB) has a separation of 2.6, components of mags. 5.4 the winter of 1839/40 obtained the first photographic
and 6.5 and an orbital period of 600 years. Epsilon2, the image (a Daguerrotype) of the Moon.
more southerly (CD) pair, has components of mags.
5.1 and 5.3, separated by 2.3, and an orbital period of drawtube Moving portion of a telescopes focuser. The
1200 years. The system lies 180 l.y. away. drawtube holds the eyepiece, and the remainder of the
focuser assembly permits the drawtube to move in and out
double star Two stars that appear close together on the along the optical axis.
sky. An OPTICAL DOUBLE is a chance alignment: in reality
the two stars lie at great distances from each other, but Dreyer, John Ludvig Emil (18521926) Danish
they appear to be close together as seen from the Earth. In astronomer, noted for his catalogues of deep-sky objects,
physical doubles, or BINARY STARS, the two stars lie close who spent most of his career (18821916) as director of
enough together to be gravitationally bound, orbiting ARMAGH OBSERVATORY. During the 1870s he was an assis-
about their common centre of mass (see BARYCENTRE). tant at Birr Castle, where, with the 72-inch (1.8-m) reflec-
118
dwarf Cepheid
119
dwarf galaxy
dwarf galaxy GALAXY that is much smaller and intrinsi- of Groningen in northern Holland. It is home to the 25-m
cally fainter than the familiar spiral and giant elliptical sys- (82-ft) Dwingeloo radio dish, one of the oldest purpose-
tems. A common definition has absolute visual magnitude built radio telescopes in the world. The facility is operated
fainter than 18; by this criterion the MAGELLANIC by the Netherlands Foundation for Research in Astrono-
CLOUDS are not dwarfs but all the other non-spiral mem- my, and its research includes surveys for radio emission
bers of the LOCAL GROUP are. Dwarf galaxies are usually from galaxies behind the Milky Way.
spheroidal or irregular in structure, and are often found
clustered around brighter galaxies. dynamical parallax Method of measuring the distance
to a visual binary star based on the estimated masses of
dwarf nova (DN) CATACLYSMIC VARIABLE that undergoes the two components, the size of the orbit and the period of
D repeated outbursts. Outbursts are generally similar to those
found in a NOVA, but with smaller amplitudes, typically two
their revolution around one another. The angular diame-
ter of the orbit of the stars around each other is observed,
to six magnitudes. The rise from minimum to maximum together with their apparent brightness, and by applying
takes place in one or two days, and the return to minimum KEPLERS LAWS and the MASSLUMINOSITY RELATION, the
generally takes several days. The average interval, in days, distance to the binary star can be determined.
between consecutive maxima is called the mean cycle.
Although varying from star to star, each star has its own dynamical time System of time used since 1984 as the
characteristic mean cycle, which often alters within fairly variable in gravitational equations of motion used for com-
wide limits. Approximately 370 dwarf novae are known. puting the predicted positions, or EPHEMERIDES, of the Sun,
Physically, dwarf novae consist of a DWARF STAR or Moon and planets. Terrestrial dynamical time (TDT), an
SUBGIANT K or M-type star that fills its ROCHE LOBE and atomic timescale based on the SI second, is a continuation
transfers material towards a WHITE DWARF companion, of EPHEMERIS TIME, the system previously used in calcula-
which is surrounded by an ACCRETION DISK. In many sys- tions of geocentric ephemerides. Barycentric Dynamical
tems a hot spot may be observed where the stream of Time (TDB) is used in equations of motion of planetary
material impacts on the outer edge of the accretion disk. bodies relative to the BARYCENTRE of the Solar System.
In the variable-star classification scheme, dwarf novae
are designated UG. They are divided into three main sub- dynamics Branch of mechanics devoted to the study of
types in accordance with their optical behaviour. Each sub- forces, accelerations and the resulting motions of bodies.
type is designated by the name of a type star. The first NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION are the basis of dynamics,
subtype (UGSS) comprises the SS Cygni or U GEMINO- and the application of these together with NEWTONS LAW
RUM stars, which are named after the first two dwarf novae OF GRAVITY results in KEPLERS LAWS of planetary motion.
discovered. The cycles for stars of this subtype range from A body undergoing circular motion with a radius, r, and at
ten to several hundred days. Outbursts are termed either a velocity, v, will be accelerated towards the centre of the
normal (short) or wide (long). The first have durations of circle by an amount given by v2/r .
a few days whereas the second last for up to about 20 days. It therefore experiences a force, Fc, called the CEN-
Occasionally a star will take several days to rise to maxi- TRIPETAL FORCE, which is perpendicular to its velocity and
mum; such maxima are called anomalous outbursts. mv2, where m is the mass of the body.
is given by Fc =
Stars of the SU Ursae Majoris subtype (UGSU) have r
two kinds of outburst: normal outbursts last from one to For an elliptical orbit, the centripetal force will vary as the
four days; supermaxima last from ten to 20 days, during distance from the BARYCENTRE changes, and the force will
which time the star becomes from half to one magnitude no longer always be perpendicular to the velocity, but the
brighter than at normal outbursts. For almost all maxima, orbital motion is still governed by Newtons laws.
stars of this type rise to near maximum brightness in 24
hours or less. Some have a short pause at an intermediate dynamo effect Generation of a planets magnetic field
magnitude on the rise for an hour or two. They also have by electromagnetic induction arising from convective
periodic oscillations (superhumps), with amplitudes of motions in the electrically conducting core of the planet.
mag. 0.2 to 0.5, superimposed on the light-curve. Their The power sources must be sufficient to overcome the
period is about 3% longer than the orbital period. natural decay of electric currents in a conductor of finite
Z CAMELOPARDALIS STARS (UGZ) make up the third conductivity (that is, the magnetic Reynolds number
subtype of dwarf nova. They differ from other types in must exceed a critical value). The motions must have an
occasionally remaining at an intermediate magnitude asymmetry (just as the field coil in a self-exciting dynamo
between maximum and minimum for several cycles. is wound in one sense), and this is attributed to the CORI-
These standstills occur at unpredictable intervals. Z OLIS FORCE arising from the planets rotation. Cores in
Camelopardalis stars may sometimes take several days to the terrestrial planets are iron-rich and thus electrically
rise to maximum. Their mean cycles are shorter than those conducting; in Jupiter and Saturn they may be formed of
of the other two subtypes, ranging from ten to 40 days. metallic hydrogen, whereas for Uranus there may be a
conducting electrolyte at its centre. The fields produced
dwarf star Star lying on the MAIN SEQUENCE. The term are strongly dipolar and roughly aligned along the rota-
dwarf is derived from the early history of the tional axes of the planets, except for Uranus. Reversals of
HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM, when stars were divided the polarity of the magnetic field appear to be an inherent
into the main-sequence dwarfs and the more luminous property of the core dynamo.
giants. The term main-sequence star is more usually
used today, except for stars of mass lower than about 0.8 Dyson, Frank Watson (18681939) English
solar mass, which are called RED DWARFS. Stellar-like bod- astronomer, the ninth ASTRONOMER ROYAL (191033). He
ies below 0.08 solar mass are called BROWN DWARFS. Main- was co-leader, with Arthur EDDINGTON, of the 1919 total
sequence stars are distinct from WHITE DWARFS and BLACK solar eclipse expedition that confirmed Einsteins theory
DWARFS, which are evolved stars in the final stages of their of GENERAL RELATIVITY by detecting the Suns gravita-
lives. See also STELLAR EVOLUTION; SUBDWARF tional deflection of starlight. Dyson supervised the ROYAL
GREENWICH OBSERVATORYs contribution to the massive
Dwingeloo Radio Observatory Dutch national centre sky-mapping project known as the CARTE DU CIEL and
for radio astronomy, situated some 45 km (30 mi) south studied stellar proper motion.
120
Earth
E
Denser lithospheric material underlies both continents
and oceans to depths of approximately 100200 km
(60120 mi) and 60 km (40 mi), respectively. The upper-
most layer of the mantle, immediately below the lithos-
phere, has a much lower viscosity than the rest of the
mantle, and is known as the ASTHENOSPHERE.
At the Earths centre, the pressure is estimated to be
approximately 4000 kbar and the temperature to lie within
the range 55007500 K. (The uncertainty arises from dif- Eagle Nebula A European
ficulties in determining what elements may be present Southern Observatory image of
apart from iron and nickel.) The temperature of the liquid
outer core is 40005000 K. This internal heat comprises
the central part of the Eagle
Nebula, showing the Pillars of
E
residual heat from the original planetary accretion process Creation. These dark fingers of
together with heat produced by the radioactive decay of nebulosity are associated with
isotopes of elements such as uranium, rubidium and thori- continuing star formation.
um. Radioisotope dating techniques suggest that the age of
the Earth is approximately 4.5 109 years, slightly greater
than the oldest dates established for lunar rocks (4.44
109 years). Because of Earths level of geological activity,
the greatest ages yet discovered are 4.276 109 years for
zircon crystals from Australia, and 3.96 109 years for the
Acasta gneiss from Canada. All these ages are exceeded by
those found for some components of certain METEORITES,
which predate the formation of the Solar System.
The solid inner core rotates slightly faster (by c.0.66
Eagle Nebula (Ml6) Bright cluster of recently formed second) than the rest of the planet, and it is this, together
stars and associated EMISSION NEBULA (HII region), cata- with motions in the liquid core, that generates the Earths
logued by astronomers as NGC 6611 and IC 4703 moderately strong magnetic field. The field is in the form
respectively. The object lies in Serpens Cauda (RA 18h of a magnetic dipole, the axis of which is inclined by
18m.8 dec. 1347), near the border with Scutum. The c.11.5 to the planets rotational axis. It has a field strength
Eagle Nebula contains the famous Pillars of Creation, at the surface of c.0.3 gauss at the equator and approxi-
fingers of dark nebulosity associated with ongoing star for- mately double this value at the magnetic poles. The mag-
mation, imaged from the HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE in netic field defines the Earths MAGNETOSPHERE, and its
1995. The nebula and cluster are about 6500 l.y. away. interaction with the SOLAR WIND forms RADIATION BELTS
The Eagle Nebula has an apparent diameter of 35 28. (the VAN ALLEN BELTS) around the planet. The study of
the palaeomagnetism fossilized in the crustal rocks indi-
early-type star High-temperature star of spectral class cates that the positions of the magnetic poles have migrat-
O, B or A. The term was devised when astronomers ed over geological time relative to the positions of the
erroneously believed that the sequence of spectral types continents, and that there have been relatively regular
was also an evolutionary sequence. The usage persists, reversals in the polarity of the field. Both of these effects,
early being a common astronomical synonym for hot taken in conjunction with radioisotope dating, were
(for example, a G2 star is earlier than a G5 star). See instrumental in gaining acceptance of the theory of plate
also SPECTRAL CLASSIFICATION tectonics. The concept of continental drift was originally
mooted by the Austrian meteorologist Alfred Wegener
Earth Third planet from the Sun; the largest and most (18801930), who first lectured on the subject in 1912,
massive of the four TERRESTRIAL PLANETS and the only but it did not gain widespread approval. The imprint of
planet known to support life. Its mean distance from the magnetic reversals in the basaltic rocks of the ocean floor
Sun is defined as one ASTRONOMICAL UNIT, a convenient allowed geophysicists to assess the rate and pattern of
standard for the description of distances within the Solar seafloor spreading, establishing that no part of the ocean
System. Its orbit around the Sun defines the plane of the floor was more than 200,000 years old, thus confirming
ECLIPTIC, to which the orbits of the other planets, minor the reality of plate motion.
planets and comets in the Solar System are referred. The Plate tectonics explains how the Earths crust consists
intersection of the ecliptic with the celestial equator at of about twelve major lithospheric plates and numerous
which the Sun appears to move from south to north
defines the FIRST POINT OF ARIES, the zero point for the
determination of RIGHT ASCENSION. EARTH: DATA
The Earth has one natural satellite, the MOON, which is Globe
believed to have formed by ACCRETION in orbit of material Diameter (equatorial) 12,756 km
ejected following the impact of a Mars-sized body with Diameter (polar) 12,714 km
the proto-Earth. As a planet, Earth is distinguished by its Density 5.52 g/cm3
abundant water, nitrogenoxygen ATMOSPHERE, and its Mass 5.974 1024 kg
persistent and general geological activity, including con- Volume 1.083 1012 km3
tinuing and widespread plate TECTONICS. Sidereal period of axial rotation 23h 56m 04s
SEISMOLOGY has revealed the Earths internal structure, Escape velocity 11.2 km/s
with a solid inner CORE, radius 1390 km (860 mi), which Albedo 0.37
is believed to consist primarily of nickel and iron but prob- Inclination of equator to orbit 23 27
ably containing additional elements such as oxygen or sul- Surface temperature (average) 290 K
phur. This solid inner core is surrounded by a liquid outer Orbit
core of similar material, with an external radius of Semimajor axis 1 AU 149.6 106 km
3480 km (2160 mi). The bulk of the planet lies in the Eccentricity 0.0167
MANTLE, which consists of iron- and magnesium-rich sili- Inclination to ecliptic 0 (by definition)
cate materials in a semi-plastic state. Above the mantle is Sidereal period of revolution 365d.256
found the rigid LITHOSPHERE, which has two components, Mean orbital velocity 29.8 km/s
the outermost of which is a low-density CRUST. The crust Satellites 1
121
Earth-crossing asteroid
Earth En route to the Moon edge of a continental plate this volcanic activity gives rise
in 1972 December, the Apollo to major mountain ranges such as the cordilleran chains of
17 crew obtained this North, Central and South America. When the overriding
photograph of an almost full slab is of generally oceanic type, volcanically active island-
Earth. Africa and the Indian arcs are produced, as in the Aleutian islands, Japan,
Ocean are well presented in Indonesia and New Zealand. Subduction zones are nor-
this view. mally marked by deep oceanic trenches, and they are the
sites of major earthquake activity, including deep-focus
earthquakes occurring at depths as great at 700 km
(430 mi). The majority of volcanic and earthquake activi-
ty on Earth occurs around the destructive margins of the
Ring of Fire, which girdles the Pacific Ocean. Major
mountain-building also occurs where two continental
E plates converge. The Himalayas and the high plateau of
Tibet were raised by the collision of the Indian and
Eurasian plates. They form part of the other major belt of
volcanic and earthquake activity, which runs west through
Central Asia and the Mediterranean.
Improved seismographic techniques and analysis in
recent years have provided considerable information
about structures within the mantle. Cold subducting slabs
may descend as far as the coremantle boundary, where
rising superplumes of hot mantle material originate. A
smaller ones, the majority of which are in constant motion continental plate that moves over a former subduction
relative to one another. These rigid plates move over the zone may be dragged vertically downwards by as much as
more fluid asthenosphere. Plate boundaries are of three 200300 m (6501000 ft). A continental plate above a
kinds: divergent, where adjacent plates are moving away superplume may be raised by a similar amount, as is
from one another; convergent, where they are colliding; occurring at present under southern Africa. Superplumes
and conservative, where adjacent slabs are sliding past one are also thought to be responsible for generating major
another. The boundaries between plates are marked by and prolonged volcanic activity, such as that exhibited by
dynamic activities, such as seismic disturbances, volcan- the Deccan traps, the Siberian volcanic province and the
ism, major faulting and, over long periods of time, by the Columbia River flood basalts.
creation of new mountain ranges. The Earths climate is determined by a number of fac-
New oceanic crust is created at divergent boundaries or tors. The overall pattern is set by the differing intensities
spreading centres, which are located at oceanic ridges and of insolation at different latitudes. The resulting tempera-
broader rises, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East ture differences set up pressure gradients, which in turn
Pacific Rise. Hot basaltic magma rising from the Earths generate the complex atmospheric circulation. The latter
mantle accretes on the edges of the diverging plates, which is a principal factor in the oceanic circulation, although
move laterally, creating new seafloor at rates that vary temperature and salinity gradients are also involved.
between 0.5 and 10 cm per year. The creation of new Because the oceans act as a heat reservoir, they exert a
oceanic crust is largely balanced by destruction at a type great influence over decade-long changes in weather and
of convergent boundary known as a subduction zone. A climate. Over the course of geological time there have
subduction zone is a steeply inclined belt where oceanic been significant changes in the Earths climate, most
crust plunges beneath the adjacent plate, which may be of notably shown by recurrent periods of major glaciation, or
either continental or oceanic type. ice ages, as well as periods of widespread warmth. Plate
Complex processes occur at subduction zones; the tectonics has played a major part in initiating some of
subducting slab carries with it some of the overlying sedi- these climatic changes, because of its effects upon the
ments and both are eventually melted at depth. Some of oceanic circulation and the distribution of land masses at
the sedimentary veneer is scraped off the plunging slab, high or low latitudes. The immediate cause, however,
and it accretes as highly deformed rocks on the edge of the appears to have been fluctuations (as well as secular
overlying plate. Magma, generated by frictional heat and change) in the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, with
the increasing temperatures with depth, is less dense than astronomical factors (such as variations in the eccentricity
the overlying rocks and penetrates the upper plate. At the of the Earths orbit, changes in inclination to the ecliptic,
Principal faults
Oceanic marginal
troughs
Mid-oceanic ridges
Overthrust faults
122
eclipsing binary
apparent magnitude
it close to the Earths orbit. See also POTENTIALLY
2.8
HAZARDOUS ASTEROID
3.0
earthshine Illumination by sunlight reflected off the
surface and atmosphere of the Earth of that part of the 3.2
E
Moons disk that is in shadow. The effect is best observed 3.4
either just before or soon after new moon, when the A A
3.6
faintly illuminated unlit area can be seen nestling in the 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
time (hours)
thin, brightly lit crescent, a phenomenon popularly
described as the old moon in the new moons arms. As
the illuminated portion of the lunar disk increases in size The component stars of most classical eclipsing pairs eclipsing binary The light-
the earthshine becomes too faint in comparison to be have similar radii. The light from a system in which one curve (bottom) of an Algol-type
detected. At the same time, the phase of the Earth, as star is very much larger than the other would tend to binary can be accounted for by
seen from the Moon, is shifting from full to gibbous, come predominantly from that large star, so that the partial eclipses of each star by
meaning that less light is reflected from it. eclipse of the small star (OCCULTATION), or its passage in the other (top). At the deep
front of the large star (TRANSIT), would tend to have an primary minimum, the brighter,
eccentric Point introduced by Ptolemy to improve the effect too small to be readily observed, unless that small smaller star is largely covered
description of planetary orbits. It is the centre of the star were relatively very bright (per unit surface area) by the fainter. When both stars
deferent circle, but is near the Earth, not coincident with compared to the large star. are fully visible, light is at a
the Earth as in earlier geocentric systems (see Eclipsing binaries undergo a regular cycle of variation maximum, while a less
PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM). in apparent brightness because their orbital motions take prominent secondary minimum
place in a plane that is oriented at a relatively low angle to occurs midway through the
eccentricity (symbol e) One of the ORBITAL ELEMENTS; the line of sight. For eclipsing binaries, the INCLINATION is cycle as the brighter star
it describes the degree of ELONGATION of an elliptical usually not far from 90, and, in any case, greater than passes in front of the fainter.
orbit. The eccentricity is obtained by dividing the about 58. There will be a succession of two alternating
distance between the foci of the ELLIPSE by the length of photometric minima one a transit, the other an occulta-
the major axis. A circular orbit has e = 0; a parabolic orbit tion (unless the stars are exactly equal in size). Eclipses
is the extreme case of an ellipse, with e = 1. may be total, partial or annular.
Because there are two stars in the system, two eclipses
echelle grating High-dispersion DIFFRACTION GRATING may be expected during the course of an orbital cycle,
that produces spectra with a high degree of resolution though it sometimes happens that one of these events caus-
over a narrow band of wavelengths. Like a standard dif- es so slight a loss of overall light from the system as not to be
fraction grating, an echelle grating uses a number of par- noticeable. The deeper eclipse minimum, associated with
allel grooves ruled on its surface to disperse light into a the eclipse of the brighter star, is usually called the primary
SPECTRUM. The difference with an echelle grating is that minimum. The star so eclipsed would tend to be called the
these grooves are stepped and their spacing relatively primary star, and, in practice, this star is very often the
wide. Light is directed on to the grating at a large angle, more massive. The shallower secondary minimum is asso-
producing a number of high-resolution overlapping spec- ciated with the eclipse of the secondary component.
tra. These are then separated by a second, lower disper- The components of most eclipsing binary systems
sion grating or a prism. Echelle gratings are used in revolve in orbits that are essentially circular. Elementary
echelle SPECTROGRAPHS. geometry will then show that the same effective area of
stellar surface is eclipsed at both minima, and the minima
eclipse Passage of one body through the shadow cast by are also of equal overall duration (for circular orbits).
another. A LUNAR ECLIPSE, where the Moon passes Since the eclipsed areas are equal at corresponding phases
through Earths shadow, is a good example. The Galilean of either minimum, the ratio of depths in the minima at
satellites undergo eclipses in Jupiters shadow: at certain these phases is proportional to the brightness per unit
times, twice in a jovian year, the orbits of the satellites area. The primary star is thus the star of greater surface
align with the Sun such that one may eclipse another. temperature; though it is possible for the secondary,
Strictly speaking, a SOLAR ECLIPSE is an OCCULTATION, though cooler, to be bigger in size (the primary minimum
and the Moons shadow covers only a relatively small part would then be of occultation type), and actually to emit
of the Earths surface. more light overall than the primary. This situation may be
confusing when SPECTROSCOPY is being combined with
eclipse year Interval of 346.62 days, which is the time PHOTOMETRY, in which case the spectroscopic primary
between successive passages of the Sun through a node of (source of greater fraction of overall light) would then dif-
the Moons orbit. Eclipses can only occur when the Sun fer from the photometric primary (the hotter star).
and Moon are aligned at the node. The eclipse year is Eclipsing binary systems attract attention because their
shorter than the sidereal year of 365.25 days because the light-curves can be analysed to determine key parameters
nodes move westwards (regress) by about 19 per year. A of great astrophysical significance. From such systems,
SAROS contains 19 eclipse years. information on the sizes, luminosities, surface tempera-
tures, masses, and, to some extent, composition and
eclipsing binary Subset of the CLOSE BINARY star structure of the component stars may be derived. Such
systems BINARY STARS whose separation is usually of the absolute parameters are not derived from a single mono-
order of ten times, or less, the average size of the chromatic light-curve (though surface temperatures may
components. The likelihood of observing eclipses in be inferred from two such curves at different wave-
binary systems is greatest when the mean separation of lengths), but if spectroscopic evidence is available on the
components is just a few times greater than the mean system (such as the spectral type and spectral luminosity
radius of the stars themselves. class of the brighter, or perhaps both components), then
123
ecliptic
absolute values can be inferred. More powerful arguments CESSION, together with re-definitions of constellation
are available when the radial velocity variations of one or boundaries, mean that the ecliptic now also passes
both stars throughout the course of the orbit are known. through the constellation of OPHIUCHUS. The apparent
As the use of the word eclipsing suggests, however, it paths of the planets also closely follow the ecliptic since
is the photometric evidence that tends to take precedence the planes of their orbits are only slightly inclined to that of
in the study of this class of object. Eclipsing binaries are the Earth. The name ecliptic derives from the fact that
classified into three basic types on the basis of their light- eclipses of the Sun or Moon can only take place when the
curves. Historically, these were described as the ALGOL Moon passes through this plane.
type (EA), the BETA LYRAE type (EB), and the W URSAE
MAJORIS type (EW). EA types have an essentially constant ecliptic coordinates System of locating points or celes-
(to within 0.1 mag.) light level outside of eclipses, which tial objects on the CELESTIAL SPHERE using the ECLIPTIC as
are thus clearly defined (at least for the primary eclipse). the plane of reference and the measures of CELESTIAL
EB-type light-curves show a continuous pattern of vari- LATITUDE and CELESTIAL LONGITUDE (also known as
E ability. The abrupt variations that mark out the eclipse
regions are still distinct, but proximity effects render the
ecliptic latitude and ecliptic longitude). Celestial latitude is
measured in degrees from the ecliptic (0) in a positive
regions outside the minima (sometimes called shoulders) direction to the north ecliptic pole (90) and a negative
markedly curved. EW systems show more or less equal direction to the south ecliptic pole (90). Celestial longi-
depths of primary and secondary minima. In EW light- tude is measured around the ecliptic from 0 to 360, east-
curves proximity effects show such a scale of variation as wards of the FIRST POINT OF ARIES, the intersection of the
to merge smoothly into the eclipse minima, which can no ecliptic with the celestial equator.
longer be clearly discerned. The proximity effects are
explained in terms of two basic types of interaction the ecliptic limits Greatest angular distance around the
reflection effect and gravitational interactions. Both effects ECLIPTIC that the new moon or the full moon can be from
increase with reduced separation of the components. the Moons nodes for an ECLIPSE to take place. The limits
As well as classification based on light-curve morpholo- are 18.5 for the new moon at a SOLAR ECLIPSE, and 12.2
gy, schemes have been proposed that are influenced by the for the full moon at a LUNAR ECLIPSE.
physics or evolution of the stellar components. A common
scheme classifies eclipsing binaries into detached, semide- E corona Extended form of the solar CORONA. It is
tached and CONTACT BINARY systems, based on the rela- produced by interactions of ions with electrons and
tionship of the member stars to the ROCHE LOBE. If a protons, and radiation from the PHOTOSPHERE, which
binary component were to expand beyond this limiting result in production of EMISSION LINES. The E (emission
surface, a dynamical instability of some kind would ensue. line) corona is present in the visible part of the spectrum,
The detached systems are generally seen as unevolved, where about 20 emission lines are present, and also at
each star lying fully within its own Roche lobe. Probably short, ultraviolet and X-ray wavelengths.
the most frequently observed type is the semidetached
kind, of which Algol may be regarded as typical. In these ecosphere Spherical region around a star, also known
systems the secondary is very close to or in contact with as the circumstellar habitable zone (CHZ), within which
its surrounding Roche lobe. Physical Algol-type close life can exist. Its inner and outer limits may be set at
binary systems do not always correspond with the EA- those distances from the star at which the effective
type light-curves: the physical Algols show light-curves energy flux is respectively ~1.2 and ~0.4 times the
that are actually a subset of the EA kind. The contact present value of the solar flux at Earths orbit
binaries are characterized by both stars filling their Roche (1360 W/m2). This range is determined by the tolerance
lobes; they would thus be in contact with each other. It is of known forms of terrestrial life and the extremes of the
now thought that these binaries, which, as a class, coincide Earths surface BIOSPHERE; it applies only to a planetary
closely with systems showing the EW-type light-curve, body of suitable mass and chemical composition (similar
overflow beyond their common (inner) Roche limiting to the Earths) that orbits entirely within the ecosphere.
volume into a surrounding common envelope. For some subsurface micro-organisms (see LIFE IN THE
In addition to these major groupings, there are various UNIVERSE), the limiting radii of the Solar System
smaller subgroups. Some DWARF NOVA systems exhibit ecosphere extends from ~0.4 to ~40 AU, a zone almost
eclipses, and the special geometrical circumstance may be 75 times wider than the ecosphere.
particularly revealing on physical properties. In a more In general, the limiting radii of the ecosphere for a plan-
extreme physical condition are the X-RAY BINARIES; the etary system depend on the luminosity and surface tem-
eclipse effect may sometimes affect the X-ray radiation perature of the primary star. For the Sun, a
itself, thus providing insight into the geometrical arrange- main-sequence G-type dwarf, the present ecosphere
ment of the components. extends from just inside the Earths orbit to just within the
Though there is no definitely established case of an orbit of Mars. The width and distance of the ecosphere
eclipsing binary member of a globular cluster, eclipsing changes over time with the evolution of the star. The lumi-
systems have been observed in the MAGELLANIC CLOUDS. nosity of the Sun is steadily increasing, and the limits of
In principle, they offer the means of comparing stellar the ecosphere are migrating outwards. A star more mas-
properties, in a direct way, over very large reaches of space. sive and hotter than the Sun will have a larger and wider
About 6000 eclipsing binary systems are known, ecosphere, while a less massive and cooler star will have a
including many that also exhibit other forms of variability. smaller and narrower one.
ecliptic Apparent yearly path of the Sun against the Eddington, Arthur Stanley (18811944) English
background stars. Caused by the Earths orbital motion, astrophysicist known for his advocacy of Einsteins
the ecliptic is really a projection of the Earths orbital general theory of relativity and his discovery of the
plane on to the CELESTIAL SPHERE and, because of the tilt MASSLUMINOSITY RELATION. In 1905 he joined the
of the Earths axis, is inclined to the CELESTIAL EQUATOR ROYAL GREENWICH OBSERVATORY, where he successfully
at an angle of approximately 23.5, which is known as reduced photographic observations of the asteroid Eros
the OBLIQUITY OF ECLIPTIC. The celestial equator to obtain a more precise calculation of the SOLAR
intersects the ecliptic at two points on the celestial PARALLAX. Eddington used statistical methods to discover
sphere, the FIRST POINT OF ARIES and the FIRST POINT OF the distribution of stars in the Milky Way and their
LIBRA, also sometimes referred to as the EQUINOXES. The motions. In 1913 Cambridge University named him
ecliptic poles lie 90 from the ecliptic, in the Plumian Professor of Astronomy, and the next year he
constellations of DRACO and DORADO. was appointed director of Cambridge Observatory.
The annual path of the Sun takes it through the famil- Eddington soon became interested in Einsteins theory
iar 12 constellations of the zodiac, but the effects of PRE- of GENERAL RELATIVITY and its prediction that light rays
124
Egyptian astronomy
would be deflected in a gravitational field. The best test of the small outer satellites of the giant planets may have
this theory was to observe a total eclipse of the Sun, the begun their lives in this belt.
nearest body possessing a massive gravitational field. If the
positions of stars that appeared very close to the Suns effective focal length Working focal length of an optical
limb during an eclipse were altered slightly from their system that uses several elements to bring light to a focus;
normal positions as observed when the Sun was nowhere the quantity comes into play when, for example, eyepieces
in their vicinity, this would prove Einsteins theory. For the are used to increase the IMAGE SCALE of an instrument.
1919 total solar eclipse, Eddington organized an expedi-
tion to the West African island of Principe and obtained effective temperature Temperature of an object found
several photographic plates of stars near the solar limb. by assuming that its total emission over all wavelengths is
Back in England, he announced that careful measurement that of a BLACK BODY. The temperature is obtained using
and reduction of these stars positions confirmed the pre- the STEFANBOLTZMANN LAW. It is similar to the RADIA-
dicted bending of sunlight. TION TEMPERATURE, except that the latter uses the emis-
Eddingtons greatest contributions were to the theory
of energy production in stellar interiors and stellar evolu-
sion from the object at a particular wavelength, or over a
small wavelength region, and hence the Planck equation
E
tion, summarized in his classic book The Internal Constitu- (see PLANCK DISTRIBUTION).
tion of the Stars (1926). He discovered (1924) that for
MAIN-SEQUENCE stars there exists a linear relationship Effelsberg Radio Telescope See MAX-PLANCK-
between their absolute bolometric magnitudes (a function INSTITUT FR RADIOASTRONOMIE
of the logarithm of the stars luminosity) and the loga-
rithms of their masses. Eddington correctly modelled the Egg Nebula (CRL 2688) Young PLANETARY NEBULA in
abundance of hydrogen in solar-type stars, and evolved a the constellation CYGNUS, near (RA 21h 02m.3 dec.
theory to explain how CEPHEID VARIABLE stars pulsate. 3642). The Egg Nebula may be less than 500 years
old. Images from the HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE show mul-
Eddington limit Upper limit to the ratio of luminosity tiple arcs of material in shells surrounding the central star,
to mass that a star can have before RADIATION PRESSURE indicating that mass ejection during planetary nebula for-
overcomes the GRAVITATIONAL FORCE. It was proposed by mation is episodic. The Egg Nebula lies at a distance of
Sir Arthur Eddington. Early estimates gave a theoretical 3000 l.y.
limit to the mass of stars of around 60 solar masses, while
modern estimates give a limit as high as 440 solar masses. Egyptian astronomy Astronomy as practised by the
See also STELLAR MASS ancient Egyptians, until the time of the Persian conquests
in the first millennium BC. Although there are historical
EdgeworthKuiper belt (outer asteroid belt) Broadly records dating back to around 3000 BC, there is no
planar zone, stretching from the orbit of Neptune at evidence that the Egyptians attained the technical level of
30 AU out to about 1000 AU, populated by a substantial BABYLONIAN ASTRONOMY. With a less developed
complex of planetesimals currently classed as geometry and number system, their knowledge of
ASTEROIDS. The existence of this band was proposed on celestial motions was inferior. They did, however, possess
theoretical grounds by Kenneth Edgeworth a complex pantheon of deities that was closely linked to
(18801972) in 1949 and independently by Gerard their constellations and creation myths, and solar rituals.
KUIPER in 1951. The basis of their idea was that a vast As in other ancient cultures, the main reason for mak-
number of COMETS or planetesimals must have formed ing astronomical observations was to keep track of the
in the outer Solar System from the SOLAR NEBULA and passing of the year and the hours of day and night. Their
that they should persist beyond Neptune, never having agriculture depended on the annual flooding of the Nile,
accreted to produce a fully fledged planet. The concept which deposited a layer of silt that fertilized the land.
was resurrected in the 1980s as an explanation of the This annual event of vital importance had to be predict-
origin of SHORT-PERIOD COMETS: such a belt could ed, but the original Egyptian calendar was based on a
explain the generally low orbital inclinations of such fixed number of lunar months, and soon became out of
comets, whereas the spherical OORT CLOUD model could step with the solar year. The calendar was reconciled
not. Recently it has been realized that in the 1930s with the true solar year by observing the heliacal rising of
Frederick Leonard (18961960) had put forward Sirius (then called Sothis), which heralded the flooding
similar ideas to those of Edgeworth and Kuiper. of the Nile. If a heliacal rising occurred in the 12th
The first member of the belt was discovered in 1992. month, an extra, intercalary month was added, the first
Through to late 2001 more than 500 objects had been time in history that such a step was taken.
found in this region. Their sizes are mostly in the range of By perhaps as early as 3000 BC, the year had been stan-
100 to 500 km (60 to 300 mi), although larger bodies dardized to 365 days, and 12 months of 30 days were each
exist, for example VARUNA. There is no reason to believe divided into three weeks of 10 days. With each week was
that there are not also many smaller members of this belt. associated one of 36 small constellations whose heliacal
Members of the EdgeworthKuiper belt are often risings were separated by about 10 days. During the
called TRANS-NEPTUNIAN OBJECTS (TNOs). Many of course of an average night (excluding twilight periods), 12
them have been found to occupy the 2:3 RESONANCE of these constellations were observed to rise, leading to the
against the orbital period of Neptune, as does Pluto, and division of the night into 12 hours. Daytime was likewise
these are collectively termed PLUTINOS; other resonant divided into 12 hours, and thus arose the 24-hour clock.
orbits also exist. Other TNOs, following semi-random
orbits, are often termed CUBEWANOS.
Although categorized as asteroids in terms of their nam-
ing and cataloguing, members of the EdgeworthKuiper
belt are thought to be similar to comets in terms of their
physical nature. Their spectral reflectivities show them to
be reddish, continuing the trend seen from the inner bor-
der of the MAIN BELT of asteroids through to its outer edge,
and then through the region of the giant planets. Edge- EdgeworthKuiper belt A
worthKuiper belt objects do not show comet-like activity pair of Hubble Space Telescope
because they are at such huge distances from the Sun. If images showing a faint, distant
they leak inwards into planet-crossing orbits they may comet nucleus (circled) a few
become CENTAURS, in which case cometary outgassing can kilometres in diameter in the
begin to occur, as observed in the case of CHIRON. It is EdgeworthKuiper belt beyond
thought likely that Neptunes moon TRITON and many of the orbit of Neptune.
125
Einstein, Albert
The passage of time during the day was marked by a T- half years, it detected thousands of new X-ray sources. Its
shaped GNOMON, or shadow stick; later, in the 14th centu- observations confirmed that almost all types of stars emit
ry BC, the clepsydra, or water-clock, was invented. X-rays. Knowledge of the X-ray properties of QUASARS
That the Egyptians were accomplished observers and was greatly enhanced by the Einstein Observatory, while
surveyors is evident from the construction of pyramids its observations of numerous GALACTIC CLUSTERS trans-
and temples, some of which are aligned northsouth to an formed our view of these extended X-ray sources.
accuracy of a few arcminutes. Several of the pyramids,
including the Great Pyramid at Gizeh, have long, narrow Einstein ring Distorted image of a distant light source,
shafts angled to the horizontal, which have been conjec- seen around a GRAVITATIONAL LENS. Einsteins theory of
tured to align on certain stars at their culmination. GENERAL RELATIVITY predicted that rays of light should
bend in a gravitational field, thus allowing nearby objects
Einstein, Albert (18791955) German-American to focus the light of more distant objects. In the special
theoretical physicist who gained worldwide fame for his case where the source is directly behind the lensing object,
E theories of SPECIAL RELATIVITY and GENERAL RELATIVITY
linking matter, space and time, which had a profound
its light is spread out into a ring. In practice, perfect rings
are rare, though incomplete rings arcs are commonly
effect on COSMOLOGY. At school and college, he showed seen through GALAXY CLUSTERS.
no special aptitude; Hermann MINKOWSKI, one of his
professors at the Technische Hochschule at Zrich, later Einstein shift REDSHIFT (increase in wavelength) of
expressed his astonishment that such an ordinary student spectral lines in radiation emitted from within a strong
had become a genius. Einstein became a Swiss citizen in gravitational field. See GRAVITATIONAL REDSHIFT
1901 and, while working at the Patent Office in Bern,
explained the photoelectric effect by using Max PLANCKs ejecta Material, such as ash, lapilli and bombs, that is
radiation law to describe light in terms of quanta, discrete violently thrown out during the eruption of a volcano.
bundles of energy, later called PHOTONS. For this work, Also the impact debris and sometimes impact melt that is
Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize for Physics. ejected in the process of impact CRATER formation. Vol-
In 1905 Einstein introduced his theory of special relativ- canic ash may be distributed by atmospheric currents up
ity, which held that the velocity of light in a vacuum is con- to hundreds or thousands of kilometres from the source.
stant and that the laws of physics must remain the same in Lapilli and bombs fall in the neighbourhood of the erup-
all inertial reference frames. The special theory described tion vent. Excavated material forms a concentric ejecta
space and time as inseparable entities (which he called blanket around an impact crater, typically composed of
SPACETIME), predicting the phenomena of time dilation for the crushed target rocks with a minor admixture of
bodies moving at velocities near that of light and the impactor material. Impact-melted target material is signif-
Lorentz contraction, whereby such an object will appear icant in the ejecta from large impact craters. On Mars,
foreshortened in the direction of its relativistic motion. ejecta from many impact craters show morphologic evi-
From the special theory, Einstein derived his famous for- dence of flow after they landed on the surface; they are
mula E = mc2 to describe the relation between energy and known as fluidized ejecta. This flow is caused by the pres-
relativistic mass. By 1909 he was gaining recognition as a ence in the target of ice and water, which lubricate the
leading theoretical physicist, and he became a professor of ejecta and enable it to flow like a mud. On Venus many
physics at the University of Zrich. His fame in the inter- craters show the presence of ejecta outflows. These radar-
national scientific community spread, and in 1914 he was bright flows originate within blocky and hummocky ejecta
appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, Berlin. blankets. Ejecta outflows are believed to be flows of super-
Einsteins theory of GENERAL RELATIVITY, first pub- heated impact melt and/or the fine-grained fraction of
lished in 1915, introduced the gravitational EQUIVALENCE ejecta debris suspended in Venus dense atmosphere.
PRINCIPLE that gravitational fields and uniform accelera-
tion were equivalent. This concept, which defined gravita- Elara One of the small satellites in JUPITERs intermediate
tional fields as the warping of SPACETIME by massive group, discovered by Charles Perrine (18671951) in
Einstein ring A Hubble objects, predicted that a massive body like the Sun would 1905. Elara is about 76 km (47 mi) in size. It takes 259.6
Space Telescope image of produce a gravity field capable of slightly deflecting the days to circuit the planet, at an average distance of 11.74
B1938 +666, in which a paths of light from stars near the solar limb. The best way million km (7.30 million mi) from its centre. It has a
foreground galaxy behaves as of testing this prediction was to observe such stars during substantial inclination (near 27) and moderate eccentricity
a gravitational lens. Light from a a total solar eclipse, and in 1919, eclipse expeditions led (0.217). Although Elara has the same orbital period as
more distant galaxy is seen as by Arthur EDDINGTON and others confirmed this effect. LYSITHEA, their differing orbital characteristics mean they
an almost perfect ring The effects of the curvature of space are most evident for are not usually regarded as being CO-ORBITING SATELLITES
surrounding the lensing object. the LARGE-SCALE STRUCTURE of the Universe, which led in the same way as are other closer, dynamically well
Einstein to apply general relativity to cosmology; he devel- behaved, satellites of the giant planets. It seems likely that
oped a model of a finite but unbounded universe, intro- this pair originated through the break-up of a larger
ducing the concept of a COSMOLOGICAL CONSTANT. From captured body that also spawned LEDA and HIMALIA.
this time onwards, his main scientific interest was an
unsuccessful quest for a unified field theory linking gravi- E-layer One of the distinct layers within the Earths
tation and electromagnetism. IONOSPHERE where the density of free electrons is higher
Relativity made Einstein world-famous, a media star than average. It is more correctly described as a region,
like no other scientist before or since, his face a 20th-cen- because it lies between 90 and 150 km (about 6090 mi)
tury icon. As a Jew, Einstein found conditions in Germany above the Earths surface. It is present during the
intolerable after Hitlers accession in 1933, and he daytime, but RECOMBINATION occurs at night and the
remained in the USA, where he had been visiting Caltech. layer weakens or disappears. Radio waves of sufficiently
He became the first professor at Princeton Universitys low frequency are reflected by the E-layer. Sometimes, a
Institute for Advanced Study, where he remained for the poorly understood phenomenon known as Sporadic-E
rest of his life, taking US citizenship in 1940. occurs, principally in the months of May to August for
the northern hemisphere. This effect causes VHF radio
Einstein Observatory Name given after its launch in waves with frequencies up to 200 MHz to be reflected.
1978 November to NASAs second High Energy
Astronomical Observatory satellite. Its payload electromagnetic radiation (e-m radiation) RADIATION
comprised four nested grazing incidence X-RAY consisting of periodically varying electric and magnetic
TELESCOPES with a maximum diameter of 0.6 m (2 ft) fields that vibrate perpendicularly to each other and travel
and focal length 3.4 m (11 ft) through space at the speed of light. Light, radio waves
With an angular resolution of 4, this satellite revolu- and X-rays are all examples of electromagnetic radiation
tionized X-RAY ASTRONOMY. Operational for two and a (see ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM).
126
electromagnetic spectrum
The theory of electromagnetic waves was developed by atoms and molecules, while at the shortest wavelengths
James Clerk MAXWELL, who deduced that an oscillating the interaction is directly with nuclei.
charged particle would emit a disturbance that would trav- Almost all our knowledge of the Universe is obtained
el through the electromagnetic field at the speed of light. from electromagnetic radiation emitted from objects in
He identified light as a form of electromagnetic radiation. space. The only exceptions are direct sampling of Solar
Electromagnetic radiation is a transverse wave System bodies, COSMIC RAYS, NEUTRINOS, and eventually
motion, vibrating perpendicularly to the direction of perhaps GRAVITATIONAL WAVES. See also ABSORPTION LINE;
propagation, like the wave in a guitar string. The dis- C ERENKOV RADIATION; EMISSION LINE; INFRARED ASTRON-
tance between successive wave crests is the wavelength, OMY; RADIO ASTRONOMY; SPECTRUM; ULTRAVIOLET
and wavelengths range from less than 1014 m (for the ASTRONOMY; X-RAY ASTRONOMY
shortest gamma rays) to kilometres or more (for the
longest radio waves). The number of wave crests per electromagnetic spectrum Complete range of
second passing a fixed point is the frequency. The rela- ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION from the shortest to the
tionship between wavelength (), frequency (f or v) and longest wavelength, or from the highest to the lowest
the speed of light (c) is f = c. energy. Although there is no fundamental difference in
High frequency corresponds to short wavelength and nature between, say, X-rays and radio waves, the complete
low frequency to long wavelength. The unit of frequency range of wavelengths has been divided into a number of
is the hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz = 1 wave crest per second. sections. The principal divisions (and their approximate
Thus a wavelength of 1 m is equivalent to a frequency of wavelength regions) are gamma rays (less than 0.01 nm),
3 108 Hz; a wavelength of 1 nm is equivalent to X-rays (0.0110 nm), ultraviolet (10400 nm), visible
3 1017 Hz, and so on. (400700 nm), infrared (700 nm1 mm), microwaves
Electromagnetic radiation may be polarized. The state (1 mm0.3 m) and radio waves (greater than 0.3 m).
of POLARIZATION describes the orientations of the vibra- Further subdivisions that may be encountered include electromagnetic
tions. An unpolarized beam consists of waves vibrating in hard X-rays, soft X-rays, EXTREME-ULTRAVIOLET (EUV), spectrum Spanning from
all possible directions perpendicular to the direction of NEAR-INFRARED, middle-infrared, FAR-INFRARED, short, gamma-ray
propagation, while a plane-polarized beam consists of submillimetre and millimetre wave. wavelengths to long-
waves vibrating in one plane only. In circularly polarized The Earths atmosphere prevents most wavelengths wavelength radio emissions,
radiation the direction of the vibration rotates at the fre- from penetrating to ground level. Gamma rays, X-rays and the electromagnetic spectrum
quency of the radiation as the wave moves along, while in the great bulk of ultraviolet radiation are absorbed at alti- covers a wide range. Selection
elliptically polarized radiation, the direction and the tudes of tens or even hundreds of kilometres, where they of appropriate wavelengths
amplitude of the vibration change. excite atoms and molecules, dissociate (break them apart) allows different processes and
Electromagnetic radiation may also be described as a or ionize atoms or molecules (expel electrons from them). classes of objects to be
stream of particles, called PHOTONS, each of which is a lit- Radiation of between about 300 nm and 750 nm can observed. The visible region
tle packet, or quantum, of energy. The energy of a pho- penetrate readily to ground level and this range of wave- comprises only a tiny part of
ton, E, is related to wavelength and frequency by: lengths is termed the optical window. Water vapour and the electromagnetic spectrum.
E = hf = hc/
where h is PLANCKS CONSTANT. Thus the shorter the
wavelength (or the higher the frequency), the greater is the Type of Gamma rays X-rays Ultra- Infrared Radio waves
visible
energy of the photon. Gamma rays and X-rays have the radiation violet
highest energies while radio waves have the lowest energies.
Light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation
exhibit wave properties in some circumstances (see Wavelength 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 nanometres
REFRACTION, INTERFERENCE and DIFFRACTION) and parti- 1 10 100 1000 micrometres
cle properties in others, notably the photoelectric effect. 1 10 millimetres
Electromagnetic radiation is emitted or absorbed by 1 10 100 centimetres
many processes, and the ones that predominate vary 1 10 100 1000 metres
according to the wavelength regions. Thermal radiation is
produced at all wavelengths, but the peak of the emission
Radiated by 100,000,000
depends upon the temperature (see WIENS LAW). As a rea- 10,000,000
objects at a
sonable generalization, for the radio region there is direct
temperature
interaction with electric currents, FREEFREE RADIATION of ...
1,000,000
and SYNCHROTRON RADIATION, in the microwave and 100,000
infrared, the interaction is with rotating and vibrating mol-
10,000 1000 100 10 1K
ecules, in the optical and ultraviolet it is with electrons in
127
electron
lack lustre, and have very high melting points. This class
ELEMENTARY PARTICLES
though does also include the noble gases (helium, neon
Quarks Leptons Force Carriers and so on). Elements included in the metalloids are boron,
u up ve e neutrino g gluon silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium; they
III
3 Generations
d down e electron have both metallic and non-metallic properties.
c charm v neutrino y photon
All elements have some isotopes that are radioactive. A
II
s strange muon W boson radioactive element is one that has no stable isotopes.
t top v neutrino Such elements may exist in nature because they have very
I
b bottom tau Z boson
long HALF-LIVES, for example uranium-238, which has a
half life 4.5 109 years, or as decay products of longer-
carbon dioxide are the major absorbers of infrared radia- lived radioactive elements, for example radon, whose
tion, but there are a few narrow wavebands at which longest half-life is 3.8 days for radon-222. See also ASTRO-
infrared can penetrate to ground level or, at least, to CHEMISTRY; ATOMIC STRUCTURE
E mountain-top observatories, notably at around 2.2, 3.5
and 10 m (see INFRARED ASTRONOMY). element, orbital See ORBITAL ELEMENTS
In the far-infrared there are no atmospheric windows,
but a small proportion of submillimetre and millimetre elementary particle Subatomic particles that are
wave radiation can penetrate to high-altitude sites. Radia- thought to be indivisible. Atoms that make up ordinary
tion in the wavelength range from about 20 mm to nearly matter are not the smallest indivisible units of mass. Each
30 m can penetrate to sea level, and this spectral band is atom can be divided up into parts called electrons, pro-
referred to as the radio window. Waves longer than 30 m tons and neutrons. These smaller, more elementary parti-
are reflected back into space by the IONOSPHERE. cles can be arranged to explain all known elements. It was
Following early balloon-borne and rocket-borne experi- eventually noticed that protons and neutrons were not
ments, instrumentation carried on orbiting satellites, high truly elementary either, but were made up of still smaller
above the obscuring effects of the atmosphere, has opened particles called quarks. We now know that there are
up the entire electromagnetic spectrum and revolutionized dozens of elementary particles, so many that particle
our knowledge of the gamma-ray, X-ray, ultraviolet and physicists call it the particle zoo. The study of elemen-
infrared Universe. See also MILLIMETRE-WAVE ASTRONOMY; tary particle physics endeavours to classify and under-
RADIO ASTRONOMY; SUBMILLIMETRE-WAVE ASTRONOMY; stand all of the known particles, including massless
ULTRAVIOLET ASTRONOMY; X-RAY ASTRONOMY particles like photons. The table lists all of the families of
elementary particles known. Some underlying theory
electron Stable ELEMENTARY PARTICLE, one of the fami- must be able to explain the existence and interactions of
ly of LEPTONS. Electrons are the constituents of all atoms, all of the known elementary particles.
moving around the central, far more massive, nucleus in The QUANTUM THEORY was devised to try to explain
a series of layers or electron shells. Electrons can also all of the known elementary particles and their interac-
exist independently as free electrons. The electron has a tions and fields. As work on the quantum theory pro-
mass of 9.1 1031 kg and a negative charge of gressed, more detailed treatments of the various particles
l.6 1019 C. The antiparticle of the electron is called and the discovery of new particles necessitated a revision
the positron. See also ATOMIC STRUCTURE of the standard quantum interpretation. The standard
model linked the electromagnetic force with the strong
electron volt (symbol eV) Non-SI unit of ENERGY. It is force and explained many of the particles and their vari-
defined as the energy gained by an electron when accelerat- ous interactions. Later theories like supersymmetry
ed by a voltage of 1 volt. 1 eV = 1.602 1019 J. It is often attempted to combine the standard model with the weak
a convenient unit for the energies of PHOTONS and sub- force to form a GRAND UNIFIED THEORY (GUT). A more
atomic particles. Thus the visible spectrum ranges from sophisticated theory that would link the final force, grav-
photons with an energy of 1.8 eV (red) to 3.6 eV (violet). ity, to the three GUT forces is sometimes called the
THEORY OF EVERYTHING (TOE).
electroweak force Part of the GRAND UNIFIED THEO-
RY (GUT) of the FUNDAMENTAL FORCES. Elementary ellipse One of a family of curves known as CONIC
particle theory suggests that in the early universe when SECTIONS, with the significance for astronomy that the
the temperature was near 1015 K the electromagnetic unperturbed orbits of the planets and satellites are ellipses
force separated from the weak force and they became around a primary body located at one of the foci of the
distinct independent forces. ellipse. The other focus is empty. The longest line that
can be drawn through the centre of the ellipse is the
element Substance that cannot be broken down into major axis; the shortest line is the minor axis. These two
simpler substances by chemical means. An element is axes are perpendicular to each other. The two foci lie
composed solely of ATOMS with identical atomic numbers inside the ellipse on the major axis. The sum of the
(that is, they all have the same number of protons within distances from any point on the ellipse to the two foci is
their nuclei), but it may contain a number of different ISO-
TOPES. So far 107 elements have been identified, and 90
of the 92 so-called naturally occurring elements have been
found in nature, either free, for example copper (Cu),
iron (Fe), gold (Au) and sulphur (S), or combined with
ellipse The principal other elements, for example silicon dioxide (SiO2) and
features of an ellipse are its two calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The missing two are tech- a(1e2)
foci, its semimajor axis (a), its netium, identified in the cyclotron transmutation products
short (minor) axis and its of molybdenum in 1937, and promethium, isolated in
eccentricity (e). In the case of 1945 from nuclear fission products. The remainder have focus focus
128
emission nebula
constant, and equals the length of the major axis. The two elliptical galaxy M87
parameters that are used to describe the size and shape of (NGC 4486) is a giant elliptical
an ellipse are the semimajor axis a, which is equal to half galaxy in Virgo. Such objects
of the major axis, and the ECCENTRICITY e. The distance are usually the largest in galaxy
between the two foci is equal to 2ae. The eccentricity can clusters and have probably
range from 0 for the special case of a circle, where the consumed other, smaller
two foci coincide at the centre of the circle, to almost 1, galaxies by cannibalism.
where the ellipse becomes very elongated, and the part
close to either of the foci is virtually a PARABOLA. See also
ANOMALY; ORBITAL ELEMENTS
129
emission spectrum
derived from the radioactive decay of nickel and cobalt to clearly experienced several periods of activity, presumably
iron. Later the energy may be drawn from the kinetic powered by TIDAL HEATING.
energy of the material, which would have been hurled out- Enceladus is currently in a 2:1 orbital RESONANCE
wards at velocities of up to 20,000 km/s (12,000 mi/s) by with the next-but-one satellite out, DIONE, and in a 1:2
the initial explosion. The collision of this material with the orbital resonance with the small co-orbital satellites
surrounding interstellar medium, or turbulent motions JANUS and EPIMETHEUS, the orbits of which lie within that
within the expanding material, leads to the heating of the of Mimas. Despite these orbital resonances, Enceladus
gas and so to radiation being emitted. Collisionally probably experiences very little tidal heating today
induced emission also causes the radiation from HER- because the ECCENTRICITY of its orbit is currently too
BIGHARO OBJECTS, as the jets of material from the proto- slight. However, its orbital eccentricity is likely to vary
star encounter the surrounding nebula. In some cyclically over tens or hundreds of millions of years,
supernova remnants, notably the CRAB NEBULA, the cen- which could account for the multiple episodes of resur-
tral PULSAR provides a continuing source of high-energy facing that have left their traces on the surface of this
E electrons, and the nebula emits at least partially through
SYNCHROTRON RADIATION.
remarkable satellite.
Enceladus has a brighter surface than any other icy
satellite, giving it an albedo of virtually 1. This brightness
emission spectrum SPECTRUM that contains EMISSION could be caused by cryovolcanic frost distributed across
LINES. A hot solid or high-pressure gas emits a the globe by explosive eruptions. Alternatively, it could be
CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM at wavelengths that depend on a result of continual impacts on to the surface by particles
temperature. A hot, low-density gas produces emission from Saturns outermost ring (the E ring), within which
lines that may or may not be superimposed on a the orbit of Enceladus lies. See data at SATURN
continuum. Emission spectra are produced by the solar
corona, certain stars, planetary and diffuse nebulae, Encke, Johann Franz (17911865) German
quasars and other objects. Depending on temperatures astronomer, famous for calculating the orbit of the
and physical processes, they are seen in the range from comet that bears his name. This comet had been
gamma rays to radio waves. Emission spectra can be observed in the 18th century by Pierre MCHAIN and
used to determine densities, temperatures, velocities and Caroline HERSCHEL, and in 1805 and 1818 by Jean-
chemical compositions. Louis PONS. Pons suspected that his two comets were
actually the same object, and Enckes improved orbital
Enceladus Small spherical SATELLITE of SATURN. It calculations confirmed this suspicion. He also
was discovered by William HERSCHEL in 1789. It is discovered the ENCKE DIVISION in Saturns rings. Encke
similar in size to its inner neighbour, MIMAS, but in other supervised the building of the new Berlin Observatory,
ways it could hardly be more different. Mimas has an which he directed from 1825 to 1865.
old, heavily cratered surface, whereas Enceladus shows
abundant signs of a prolonged active geological history. Encke, Comet 2P/ Short-period comet, first discovered
On images sent back by VOYAGER 2 in 1981, some as a naked-eye object by Pierre MCHAIN in 1786. Comets
apparently craterless (and therefore very young) regions discovered in 1795 by Caroline HERSCHEL, in 1805 by
are smooth, while other craterless tracts are traversed by Jean Louis PONS, J.S. Huth and Alexis Bouvard
emission nebula The sets of curved ridges, which may be cryovolcanic (17671843), and in 1818 by Pons again were shown by
Lagoon Nebula, M8, in extrusions (see CRYOVOLCANISM). Elsewhere, the crater Johann ENCKE in 1819 to be further returns of the same
Sagittarius is a classic example density varies greatly from one region to another, but object. Enckes Comet returned as predicted in 1822. To
of an emission nebula. The even the most densely cratered areas have only about the 1999 the comet has been observed at 58 returns, which is
Lagoon shows strong HII same density of craters as the least cratered areas on far more than any other comet. Its orbital period of 3.3
emission, stimulated by Saturns other satellites. Parts of some old craters at years is the shortest for any periodic comet. Small
ultraviolet radiation from young terrain boundaries have been obliterated, probably by changes in the orbital period result from NON-
stars forming in its midst. cryovolcanic resurfacing processes. Enceladus has GRAVITATIONAL FORCE produced by gas ejected from the
comets nucleus. Modern detectors allow observation of
2P/Encke around its entire orbit.
130
epoch
tem undergoing equal and opposite changes, the increase Enceladus A composite
in entropy during one change would be balanced by the Voyager 2 view of Saturns
decrease during the other. The entropy would then be the satellite Enceladus. While
same at the end of the series of changes as it was at the heavily cratered in some
beginning. All real processes, however, are to some extent regions, the surface of
irreversible, and therefore such a cycle results in the Enceladus has also been
entropy being higher after the changes than before. Thus smoothed over by episodes of
in any closed system entropy increases (or at best remains cryovolcanism.
constant) with time. The level of disorder of the system,
or its ability to do work, likewise increases with time.
If the Universe is a closed system, then the increase of
entropy with time leads to the idea of the HEAT DEATH OF
THE UNIVERSE. In other words, the Universe will eventual-
ly become a uniform mix of basic particles at a uniform
temperature and with any one part of it being quite indis-
E
tinguishable from any other.
by virtue of its position, shape or state, is called POTEN- Ephemeris Time (ET) Timescale used by astronomers
TIAL ENERGY; the energy that is a consequence of a bodys from 1960 until 1984 in computing the predicted posi-
motion through space is called KINETIC ENERGY. Potential tions, or ephemerides, of the Sun, Moon and planets.
energy includes: energy stored in a body that is within a Because the rotation of the Earth on its axis is not regular,
gravitational field and is higher than its equilibrium posi- neither MEAN SOLAR TIME nor SIDEREAL TIME are accurate
tion; the energy of an electron in an excited state; the ener- enough for computing the gravitational equations of
gy in a radioactive nucleus before it decays; and mass (via motion required for ephemerides. Ephemeris Time was
E = mc2). Kinetic energy, as well as the obvious macro- based in principle on the Earths revolution around the
scopic motion of bodies (where KE = mv2), includes Sun, and in practice on the orbital motion of the Moon,
thermal energy produced by the motion of atoms and since these are less affected by unpredictable forces than is
molecules. In a closed system energy (or more correctly the rotation of the Earth. It therefore provided a timescale
mass and energy) is conserved, that is to say, the total that was more uniform in the long term than others but
amount of energy is constant although it may be convert- was replaced in 1984 by DYNAMICAL TIME.
ed from one form to another within the system.
The energy radiated by stars arises from different epicycle In the PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM and earlier systems,
processes at different points in their lives. During the for- a small circle around which a planet was supposed to
mation of a star, gravitational potential energy is being move; the centre of the epicycle moved, in turn, on a
released; throughout most of its active life the energy then larger circle, the DEFERENT, centred on the Earth.
comes from nucleosynthesis reactions, while at the end, it
is radiating stored thermal energy. Gravitational potential Epimetheus One of the inner satellites of SATURN; it was
energy is negative since it is clearly zero when two bodies discovered in 1978 by John Fountain (1944 ) and
are separated by an infinite distance, and energy is Stephen Larson (1945 ) and confirmed in 1980 in
released as they come closer together. For the Universe as VOYAGER 1 images. It is spheroidal in shape, measuring
a whole it is possible that the total amount of gravitational about 140 120 105 km (87 75 65 mi).
potential energy balances all other forms of energy so that Epimetheus has a near-circular orbit, with a very slight tilt
the net energy of the Universe is zero. to Saturns equator (inclination only 0.34), at an average
distance of 151,400 km (94,100 mi) from the planets
English mounting Form of EQUATORIAL MOUNTING for centre. Its orbital period is 0.695 days. See also JANUS
telescopes.
epoch Date at which a set of ORBITAL ELEMENTS had the
Ensisheim Meteorite that fell as a shower of stones over particular values quoted. An orbit is specified by six orbital
Alsace, France, in 1492 November; approximately elements. Five of them define the size, shape and
127 kg of material was recovered. Ensisheim is an LL- orientation of the orbit, and vary only slowly as a result of
group ORDINARY CHONDRITE, historically significant perturbations by other bodies. It does not matter much,
because it is the first well-documented meteorite fall. therefore, if these five elements are used unchanged to
compute the position at a time away from the epoch. The
enstatite chondrite (E) Meteorite group that sixth element defines the position of the body in the orbit at
comprises the most reduced of all CHONDRITES. Enstatite some particular time. For planets and satellites it is usual to
chondrites contain abundant ironnickel metal (up to
c.15% by volume), very small CHONDRULES and abundant
sulphide minerals. E chondrites are further subdivided
into two groups on the basis of their iron content EH
(high iron content) and EL (low iron content).
131
Epsilon Aurigae
nconspicuous constellation, the second-smallest of them all, representing a little equation of the centre Variation of angular position in
I horse, lying near the celestial equator between Delphinus and Pegasus. Its bright-
est star, Kitalpha, is mag. 3.9. (or 1, one) Equ is a quadruple star system whose
an orbit from uniform motion due to the ECCENTRICITY
of the orbit. It is the difference between the true ANOMALY
brightest components are both pale yellow, mags. 6.1 and 6.4, separation 0.9, f and the mean anomaly M. For small eccentricity e it is
period 101 years. given by
f = M + 2e sin M + 5/4 e2 sin 2M + ....
132
Eratosthenes of Cyrene
equation of time Difference at any point during the VERNAL EQUINOX occurs around March 21, when the Sun
year between MEAN SOLAR TIME, as measured by a clock, is overhead at the terrestrial equator, crossing from south
and APPARENT SOLAR TIME, as shown on a sundial. to north. The AUTUMNAL EQUINOX occurs when it crosses
Because the Sun does not appear to move across the sky from north to south, around September 23. At the time
at a uniform rate, mean solar time was introduced to of the equinoxes, day and night are of equal length all
provide a uniform civil timescale. On four occasions, over the world (the word equinox means equal night),
April 15, June 14, September 1 and December 25, the the Sun rising due east and setting due west on those
difference between it and apparent solar time (and hence days. The term is also used to describe the two points on
the value of the equation of time) is zero; it rises to a the CELESTIAL SPHERE where the celestial equator
maximum of 16 minutes in November. intersects with the ECLIPTIC the FIRST POINT OF ARIES
and the FIRST POINT OF LIBRA. The effects of PRECESSION
equatorial coordinates Most commonly used system cause these points to move westwards along the ecliptic at
for locating points or celestial objects on the CELESTIAL a rate of about one-seventh of an arcsecond per day. The
SPHERE, using the CELESTIAL EQUATOR as the plane of
reference and the measures of RIGHT ASCENSION and
equinox defined for a particular day is known as the true
or apparent equinox and the inclusion of leap days into
E
DECLINATION. Right ascension is measured along the the CALENDAR every four years ensures that the true
celestial equator in hours, minutes and seconds equinoxes always occur around the same date.
eastwards from the FIRST POINT OF ARIES, the
intersection of the celestial equator with the ECLIPTIC. equivalence principle Principle stating that the
Declination is measured from 0 to 90 between the gravitational mass of an object is exactly equal to the
celestial equator and the north CELESTIAL POLE, and inertial mass of the object. Another formulation states
from 0 to 90 between the celestial equator and the that in any enclosed volume of spacetime, one cannot
south celestial pole. HOUR ANGLE and POLAR DISTANCE differentiate between an acceleration caused by gravity
can be used as alternative measures. and one caused by any other force. This principle is one
of the pillars upon which GENERAL RELATIVITY is built.
equatorial mounting Telescope mounting in which
one axis, the polar axis, is parallel to Earths axis of Equuleus See feature article
rotation, and the telescope can be moved about the
other axis, the declination axis, which is perpendicular Eratosthenes Lunar crater (15N 11W), 61 km
to the polar axis. With an equatorial mount, it is possible (38 mi) in diameter, with rim components reaching
to track objects across the sky by using a DRIVE 4880 m (16,000 ft) above its floor. Eratosthenes is located
mechanism to turn the polar axis at the sidereal rate of at the end of the Montes APENNINES. It is a complex
one rotation per 23h 56m. Smooth, efficient driving crater, with central peaks and side-wall terracing. Its
depends on having the telescope carefully balanced by ejecta is overlain by that of COPERNICUS, and its ray
appropriate counterweights to minimize stress on the pattern has been eroded by micrometeorite
motor and its gear assembly. bombardment; deeper impressions of its ejecta are still
There are a number of variations on the equatorial visible at low Sun angles.
mounting. In the German mounting (invented by
Johann von FRAUNHOFER), the centre of mass of the tele- Eratosthenes of Cyrene (276194 BC) Greek
scope lies near one end of the declination axis. Medium- geographer, mathematician and astronomer who was the
sized amateur REFLECTING TELESCOPES are commonly first accurately to determine the Earths circumference.
placed on German mountings, which can be quite He was the third librarian at Alexandria, where the library
portable. The main limitation is in access to the sky in the contained hundreds of thousands of literary and scientific
direction of the celestial pole, where the mounting itself works of classical antiquity. He learned that on the date of
may get in the way of the telescope. Another limitation is the summer solstice, the noonday Sun cast no shadow at
the transmission of vibrations from the mountings pier, Syene (now Aswan, Egypt), and illuminated the bottom
particularly to smaller, lighter telescopes. of a vertical well there. He observed that, on the same
An alternative is the English mounting, where a cra- day, the Sun cast a measurable shadow at Alexandria,
dle (yoke) aligned with the polar axis holds the telescope, located due north on approximately the same meridian as
allowing movement in declination on two pivots. A fur- Syene. Using a GNOMON (a vertical stake) Eratosthenes
ther variation replaces the cradle with a polar-axis bar, to found the Suns zenith distance at Alexandria to be about
which the telescope is attached at a single pivot. The 1/50th of a complete circle. The Earths circumference
English equatorial mounting allows greater access to the
sky around the pole than does the German mounting.
ERIDANUS (GEN. ERIDANI , ABBR . ERI )
To gain access to the areas of sky below the pole, how-
ever, a further variation is necessary. In such horseshoe
mountings, the upper part of the polar axis is designed ixth-largest constellation, representing a river possibly that into which
with a gap sufficiently large to accommodate the telescope.
Fork mountings are similar to the cradle form of English
S Phaethon fell after losing control of the chariot owned by his father, the Sun-
god Helios, in Greek mythology; alternatively the Nile or Po. Eridanus lies between
equatorial, with the telescope held between two arms of a Cetus and Orion and extends from the celestial equator to within 32 of the south
fork aligned with the polar axis. Such mountings are often celestial pole. ACHERNAR, its brightest star, marks its southern end. ACAMAR is a fine
used for short-tubed SCHMIDTCASSEGRAIN instruments. visual binary with bluish-white components, mags. 3.3 and 4.4, separation 8.3.
Although equatorial mounts were for a long time the 2 Eri is a triple system with an orange primary and white dwarf secondary, mags.
standard for large telescopes, developments in computers 4.4 and 9.5, separation 93, period about 248 years the faint companion is the
and automated drive systems have led to modern profes- most easily visible white dwarf in the sky. Eri, mag. 3.7, is a nearby Sun-like star
sional instruments being mounted on ALTAZIMUTH (distance 10.5 l.y.), orbited by a Jupiter-sized planet with a period of about 6.8 years
MOUNTINGS. Similarly, many amateur GO TO TELESCOPES (see EXTRASOLAR PLANET). Deep-sky objects in Eridanus include NGC 1291, a
are provided with altazimuth mounts. 9th-magnitude spiral galaxy; and NGC 1535, a 10th-magnitude planetary nebula.
BRIGHTEST STARS
equinoctial colure Great circle on the CELESTIAL
SPHERE that passes through the two CELESTIAL POLES and Name RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance
h m mag. mag. type (l.y.)
intersects the CELESTIAL EQUATOR at the FIRST POINT OF
Achernar 01 38 57 14 0.45 2.8 B3 144
ARIES and the FIRST POINT OF LIBRA (also known as the
Cursa 05 08 05 05 2.78 0.6 A3 89
equinoctial points). See also SOLSTITIAL COLURE
1
2 Acamar 02 58 40 18 2.88 0.6 A4/A1 161
Zaurak 03 58 13 30 2.97 1.2 M1 221
equinox Two instances each year at which the Sun
appears to cross the CELESTIAL EQUATOR. The spring or
133
Erfle eyepiece
134
Eudoxus
Eskimo Nebulaof Following
Cnidus
its 1999 December
5.52 years. This suggests that the central object is in fact a refurbishment, the Hubble
BINARY STAR system, consisting of two stars of about 80 Space Telescope obtained this
solar masses orbiting each other at a distance of about extremely detailed image of the
20 AU. The shape of the bipolar nebula may have been planetary nebula NGC 2392.
caused by the fact that it is a binary system. The object is popularly known
as the Eskimo Nebula, with the
Eta Carinae Nebula (NGC 3372) EMISSION NEBULA outer parts resembling the fur-
surrounding the variable star ETA CARINAE (RA 10h lined hood of a parka in early
45m.0 dec. 5950). It lies at a distance of about photographs.
8000 l.y. and subtends an area of 2 2 in the southern
sky. Lanes of dark dust split the nebula. It shows much
structure, including the bright HOMUNCULUS NEBULA E
and dark KEYHOLE NEBULA. Changes in structure have
been observed over timescales of decades. The Eta Cari-
nae Nebula is the brightest in the sky, with an apparent
integrated magnitude of 1.0.
It is the escape velocity at the surface of a body rather Etamin The star Draconis, visual mag. 2.24, distance
than the mass that determines which gases the body is 148 l.y., spectral type K5 III. From observations of this
able to retain in its atmosphere. At the surface of the star, the English astronomer James BRADLEY discovered
Earth the escape velocity is 11.2 km/s (6.9 mi/s). the phenomenon of the aberration of starlight. Its name, Eta Carinae Nebula The
which is also spelled Eltanin, comes from al-tinnn, brightest emission nebula in the
Eskimo Nebula Bright, bluish PLANETARY NEBULA in meaning the dragon, the Arabic name of the sky, NGC 3372 surrounds the
the constellation GEMINI, a couple of degrees south-east of constellation Draco. eruptive variable star Eta
Delta (RA 07h 29m.2 dec. 2055). The nebula has over- Carinae. A spectacular object
all magnitude 9.2 and a diameter of 15. Long-exposure eucrite See HOWARDITEEUCRITEDIOGENITE ASSOCIATION for observers in the southern
photographs give the impression of a face surrounded by hemisphere, the nebula lies
a fur hood, hence the nebulas popular name. Eudoxus of Cnidus (408355 BC) Greek astronomer 8000 l.y. away.
and mathematician who developed a cosmology based on
ESO Abbreviation of EUROPEAN SOUTHERN OBSERVATORY Platos model of the Solar System. He built an observatory
at Cnidus, Asia Minor (in what is now modern Turkey) depth of about 100 km (60 mi). It is not known whether
and another at Heliopolis, Egypt. He described his the ice is solid throughout, or whether its lower part is liq-
observations in two books, The Mirror and The uid, which raises the fascinating possibility of a global
Phaenomena, both unfortunately now lost but referred to ocean sandwiched between the solid ice and the underly-
by HIPPARCHUS. Eudoxus was the first astronomer to make ing rock. Gravity data from Galileo show that, like Io,
a specific note of the bright southern star Canopus. Europa has a dense, presumably iron-rich CORE (about
Like PLATO before him, Eudoxus cosmology consisted 620 km/390 mi in radius) below its rocky MANTLE.
of a system of planets fixed to the surfaces of homocen- Europa has its own magnetic field, but it is unclear
tric crystalline spheres rotating on axes passing through whether this is generated by convection within a liquid
the Earths centre. He adjusted Platos model to fit better core or within a salty ocean beneath the ice.
the observed planetary motions by postulating that each Europa has a highly reflective surface with an albedo of
of the spheres had its poles set to those of the next sphere, about 0.7. Since the 1950s it has been known from spec-
and that the axes of rotation were not fixed in space. Addi- troscopic studies that the surface is composed essentially
E tional spheres were constructed to portray the movements
of the planets against the fixed stars and the apparent daily
of clean water-ice. More detailed recent observations by
Galileo and the HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE have revealed
rotation of the stars. In this way he was able to explain the regions where the ice appears to be salty; they have also
retrograde motions of Jupiter and Saturn, but not of Mars. revealed the presence of molecular oxygen (O2) and
Although Eudoxus probably considered the homocentric ozone (O3). The oxygen and ozone are thought to result
crystalline spheres merely as a mathematical model, ARIS- from the breakdown of water molecules in the ice by
TOTLE imagined that they had a physical existence. exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation and charged parti-
cles from the SOLAR WIND. Hydrogen thus liberated would
Eugenia MAIN-BELT ASTEROID; number 45. In 1998 it escape rapidly into space, as has been observed on
was found to possess a small moon, PETIT-PRINCE. Ganymede though not on Europa. It is not known
Eugenia is about 215 km (134 mi) in size; it orbits at whether the oxygen and ozone detected on Europa consti-
about 2.72 AU. See also CAMILLA; PULCOVA tute an extremely tenuous atmosphere or whether they are
mainly trapped within the ice.
Euler, Leonhard (170783) Swiss mathematician who Europas surface is relatively smooth and much
worked at the Berlin Academy and the St Petersburg younger than that of other icy satellites, to judge from the
Academy of Science, making significant contributions to paucity of impact craters. This paucity demonstrates that
almost every branch of mathematics. In astronomy, he Europa experiences a rapid rate of resurfacing, driven by
greatly advanced the partial solution of the THREE-BODY tidal heating, though it is not so rapid as on Io.
PROBLEM, and developed a theory of the Moons orbit Neither of the Voyager probes passed close to Europa,
(1772) that allowed Tobias MAYER to construct his tables so even the best Voyager images revealed few features
of lunar positions. Euler developed formulae for finding smaller than a few hundred metres across. They were ade-
the orbits of planets and comets from observations of their quate, however, to show a bright surface with low topo-
positions relative to background stars. His investigations in graphic relief, criss-crossed by a complex pattern of
optics influenced the later development of telescopes. cracks filled by darker ice. There are several places where
the pattern of these bright plains becomes blotchy, and
Eureka First MARS-TROJAN ASTEROID to be discovered, in these were dubbed mottled terrain by the Voyager inves-
1990; number 5261. tigators. The high-resolution images sent back by Galileo
show that the bright plains are amazingly complex in
Europa Smallest of the GALILEAN SATELLITES of JUPITER; detail, being composed of multiple families of straight or
it is only slightly smaller than Earths Moon and is thus a slightly curved ridges, each usually bearing a central
substantial world in its own right. It is in orbital groove. The appearance of these parts of Europa has been
RESONANCE with both IO and GANYMEDE, such that for described as resembling the surface of a ball of string, a
every four complete orbits by Io, Europa makes two graphic description that casts no light on how the surface
orbits and Ganymede one. The resulting TIDAL HEATING was created. Each grooved ridge probably represents a fis-
makes Europa an active world, and it is a prime target for sure, where some kind of icy lava was erupted during an
exploration for extraterrestrial life in a salty ocean episode of CRYOVOLCANISM.
inferred to exist below its thin icy shell. In contrast to the Although by far the most abundant component in
more strongly tidally heated (and ice-free) Io, however, Europas ice is water, it is likely to be contaminated by var-
no surface changes have been seen to occur on Europa ious salts (such as sulphates, carbonates and chlorides of
during the era of close-up imaging by VOYAGERS 1 and 2 magnesium, sodium and potassium) and possibly by sul-
(1979) and the GALILEO orbiter (19952001). phuric acid, resulting from chemical reactions between
Europas density, of 2.97 g/cm3, almost puts it in the water and the underlying rock. Contaminants such as
terrestrial planet league, but its exterior is icy down to a these could make any melt liberated from the ice behave in
136
European Space Agency
137
European VLBI Network
Explorer Seen here with a Evershed, John (18641956) English astronomer who
model of Explorer 1 are Dr in 1908 discovered radial motions of gases in sunspots,
William H. Pickering, Dr James now known as the EVERSHED EFFECT. Originally an
A. van Allen and Dr Wernher amateur astronomer who distinguished himself by
von Braun. Explorer 1 was discoveries made with home-made equipment on
Americas first successful expeditions to observe total solar eclipses, Evershed was a
artificial satellite. founding member of the British Astronomical
Association (1890) and directed its solar and
spectroscopic sections. He designed a high-dispersion
solar spectrograph using large liquid prisms as the
dispersive element, and was able to discover new spectral
lines in the Suns corona. He also made major
contributions to the study of cometary structure, using
E spectroscopy to show that their nuclei contain high
concentrations of cyanogens.
138
extrasolar planet
altogether or perhaps go into orbit around it. For the There are now ten times as many planets known to
Earths atmosphere, this region begins at an altitude of orbit other stars than there are major planets in our Solar
200700 km (120430 mi), depending on the degree of System. Taking into account stars with no detectable plan-
solar activity. The exosphere, therefore, overlaps with the ets, about 5% of main-sequence stars appear to have a
outermost part of the THERMOSPHERE, but includes the giant planet orbiting at less than 2 AU. The first extrasolar
RADIATION BELTS and extends to the MAGNETOPAUSE, giant planets were found 100 times closer to their parent
where it meets the interplanetary medium. star than expected. In standard models of planetary for-
mation, Jupiter-sized planets form at a distance of 45 AU
expanding universe Outward movement (REDSHIFT) from solar-type stars. The very close orbits can be
of galaxies. That the Universe is expanding was first explained by a process known as orbital migration. Half
demonstrated observationally in 1929 by Edwin HUBBLE, the planets have orbits with unexpectedly large eccentrici-
although the possibility had been suggested earlier on ties. These could result from migration: if two planets are
theoretical grounds by Willem de Sitter (1917), migrating inwards at different rates, one could expel the
Aleksandr Friedmann (1922) and Georges Lematre
(1927). The evidence Hubble found was that if he took a
other from the system and have its own orbit perturbed.
There are three methods of detecting extrasolar plan-
E
spectrum of a galaxy, the spectral lines would always be ets. Direct imaging is possible in principle, either by a
redshifted by an amount proportional to the distance he planets reflected light from the parent star or by its
estimated for the galaxy. This relationship is commonly infrared emission. But such reflected light or infrared
called the HUBBLE LAW. radiation is extremely faint, and because the planet is
For distant galaxies, this expansion velocity is an extremely close to the star, it is very difficult to separate
appreciable portion of the speed of light. Recessional them; also, the image of the planet lies within the AIRY
velocities of this magnitude would be difficult to under- DISK of the star as seen through a telescope. There are
stand if the galaxies were moving through space, but two ways round this difficulty: reduce the size of the Airy
make perfect sense if the Universe itself were expanding. disk so that the planet is outside it, or block the starlight.
GENERAL RELATIVITY interprets this expansion as the Shrinking the Airy disk would require a telescope with an
expansion of SPACETIME itself, and even predicts that it aperture of 10100 m (33330 ft) or a multi-aperture
should obey a linear law such as the Hubble law. If this interferometer, preferably in Earth orbit. Starlight can be
expansion is extrapolated backwards until spacetime was blocked by a coronagraph, a physical obstruction at the
a singular point, then the age of the Universe can be esti- telescopes focus, or by a technique in which the stars
mated. These ideas set the stage for the BIG BANG THEO- light is made to interfere destructively with itself without
RY. Predictions made from these ideas include the affecting the region around it.
temperature of the COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND The second method is to search for the planets gravi-
and the COSMIC ABUNDANCE. tational perturbation of its parent star. Both planet and
star orbit their common centre of mass, and the small
Explorer Series of small US scientific satellites, mostly periodic change in the stars proper motion is apparent
launched into Earth orbit. Explorer 1, instrumented by in its radial velocity (a DOPPLER EFFECT) and position on
James VAN ALLEN, discovered in 1958 the radiation belts the sky. If the planets orbital plane coincides with our
girdling the Earth. Of the 72 successful Explorer line or sight, the variation of radial velocity is greatest.
missions launched by the end of 2000, five had operated Radial velocity and position vary cyclically with a period
for 10 years or more. equal to the planets orbital period and an amplitude
proportional to the planets mass. The precision in radial
extinction Loss of light from the line of sight as it velocity measurements is presently 3 m/s, which would
passes through a medium. The loss may be by enable the detection of planets similar in mass to Saturn.
SCATTERING, in which case the light energy is taken up But there is no hope yet of detecting an Earth-like planet
by the medium and promptly re-emitted at the same since it would give rise to a variation in the stars radial
energy but redirected out of the line of sight. Or the loss velocity of just 0.1 m/s.
may be by ABSORPTION, in which case the light energy is The third method of detection is by transits: if a planet
eventually re-emitted in a different form altogether, for crosses the face of its sun, it can produce, under
example as heat. favourable circumstances, a small drop for a few hours in
Typical examples of extinction in astronomy are the the stars light. The depth of the drop is given by the star-
loss of starlight as it passes through the interstellar medi- to-planet surface ratio: 1% for a jupiter, 0.01% for an
um and is scattered and absorbed by INTERSTELLAR earth. The planets orbital plane must be favourably ori-
GRAINS, and the loss of starlight as it passes through the ented: the probability that an orbit is sufficiently close to
Earths atmosphere and is scattered by air molecules. edge-on is 0.5% for a planet 1 AU from its star and
139
Extremely Large Telescope
140
fermion
FaberJackson relation Correlation, first noted by US observations of the Universe by previous ultraviolet
astronomers Robert Jackson (1949 ) and Sandra Faber explorers, with greater sensitivity and resolving power.
(1944 ), between the velocity dispersion of stars in an FUSE will help to answers some fundamental questions
F
elliptical galaxy and the luminosity of the galaxy. Refined about the first few minutes of the BIG BANG, studying the
with a third parameter into the Fundamental Plane, this cosmic abundance of deuterium, the heavy hydrogen
has become a valuable distance indicator, analogous to isotope. It will also study the dispersal of chemical elements
the TULLYFISHER RELATION for SPIRAL GALAXIES. in galaxies and the properties of hot interstellar gas clouds.
Fabricius, David (15641617) and Fabricius, Fast Auroral Snapshot Explorer (FAST) NASA
Johannes (15871616) German father and son satellite launched in 1996 August, carrying four
astronomers who made the first regular telescopic instruments to study the creation and content of aurorae.
observations of sunspots, published in 1611. They Plasma and electron temperature data are collected by
noticed that these spots rotated with the Sun, so must be electric field detectors, magnetic field data by a
a part of the visible solar surface rather than small magnetometer and data on electrons and ions by
orbiting objects, and that the Sun itself must rotate, a electrostatic analysers.
theory proposed by Johannes KEPLER, with whom David
Fabricius corresponded regularly. David Fabricius
discovered the first known variable star, Mira, in 1596.
Faulkes Telescope Project to build two fully robotic
2-m (79-in.) telescopes for use principally by British
F
educational institutions over the Internet. The telescopes
FabryProt interferometer OPTICAL INTERFEROMETER will be located on the island of Maui in Hawaii and at
in which the two parts of the incoming beam are SIDING SPRING OBSERVATORY in Australia, and will provide
recombined after multiple partial reflections between coverage of the night sky during UK daytime.
parallel, lightly silvered, glass plates; the construction is
called a FabryProt etalon. INTERFERENCE of the light fault Fracture or fracture zone along which there has
waves creates a very narrow-bandpass filter, which can be been displacement of the fracture sides relative to one
tuned by changing the spacing between the plates. It is another. A fault is typically formed by TECTONIC
capable of making extremely accurate measurements of deformation of the outer solid parts of planets and
the wavelengths of emissions in atomic spectra. satellites. Depending on the character of the faculae Bright regions
displacement, several varieties of faults are distinguished. marking the location of clouds
faculae Exceptionally bright, irregular regions on the Normal faults are produced when displacement is of hot hydrogen above active
Sun visible in the white light of the PHOTOSPHERE, best essentially vertical and the hanging wall is depressed regions on the Sun, faculae are
seen in the regions near the limb where LIMB DARKENING relative to the footwall. Strike-slip faults result when best seen, as here, close to the
increases the contrast. Faculae are usually associated with displacement of one side relative to the other is limb. Faculae are commonest
SUNSPOTS, and are brighter than the surrounding medium essentially horizontal. around sunspot maximum.
by virtue of their higher (by about 300 K) temperatures;
they are closely associated with the chromospheric Faye, Comet 4P/ Short-period comet found by Herv
network and bright PLAGE regions in the CHROMOSPHERE. Faye (18141902), a French amateur astronomer, in
Faculae can precede the appearance of a sunspot, in the 1843, and recovered in 1850 following a prediction by
same place, by many hours or even a few days, and can Urbain LE VERRIER. The period is 7.34 years, and the
persist in the same location for many months after the comet was last seen in 19992000. The orbit has
sunspots have gone. The number of faculae varies in step undergone some modification following close passages to
with the approximately 11-year SOLAR CYCLE , with a Jupiter, and the comet is apparently becoming
greater number when there are more sunspots. The progressively fainter.
increased solar brightness as a result of faculae is greater
than the decrease caused by sunspots, so there is an overall F corona Outer part of the white-light CORONA of the
increase in the SOLAR CONSTANT at the maximum of the Sun. It is caused by sunlight scattered from solid dust
sunspot cycle. Polar faculae, occurring at much higher particles in interplanetary space. The F corona is
latitudes than the sunspot-forming regions, are common responsible for the greatest part of the brightness of the
in the rising phase of the solar cycle. corona beyond about two solar radii, and it extends to
far beyond the Earth. The spectrum of the F corona is
falling star Popular (chiefly US) non-scientific that of the Sun, including FRAUNHOFER LINES; the F
description of a METEOR. stands for Fraunhofer. At large distances from the Sun,
the dust particles in the F corona merge with those
False Cross Cross-shaped asterism (star pattern) in the causing the ZODIACAL LIGHT. See also E CORONA; K
southern sky made up of and Carinae and and CORONA; T CORONA Far Ultraviolet
Velorum, all of second magnitude. It is often mistaken Spectroscopic Explorer
for the SOUTHERN CROSS, but is larger and dimmer. fermion Elementary particle that has a spin of , is anti- (FUSE) Part of a spectrum
symmetric and represent the material side of the taken by FUSE of the hot white
far-infrared Region of the ELECTROMAGNETIC quantum world. Fermions obey a particular type of dwarf star at the centre of the
SPECTRUM between around 25 and 350 m. This region statistics characterized by a Fermi distribution. Dumbbell Nebula.
is only observable from space, because far-infrared
radiation is absorbed by Earths atmosphere. Very cool
objects (most notably active galaxies), and the dust in
interstellar space, emit strongly in this range. See also
INFRARED ASTRONOMY
141
FG Sagittae
FG Sagittae Very unusual VARIABLE STAR, having ment that is either on an altazimuth mounting or an equa-
changed from a blue SUPERGIANT to a red supergiant dur- torial mounting whose polar axis is not properly aligned
ing the 20th century. Before 1900 FG Sagittae was a nor- on the celestial pole. An image taken using such a system
mal blue star evolving to become a white dwarf. In 1901, will show short star trails concentric with the field centre.
however, it suddenly started to brighten in the photograph- A device called a field de-rotator is used to counter-
ic (visual) and blue magnitude, and it brightened during rotate the image plane to allow long exposures through
most of the 20th century. The temperature dropped from instruments with altazimuth mounts, as used with the
over 10,000 K to about 4500 K, and at one point (around majority of large modern professional telescopes.
1965) it was dropping by 250 K per year. The star has been
variable for several decades, passing through the Cepheid filament Dark, elongated, ribbon-like structure visible in
INSTABILITY STRIP. In 1992 FG Sagittaes brightness faded SPECTROHELIOGRAMS of the Sun taken in the light of the
by several magnitudes in a manner similar to the fadings of HYDROGEN-ALPHA LINE or the H and K lines of calcium.
the R CORONAE BOREALIS STARS (although the star is not as A filament is a PROMINENCE seen in projection against
deficient in hydrogen as are the R Coronae Borealis vari- the bright solar disk.
ables). There have been several more fading episodes since
1992. The dust clouds, which dim the light during these filamentary nebula Interstellar nebula in which the
F fading episodes, have a temperature between 700 K and
1000 K. FG Sagittae is a solar-mass star, and although sim-
material is in the form of highly elongated and often
highly twisted intertwined clouds. Many nebulae of many
ilar to the unusual star SAKURAIS OBJECT it evolves along a types have filamentary structures within them, so the
different track in the HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM term filamentary nebulae is reserved for those nebulae in
because it is less massive. Convection currents in the stars which the filaments make up the whole or the largest part
atmosphere have brought up material such as yttrium, zir- of the nebula. The VEIL NEBULA, a SUPERNOVA REMNANT,
conium, cerium and lanthanum (S PROCESS elements) from is the best-known filamentary nebula.
deep inside the star, so its composition appears abnormal.
The star is surrounded by the PLANETARY NEBULA it created filter Optical element that absorbs some wavelengths of
around 6000 to 10,000 years ago, and the composition of light whilst transmitting others. Filters are used to great
the nebula is completely normal. effect in astronomy to isolate certain colours or
wavelengths, making them easier to observe or analyse.
fibril Linear dark structure in the solar CHROMOSPHERE The most common are filters made of coloured glass or
seen in association with ACTIVE REGIONS. Fibrils are gelatin. In visual astronomy these are used to improve the
thought to mark out the chromospheric magnetic field. contrast in planetary features. For example, if a light blue
They are visualized in SPECTROHELIOGRAMS taken in the filter is used to observe Jupiter, the Great Red Spot will
light of the HYDROGEN-ALPHA LINE. appear darker than normal so will stand out against the
surrounding body of the planet. Similarly, a red filter will
field curvature Distortion produced by an astronomical show up dark features on the surface of Mars.
telescope, leading to differences in scale across an images Colour filters are also used with monochromatic detec-
width. Field curvature results from the fact that the image tors such as photographic plates and CCD cameras. Tak-
formed is not really flat, but is in fact a curved surface ing three separate images through red, green and blue
on a concave sphere. An EYEPIECE will focus best at filters, then recombining them in the dark room or elec-
differing positions across the field. Photographic plates on tronically will produce true-colour images.
SCHMIDT CAMERAS used for astrometry are curved to Interference filters are made of many layers of dielec-
match the field curvature of the instrument. tric deposited on a glass substrate. Thirty or forty layers
may be used to produce the exact characteristics needed.
field equations Term generally used to refer to In this way, sky glow caused by mercury and sodium
Einsteins general relativistic field equations. These street-lights can be rejected whilst hydrogen and oxygen
equations form the basis for Einsteins laws of gravity and light from faint nebulae is allowed through. Interference
essentially relate the curvature of SPACETIME to the filters designed to pass only one sharply defined wave-
presence of mass and energy. In his theory of SPECIAL length are called monochromatic filters.
RELATIVITY, Einstein showed that matter and energy are Special solar filters are available for observing the Sun
equivalent, and related by E = mc2, which implies that directly. High-density filters that cut out 99.999% of the
energy also has to be included in any gravity calculation. incoming sunlight are used at the entrance aperture of a
So in the field equations, both mass and energy are telescope to enable sunspots, faculae and surface granula-
represented by a quantity called the stress-energy tensor tion to be observed directly. Interference filters are used to
T. This tensor is the source of the gravitational field. reveal flares and prominences. Observing the Sun directly
The field equations also describe how spacetime is carries risk so advice should be sought from a specialist
warped by the presence of the gravitational sources. The retailer or observatory before using a solar filter.
filament Seen in projection curvature information is contained in two quantities, the
against the bright solar disk in Riemann tensor (R) and the Riemann scalar R. The finder Small, low-powered TELESCOPE with a wide field of
spectroheliograms, geometry of the coordinate system is also included in the view, attached to the tube of a larger instrument for the
prominences appear as dark field equations and is represented by the quantity g, purpose of more easily locating celestial bodies. The nar-
filaments by contrast, as at top called the metric tensor. Together, the field equations are row field of view of a large telescope can make locating
right in this image. R Rg = 8G/c4T faint objects in particular quite difficult. The finder allows
where G is Newtons universal constant of gravitation and the observer to study a wide area of sky, and the two tele-
c is the speed of light. The indices and represent each scopes should be aligned so that when the object in ques-
of the dimensions: length, width, height and time. Thus tion is centred on the cross wires of the smaller telescope, it
the equation above is actually 16 independent equations appears in the centre of the field of view of the larger one.
(42) that must be solved simultaneously. The major solu-
tions of the field equations are the Schwarzschild solution fine structure Splitting of orbital energy levels. An
for spherical geometry, the KerrNewmann solution for atomic energy level for an orbiting electron is finely divided
rotating black holes, and the RobertsonWalker metric into substates as a result of the electrons ability to have
for the entire universe. different quantized angular momenta; to these substates is
added splitting caused by the magnetic coupling between
field of view Angular diameter of the area of sky visible the electrons spin and its orbit. Each orbital level n of
through an optical instrument. See EYEPIECE hydrogen has n substates, each of which (except for the
first) is split in half. Multiple electrons effects are
field rotation Circular movement of a telescopes field of combined. Transitions between fine structure states create
view as a result of DIURNAL MOTION when using an instru- the complex spectra of atoms heavier than hydrogen.
142
Flamsteed, John
fireball METEOR of magnitude 5 or brighter, exceeding 235 decays to thorium-231 and helium-4 (an -particle).
the brilliance of the planet Venus. On average, about one The binding energy per nucleon, however, will decrease
meteor in a thousand attains fireball status. Such events during the fission of iron and lighter nuclei so that more
are quite commonly seen during the major METEOR energy is required to cause the reaction than is released
SHOWERS such as the PERSEIDS or GEMINIDS. Fireballs are during it. Hence light element fission can only occur if
produced by larger METEOROIDS; they are associated with energy is supplied from an external source such as a high
the arrival of substantial (centimetre-sized and upwards) energy collision or a gamma-ray photon. In this way
fragments of asteroidal debris, which can on rare nuclei between sulphur and iron may be fragmented by
occasions survive atmospheric passage to be recovered on photo-dissociation during SUPERNOVA explosions; in the
the ground as a METEORITE. An exploding fireball interstellar medium, impacts with COSMIC RAY particles
producing a sonic boom may be described as a BOLIDE. cause the break-up of elements like carbon, nitrogen and
oxygen to produce lithium, beryllium and boron. See also
FIRST Abbreviation of the Far Infrared Submillimetre FUSION, NUCLEAR; SPALLATION
Telescope, renamed the HERSCHEL SPACE OBSERVATORY.
Fitzgerald contraction (LorentzFitzgerald contraction)
first contact In a SOLAR ECLIPSE, moment when the Shrinkage in the lengths of moving objects that was
Moons leading (easterly) limb first appears to align
tangentially with the westerly limb of the Sun. In a LUNAR
suggested in 1889 by the Irish physicist George Francis
Fitzgerald (18511901) and, independently, by Hendrick
F
ECLIPSE, first contact refers to the moment when the LORENTZ, to explain the null result of the
Moons easterly limb first encounters the western edge of MICHELSONMORLEY EXPERIMENT.
the UMBRA of Earths shadow. In either instance, first
contact is the beginning of the eclipse. fixed star Term used in antiquity to describe those stars
that appeared to remain static, relative to one another, on
first light Term used to describe the first occasion on the celestial sphere, as opposed to the wandering stars
which a newly constructed telescope is used to observe a or planets. It was believed that the Earth lay at the centre
celestial object. This will occur only after all the optical of the Universe, surrounded by a solid crystal sphere to
components have been fully aligned but it will usually be which the fixed stars were attached. Nowadays, the
some considerable time before the instrument is brought term is used to describe those stars that have no
into full use, since a large amount of testing and calibrat- detectable proper motion.
ing will still be required. Whilst normally used to refer to
an optical telescope, the term is also applied to instru- Fizeau, (Armand) Hippolyte (Louis) (181996)
ments operating at other wavelengths; for example the French physicist who in 1849 made the first successful
first time that a radio telescope detects signals from space. measurement of the velocity of light in an experiment
carried out wholly on the Earth. He used a rapidly
First Point of Aries Position on the CELESTIAL SPHERE rotating toothed wheel which interrupted a fine beam of
where the Suns centre crosses the celestial equator from light before and after reflection from a distant mirror
south to north at the time of the VERNAL EQUINOX, on or more than 8 km (5 mi) away. Fizeau collaborated with
around March 21 each year. This marks the intersection Lon FOUCAULT in his optics experiments.
of the ECLIPTIC with the CELESTIAL EQUATOR at the Suns
ASCENDING NODE; it is used as the zero point for Flame Nebula EMISSION NEBULA in the constellation
measuring CELESTIAL LONGITUDE, RIGHT ASCENSION and Orion, immediately east of (RA 05h 41m.9 dec.
SIDEREAL TIME. Thus, when the First Point of Aries is 0151). The Flame Nebula has a diameter of 30 and
exactly on an observers MERIDIAN, the sidereal time is is split into two sections by a dark lane running
0h 0m 0s. northsouth. Difficult to see visually thanks to its
The small annual change in position of the celestial proximity to , the nebula is conspicuous on long-
pole, known as PRECESSION, has caused this point on the exposure photographs of the Orions Belt region.
celestial sphere to move slowly westwards along the eclip-
tic by about one-seventh of an arcsecond each day, taking Flammarion, (Nicolas) Camille (18421925) French
a period of around 25,800 years to complete a single revo- astronomer and prolific author of popular astronomy
lution. Because of this, although originally located in the books, including LAstronomie populaire (1879). He
constellation of Aries, from whence it derived its name, it worked first (from 1858) at Paris Observatory, then
is has now drifted into neighbouring Pisces, although the from 1883 at his private observatory at Juvisy-sur-Orge,
name has remained unchanged. where he made serious studies of double stars and the
planets using a 9.5-inch (240-mm) Bardou refractor.
First Point of Libra Position on the CELESTIAL SPHERE Flammarions epic two-volume work La Plante Mars et
where the Suns centre crosses the celestial equator from ses conditions dhabitabilit (1892, 1909) is an
north to south at the time of the AUTUMNAL EQUINOX, on authoritative history of Mars observing which speculates
or around September 23 each year. The effects of about the possibility of life there.
PRECESSION have caused it to move slowly westwards
along the ecliptic by about one-seventh of an arcsecond Flamsteed, John (16461719) English astronomer
each day, taking a period of around 25,800 years to and clergyman, the first ASTRONOMER ROYAL and
complete a single revolution. This means that it is no director of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. He was a
longer located in Libra, but instead has drifted into the youthful convert to Copernicanism, admired Galileo and
constellation of Virgo. Kepler, and was deeply influenced by Tycho Brahes
insistence upon precise observation as the basis for
first quarter See PHASES OF THE MOON theory. In 1675 he was requested by the Royal Society to
examine a method for finding longitude at sea proposed
Fishs Mouth Region of dark nebulosity within the by the sieur de St Pierre. Flamsteeds report, in which he
ORION NEBULA, close to the TRAPEZIUM stars (RA 05h stated that the longitude could not be reckoned until
35m.3 dec. 0523). superior astronomical tables became available, caught the
attention of King Charles II, who ordered the creation of
fission, nuclear NUCLEAR REACTION that involves a the post of Astronomer Royal and the founding of the
more massive nucleus splitting into two or more lighter Greenwich Observatory. In spite of the royal
nuclei or subatomic particles. For nuclei heavier than appointment, Flamsteed had to pay for the observatorys
iron, the BINDING ENERGY per nucleon will increase instruments out of his own pocket.
during fission and so the reaction may result from At Greenwich, Flamsteeds task was to make accurate
spontaneous radioactivity. Thus, for example, uranium- positional measurements of the Moon and stars for use in
143
Flamsteed numbers
navigation. He pioneered three new precision instruments Since flares reach temperatures of tens of millions of
that transformed observation: the telescopic sight and the degrees, they emit the bulk of their energy at X-ray wave-
micrometer, both invented by William GASCOIGNE, and lengths of about 0.1 nm. A large flare can briefly outshine
Christiaan Huygens pendulum clock for timing star tran- the Sun in X-rays. The X-ray radiation of flares is emitted
sits. He was a meticulous observer, and with instruments as Bremsstrahlung (see FREEFREE TRANSITION). Hard X-
made by the clockmaker Thomas Tompion (16391713) rays (in the region 10100 keV) are emitted during the
he was able to measure the positions of stars and planets impulsive onset of a solar flare, while soft X-rays
to within 10, over 40 times more accurately than Tycho (110 keV) gradually build up in strength and peak a few
Brahe had managed with his equipment. minutes after the impulsive emission. During the impul-
Observing every clear night for over 40 years at Green- sive phase, high-speed electrons are accelerated to ener-
wich, Flamsteed produced a body of data that set new gies of 10 to 100 keV and hurled down the magnetic
standards in astronomical research. However, as some- conduit of coronal loops into the dense chromosphere,
thing of a perfectionist he was slow to release his results, to where they create double, hard X-ray sources. Plasma
the irritation of Isaac NEWTON, and objected when the heated to temperatures as high as 40 million K then
Royal Society published his uncorrected observations. The expands upwards, by a process known as chromospheric
catalogue of his corrected observations, the Historia evaporation, into the low corona along magnetic field
F coelestis brittanica, was not published until 1725, after his
death; the numbers assigned to stars in this catalogue
loops that shine brightly in soft X-rays.
Because solar X-rays are totally absorbed in the
(FLAMSTEED NUMBERS) are still in use. While his tables Earths atmosphere, X-ray flares must be observed from
were still not sufficiently accurate to find longitude, they spacecraft. Flares can be characterized by their bright-
proved fundamental to Newtons work on the lunar theory. ness in soft X-rays, as observed by monitoring satellites
such as the Geostationary Operational Environmental
Flamsteed numbers Sequence of numbering of the Satellites (GOES). The classification shown here pro-
stars by constellation in order of right ascension, for vides a good indication of the energy output and likely
purposes of identification. The numbers were assigned by terrestrial effects of a flare.
later astronomers to stars in John FLAMSTEEDs Solar flares beam energetic charged particles along a
posthumously published star catalogue. The most narrow trajectory that follows the spiral shape of the
westerly star listed in Leo, for example, was designated interplanetary magnetic field in the SOLAR WIND. If a
1 Leonis. Many stars are still best known by their flare occurs in just the right place, west of the central
Flamsteed designations. meridian and near the solar equator, the accelerated par-
ticles can follow the field to Earth, threatening astronauts
flare Sudden, violent explosion on the Sun, lasting from and satellites. The time taken for particles to reach Earth
a few minutes to a few hours; the local effects may persist depends on their energy, taking roughly an hour for a
for several days. Flares accelerate charged particles out particle energy of 10 MeV.
into interplanetary space and down into the Sun. They RADIO WAVES from flares are valuable for studying
emit ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION across the full their physical properties. Flares can outshine the entire
spectrum. The frequency and intensity of solar flares Sun at radio wavelengths. There are two main types of
increases near the maximum of the SOLAR CYCLE, and metre-wavelength radio flares, designated as type II and
they are associated with ACTIVE REGIONS. type III radio bursts. Type II bursts are thought to be
Flares originate in the low CORONA, where magnetic caused by shockwaves moving outwards at velocities of
energy is built up and stored in the magnetic fields of about 1000 km/s (600 mi/s). Type III bursts are inter-
active regions. The flares are frequently triggered in com- preted in terms of electron beams moving outwards
pact structures just above the tops of coronal loops, through the corona at 0.05 to 0.2 times the speed of
where magnetic fields of opposite polarity are drawn light. Type II bursts occur much more rarely than type
together, releasing large amounts of stored energy (up to III. The energetic electrons that produce the impulsive,
1025 Joule) by MAGNETIC RECONNECTION. flaring, hard X-ray emissions also emit synchrotron radi-
Every second, the PHOTOSPHERE emits light with an ation at microwave (centimetre) wavelengths.
energy that is at least one hundred times greater than the
total energy emitted by any flare. Therefore, only excep- flare star (UV) Red dwarf star that exhibits sudden,
tionally powerful flares can be detected in the glare of visible short-duration flares with amplitudes ranging from a few
sunlight. The first such white-light flare to be observed and tenths of a magnitude to 67 magnitudes at visible
recorded was seen by two Englishmen, Richard C. CAR- wavelengths. Flare stars are of late spectral types,
RINGTON and Richard Hodgson (180472), who noticed dKedMe. During flares, the stellar emission lines
an intense brightening lasting for just a few minutes near a become enhanced and a strong blue-ultraviolet
complex group of sunspots on 1859 September 1. continuum appears, giving a greater amplitude in the
Routine visual observations can be made by tuning ultraviolet. The rise time is a few seconds to a few tens of
into the red emission of the HYDROGEN-ALPHA LINE. seconds, and the decline lasts a few minutes to a few tens
Light at this 656.3 nm wavelength originates in the CHRO- of minutes. The initial decline is usually rapid and may
MOSPHERE. When viewed in this way, solar flares appear be followed by a short standstill and then a quasi-
as two extended parallel ribbons on either side of the exponential decay. Small precursors or pre-flares are
magnetic neutral line. Flares have been classified accord- sometimes observed and occasionally slow rising flares
ing to their area in hydrogen-alpha light, with an impor- are also seen. The stellar flare light is seen against the
tance ranging from 1 to 4 that corresponds to an area relatively faint light from the normal quiescent star,
from 2 to more than 25 square degrees. which has a cool photosphere at 28003600 K. At
maximum optical brightness the larger flares may
contribute more than 10 to 100 times the total output of
CLASSIFICATION OF FLARES SOFT X-RAYS the whole visible stellar hemisphere.
Importancea Peak flux at 0.1 to 0.8 nm Since the photographic discovery by Ejnar
(watts per square metre)
HERTZSPRUNG in 1924 of DH Carinae, the first flare star,
A 108 to 107 over 1500 have been found. Good examples of this class
B 107 to 106 of object (and their apparent visual magnitudes) are UV
C 106 to 105 CETI (13.0), AD Leonis (9.4), EV Lacertae (10.1),
M 105 to 104 PROXIMA CENTAURI (11.0) and BY Draconis (8.2).
X 104 and above Membership of binary star systems appears to be mod-
a A number is added as a multiplier, giving the peak flux in the first erately common among flare stars, notably among those
unit. For example, X5.2 stands for a peak X-ray flux of 5.2 104 or stars that also show activity similar to that of the BY DRA-
0.00052 watts per square metre.
CONIS STARS. Classical photographic spectroscopy has
144
flux density
shown that during flares the Balmer emission lines of flare Violent releases of
hydrogen become greatly enhanced, as do many other magnetic energy in the inner
lines, for example of helium, calcium and other metallic solar atmosphere above active
elements. Modern techniques, using fast pulse-counting regions are seen in
photometry, spectroscopy with sensitive CCD detectors, spectroheliograms as bright
as well as satellite observations from above the Earths patches or ribbons, described
atmosphere, have recently revealed that flare stars are as flares. Flares are most
amongst the most active stellar objects in our Galaxy, common at times of high
and that flare energies are often 1000 times their solar sunspot activity.
counterparts. In the variable-star classification, flare stars
are designated UV after UV Ceti, the prototype.
Collaborative international observations are an essen-
tial part of present-day flare star research, where large
numbers of hours are devoted to a few selected stars, and
it is necessary to collect simultaneous spectral, optical,
radio and X-ray data. In the far-ultraviolet, the Interna-
tional Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) satellite registered
strong emission enhancements of doubly ionized magne-
F
sium, the carbon and silicon ionic species up to CIV and
SiIV and also the high-temperature nitrogen line, NV,
reminiscent of the solar outer atmosphere. Furthermore,
micro-flaring in a few dMe stars has been observed
simultaneously in both optical spectra and in coronal X-
rays, which suggests that some stars are frequently active correspond to those seen as dark FRAUNHOFER LINES in
at a timescale of a few seconds to great heights above the the spectrum of the bright photosphere.
stellar surface. Flare stars are thought by some to be spot-
ted stars with overlying active atmospheric layers that Fleming, Williamina Paton (18571911) Scottish-
correspond to the extremely wide range of observed tem- born astronomer who worked at Harvard College
peratures, from 3000 K in the spots, through 10,000 K to Observatory where, despite her lack of a formal higher
200,000 K in the chromosphere and transition region, to education in astronomy, she developed a comprehensive
more than 1 million degrees in the corona. system for classifying stellar spectra. Fleming and her
The flare mechanism is poorly understood, although husband emigrated to the USA in 1878, but he soon
magnetic fields associated with differential stellar rotation abandoned her, leaving her pregnant and destitute.
are probably the cause. The low mass of the nearby dMe Edward C. PICKERING, director of Harvard College
stars (many are less than 0.1 solar mass), and their rela- Observatory, originally hired Fleming in 1881 as his
tively young age, means that steady thermonuclear burn- housekeeper. Pickering, dissatisfied with the quality of
ing in the interior, which maintains normal work of his male assistants, complained that his maid
MAIN-SEQUENCE stars with radiative cores, may not yet could do a better job, and paid her as a temporary
have established itself. Wholly convective interiors may computer at the observatory. He had just embarked on a
occur in the youngest stars of the lowest mass, and flaring major project to obtain large numbers of stellar spectra
appears to be a consequence of these instabilities, linked using an OBJECTIVE PRISM, and required a new system of
with complex magnetic fields. Difficult theoretical prob- classifying the many spectra that were being recorded.
lems need to be solved as to the source and storage of Flemings astronomical computing work was of such
energy prior to flares and their role in heating the intense high quality that Pickering quickly gave her a permanent
stellar coronae. position. When she developed her own scheme for classi-
A related subtype of flare stars is designated UVN. fying stars according to their different spectra, he placed
These stars are closely associated with nebulosity and are her in charge of the project, the outcome of which was the
somewhat similar to the Orion variables, RW AURIGAE HENRY DRAPER CATALOGUE. She supervised many other
and T TAURI-type stars found in the region of the ORION female computers, using the PickeringFleming alpha-
NEBULA, the PLEIADES and most young galactic clusters betical classification scheme (later refined by Annie Jump
(age a few million years and less). UVN stars abound in CANNON) to catalogue the spectra of 10,351 stars, pub-
regions rich in dust and gas where star formation is still lished in 1890 as the Draper Catalogue of Stellar Spectra.
in progress. Because they are generally very faint (appar- During this time, she developed the first rigorous stan-
ent visual magnitude 12 to 20), these flare stars have dards for measuring the photographic magnitudes of vari-
almost invariably been discovered with large Schmidt able stars. In 1898 Fleming took charge of Harvards
telescopes, and those known today required several thou- rapidly growing collection of photographic plates, which
sand hours of patient observations and searching of pho- she examined to discover 59 new nebulae, 222 variable
tographic plates. Flares of amplitude 46 mags. in the stars and 10 novae a major accomplishment, given that
ultraviolet are fairly common among the fainter of these only 28 novae were known at the time. Fleming also dis-
stars. There are more than 400 such flare stars in and covered 94 WOLFRAYET STARS and the first examples
around the Orion Nebula and approximately the same (1910) of WHITE DWARFS.
number in the Pleiades. Flares have also been observed
in Praesepe, the Hyades, and the Cygnus and Taurus flickering Rapid variations in brightness over times of
dark clouds. These abundant objects occur at earlier minutes, or even seconds, observed in many close BINARY
spectral types (dK0 to dM6) than other flare stars and STARS, especially NOVAE and DWARF NOVAE.
were consequently differentiated by the name flash
stars. Although little is known about these stars, there is flocculi Bright, coarse, mottled pattern marking the
good evidence that flares occur in quite a variety of chromospheric network. It is seen in SPECTROHELIOGRAMS
objects, including, for example, the more massive RS of the Sun and is most noticeable in the H and K lines of
CANUM VENATICORUM STARS, which are binaries with G- ionized calcium, CaII.
or K-type subgiant components.
Flora MAIN-BELT ASTEROID discovered in 1847; number
flash spectrum Emission spectrum of the solar 8. Flora is c.162 km (c.101 mi) in size. It is the archetype
CHROMOSPHERE briefly seen during a total solar eclipse at of a well-known HIRAYAMA FAMILY.
the beginning and end of totality. It flashes into view for
only a few seconds when the Moon completely covers the flux density Measure of radiation arriving from a source
PHOTOSPHERE. The lines of the flash spectrum at a particular frequency the energy received from an
145
focal length
146
Fraunhofer, Joseph von
solar disk. In a LUNAR ECLIPSE, fourth contact occurs other frames, so the choice of the reference frame
when the Moon re-emerges completely into sunlight contributes dramatically to the ease with which
from Earths UMBRA. In either case, fourth contact is the equations can be solved.
end of the eclipse.
Franklin-Adams charts First wide-field photographic
Fowler, William Alfred (191195) American SURVEY of the complete sky, accomplished by John
astrophysicist who explained the thermonuclear reactions Franklin-Adams (18431912) using a specially
that take place inside stars, and calculated their rates. He constructed wide-field 250-mm (10-in.) refractor known
spent his entire career (193395) at the California as the Franklin-Adams camera. The survey, published
Institute of Technology and its Kellogg Radiation in 191314 as Photographic Chart of the Sky, consists of
Laboratory, where the staff made many fundamental 206 plates of about 15 15 each, taken between 1903
discoveries in nuclear physics by accelerating positive and 1912 from Godalming, England, and Johannesburg,
ions to high velocities to produce neutrons, positrons and South Africa. With a limiting magnitude of around 16,
gamma rays by bombardment. These experiments these charts represent an historical record that is still used
enabled Fowler to make the first measurement (in 1934 for studies of long-period variables.
while he was still a graduate student) of the reactions
involved in the CARBONNITROGENOXYGEN CYCLE in
stars he detected gamma rays emitted when carbon
Fraunhofer, Joseph von (17871826) Bavarian
optician and pioneer of solar spectroscopy. In 1806 he
F
nuclei bombarded with protons captured one of the joined the Munich optical firm of Reichenbach,
protons to make 13N, which itself emitted a positron. Utzschneider u. Leibherr and began to make achromatic
Within two years, Fowlers group had discovered many objectives for surveying instruments, improving the
more examples of these radiative captures, which methods for polishing and grinding them. His work was
proved to be of fundamental importance in of such high quality that by 1809 Joseph von
understanding the energy processes of stars. In 1939 Utzschneider (d.1839) had placed him in charge of the
Hans BETHE and Carl von WEIZSCKER independently firms glass-making facility at Benediktbeuern. There,
demonstrated how the carbon and nitrogen isotopes Fraunhofer began detailed investigations of the optical
identified by Fowler and his colleagues were involved in properties of different kinds of glass, commencing a
converting hydrogen into helium inside stars. lifelong search for the perfectly achromatic lens. His
After World War II, Fowler resumed his investigations methods of glass- and lens-making allowed his firm to
of the thermonuclear power sources of the Sun and simi- produce superb refracting telescopes of greater
lar stars, developing experimental proof of the chain reac- apertures than had previously been feasible. Among
tions that produce the heavy elements (beyond helium). them were the Dorpat (now Tartu, Estonia) 240-mm
In 1957 Fowler co-authored, with Margaret and Geoffrey (9 -in.) refractor used by Wilhelm von STRUVE to
BURBIDGE and Fred HOYLE, the seminal paper Synthesis discover many double stars, and the Knigsberg 158-
of the elements in stars, published in Reviews of Modern mm (6 -in.) heliometer with which Friedrich Wilhelm
Physics and dubbed B2FH after its authors, which set BESSEL measured the first stellar parallax. Fraunhofer
forth the basic mechanisms by which stars synthesize also constructed one of the earliest examples of the
chemical elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. In German EQUATORIAL MOUNTING. Forty-seven Tucanae The
the 1960s and 1970s, Fowlers research interests included In 181415, while studying the refractive indices of splendidly rich, bright southern
the synthesis of hydrogen, deuterium and helium in the various types of glass, Fraunhofer examined the solar globular cluster 47 Tucanae is
hot Big Bang, massive stars and supernovae, solar neu- spectrum produced by a narrow slot placed in front of a surpassed only by Omega
trinos, quasars and cosmology. He was awarded the 1983 low-power telescope, searching for the pair of bright Centauri. 47 Tucanae is readily
Nobel Prize for Physics for his measurements of the ther- orange-yellow lines of sodium he had already observed in visible to the naked eye.
monuclear rates in stars.
147
Fraunhofer lines
the light from a candle. Instead of bright emission lines, he frequency is the number of wave crests passing a given
saw dark absorption lines at the same place in the solar point per unit time. See also ELECTROMAGNETIC
spectrum. William Hyde WOLLASTON had first observed RADIATION; ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM; WAVELENGTH
these dark features in 1802, but because Fraunhofer stud-
ied them in much greater detail they came to be called F ring Narrow outer ring of SATURN; it was first
FRAUNHOFER LINES. This discovery led to the develop- observed from PIONEER 11 in 1979 and in more detail
ment of astronomical SPECTROSCOPY. To further these during the VOYAGER encounters. The F ring has a narrow,
researches, Fraunhofer designed a dividing engine to braided structure, governed by the gravitational
manufacture diffraction gratings with 4000 parallel lines influence of small satellites orbiting close to it. It lies
per centimetre, which he used to measure the wavelengths 140,200 km (87,100 mi) from the planets centre.
of over 500 different solar spectral features. He found that
the most prominent lines are produced by atoms and ions fringes Patterns of light and dark produced by the
of calcium, hydrogen, sodium, magnesium and iron. INTERFERENCE of light waves that are alternately in and
out of phase with each other. A simple example can be
Fraunhofer lines ABSORPTION LINES in the SPECTRUM, produced by placing a convex lens on a sheet of plane
first noted and catalogued in sunlight by Joseph von glass. Interference fringes in the form of rings will be seen
F FRAUNHOFER in the early 19th century. Lettered from A to
K, the Fraunhofer lines are the strongest in the solar
around the point of contact. Fringes provide the optical
engineer with a very powerful tool for measuring the
spectrum, and are prominent in the spectra of other stars. quality of optical surfaces because minor variations can
In spite of possible confusion with chemical symbols, cause large changes in the shape or position of fringes.
the various Fraunhofer designations are still in common
use, particularly D for neutral sodium at 589.6 and F star Any member of a class of yellow-white stars, the
589.0 nm (D1 and D2, respectively), G for a band of spectra of which are characterized by weakened, though
CH (carbon and hydrogen, chemically bound, plus other still strong, hydrogen lines, strong ionized calcium
absorptions) at 430.0 nm, and H and K for ionized cal- (Fraunhofer H and K), and other ionized metal lines.
cium at 396.8 and 393.4 nm. Small g and D3 were MAIN-SEQUENCE dwarfs range from 6000 K at F9 to
added later to indicate neutral calcium at 422.7 nm and 7000 K at F0, with zero-age masses from 1.05 to 1.6 solar
neutral helium at 587.6 nm. masses, zero-age luminosities from just above solar to 5
solar, and dwarf lifetimes from just under 10 billion to 2.5
Fred L. Whipple Observatory (FLWO) Largest facility billion years. Evolved F dwarfs can have masses up to
of the SMITHSONIAN ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY, twice that of the Sun. Class F GIANTS and SUPERGIANTS
situated on Mount Hopkins near Amado, 60 km (35 mi) (which can have much higher masses) are distinguished
south of Tucson, Arizona; it has been in operation since by the ratios of the strengths of ionized to neutral metal
1968. The FLWO is home to the MMT OBSERVATORY, absorptions. F SUBDWARFS have weakened metal lines,
whose 6.5-m (256-in.) telescope occupies the highest lower metal abundances, and appear hotter than they
point on the site at an elevation of 2600 m (8550 ft). really are. Chemically peculiar AM STARS and AP STARS run
Other instruments are 1.5-m (60-in.) and 1.2-m (48-in.) into class F, where they are known as Fm and Fp.
reflectors and a 10-m (33-ft) gamma-ray telescope. The Class F stars are distinguished by fundamental
1.3-m (51-in.) infrared telescope of the TWO MICRON ALL changes in stellar behaviour. Envelope convection dimin-
SKY SURVEY (2MASS) is also located on Mount Hopkins. ishes with increasing mass and disappears near F0,
where the carbon cycle begins to dominate the
freefree transition Radiation emitted when a free protonproton chain. Rotation speeds increase as the
electron is decelerated in the vicinity of an ion without convection layer and the associated magnetic braking die
being captured. It is also known as Bremsstrahlung away. The Sun spins at only 2 km/s (1.2 mi/s), but by F5
(braking radiation). the typical speed is more like 30 km/s (19 mi/s), and at
F0 it has climbed to 100 km/s (62 mi/s), although some
Friedman, Herbert (19162000) American astrophysi- stars of course still rotate slowly).
cist who helped to found X-ray astronomy, using rocket- Class F is the great bastion of the CEPHEID VARIABLES,
borne detectors to demonstrate the existence of which occupy an INSTABILITY STRIP in the
extraterrestrial X-ray sources. After carrying out impor- HertzsprungRussell diagram extending from super-
tant studies of the Suns X-ray emissions in the 1940s and giants in class G down through F supergiants and giants.
Fraunhofer lines Dark lines 1950s, in 1964 Friedman discovered the first X-ray Where the strip cuts across the Population II horizontal
interrupt the continuum of the source outside the Solar System, finding that the Crab branch, the RR LYRAE STARS of classes F and A are
solar spectrum. These result Nebula, a supernova remnant, is a powerful X-ray emitter. found. Population II Cepheids (W VIRGINIS STARS) are
from absorption of light at also F bright giants.
specific wavelengths by atomic Friedmann, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (18881925) Bright examples of F stars include Porrima ( Virginis)
species in the Suns Russian mathematician who in 1922 worked out the basic F0 V, Procyon F5 IV, Canopus F0 II and Polaris F5 Ia.
atmosphere, and allow the details of the expanding universe. He solved Einsteins field
types present and their equations for the general theory of relativity, obtaining full moon See PHASES OF THE MOON
abundances to be determined. several solutions all suggesting a universe that was
isotropic, or uniform in all directions, but was not static. fundamental catalogue Catalogue of FUNDAMENTAL
This set of models is known collectively as the FRIEDMANN STARS whose positions and proper motions are accurately
UNIVERSE. Friedmanns work was not influential at the known and against which the relative position of other
time, and it remained unknown to Edwin HUBBLE. celestial objects may be measured.
The first such catalogue was prepared by F.W. BESSEL
Friedmann universe Cosmological model developed in 1830. Particularly important has been the FK (Funda-
by Aleksandr FRIEDMANN and others, based on Einsteins mental Katalog) series compiled in Germany, the latest of
theory of GENERAL RELATIVITY. It described a universe which is the FK5 Part II. Also known as the FK5 Exten-
that is homogeneous and isotropic. Specifically, mass and sion, this catalogue provides mean positions and proper
energy are evenly distributed at the largest of scales. motions at equinox and epoch J2000.0 for 3117 new fun-
Following these assumptions, the FIELD EQUATIONS can damental stars. It extends the fundamental system defined
be solved for the entire universe. This type of universe by FK 5 Part I, which was published in 1988, to about
provides the basis for modern-day BIG BANG models. magnitude 9.5. More than 200 existing catalogues were
used in the compilation of the FK5 Extension.
frequency Number of oscillations of a vibrating system Work is currently underway on the Sixth Catalogue of
per unit of time. The normal symbol is f or v, and the Fundamental Stars (FK6), which combines observations
units are hertz (Hz). For an electromagnetic wave, the from the HIPPARCOS astrometric satellite with the ground-
148
fusion, nuclear
Although the strong and weak force are relatively F ring Imaged by the
strong compared with the gravitational force, their limit- Voyager 1 spacecraft during its
ed range makes them unimportant in cosmological con- 1980 flyby, the braided outer
cerns, except close to the beginning of the Big Bang. F ring of Saturn is shepherded
The electromagnetic force is much stronger than the by a pair of small, near co-
gravitational force, but since it comes with roughly equal orbiting satellites.
numbers of opposite charges which neutralize each
other, on cosmological scales it is less important than
gravity. Thus the weakest of the four fundamental forces
dominates the evolution of the universe.
All of the forces except for gravity are easily under-
stood within the framework of QUANTUM THEORY. This
fundamental difference between gravity and the other
forces comes into play in the early universe. It is thought
that under the hot and dense conditions of the early uni-
verse the electromagnetic force and the weak force com-
bined into one force. Some time later this super-force
then combined with the strong force. At very early times,
F
shortly after the Big Bang, gravity must have joined and
based data of the basic FK5. The FK6 will be the catalogue become one with the strong electroweak force. However,
with the most accurate proper motions yet published. owing to the nature of general relativity, no QUANTUM
THEORY OF GRAVITY has been found, and the mathemat-
fundamental forces In all of physics, every particle ics describing the fundamental forces disallows this uni-
discovered and every interaction observed can be fication. The unification of the four fundamental forces
explained by the existence of just four fundamental of physics is the ultimate goal of physics (see THEORY OF
forces of nature. These forces are the electromagnetic EVERYTHING). Even Einstein spent some time working
force, the gravitational force, the strong force and the on the problem to no avail. Recent ideas such as SUPER-
weak force. The electromagnetic force and the STRING theory claim to have accomplished unification,
gravitational force are most evident in our everyday lives but at a price of postulating many unobserved dimen-
since they describe chemical reactions, light and the sions of our Universe.
Earths gravitational field.
It first seemed that electrical forces and magnetic fundamental stars Reference stars whose positions and
forces were separate and independent, but investigations proper motions have been observed and established over
into each phenomenon led to underlying similarities. a long period of time to a high degree of accuracy. A
James Clerk MAXWELL finally combined the forces and measurement of the position of a star (that is, its RIGHT
wrote down his famous equations, which described all ASCENSION and DECLINATION) is defined as being
electrical and magnetic phenomena and explained how absolute if it does not make use of the already known
magnetic fields could be generated by electrical currents positions of other stars. Absolute positions are obtained
and vice versa. This system of differential equations also from specialist instruments such as the CARLSBERG
yielded a wave solution, and the wave propagated at the MERIDIAN TELESCOPE and the HIPPARCOS astrometric
speed of light. Thus light was finally understood in terms satellite. The coordinates and proper motions of
of electric and magnetic fluctuations that needed no medi- fundamental reference stars, selected by the International
um through which to propagate. Astronomical Union, are contained in a FUNDAMENTAL
Both the electromagnetic force and the gravitational CATALOGUE. The system of fundamental stars provides
force are inverse square forces in the sense that the strength the best available approximation to an inertial frame of
of the field declines with the inverse square of the distance, reference, relative to which positions of all other celestial
and both forces have infinite range. A major difference objects can be measured.
between the electromagnetic force and the gravitational
force is that the former is easily quantized, with the FU Orionis star (FU, fuor) Young star that increases in
exchange particle being the photon. Gravity on the other brightness by some 56 mag. over a period of months,
hand has defied quantification, and the most successful following which it may remain in a permanent bright
gravitational theory to date is Einsteins theory of GENERAL state or suffer a slight decline. Objects in this small
RELATIVITY, which is a CONTINUUM theory. Attempts have group are believed to represent one of the evolutionary
been made to quantize gravity but with little success; a pro- stages exhibited by young T TAURI STARS. All known
posed particle of gravitational quanta is called the graviton. examples (about 10 in number) are associated with
The strong force and weak force are both very strong cometary nebulae.
forces, but have extremely limited range. The strong force
operates inside the atomic nucleus and essentially holds FUSE See FAR ULTRAVIOLET SPECTROSCOPIC EXPLORER
the protons and neutrons together by the exchange of par-
ticles called gluons. The actual exchange of gluons is fusion, nuclear Process in which two light atomic
between the quarks that make up protons and neutrons. nuclei join together to form the nucleus of a heavier
The strong force is the strongest of the four fundamental atom. In the very high temperatures found in the core of
forces, but its range is limited to distances of the order of the Sun (about 15.6 million K) two hydrogen nuclei are
1015 m. The weak force also operates inside the nucleus fused together to give a deuterium nucleus, plus a
and is important in radioactive decays. The intermediate positron and a neutrino. Later stages in this fusion
vector boson is the exchange particle and its range is con- process eventually produce the nucleus of helium. Such
fined to a distance of the order of 1016 m. processes are called NUCLEAR REACTIONS. With light
elements, the BINDING ENERGY per nucleon increases
during nuclear fusion and so vast amounts of energy are
FUNDAMENTAL FORCES
released. The fusion of elements up to the iron-peak
Force Relative Exchange particle Range results in the production of energy. The fusion of nuclei
strength
heavier than iron requires there to be an input of energy
strong 1 gluon 1015 m to keep the reaction going, and thus mainly occurs
electromagnetic 1/137 photons infinite during SUPERNOVA explosions. Fusion is the energy-
weak 104 intermediate 1016 m producing process in most stars. The formation of
vector bosons elements up to iron by fusion is called
gravitational 6 1039 gravitons infinite NUCLEOSYNTHESIS. See also FISSION, NUCLEAR
149
Gacrux
Gacrux The star Crucis (of which Gacrux is a con- about 5 west of Com (RA 12h 51m.4 dec. 277); the
traction); visual mag. 1.59 (but slightly variable), distance south galactic pole is in Sculptor, 2 northwest of Scl
88 l.y., spectral type M4 III. (RA 00h 51m.4 dec. 277). The line joining the poles
G
approximately marks the rotational axis of the Galaxy.
Gagarin, Yuri Alexeyevich (193468) Russian
cosmonaut who became the first human in space, Galatea One of the small inner satellites of NEPTUNE,
completing a single orbit of the Earth in the spacecraft discovered in 1989 by the VOYAGER 2 imaging team.
Vostok 1 on 1961 April 12 in a flight that lasted 1 hour, Galatea is about 160 km (100 mi) in size. It takes 0.429
48 minutes. He was the first to experience days to circuit the planet, at a distance of 62,000 km
weightlessness for more than just a few minutes, and the (39,000 mi) from its centre, in a near-circular, near-
first to see sunrise from outer space. Gagarin, honoured equatorial orbit. It appears to act as an interior SHEPHERD
as a Hero of the Soviet Union, was killed during a test MOON to the planets Adams Ring, and it orbits just
flight of a jet aircraft. beyond the exterior edges of the Lassell and Arago rings.
galactic centre Centre of the Galaxy. It is located in galaxies, classification System of grouping similar
Sagittarius, about 4 west of Sgr (RA 17h 45m.6 dec. GALAXIES together based on the properties of the
2900). Its distance is about 26,000 l.y. Dust clouds galaxies structure. One widely used system is the
along the line of sight to it prohibit direct optical HUBBLE CLASSIFICATION.
150
Galaxy, the
away from us in Carina, where, seen effectively end-on, a galaxy A general outline for
great accumulation of stars and nebulae causes the extreme the structure of a spiral galaxy,
brightness and complexity. Immediately outside this arm, of which our Milky Way is an
and therefore superimposed in front as we view it, is the example. Seen face-on, the
band of gas and dust, a region where stars have yet to form, galaxy has a fairly compact
that causes the dark rift from Cygnus to Crux. Beyond nucleus surrounded by an
Carina we see the fainter arm that wraps itself round out- extensive disk containing star-
side the Sun. It crosses the northern sky, gaining brightness rich spiral arms. Seen edge-on,
as we follow it gradually inwards towards Cygnus. the nucleus is revealed as a
Although the trained eye easily sees these features, it bulge, with the spiral arms
took a long time for the Galaxys structure to be deduced. confined to the flat plane of the
nucleus spiral Even today, the details remain contentious, for instance of disk. The galaxy as a whole is
arms
how many spiral arms it has. RADIO ASTRONOMY has been surrounded by a halo of
of paramount importance. In 1931 Karl JANSKY discovered globular clusters. As indicated,
radio emission from Sagittarius, and before long the first the Sun is located midway out
maps of the radio sky were made. Apart from a few indi- in the disk of our Galaxy.
vidual spots of radio emission, which were later to prove of
immense importance, these maps showed a band exactly
following the Milky Way. The mechanisms producing visi-
ble light and radio emission are grossly different, and very G
few objects liberate both in comparable amounts.
Nonetheless, the Galaxy contains sources of both.
In the northern sky the radio emission was found to be
weak, but it rose to a crescendo in Sagittarius. The differ-
ence between the radio and the visible Milky Way was,
position
of sun quite simply, that the radio waves passed unimpeded
through the dark clouds. They showed what the Galaxy
central bulge would be like if we could see all the stars. In particular,
they focused attention on the very centre of the Galaxy
disk globular clusters (see SAGITTARIUS A and GALACTIC CENTRE).
As radio astronomy matured it began to make more
sophisticated observations. One of the most important of
these was the study of radiation by hydrogen atoms at a
MILKY WAY after its visual guise: from the northern wavelength of 21 cm (see TWENTY-ONE CENTIMETRE
hemisphere it can be seen as a faint, luminous band that LINE). Observations at this wavelength could pick out the
meanders from the deep south in Sagittarius, glides gas clouds associated with spiral arms, revealing them
through Aquila and Cygnus, embraces the W of irrespective of whether optically opaque clouds inter-
Cassiopeia, then fades gradually past Perseus and Orion vened. The radio astronomers put together a map of the
to dip once more below the southern horizon in Puppis. Galaxy revealing its spiral arms. In practice the Galaxy
Seen from the southern hemisphere the Milky Way is appeared highly complex, and spiral arms could be
far brighter and more spectacular. From Puppis it flows sketched through the map only with the eye of faith. More
into Carina, where it is richly textured and bright enough recently, however, similar observations made from Aus-
to be seen from within large cities. Continuing bright, it tralia, of the less ubiquitous gas carbon monoxide, have
sweeps past the stars of Crux, where an intervening cloud painted a much clearer canvas; this map suggests that
of dusty gas has removed a black scoop from it, the there are four arms to our Galaxy. The best evidence now
COALSACK. From there a narrow dark streak bisects the suggests that the Galaxy is a BARRED SPIRAL with a HUBBLE
Milky Way as it passes through Centaurus, swells and CLASSIFICATION of SBc.
brightens through the tail of Scorpius, and enters Sagittar- Our view from within the disk of the spiral arms can
ius. When seen against a dark sky, and when it rides near- never be adequate to disentangle the full structure of the
ly overhead, the Milky Way in Sagittarius reaches its Galaxy. The following description, therefore, is based in
widest, at more than 30 in breadth, still split by a dark part on studies of our own Galaxy and in part on what is
central band. That band continues as the Milky Way nar- known of other spiral galaxies.
rows northwards through Aquila to Cygnus. Northern About 100,000 million stars populate the Galaxy, mak-
hemisphere dwellers have termed this dark band the ing it slightly above average in size. It is nearly 100,000 l.y.
CYGNUS RIFT, but its full extent, one-third of the entire across, though its outer boundary is not well defined, and
sky, can be appreciated only from the south. The fact that we live 26,500 l.y. from the centre. The bulge of stars in
the Milky Way completely circles the sky clearly indicates the central part comprises those that formed relatively
that we live within it. It is our Galaxy. early in the Galaxys history. These stars have evolved
External galaxies basically have three forms spiral,
elliptical and irregular. The Milky Way is quite symmetri-
cal about the constellation Sagittarius, so it is not irregular. SUMMARY OF THE MAIN PARAMETERS
Elliptical galaxies are almost spherical blobs of stars, so if OF THE MILKY WAY GALAXY
we lived inside one we would see its constituent stars in Hubble class barred spiral type SBc
every direction. Instead, the narrowness of the band of the nucleus diameter 15,000 l.y. in the plane of the Galaxy; 6000 l.y.
Milky Way shows that our Galaxy is basically flat, and as perpendicular to the plane of the Galaxy
When viewed from the southern hemisphere, a spiral disk thickness 5000 l.y. near the nucleus to a few hundred l.y.
classification is readily appreciated. Our Solar System lies at the outer edge and about 1000 l.y. at the
among the spiral arms, so that at least one wraps round out- position of the Sun
side us like a cloak, while others curl between the centre and mass of nucleus and disk 2 1011 solar masses
us. And, like other spiral galaxies, our Galaxy contains halo diameter 150,000 l.y.
bands of opaque dust clouds along the spiral arms and a mass of halo 2 1011 to 4 1011 solar masses
central bulge like a miniature elliptical galaxy within the corona diameter 600,000 l.y.
orbit of the arms. That bulge is in Sagittarius, which is why mass of corona 2 1012 to 6 1012 solar masses
the Milky Way widens there. In front of the bulge passes a position of the Sun 26,500 l.y from the centre and about 14 l.y.
prominent spiral arm, which produces the great brightness above the central plane of the galactic disk
of the CentaurusCruxCarina region. This arm curls all figures quoted are approximate
151
galaxy cluster
152
Galileo Galilei
spacecraft headed towards a rendezvous with the planet. But it was his astronomical work that made Galileo
The probe entered the Jovian atmosphere on 1995 famous, to become by the end of 1610 Europes first scien-
December 7 and transmitted data for 57 minutes during a tific celebrity. Even before 1600, he was convinced of the
152-km (95-mi) descent under a single parachute, trans- truth of the heliocentric COPERNICAN SYSTEM. His convic-
mitting data to Galileo as it was preparing to enter orbit the tion derived from Copernicanisms mathematical elegance
following day. Transmission of the probe data to Earth was in explaining the retrograde motions of planets, combined
completed by 1996 April. The data revealed an intense with his own anti-Aristotelian conclusions in physics. But
radiation belt 50,000 km (31,000 mi) above the clouds, a when he first used the newly invented telescope to observe
Sun-like hydrogenhelium ratio, some organic compounds, the night sky over the winter of 1609/10, he saw things that
one cloud layer and 640 m/s (2000 ft/s) winds below the he felt secured the Copernican case. He found that the
cloud deck. Thunderstorms many times larger than Earths Moons terrain was mountainous, not the smooth surface
result from the vertical circulation of water in the top layers, Aristotle had predicted. He also found that even under the
leaving large areas where air descends and becomes dry and 30 magnification of his most powerful telescope, the
other areas where water rises to form thunderstorms. Milky Way fragmented into millions of individual stars, and
Galileo began its tour of the Jovian satellites, which that instead of a few thousand stars being attached to the
continued until 2002, with a flyby of GANYMEDE, fol- inside of a black dome, as the ancients had taught, there
lowed by several further encounters with this and the seemed to be countless millions extending throughout
other main moons. Galileo established that the ring sys- space. And then, in 1610 January, he discovered that the
tem is made of small grains blasted off the satellites sur-
faces by meteoroid impacts. IO was found to be the Solar
classical wandering star, Jupiter, was a spherical world,
with four tiny satellites orbiting it. (Simon MARIUS later G
Systems most volcanically active body, while EUROPA has claimed to have observed them first.) Very obviously, the
a possible salty ocean containing more water than does Earth was not the only centre of rotation in the Universe.
Earth. Ganymede has a magnetic field and CALLISTO may These and other telescopic discoveries by Galileo were
also have a water ocean. In 2000 December, Jupiter was published in 1610 March as Siderius nuncius, The Starry
for the first time in space history explored by two space- Messenger, and won him renown across Europe. All
craft simultaneously, with Galileos observations being these discoveries, along with that of the phases of Venus
complimented by those from CASSINI en route to Saturn (which showed that Venus revolved around the Sun) and,
during the Millennium Flyby. in 1611, of sunspots (which showed that the Sun was not
an unblemished golden sphere), added to the weight of
Galileo Galilei (15641642) Italian astronomer, physicist evidence against Aristotles ideas, yet failed to provide
and mathematician. He was one of the first to use the physical proof that the Earth was in motion. For that, a
telescope for astronomical observations, discovering stellar parallax or some similar phenomenon was needed,
mountains and craters on the Moon, and four satellites of and instruments would not become sufficiently accurate
Jupiter now known as the Galilean satellites. He observed to measure such a parallax until 1838.
the phases of Venus, and studied sunspots, from whose Galileos advocacy of Copernicanism thus rested not
motion he deduced that the Sun rotates. Galileo concluded upon being able to prove the heliocentric theory, but
that ARISTOTLEs picture of the world, still widely believed upon his skill in undermining the objections of conserva-
in his time, was wrong and he championed COPERNICUS tive astronomers who still adhered to Aristotle and Ptole-
heliocentric theory. This brought him into conflict with the my. And as he could be very mocking to his opponents,
Catholic Church and led to his trial and house arrest for Galileo made enemies, especially in the Jesuit order,
the last eight years of his life. whose Christoph SCHEINER had co-discovered sunspots,
Born in Pisa, the son of a lawyer and musician Vincenzio and yet had interpreted them in accordance with Aris-
Galilei, Galileo was educated at the universities of Pisa and totelian criteria. In the wake of his 1610 discoveries,
Padua. At first he studied medicine, but abandoned it for however, Galileo had won the patronage of the Medici
mathematics. Early in his career, he developed the fondness family, who had invited him to their Grand Ducal Court
of controversy that would play a major part in precipitating in Florence. The now famous Galileo was elected to the
his condemnation in 1633. One body of opinion in the uni- prestigious Accademia dei Lincei (Academy of Lynx-
versities of his day, which Galileo came first to criticize and es) and left Padua to become a scientific courtier and
then to openly ridicule, was the interpretation of all natural holder of a research chair at Pisa. In Florence, he was
phenomena in terms of the philosophy of Aristotle, with its
axiomatic assumption that the Earth stood fixed at the cen-
tre of the Universe (see GEOCENTRIC THEORY). It is all too
easy for us to sympathize with Galileos attacks upon Aris-
totelianism, and take his polemical language at face value
when he called his Aristotelian contemporaries simple-
tons. Yet even by the time of his death in 1642, let alone in
1600, there was no known physical proof of the Earths
motion in space, and Copernicus theory hinged more
upon mathematical elegance than upon observed fact.
Galileos youthful anti-Aristotelianism was confirmed
by a series of experiments in physics. The first of these,
dating from his time in Padua in 1583, made him realize
that when a pendulum swings, the determining physical
factor is not the heaviness of the bob, but the length of
the pendulum itself. Likewise, the results of his research-
es in Padua, where he became professor of mathematics
in 1592, further contradicted Aristotle, for it was clear
that the rate of acceleration of a falling body is governed
by a fixed mathematical law that has nothing to do with
the weight of the body. In Aristotles philosophy there
was no place for such laws. Terrestrial events were Galileo Repeated passes
caused by an intermixing of earth, water, air and fire; close to the four large satellites
only the heavens displayed mathematical regularities. Yet of Jupiter by the Galileo orbiter
Galileo had shown that terrestrial as well as celestial since 1996 have revealed these
motions conformed to exact mathematical laws, and he in more detail than ever before.
can be said to have established physics as a discipline This image shows the volcano
founded on mathematical theory and experiment. Zal Patera on Io.
153
Galileo National Telescope
lionized by the Medici and moved on easy terms Urbain LE VERRIER. He also discovered three comets and
amongst ambassadors, cardinals and bishops. Saturns semi-transparent Crpe Ring (the C Ring)
In 1616, however, Galileo was officially prohibited by (1838), though George Phillips BOND and William Rutter
Cardinal Bellarmine from teaching Copernicanism as the DAWES often receive credit for re-discovering this ring
truth, as opposed to a hypothesis. Wisely, Galileo who years later. Galle made the first reliable distance estimates
was a sincerely devout Catholic complied, but when his for asteroids by measuring their parallaxes, first with
friend Cardinal Barbarini became Pope Urban VIII in minor planet (8) Flora in 1873
1623, he attempted unsuccessfully to have the 1616 prohi-
bition lifted. Nonetheless, in 1632, when the Church Gamma Cassiopeiae star (GCAS) Rapidly rotating
granted permission for his DIALOGUES to be published, he VARIABLE STAR of class Be IIIV; it occasionally sheds
believed that he had the right publicly to discuss Coperni- material into surrounding space, generally from the
canism. However, Galileos ensuing condemnation in 1633 equator, at apparently random intervals, in what are
was not for a serious heresy (the Church then had no offi- termed shell episodes. Gamma Cassiopeiae stars may be
cial line for or against Copernicanism) but was discipli- subdivided into BE STARS, where the ejected material
nary, for breaching the prohibition of 1616. Even so, the forms a ring around the star, and SHELL STARS, where it
elderly Galileos condemnation to house arrest at his villa at forms a circumstellar shell. They are related to, but less
Arcetri, Florence (where he also discovered the lunar libra- extreme than, the S DORADUS STARS.
tion) shocked scientists across Europe. But no further
G Copernicans were punished, and one wonders how far
Galileos provocative personal style, the enemies he made
gamma-ray astronomy Research covering the energy
range of the ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM higher than
in the Jesuit order, and the undoubted pride of Pope Urban 30 keV (wavelength less than 0.04 nm), essentially the
VIII (who felt personally slighted by Galileo), rather than last part of the spectrum to be explored. The extreme
the science itself, were responsible for his fate. The penetration of gamma rays makes them valuable for
Catholic Church re-opened the Galileo affair in 1822, and probing regions of the Galaxy and beyond where other
in 1992 Pope John Paul II proclaimed Galileos complete radiation is absorbed. COSMIC RAYS were first thought to
exoneration, and offered the Churchs apologies. be a form of gamma radiation, and many gamma rays are
produced by interactions of cosmic rays with the gas in
Galileo National Telescope (TNG) In Spanish, the the interstellar medium. However, generally gamma rays
Telescopio Nazionale Galileo, a 3.5-m (138-in.) are associated with the most energetic mechanisms in the
optical/infrared telescope completed in 1997 as an Italian cosmos. There are several places where gamma rays are
national astronomy facility. It is located at the ROQUE DE produced: cosmic rays interacting with gas in molecular
LOS MUCHACHOS OBSERVATORY on the island of La Palma clouds; SUPERNOVA REMNANTS, where cosmic rays
at an elevation of 2358 m (7740 ft). It is operated for the accelerated in the supernova explosion interact with
Consorzio Nazionale per lAstronomia e lAstrofisica nearby gas; massive stars producing gamma rays in their
(CNAA) by the Centro Galileo Galilei. The TNG is close- winds; and PULSARS.
gamma-ray burst GRB ly modelled on the ESOs NEW TECHNOLOGY TELESCOPE. There were some early balloon experiments, but
00131 was detected by several gamma-ray astronomy did not really start until 1967, with
spacecraft on 2000 January Galle, Johann Gottfried (18121910) German the launch of the American satellite OSO III. GAMMA-RAY
31. This series of images astronomer who, while at the Berlin Observatory, was the BURSTS were first discovered around this time, by satellite-
obtained with the Very Large first to identify Neptune, on 1846 September 23, though borne detectors meant to monitor violations of the
Telescope (VLT) shows the others saw the planet before him but failed to recognize it Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty. In the 1970s SAS II and COS B
fading visible-wavelength as such. Galle, who was aided in his search for the new were launched and they found a few tens of sources. The
afterglow, just left of centre. planet by Heinrich DArrest, used orbital calculations by subject was revolutionized with the launch of the NASA
COMPTON GAMMA RAY OBSERVATORY (CGRO) in 1991,
which operated until 2000. New satellites are planned
INTEGRAL is due for launch by ESA in 2002 and GLAST
is due for launch by NASA in 2006. At the highest
gamma ray energies (around 0.2 TeV and above),
ground-based telescopes can detect CERENKOV light from
the passage of gamma rays in Earths atmosphere. There
are now several Atmospheric Cerenkov Imaging Tele-
scopes (ACITs) which record the flashes (some ACITs
have several dishes). Most of their results have been
received in the 300 GeV to 30 TeV range.
The gamma-ray view of the sky in this energy range
looks rather similar to the visible picture, in that there is a
general concentration of emission in the galactic plane
and an increase in the general direction of the galactic
centre. Galactic gamma-ray radiation will be produced
mostly by cosmic rays interacting with the gas in the
interstellar medium. The lower-energy gamma rays
(below about 100 MeV) are produced by electrons, and
the electron intensity is higher in the inner Galaxy than
locally and in the outer Galaxy. However, the poor angu-
lar resolution of the gamma-ray telescopes has led to
many problems, particularly with the nature of the hot
spots of emission. Some of these are genuine discrete
sources in that they can be identified by their time profile
with pulsars, for example the CRAB PULSAR and the VELA
PULSAR. The X-ray binary SS433 was detected in gamma
rays, including some spectral lines. The Energetic
Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope (EGRET) instru-
ment on CGRO found around 170 high-energy (above
100 MeV) sources in the Galaxy; the brighter sources
were in the galactic plane, the fainter ones in the solar
neighbourhood, and a large number of sources were
found to lie in GOULDS BELT, a series of local star-form-
154
Ganymede
ing regions. Several of the sources may be older pulsars, Ganymede A Galileo orbiter
or other types of compact objects (such as BLACK HOLES) view of Marius Regio and
from past massive star formation, or massive hot stars. Nippur Sulcus on Ganymede.
Gamma rays have been detected from extragalactic These alternating areas of light
sources such as ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI (AGNs), grooved terrain and darker
quasars and BL LACERTAE OBJECTS. EGRET also discov- cratered terrain are typical of
ered a class of objects called BLAZARS, which are quasars the satellites surface.
emitting most of their radiation in the 30 GeV to
30 MeV range, and which are variable on a timescale of
days. 3C 279, at a distance of 4 billion l.y., is a blazar
(but no longer regarded as typical) and in 1991 it was
one of the brightest gamma-ray objects in the sky.
The Imaging Compton Telescope (COMPTEL) on
CGRO produced a map of the sky in the aluminium-26
line (1.809 GeV), in which the Cygnus, Vela, Carina and
the inner Galaxy regions appear brightest. This radioac-
tive element is produced during NUCLEOSYNTHESIS in
supernovae. Another map of the sky was created in the
511 keV line, from positronelectron annihilation, which
shows that this is occurring in a region around 10 in
created. With Ralph Asher Alpher (1921 ) and Hans
BETHE, Gamow further developed this model, subse- G
diameter centred on the galactic centre. Apart from the quently dubbed --, to show that hydrogen nuclei
considerable strength, the emission is variable on the could fuse to form helium nuclei (-particles) in quanti-
scale of a year a possible explanation is there is a black ties that reflected the Universes observed helium abun-
hole at the galactic centre that somewhat irregularly con- dance (1 part in 12), but that heavier elements were not
sumes interstellar gas. produced in the Big Bang. Gamows greatest insight was
that subsequent expansion of the universe would cool the
gamma-ray burst (GRB) Short-duration (typically 1 cosmic fireball of radiation left over from the ylem stage
to 10 seconds) outpouring of gamma rays, usually in the to about 10 K in the present. The 3 K COSMIC MICROWAVE
energy range from 100 keV to 1 MeV, from a discrete BACKGROUND radiation discovered in 1965 by Arno PEN-
source. Some gamma-ray bursts may be shorter or ZIAS and Robert Wilson confirmed Gamows prediction.
longer (up to a few hundred seconds), while energies as
high as the TeV range may occasionally be recorded. Ganymed Possibly the largest near-Earth asteroid. It is
The optical counterparts are found to be young galaxies estimated to be about 50 km (30 mi) in size based on an
at high redshifts, which makes GRBs extremely assumed albedo of 0.15. See also EROS; table at NEAR-
energetic events. GRBs were discovered by satellite- EARTH ASTEROID
borne detectors meant to monitor violations of the
Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty in 1967. In 1997 astronomers Ganymede Largest of the GALILEAN SATELLITES of
found that the GRBs are followed by an X-ray JUPITER; it is the largest satellite in the Solar System.
afterglow, which enabled their positions to be Ganymedes diameter of 5262 km (3270 mi) makes it
accurately pin-pointed. The BATSE instrument on the 8% larger than Mercury, but it is a mainly icy body, with
COMPTON GAMMA RAY OBSERVATORY (CGRO) detected a density of only 1.94 g/cm3, and has less than half
2704 GRBs using NaI detectors, sensitive to energy Mercurys mass. It has a complex, but fairly heavily
between 20 keV and 600 keV. In 1999 a GRB detected cratered, icy surface, attesting to major resurfacing
by CGRO was observed 22 seconds later by a ground- events in the distant past, thanks to Ganymedes 1:2
based robotic telescope (due to the automatic alert orbital RESONANCE with EUROPA, which presumably
system), thus providing an accurate position, which caused TIDAL HEATING.
meant that observations could be made in X-rays and Ganymedes density suggests that, like CALLISTO, it
optically with the HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE, PALOMAR consists of a 40:60 mixture of rock and ice. Its icy surface
and KECK. The 24th-magnitude galaxy had a peculiar is much dirtier than Europas, with an albedo of only 0.45.
shape and was very blue, suggesting that many new Gravity measurements made by the GALILEO spacecraft
stars were being formed. It had a redshift of 1.6, which indicate that Ganymede has undergone full DIFFERENTIA-
showed that it was around 10 billion l.y. away. It has TION, with an iron inner core (filling 22% of its radius), a
been suggested that gamma-ray bursts occur when rocky outer core (filling 55% of its radius) and an icy
neutron stars collide or when there is a hypernova. mantle. Callisto, in contrast, is only weakly differentiated.
Ganymede has a magnetic field with about 1% the
Gamow, George (190468) Ukrainian-American strength of the Earths; it could be generated either in the
nuclear physicist and cosmologist, born Georgy core or in a salty ocean within the ice layer.
Anthonovich Gamov, known for his theory of the atomic Spectroscopic studies show that Ganymedes surface is
nucleus, the application of nuclear physics to problems of dominantly water-ice, with scattered patches of carbon
stellar evolution, and his model of a hot BIG BANG; and dioxide ice, and that the darkening is caused by silicate
for his later work in molecular biology. From his early minerals (probably in the form of clay particles) and tarry
work as a nuclear physicist in Russia, Gttingen and molecules called tholins. There are also traces of oxygen
Copenhagen came his theory of -decay (1928) and the and ozone, apparently trapped within the ice, and an
liquid-drop model of the nucleus (1931), which later extremely tenuous (and continually leaking) atmosphere
proved essential for explaining nuclear fission and fusion. of hydrogen, which is presumably the counterpart to the
He emigrated to the USA in 1933, becoming professor at oxygen produced by the breakdown of water molecules.
George Washington University (193456) and the There are two distinct terrain types on Ganymede, one
University of Colorado (195668). Gamow solved the darker than the other. It is apparent that the pale terrain
problem of how the relatively low collision velocities of (which commonly consists of multiple sets of grooves)
nuclei in the interior of stars could trigger NUCLEAR must be younger than the dark terrain, because belts of
REACTIONS. He showed that stars heat up as they exhaust pale terrain can be seen to cut across pre-existing tracts of
their nuclear fuel. In World War II, he worked on the US dark terrain. However, the density of impact craters on
Manhattan Project to develop the atomic bomb. both terrain types shows that each must be very old, per-
After the war, Gamow turned to the Big Bang theory. haps as much as 3 billion years.
He visualized the early universe as composed of hot dense Intricate details of the grooved parts of the pale terrain
matter he called ylem, a soup of neutrons, protons, elec- hint that each belt of pale terrain might require just as
trons and radiation, from which the first elements were complex a series of events to explain it as parts of the
155
gardening
bright plains on Europa. On Europa there is abundant jovian planets. These planets have thick opaque
evidence for the two halves of a split tract of terrain having atmospheres and no solid surface visible. They are
been moved apart to accommodate the new surface that thought to contain a small solid core, with the majority of
has formed in between. On Ganymede, however, signs of their mass made up of gas. Because of this the planets
lateral movement are scarce. Ganymedes pale terrain densities are low, indeed that of Saturn is less than that of
appears to occupy sites where the older surface has been water. Uranus apart, the gas giants emit more radiation
dropped down by fault movements, allowing cryovolcanic than they receive from the Sun, implying an internal heat
fluids to spill out (see CRYOVOLCANISM). It is unclear source due in part to the effects of rotation and gravity.
whether the grooves within each belt of pale terrain repre- Saturn has long been known to have a ring system. Very
sent constructional cryovolcanic features or reflect subse- much fainter ring systems have been found around the
quent deformation, perhaps related to underlying faults. other planets since 1977. The term gas giant is also used
See also data at JUPITER descriptively for larger planets with similar characteristics
thought to orbit around other star systems.
gardening Process whereby impacts of small
METEOROIDS cause turnover of the outer few metres of Gaspra Inner MAIN-BELT ASTEROID and member of the
lunar REGOLITH in geologically short timescales, of the FLORA family; number 951. Gaspra was encountered by
order of tens of millions of years. the GALILEO spacecraft in 1991 October while en route to
Jupiter; it was the first asteroid to be examined in this way.
G Garnet Star Name given by William HERSCHEL to the
star Cephei on account of its strong red colour. It is a
Gaspra is angular and thus non-spherical in shape,
measuring about 18 11 9 km (11 7 6 mi). It is
red supergiant, spectral type M2 Ia, and a semiregular peppered with small craters but lacks medium to large
variable (subtype SRC), ranging between about mags. 3.5 craters, suggesting that its surface is relatively young
and 5.1 every 2 years or so. It lies about 2800 l.y. away. (much younger than the Solar System). This view is
supported by its planar surfaces, which may indicate
Gascoigne, William (161244) English inventor of the where portions of the original body were sheared off by
micrometer, apparently self-taught in astronomy. Like one or more major collisions some billions of years ago.
his associates Jeremiah HORROCKS and William Crustal cracks similar to those seen on PHOBOS are also
CRABTREE he seems to have been a Copernican. apparent. It is believed that Gaspra is one of the daughter
Gascoigne was the first to solve the problem of how to products of the inter-asteroid collision that produced
insert a cross-hair into the focus of a Keplerian refracting Flora and the other members of its HIRAYAMA FAMILY.
telescope so that it could be used as a sighting Gaspras spectral reflectance indicates it to be an S-
instrument. Around the same time (c.1640), he invented class asteroid, similar in gross composition to IDA, the
the eyepiece micrometer, in which a precision screw was other asteroid examined during flyby from Galileo.
used to move two pointers in the telescopes field of view. Images show significant colour variations over Gaspras
By enclosing the body being observed between these surface, with some craters and ridge tops where the
pointers, its angular diameter could be measured to REGOLITH might be expected to be thinner or absent
within a few arcseconds from a knowledge of the focal appearing bluer than the surrounding areas. This
length of the object glass and the pitch of the micrometer variation may indicate that long term space weathering,
Gaspra En route to Jupiter, screw. Such precision measurements were crucial in through exposure to micrometeoroid impacts, is the
the Galileo spacecraft made a quantifying changes in the lunar and solar diameters, cause of the redness of the surface, with the solid body of
flyby of asteroid (951) Gaspra in and correlating them with Keplers elliptical orbits, to Gaspra beneath being less red.
1991, revealing it to be an match theory with physical evidence.
irregular-shaped, heavily Gassendi, Pierre (15921655) French mathematician
cratered body. Gaspra lies in gas giant Collective term used to describe JUPITER, and astronomer. In 1631 he used the eyepiece projection
the main belt. SATURN, URANUS and NEPTUNE, also described as the method with a Galilean telescope to safely make the first
observation of a transit of MERCURY across the Sun.
Johannes KEPLER, with whom Gassendi corresponded,
had predicted this transit would take place, using his
then-newly conceived theories of planetary motion.
156
Gemini Telescopes
Pollux
RA
h m
07 45
dec.
28 02
Visual
mag.
1.16
Absolute
mag.
1.1
Spectral
type
K0
Distance
(l.y.)
34
G
a stick-man figure, disclosed the structure known as the
GREAT WALL (1989). Geller was only the second woman Castor 07 35 31 53 1.58 0.6 A1/A2 52
to be awarded a doctorate by Princeton University. Alhena 06 38 16 24 1.93 0.6 A0 105
Tejat 06 23 22 31 2.73.0 1.61.3 M3 232
Geminga One of the most powerful gamma-ray objects
Mebsuta 06 44 25 08 3.06 4.2 A3 903
in the sky, around 500 l.y. (160 pc) from Earth. It has a 06 45 12 54 3.35 2.1 F5 57
period of 0.237 second, so it is most likely a short- Propus 06 15 22 30 3.13.9 2.01.2 M3 349
wavelength equivalent of a PULSAR, and thus the closest Wasat 07 20 21 59 3.50 2.2 F0 59
pulsar to Earth. No radio waves have been detected
from Geminga, so it is assumed that the JETS are not
pointed at Earth. The name Geminga comes from The two telescopes employ new-technology thin mirrors
Gemini gamma-ray source, since the object is in the with ACTIVE OPTICS to provide stable images under all con-
constellation Gemini, and its Italian discoverers thought ditions of telescope attitude and wind loading. They also
it a good name since geminga in the Milanese dialect use state-of-the-art ADAPTIVE OPTICS to compensate for
means it does not exist. atmospheric turbulence, yielding images of very high reso-
lution. These are analysed with a comprehensive suite of
Gemini See feature article optical and infrared instruments. The telescopes are partic-
ularly suited to research on star formation within dust
Geminids Most consistently active of the annual clouds and studies of the very distant Universe. As well as
METEOR SHOWERS, occurring between December 7 and the telescope facilities, the observatory has a project office
16. At peak, the RADIANT lies just north of Castor, and in Tucson, Arizona, and sea-level operations centres at
the shower produces zenithal hourly rates (ZHR) as high Hilo, Hawaii and La Serena, 400 km (250 mi) north of
as 120. The Geminids have been observed since 1838 Santiago in Chile. The Gemini Observatory is managed
and have become gradually more active over the years. In jointly by the ASSOCIATION OF UNIVERSITIES FOR RESEARCH
the 1970s, the peak was narrow with ZHR around 70; IN ASTRONOMY and the National Science Foundation.
returns in the late 1990s, however, showed a much
higher and broader maximum. The changing activity Gemini Project Series of 12 US spacecraft launched by
pattern is consistent with computer models of the Titan II rockets between 1964 and 1966. Gemini 312
METEOR STREAM, the orbit of which is being pulled closer carried two-man crews and played a vital role in Gemini Observatory This
to that of the Earth by gravitational perturbations. The preparations for the Apollo missions to the Moon. infrared view of a star-forming
models suggest that peak activity will become Experiments included orbital rendezvous, docking and region in the Milky Way was
progressively later during the 21st century and will EVA (extra-vehicular activity). The longest mission taken using the Gemini North
eventually begin to diminish in intensity. At present, the (Gemini 7) lasted for 330h 35m 17s. telescope on Mauna Kea.
rise to maximum is gradual, with a more rapid decline. Adaptive optics helped
Geminid meteors are relatively slow, with a velocity of Gemini Telescopes See GEMINI OBSERVATORY sharpen the image.
35 km/s (22 mi/s). A detailed analysis by G.H. Spalding
(Didcot, UK) showed evidence for particle sorting in the
stream, with bright events produced by larger mete-
oroids being more numerous after Geminid maximum.
Geminid meteoroids have long been known to have a
higher density (2 g/cm3) than those from other
(cometary) sources, and they survive ABLATION down to
lower altitudes in Earths atmosphere. This can be
accounted for by their origin from asteroid (3200)
PHAETHON, discovered in 1983. Asteroid and meteor
stream have an unusual orbit, with a very small perihelion
distance of 0.14 AU.
157
Geminus
Geminus Lunar crater (35N 57E), 90 km (56 mi) in TUM THEORY OF GRAVITY is the search for a GRAND UNIFIED
diameter, with a western rim rising to 4880 m (16,000 ft) THEORY (GUT) or the THEORY OF EVERYTHING (TOE).
above its floor. Geminus is a complex crater, with central
peaks and wall terracing. The crater appears oblong due Genesis NASA Discovery-class mission to collect
to foreshortening but is actually more nearly round. samples of the SOLAR WIND and return them to Earth for
Micrometeorite erosion has removed its bright rays, analysis. Genesis was launched in 2001 June and is
though its EJECTA are still visible. stationed at the L1 LAGRANGIAN POINT between the Earth
and Sun. It will collect samples for two years and return a
Gemma Alternative name for the star Coronae Borealis. capsule with the solar material to Earth in 2004 June.
See ALPHEKKA
Genesis rock Lunar rock that is notable for its high
General Catalogue of Variable Stars (GCVS) Prin- content of the mineral plagioclase; it was collected on the
cipal listing of stars discovered to be variable, compiled Apollo 15 mission. Rocks with this mineral composition
by Pavel Nikolaevich Kholopov (192288) and others. are called ferroan anorthosites; they represent the mineral
The first edition appeared in 1948; the 5th edition of composition of the Moons early crust.
1998 contains 28,484 variables. The catalogue is pro-
duced at the Sternberg Astronomical Institute, Moscow, gegenschein (Ger. counterglow) Faint and diffuse
where an updated electronic version is maintained. patch of light seen opposite the Sun in the night sky
G general relativity New theory of gravity derived by
under the most transparent, moonless conditions. The
gegenschein is slightly oval in shape, with its long axis
Albert EINSTEIN in 1916 that generalized his already extending along the ecliptic, and has a diameter of about
successful special theory of relativity to include 10. In brightness, the gegenschein is comparable to the
accelerations and gravity. The fundamental postulates of fainter parts of the Milky Way, and it is best seen when
this new theory are: (i) SPACETIME is a four-dimensional high in the sky. The best viewing times in the northern
CONTINUUM; and (ii) the PRINCIPLE OF EQUIVALENCE of hemisphere are in December and January, while in the
gravitational and inertial mass. southern hemisphere the gegenschein is best seen in
The basis of his theory suggests that mass-energy dis- August (being masked by the brightness of the Milky
torts the fabric of spacetime in a very predictable way, and Way, against which it then lies, in June and July).
the altered paths of particles in this warped spacetime are The gegenschein results from the scattering of sun-
deflected as if a force were exerted on them. Einstein light by tiny dust particles in interplanetary space. Pho-
needed a type of mathematics called differential geometry topolarimetric measurements from the Pioneer and
in order to express the relationship between mass-energy Voyager spacecraft indicate that the gegenschein is
and curvature. His FIELD EQUATIONS describe the curva- essentially absent beyond the orbit of Jupiter. The reflec-
ture produced in spacetime by a gravitational source. tive material belongs to the zodiacal dust complex.
Some of the consequences of general relativity are that Under very clear, dark conditions, the gegenschein can
in strong gravity time slows down, light paths are altered by be seen to be connected to the rather brighter ZODIACAL
gravity, and gravity in strong gravitational fields no longer LIGHT by narrow faint extensions, known as ZODIACAL
obeys Newtons inverse square law. These effects are BANDS, along the ecliptic.
minor for most planetary orbits, but were measurable even
in Einsteins time for the orbit of Mercury. General relativ- geocentric parallax Alternative name for DIURNAL
ity has opened up new fields of astronomy such as the PARALLAX.See also ANNUAL PARALLAX; SOLAR PARALLAX
study of black holes, gravitational waves and cosmology.
Unlike SPECIAL RELATIVITY, which is universally accepted geocentric theory Model of the Universe in which a
by physicists, many were dubious of the application of dif- stationary Earth takes central place, the world-view of
ferential geometry and awaited observational confirmation many early civilizations. The Sun, Moon and planets
of this new gravitational theory. Sir Arthur EDDINGTON were regarded as revolving around the Earth. By the 5th
was the first to measure the effects of gravity on light from century BC, the Greeks were aware that the apparent
distant stars during a total solar eclipse. Since then, many motion of the Sun could be represented as the net result
tests have been done and general relativity has passed of a daily rotation around the Earth and a yearly journey
geodesic The orbital every one of them. In spite of general relativitys success, along the ecliptic, the two motions being inclined to each
motion of a small body past a there are several competing theories of gravity that make other by about 24. All motions were believed to proceed
more massive one can be similar but not identical predictions as Einsteins. at uniform rates along perfectly uniform circles.
understood in terms of The major problem with general relativity is it is a con- The first theory of planetary motion was put forward by
distortions in spacetime. The tinuum theory and to date it has resisted quantization. A EUDOXUS, who proposed a system of 26 revolving homo-
more massive body (centre) merger of the quantum theory and general relativity pre- centric (Earth-centred) spheres which carried the Sun,
lies at the bottom of a well, dicts on length scales of 1043 m (the quantum realm), rela- Moon and planets through space. By invoking contorted
through which the smaller tivity fails. Although some assign a classical particle called a arrangements for the rotational axes of these spheres, many
body will pass on the graviton to general relativity, it is not compatible with cur- of the observed phenomena, including retrograde motions,
arrowed trajectory. rent elementary particle physics. The search for a QUAN- could be reproduced. Further complexity was introduced
when ARISTOTLE added even more spheres. Because the
spheres are not visible, yet had to be capable of supporting
the planets, they were regarded as crystalline invisible, or
spacetime curved into a path following the shortest distance
well by the presence of between two points (geodesic) in glass-like. It was Aristotles model, as modified by Ptolemy,
the mass of the star the curved spacetime that survived until the end of the Renaissance and that was
defended so vigorously by the Catholic Church, largely
incoming body
thanks to his theory of motion, which was the nearest and
most coherent approach to physics before the age of
Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton.
In an alternative geocentric model proposed by APOLLO-
NIUS around 200 BC, the Earth remains at rest in the centre
star
of the Universe, but the Moon, Sun and planets move in
circular motion about centres displaced from the Earth.
This allows to some extent for the non-uniformity of plan-
etary motion. Apollonius showed that these displaced cir-
cular orbits can just as well be described in terms of motion
on a circle (the epicycle) whose centre itself moves on a
larger circle (the deferent), centred on the Earth.
158
ghosting
geodesic Shortest distance between two points, given by geosynchronous orbit Orbit in which a satellite
a straight line on a flat surface and by a great circle on a completes one revolution around the Earth in the same
sphere. In general relativistic curved spacetime, a time as the Earths SIDEREAL rotation period of 23h 56m
geodesic is the path giving smallest separation between 4s. If this orbit is circular and in the plane of the Earths
two events (see TIME). The orbital motion of planets and equator (that is, with an inclination of 0), the satellite
other astronomical objects is then understood as the appears to be virtually stationary in the sky, so it is
objects following geodesic tracks through a spacetime that described as geostationary. A geostationary orbit is at
has been distorted from Euclidean geometry by the an altitude of 35,900 km (22,380 mi) above the Earth.
presence of masses. A satellite in a geosynchronous orbit inclined to the
Earths equator appears to trace out a figure-of-eight
Geographos APOLLO ASTEROID discovered in 1951; shape over the course of a day.
number 1620. Radar imaging has shown Geographos to
have a highly elongated shape. See also table at NEAR- Geotail Japanese satellite launched in 1992 as part of the
EARTH ASTEROID INTERNATIONAL SOLAR TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS programme,
involving the US WIND and POLAR spacecraft and the
geomagnetic storm Large-scale disturbance of European SOHO and CLUSTER satellites. Geotail measures
Earths MAGNETOSPHERE resulting from the arrival via global energy flow and transformation in the Earths
the SOLAR WIND of energetic, highly magnetized plasma magnetotail to increase understanding of the processes in
thrown from the Sun during CORONAL MASS EJECTION the MAGNETOSPHERE. The craft used two gravity assist
or FLARE events. The most visible effects of a flybys of the Moon to enable it to explore the distant part
geomagnetic storm take the form of enhanced auroral of the magnetotail. Two years later, the orbit was reduced
activity, including the spread of the AURORA to lower so that the spacecraft would study the near-Earth
latitudes than normal. Magnetometer equipment allows magnetotail processes.
detection of other effects, which can, during severe
storms, be global in extent. German mounting Type of EQUATORIAL MOUNTING
The onset of a geomagnetic storm, as ejected solar used for telescopes.
material impacts on the magnetosphere, is detected by
magnetometers as a sudden storm commencement ghost crater CRATER that was flooded with lava such that
(SSC). During the SSC, compression of the magnetos- its ejecta, floor and rim were completely covered. Because
phere produces an abrupt intensification of the ground- lava above the craters rim remained relatively thin, the
level magnetic field, the horizontal eastwest component later subsidence of the lava placed stress over the rim. This
of which shows a rapid change in orientation. During the stress is expressed as a mare ridge over the rim; the ridge is
main phase of the storm, which can last for 2436 hours, circular, hence the appearance of a ghost crater.
the magnetic field continues to fluctuate rapidly before
gradually returning to normal. The fluctuations can be ghosting Production of one or more faint, displaced sec-
correlated with episodes of increased auroral activity. ondary images ghost images in an optical system
They result from the build-up and release of stress pro- caused by unwanted internal reflections. Ghosting can
duced as plasma from the solar wind penetrates the mag- also be caused by an imperfect diffraction grating, causing
netosphere, disturbing the resident population. spurious spectral lines.
159
Ghost of Jupiter
Ghost of Jupiter (NGC 3242) PLANETARY NEBULA in Earth crossed the node 44 days ahead of the comet,
the constellation Hydra, a couple of degrees south of which indicated a greater spread of meteoroids in the
(RA 10h 24m.8 dec. 1838). The object has an space around the nucleus than had previously been
apparent diameter of 16, and a pronounced blue-green suspected. Giacobinid meteors come from a radiant near
colour. It takes its name from dark bands seen within its the head of Draco; they are notably slow, with an
disk, giving it a resemblance to the planet Jupiter. NGC atmospheric velocity of only 20 km/s (12 mi/s).
3242 has overall mag. 7.8, with a central star of mag.
11.4. It lies 1400 l.y. away. GiacobiniZinner, Comet 21P/ Short-period comet
discovered by Michel Giacobini (18731938), Nice
Giacconi, Riccardo (1931 ) Italian-American physicist Observatory, France, on 1900 December 20, and re-
who pioneered X-RAY ASTRONOMY. In the late 1950s, discovered two returns later on 1913 October 13 by Ernst
Giacconi designed and built the first grazing-incidence X- Zinner (18861970) at Remeis, Germany. The comets
ray telescopes, which were flown on rockets above the period is 6.61 years, with favourable apparitions at every
Earths atmosphere. In 1962 his group used these detectors second return. Comet 21P/GiacobiniZinner has been
to discover Scorpius X-1, the first powerful X-ray source observed at 15 returns up to 1998, with only the 1953
found outside the Solar System. Giacconi and colleagues apparition having been missed. The comet is the parent
designed and built the UHURU X-ray satellite, which made of the GIACOBINID meteors. Comet 21P/GiacobiniZinner
the first comprehensive survey of X-ray sources, and the became the first comet to be investigated at close range by
G EINSTEIN OBSERVATORY, which made the first highly
detailed contour maps of individual X-ray sources.
a spacecraft: the International Comet Explorer (ICE)
flew through its tail on 1985 September 11.
Giacobinids (Draconids) Periodic METEOR SHOWER giant impactor theory Theory that addresses the
associated with Comet 21P/GIACOBINIZINNER. Showers origin of the MOON. Prior to the Apollo missions, there
of Giacobinids have been seen only in those years when were three classical theories of lunar formation. First, the
the parent comet has returned, and they have durations of fission hypothesis, in which the Moon was spun out
a few hours. Possible low activity was seen in 1915 and from a rapidly rotating, but still molten, Earth. Secondly,
1926, with substantial displays on 1933 October 9 and the binary accretion hypothesis, in which the Earth and
1946 October 10. During a 4 -hour period, the 1933 Moon formed as a double planet, and so remained
return produced Giacobinid rates of between 50 and 450 rotating around each other. The problem with this notion
per hour. In 1946, despite strong moonlight, visual rates is that it should produce two bodies with the same
of about 5000 Giacobinids per hour were reported; this composition, which is not the case. Thirdly, the capture
display was also observed using radio echo methods at hypothesis whereby the Moon was formed elsewhere in
GiacobiniZinner, Comet Jodrell Bank. Japanese observers recorded another the Solar System and then captured by Earths gravity.
This comet was imaged on significant outburst on 1985 October 8. Until 1998 The Moon is, however, so large that, with any significant
1998 November 1 by the reported Giacobinid displays had occurred when Earth difference in approach velocity, the Earth would be
Kitt Peak 0.9 m (36 in.) followed the comet to the NODE where its orbit intersects unable to capture it unless a highly improbable set of
telescope. The teardrop- that of the Earth; the strong display of 1998 October 8, orbital coincidences were satisfied.
shaped coma shows strong however, with Giacobinid rates reaching 50100 per After the Apollo missions returned samples of the
bluish CO emission. hour, was somewhat surprising because, on this occasion, lunar surface, the above theories were discounted. In the
1970s, a new mechanism of lunar formation was pro-
posed the giant impactor theory. In this scenario, the
Earth was struck on its side by a Mars-sized planetesi-
mal. This glancing blow propelled large amounts of
Earths mantle and of the impactor into orbit. The
impactors core later decelerated and returned to Earth,
but the rest of the material remained in orbit, forming a
transient ring. This material rapidly accumulated by
impact processes into the Moon.
The giant impactor theory offers an explanation for the
Moons unique mineral composition. The Moon is
depleted in iron because the Earth had already partially
differentiated (the iron was in the core), and so little iron
was in the mantles ejecta. The high temperatures of the
impact process explain the Moons depletion in volatiles
(such as potassium and water) and its enrichment in
refractory elements (such as europium). The Moon has
the same isotopic compositions as Earth because much of
it came from the Earths mantle. The giant impactor theo-
ry also explains the angular momentum of the
EarthMoon system by proposing a glancing blow. Final-
ly, the accumulation of orbital materials into the Moon by
high temperature impact processes offers an explanation
for the early Moons near global melting (producing a
global magma ocean, which accounts for the mineralogi-
cal stratification of the Moon).
160
glitch
found inside the clouds (see INTERSTELLAR MOLECULES) Comet of 1882 showed so many stars that he proposed
and some of these form naturally occurring MASERS. photography as the best method of acquiring data for star
The larger GMCs are gravitationally bound and in most catalogues. In collaboration with the Dutch astronomer
of them parts of the cloud are collapsing to form new Jacobus KAPTEYN, who compiled data from Gills
stars. The ORION NEBULA is such a star-forming region photographic plates, he produced the massive CAPE
within the nearest GMC to Earth. The formation of PHOTOGRAPHIC DURCHMUSTERUNG, which lists the
stars, especially the luminous massive ones, eventually positions and magnitudes of 455,000 stars in the
heats up the GMC and the stars ultraviolet radiation southern hemisphere brighter than 10th magnitude. Gill
dissociates the molecules. GMC lifetimes are thus only was one of the major forces behind the all-sky
around a few tens of millions of years. photographic survey known as the CARTE DU CIEL.
giant planet Term used to describe the planets Giotto EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCYs first deep-space probe
JUPITER, SATURN, URANUS and NEPTUNE to distinguish and the first spacecraft to make close-range studies of two
them from the smaller, less massive rocky terrestrial COMETS. It was named after the Italian painter Giotto di
planets of the Solar System. They are also known as the Bondone (c.12671337), who depicted Halleys Comet
Jovian planets or gas giants. as the Star of Bethlehem.
Giotto carried ten experiments to study all aspects of
Giant Segmented-Mirror Telescope (GSMT) Pro- the comet and its environment. It was launched from Giotto The ESA Giotto
ject of the New Initiatives Office of the ASSOCIATION OF
UNIVERSITIES FOR RESEARCH IN ASTRONOMY for a 30-m
French Guiana on 1985 July 2 by an ARIANE 1 rocket and
encountered Comet HALLEY on 1986 March 14. Giotto
probe recorded this close-up
view of the nucleus of Comet G
(100-ft) ground-based optical telescope (formerly known was peppered by 12,000 dust impacts on its approach to 1P/Halley on 1986 March 13.
as MAXAT) to be commenced by 2010. The GSMT is the nucleus. Only 15 seconds before closest approach, the Shortly after this image was
intended to complement the ATACAMA LARGE MILLIMETER spacecraft was sent spinning by an impact with a large obtained, collision with a dust
ARRAY and the NEXT-GENERATION SPACE TELESCOPE. particle. Contact was eventually restored 32 minutes later, particle from the comet
by which time Giotto had passed the nucleus on the sun- disabled the camera.
giant star Star with radius between 10 and 100 solar ward side at a distance of 596 km (370 mi).
radii; it is placed well above the main sequence in the Giottos images revealed a black nucleus about 15 km
HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM. Giant stars include (9 mi) long and 710 km (46 mi) wide. It was pock-
ARCTURUS, CAPELLA and ALDEBARAN. A giant star will marked by craters, and bright jets of material could be
have a larger radius than a main-sequence star (DWARF seen on the sunlit side. About 80% of this material was
STAR) of the same temperature; however, a giant star of water, with substantial amounts of carbon monoxide
intermediate temperature is smaller in size than the (10%), carbon dioxide (2.5%), methane and ammonia.
hottest dwarf. Thus the term giant refers to the relative The density of the nucleus was 0.3 g/cm3 (one-third the
luminosity of a star rather than its size. density of water).
Giant stars represent late stages in STELLAR EVOLU- Although the spacecraft and half of its experiments
TION, when the stars have exhausted hydrogen in their were damaged, Giotto completed the first Earth gravity
cores and SHELL BURNING is occurring. They have dense assist by a spacecraft coming from deep space on 1990
central cores and tenuous atmospheres. RED GIANTS are July 2. It was then retargeted to encounter Comet
normal stars that are undergoing hydrogen shell burning. GRIGGSKJELLERUP on 1992 July 10.
Higher-mass stars can continue to burn other elements in During the closest ever cometary flyby, Giotto passed
their cores and in concentric shells in their atmosphere. by on the night side at a distance of about 200 km
As the mechanism that creates energy within a star (125 mi). Dust caused very little damage to the space-
switches from one set of nuclear reactions to another, its craft, owing to its slow relative approach speed of 14 km/s
radius, temperature and luminosity change. Thus giant (9 mi/s), compared with 68 km/s (109 mph) for Halley,
stars move around the giant region and HORIZONTAL and a much lower dust production rate. The experiments
BRANCH of the HertzsprungRussell diagram. Most stars were shut down on July 11.
pass through the INSTABILITY STRIP at some point,
becoming CEPHEID VARIABLES or RR LYRAE VARIABLES. In Glenn, John Herschel (1921 ) First American to
its final phase, a giant star becomes brighter and moves to orbit the Earth, in the Mercury spacecraft named
the asymptotic giant branch. Friendship 7, on 1962 February 20. After distinguished
Because of their high intrinsic luminosity, giants are careers as a World War II combat pilot and a test pilot,
quite common among naked-eye stars but are in fact rela- Glenn was selected as one of the seven original Mercury
tively rare in space. astronauts in 1959, and less than three years later he
completed his three orbits of the Earth in 5 hours. On
gibbous phase PHASE of a planet or the Moon when 1998 October 29, Glenn returned to space for nine days
between first or last quarter and full. The word gibbous aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery, becoming the oldest
means bounded by convex curves and describes the astronaut in history.
appearance of a body when more than half but less than
all of its illuminated side is visible. Glenn Research Center In full, John H. Glenn
Research Center at Lewis Field, a NATIONAL
Gilbert, William (1540/441603) English doctor, the AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA)
first scientist carefully to investigate magnetic laboratory specializing in propulsion, power and
phenomena, including the Earths magnetic field, as communications technologies, situated next to Hopkins
described in his De magnete (On Magnetism, 1600). International Airport, Cleveland, Ohio. It was founded in
He believed the planets were held in their orbits by 1941 as the Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory, and
magnetic attraction. Gilbert was one of the first English was later known as the Lewis Research Center. It is
supporters of Copernicus ideas, and he prepared a pre- NASAs lead centre for aeropropulsion and its centre of
telescopic Moon map. excellence in turbomachinery. It also conducts research in
microgravity, fluid physics and materials science.
Gill, David (18431914) Scottish-born astronomer who
served as the fifth director of the Cape Observatory glitch Sudden increase in the rotation rate observed in a
(18791907). Gills early work involved determining the number of younger PULSARS, such as the Crab and Vela
solar parallax from the 1874 and 1882 transits of Venus, pulsars. The largest glitches have been seen in the Vela
and from observations of Mars and asteroids. He made Pulsar; they occur every few years and typically decrease
the most accurate pre-photographic measurements of the period by a few millionths of the period. The glitch
stellar parallaxes, computing accurate distances to 22 relaxes on a timescale of a few days. It is believed that
stars in the southern sky. His photographs of the Great glitches are caused by sudden changes in the internal
161
Global Oscillation Network Group
structure of the NEUTRON STAR, for example by quakes in Globular clusters contain a mix of stars of various
the solid components, such as the crust, or by vortices sizes, all of which evolved from the same cloud of gas at
(whirlpools) in the superfluid layers. These vortices move the same time. As all the stars within a cluster lie at the
outwards, but because they are pinned at the top and same distance from us, the HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIA-
bottom they are not able to move outwards freely; they GRAM (HR diagram) can be plotted for them simply by
move jerkily when the pinning breaks. measuring their colour and their APPARENT MAGNITUDE
(brightness), knowing that there is a constant difference
Global Oscillation Network Group (GONG) Group between the apparent and the ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDE
that studies the structure and dynamics of the SOLAR according to the clusters distance. It is possible to deduce
INTERIOR using HELIOSEISMOLOGY. Six solar telescopes the clusters distance by comparison with a standard HR
around the Earth obtain nearly continuous observations of diagram because the MAIN SEQUENCE will appear in the
the solar oscillations. The sites in the GONG network are correct place only if the distance is right.
the Big Bear Solar Observatory, the Learmonth Solar The HR diagram of a globular cluster reveals more
Observatory, the Udaipur Solar Observatory, the than its distance. As time passes, the brightest stars in a
Observatorio del Teide, the Cerro Tololo Interamerican cluster exhaust their hydrogen and become RED GIANTS.
Observatory and the Mauna Loa Observatory. This happens progressively to fainter and fainter stars.
The HR diagram clearly shows which stars have begun
Global Positioning System (GPS) Navigation their transformation to red giants, and thus the age of the
G satellite system, operated by the US Air Force but also
widely used by civilians, that enables users equipped
cluster. Many globular clusters have been dated about 10
billion years old; they must have formed before the Uni-
with GPS receivers accurately to locate their positions verse attained half its present age (see TURNOFF POINT).
on the Earths surface. The system comprises 24 In those remote times the chemical mix of our Galaxy
satellites, the first of which was launched in 1978. was quite distinct from that of the present. Stars, especial-
ly those that turn into SUPERNOVAE, create elements such
globular cluster Almost spherical, compact, as carbon, oxygen, silicon and iron out of their hydrogen.
gravitationally bound cluster of stars, containing around Over the years, the proportion of these elements, which
ten thousand to a million members. The core of a globular astronomers call metals, has increased, so we expect to see
cluster is very densely packed and cannot generally be more metals in young stars than in the old globular clus-
resolved into individual member stars. Globulars range in ters. In general, the stars within globular clusters are old,
diameter from a few tens to over 300 l.y. metal-poor, POPULATION II stars.
The Milky Way has fewer than 150 known globular Further detailed examination of galactic globular clus-
clusters, but it is expected that there are about 200 in total, ters suggests distinct subgroups: the halo globulars, fur-
the others being obscured by the dust and gas in the galac- ther divided into old halo and young halo clusters; the
Global Oscillation tic plane and the galactic centre. The farthest known glob- disk globulars, which are younger and more metal-rich
Network Group (GONG) A ular clusters, for example NGC 2419, lie beyond the than halo globulars; and the bulge globulars, which lie in
computer representation of one galactic disk at distances of around 300,000 l.y. the more central parts of the Galaxy and are fairly metal-
of the almost 10 million modes Most globular clusters in the Milky Way lie in the rich, with almost solar-type chemical abundances.
of sound wave oscillation in the galactic HALO, surrounding the galactic centre; they have The oldest globular clusters probably formed 13 to 14
Sun, as monitored by highly elliptical orbits of periods about a hundred million billion years ago in the initial collapse of the forming
helioseismologists working years or longer. The fact that they are centred on the Galaxy. The younger, more metal-rich disk globulars and
under the umbrella of GONG. galactic centre allowed the American astronomer Harlow the bulge globulars formed significantly later. The young
Solar regions that are receding SHAPLEY to estimate the distance to the galactic centre. halo globulars, such as M54, may have formed outside the
are shown in red, those that are Around 20% of globulars lie in the galactic disk and move Galaxy, perhaps in nearby DWARF GALAXIES, which were
approaching in blue. in more circular orbits; these are known as disk globulars. subsequently pulled into the Milky Way. M54 is believed to
have belonged to the Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy, discovered
in 1994, which is currently merging with the Milky Way.
Another important role of the globular clusters has
been to give us a means of estimating distances. Globular
clusters contain a particular type of variable, the RR LYRAE
STARS, the intrinsic brightnesses of which can be deter-
mined. Thus, when these stars are recognized in other
locations, the distances can be derived for different objects.
Globular clusters can be seen around other galaxies.
Some galaxies, such as M87, contain several thousand
globular clusters, whereas other galaxies, like the two
Magellanic Clouds and the Pinwheel Galaxy, appear to
have globulars that are only a few billion years old. Recent
observations of some globulars suggest star formation
may be occurring within them.
162
GONG
163
Goodricke, John
profile of near-Earth asteroid with his friend Edward Pigott (17531825), and using a Granat Soviet gamma-ray and X-ray spacecraft
(6489) Golevka. The asteroid 3 -inch (95-mm) refracting telescope and a good clock, launched in 1989 December, carrying a French Sigma
has a long dimension of about Goodricke established the 2d 20h 49m 8s periodicity of the gamma-ray instrument, with contributions from
0.8 km (0.5 mi). star Algol. Goodricke and Pigott went on to propose Denmark and Bulgaria. With a spacecraft bus based on
[S. Ostro (JPL/NASA)] correctly, as later astronomers would discover that the Soviet Astron astrophysical platform, Granat had
Algols light was being eclipsed by a dimmer body completed, within the first three years, over 700 specific
rotating around it. Then in 1784, Goodricke measured observations lasting typically 24 hours at a time, some as
the light variation of Cephei and realized that this long as 46 hours. Sigma observations in 1991 were
variation was not the result of an eclipsing body. coordinated with the newly launched NASA COMPTON
GAMMA RAY OBSERVATORY.
GO TO telescope Telescope, usually on an ALTAZIMUTH
MOUNTING, whose axes are fitted with position encoders Grand Tour In the late 1960s, US planners and
that can be directed to find objects by entering simple scientists realized that the four major outer planets
commands from a handset. On-board computers on GO Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune would be in an
TO telescopes can store databases of many thousands of approximate alignment in the late 1970s/1980s that is
objects. Following initial set-up, which usually requires the repeated only once every two centuries. Ambitious plans
observer to centre a couple of reference stars in the field of were made for two gravity-assist launches to
view, the mount will automatically slew the telescope to Jupiter/Saturn/Pluto in 197677 and similar launches to
objects of choice. This greatly eases object location for Jupiter/Uranus/Neptune in 1979, the so-called Grand
novice amateur observers, and has also been used to Tour Missions. Political and economic constraints led to a
increase the throughput in more advanced PATROLS for reduced two-spacecraft mission targeted to only Jupiter
supernovae in external galaxies. and Saturn. Begun in 1972 as Mariner-Jupiter-Saturn
(MJS), the projects name was changed in 1977 to
Gttingen Observatory Scientific facility within the VOYAGER. Voyager 2 eventually accomplished a Grand
physics faculty of the Georg-August-Universitt at Gt- Tour when its mission was extended to Uranus (in 1986)
tingen, 90 km (55 mi) south of Hanover. Its origins go and then Neptune (in 1989).
back to 1750; construction of the present observatory
(just outside the old city walls) began in 1803. Its first grand unified theory (GUT) Theory that attempts to
director, Carl Friedrich GAUSS, was appointed in 1807, unify three of the four forces of nature, that is, to
and it became a major centre for astrometry. Its reputation demonstrate that they are different manifestations of a
continued into the 20th century under the directorship of single force. In descending order of strength, the four
Karl SCHWARZSCHILD. Today, the observatory specializes FUNDAMENTAL FORCES are: the strong nuclear interaction
in solar physics, X-ray astrophysics, extragalactic astro- (which binds atomic nuclei); the electromagnetic force
physics and instrumentation for 8-m (25-ft) class (which holds atoms together); the weak nuclear
optical/infrared telescopes. interaction (which controls the radioactive decay of
atomic nuclei); and gravitation.
Gould, Benjamin Apthorp (182496) American The weak and strong interactions operate over tiny
astronomer who catalogued the southern stars from the distances within atomic nuclei while the other two are
CRDOBA OBSERVATORY, Argentina, which he founded infinite in range. With the exception, so far, of gravita-
and directed (187085). He studied astronomy under tion, all the forces can be described by quantum field
Carl Friedrich Gauss at Gttingen, and on his return to theories, which imply that forces are communicated by
America he founded the Astronomical Journal in 1849. means of particles: the more massive the force-carrying
After directing Dudley Observatory (Albany, New York) particle, the shorter its life and the shorter the range of
from 1856 and his own observatory at Cambridge the force. Grand unified theories (GUTs) attempt to
(Massachusetts), he moved to Crdoba, where he unify the weak, strong and electromagnetic forces. Many
catalogued tens of thousands of stars visible only from the physicists believe that a more elaborate theory will even-
southern hemisphere, publishing several catalogues tually be found which will unify all four forces.
(187996). Gould applied photography to the study of The first step towards unification was the
star clusters. GOULDS BELT is named after him. WeinbergSalamGlashow theory of the electroweak
force, published in 1967, which implied that at particle
Goulds Belt Belt of stars and gas about 3000 l.y. across energies greater than about 1012 eV, the electromagnetic
tilted to the galactic plane by about 16. It contains many and weak forces should be equal in strength and behave in
O- and B-type stars. Goulds Belt probably represents the same way. The theory was confirmed in 1983 when
the local spiral arm of which the Sun is a member. It is the predicted force-carrying particles the massive W and
named after Benjamin Gould, who identified it in 1879. Z bosons were detected.
GUTs imply that at energies greater than about
GPS Abbreviation of GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM 1024 eV the electroweak and strong nuclear interactions
164
gravitational lens
merge into one common force. Such energies far exceed important on larger scales because it has a longer range
the capabilities of our particle accelerators, but would than the nuclear forces and because, unlike electric
have existed everywhere in the Big Bang universe during charges, all mass is positive and attracts every other mass.
the first 1035 seconds after the initial event. Thereafter, Thus gravitation is the dominant force on large scales.
as the universe expanded and cooled, the unified force For this reason it is astronomical observations that have
would have split into the strong force and the elec- provided the tests of theories of gravitation, such as New-
troweak force which, in turn, split into the electromag- tons original theory, Einsteins GENERAL RELATIVITY and
netic and weak forces. the BRANSDICKE THEORY.
The simplest GUT, proposed in 1973 by Sheldon Astronomers often determine the masses of astronom-
Glashow (1932 ) and Howard M. Georgi (1947 ), ical objects such as the Sun, planets, stars and galaxies
requires the existence of a set of supermassive X-parti- from their orbital dynamics. But in fact what they actually
cles that can transform quarks into leptons and vice versa. find is the product of mass and G. The gravitational con- granulation Under good
Since quarks are the basic constituents of protons, the the- stant can only be determined by measuring the attraction seeing conditions, fine mottling
ory predicts that protons themselves must eventually between known masses in the laboratory. There is no way of the Suns photosphere can
decay into lighter particles. The half-life of a proton is to screen out forces from masses outside the laboratory so be observed. This granulation
believed to be at least 1032 years, but given enough pro- the experimenter must measure a disturbance on the is due to convection, with
tons it should be possible at any time to detect the spo- object being tested which is a tiny fraction of the Earths bright hot material rising in the
radic decay of a few. Experiments are under way to test attraction. Thus the accuracy with which G is known is centre, while the darker edges
this prediction; if confirmed, it implies the eventual disin-
tegration of all the familiar chemical elements.
often the limiting factor in measuring the masses of stars
and planets and other astronomical objects.
of the granules indicate regions
where cool material descends. G
Gran Telescopio Canarias (GTC) Spanish 10.4-m gravitational lens Configuration of an observer, an
(34-ft) telescope under construction at the ROQUE DE LOS intervening mass and a source of light in which the mass
MUCHACHOS OBSERVATORY on the island of La Palma, due acts as a lens or imaging device for light from the distant
for first light in 2003. With its segmented mirror, the source. GENERAL RELATIVITY predicted that a mass (star,
instrument closely resembles the 10-m telescopes of the galaxy or black hole) situated directly in front of a distant
W.M. KECK OBSERVATORY. The project is led by the INSTI- light source (galaxy or quasar) will bend the light and gravitational lens (top)
TUTO DE ASTROFSICA DE CANARIAS with participation possibly form images of the distant source. The Light from a distant quasar
from Mexico and the University of Florida. deflection of starlight around the Sun during a solar may be bent in the gravitational
eclipse was the very first observational confirmation of field of a foreground galaxy to
granulation Mottled, cellular pattern that is visible in general relativity, made in 1917 by Sir Arthur Eddington. produce a distorted or multiple
high-resolution images of the Sun in the white light of This prediction and confirmation paved the way for more image. In this example, the
the PHOTOSPHERE; it is a result of hot plasma rising from complex situations, in which light from distant galaxies quasars light is split into four
the SOLAR INTERIOR by CONVECTION. The granulation and quasars might be bent enough by foreground separate images, each arriving
consists of about one million bright convection cells, galaxies or stars to form images. This consequence was at the telescope along a slightly
called granules. The bright centre of each granule championed by Fritz ZWICKY in 1937 and was verified in different path. (bottom) The
indicates hot plasma rising to the photosphere, and its 1979 with the discovery by Dennis Walsh, Robert massive galaxy cluster Abell
dark edges indicate cooled material descending towards Carswell and Ray Weymann of the first of the known 2218 in Draco acts as a
the interior. Individual granules are often polygonal, and double quasars (0957+561). gravitational lens, producing
they appear and disappear on time scales of about ten Many more gravitational lens systems have now been distorted, arc-shaped images
minutes. Each granule has an average size of observed, including distant galaxies and quasars lensed by of more distant objects in the
approximately 1000 km (600 mi). Larger convection nearer galaxies; these distant galaxies would not be visible same line of sight.
cells, each about 30,000 km (20,000 mi) across, make
up the supergranulation.
distant quasar image captured on Earth
graticule System of reference wires or fine lines placed intervening
in the focal plane of a TELESCOPE and used for measuring galaxy
the positions and separations of celestial objects within
the field of view. The graticule may take the form of
parallel vertical wires or cross-wires, or a grid of squares
(a reticule). The wires have to be so fine that spider
threads have been utilized for this purpose in the past. See
also FILAR MICROMETER
165
gravitational redshift
were it not for the amplification provided by the gravita- sphericity; close binary stars, particularly those involving
tional lens. Under certain conditions, a compact lens that collapsed objects like NEUTRON STARS or BLACK HOLES;
lies directly along the line of sight forms multiple images SUPERNOVAE; and events involving massive black holes. See
that overlap. The resulting magnified image appears also GRAVITATIONAL WAVE DETECTOR
much brighter than the original source. This situation is
known as microlensing. Microlensing might be impor- gravitational wave detector Device intended for the
tant in quasars when intervening objects (stars or black detection of GRAVITATIONAL WAVES. A passing
holes) move across the line of sight to distant quasars and gravitational wave is expected to stretch and squeeze a
cause an increase of brightness in the quasar. These solid body or to cause small displacements in the
microlensed outbursts are symmetric in time and fre- separation between two independent masses. In principle,
quency independent. Dark matter in our galactic halo these effects could be measured. In practice, few, if any,
might also microlens stars in nearby galaxies, thus reveal- events are likely to produce gravitational waves causing
ing their presence. See also EINSTEIN RING displacements (strains) larger than 1 part in 1019. Two
masses separated by a metre would thus be moved by an
gravitational redshift Increase in the wavelength of a amount far smaller than an atomic nucleus.
photon emitted from an object within a gravitational field. Current detectors include solid bars (cooled, to mini-
The name arises because in the visible region the mize noise) and Michelson interferometer systems. The
wavelength shift is towards the red end of the spectrum. Michelson systems attempt to measure the relative dis-
G This is not true at longer wavelengths, so the alternative
name, Einstein shift, may be preferred. The change in
placement of two or more mirrors attached to test masses,
freely suspended in a vacuum, with multiple reflections
wavelength is: being used to increase the effective separation between the
Gm test masses. Several interferometer-based gravitational
c2 R wave detectors are currently nearing completion and are
where G is the gravitational constant, m the mass of expected to be able to detect strains of 1022. So if predic-
the body, the original wavelength, c the velocity of light, tions of the magnitudes of gravitational waves to be
and R the distance of the emitting region from the mass. expected from astronomical events are correct, then these
waves should soon be detected.
gravitational wave Periodic disturbance in a
gravitational field, which, according to EINSTEINS theory gravity gradient Rate of change of the strength of a
of GENERAL RELATIVITY, propagates through space at gravitational field with distance. Tidal forces arise
the speed of light. through gravity gradients (see TIDES). The gravity
Any changes in a gravitational field are expected to gradient at a distance, R, from a mass, M, is proportional
travel at the speed of light so that, for example, if the Sun to M/R3. Thus the greatest gravity gradients are found
were to be annihilated, 8m 18s would elapse before the close to condensed bodies such as NEUTRON STARS and
Great Attractor A Earth ceased to feel the gravitational influence of the BLACK HOLES. In the latter case they give rise to HAWKING
European Southern Sun. Just as an accelerating or oscillating charged parti- RADIATION. An artificial satellite with an elongated shape
Observatory (ESO) image of cle emits electromagnetic waves, so an accelerating, will align itself along the gravity gradient; this can be used
the central region of ACO oscillating, or violently-disturbed mass is expected to to orient the spacecraft.
3627, a huge galaxy cluster radiate wave-like gravitational disturbances, which are
thought to form part of the known as gravitational waves. Gravity Probe NASA spacecraft that will be launched
Great Attractor. The Great Because gravitation is by far the weakest of the forces in about 2003 to test Einsteins theory of GENERAL
Attractors gravitational pull is of nature, gravitational waves are expected to be weak and RELATIVITY by measuring the precession of gyroscopes in
dragging all the galaxies in our difficult to detect. The most likely sources of these waves Earth orbit. The development spacecraft has been
local cluster towards it. include: rapidly spinning bodies distorted from perfect delayed several years and is still under budgetary scrutiny.
The spacecraft will slowly roll about the line of sight to a
guide star viewed by a reference telescope, while four
gyroscopes, cooled by liquid helium, will compare data
from the telescope to an accuracy of 0.1 milliarcsecond.
The polar-orbiting satellite is to look for the expected 6.6
arcseconds/year precession to the Earths rotational axis
and the 0.042 arcsecond/year parallel to it.
166
Greenstein, Jesse Leonard
Green Bank Telescope (GBT), the worlds largest fully Great Red Spot A 1996
steerable radio dish, a facility of the NATIONAL RADIO Galileo orbiter image shows
ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY. Dedicated in 2000 August, this huge storm, which has
the GBT replaced a 90-m (300-ft) dish built in 1962 that raged in Jupiters atmosphere
collapsed without warning in 1988. It has an unusual for hundreds of years.
design, with a main dish measuring 100 110 m
(330 360 ft) that reflects the incoming radiation to an
off-axis feed arm. There is no central obstruction as in a
conventional radio telescope, and the response pattern is
greatly improved. The two thousand panels making up
the reflective surface are individually controlled by com-
puter-driven actuators.
167
Greenwich Mean Time
composition of nebulae. From these studies he developed increased to 11 days, so that September 14 followed Sep-
a theory of FREEFREE TRANSITIONS in hot, highly ionized tember 2. Today the Gregorian calendar is used through-
gases. Greenstein became an authority on stars made out the Western world and parts of Asia. It is also known
from degenerate matter, including white dwarfs, studying as the Christian calendar since it uses the birth of Christ as
their masses and luminosities. He helped Maarten a starting point, subsequent dates being designated anno
SCHMIDT to make the first definitive identifications of domini (in the year of our Lord) and preceding dates
quasars optical counterparts. being BC (before Christ). The accumulated error between
the Gregorian year and the true solar year now amounts to
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Name given to MEAN just three days in 10,000 years.
SOLAR TIME at the Greenwich meridian; it is the popular
name for civil time kept in the UK. The need for a Gregorian telescope Type of REFLECTING TELESCOPE
standard time across the country came with the designed in 1663 by Scottish astronomer James GREGORY.
development of the railways, from 1825 onwards. For A parabolic primary mirror with a central hole reflects light
example, passengers travelling from Bristol to London to a concave elliptical secondary placed outside the focus,
would find a ten-minute difference between the time kept and thence back through the hole to an eyepiece behind
in the two cities because local time, measured according the primary where it gives an erect image. It was popular in
to the position of the Sun in the sky, varies with the 17th and 18th centuries with telescope-makers such as
longitude. Eventually the railways adopted Greenwich James SHORT, as the secondary was easier to make than the
G time, which became known as railway time, as their
standard and in 1880 it became the legal time for the
convex secondary required for the CASSEGRAIN
TELESCOPE, and the tube length was shorter than that of a
whole country. In 1928 the INTERNATIONAL NEWTONIAN TELESCOPE. It is not much used today.
ASTRONOMICAL UNION (IAU) recommended that
Greenwich Mean Time should become the standard Gregory, David (16591708) Scottish mathematician
timescale for scientific purposes and be known as and nephew of James GREGORY. He proposed a variety
UNIVERSAL TIME (UT). Today, Greenwich Mean Time is of telescope designs, including ways of making a
still the standard against which the system of TIME ZONES telescope free from chromatic aberration. Gregory was a
around the globe is measured, each one being an integral strong supporter of Isaac Newtons theories of calculus
number of hours ahead of or behind it. and mechanics, publishing a comprehensive summary
of those ideas, entitled Astronomiae physicae et
Greenwich Observatory Britains former Royal Obser- geometricae elementa (1702). His main astronomical
vatory, founded in 1675 by Charles II to make accurate interests lay in the newly founded study of optics, also
positional measurements of stars for use in maritime NAV- greatly advanced by Newton.
IGATION. The purpose-built observatory at Greenwich,
London by the architect-scientist Christopher Wren Gregory, James (163875) Scottish mathematician
(16321723) also provided accommodation for the first who developed many of the fundamental tools of
Astronomer Royal, John FLAMSTEED, who was paid 100 calculus. In his Optica promota (1663) he covered such
per year yet had to fund the cost of instruments and assis- diverse astronomical topics as elliptical orbits, transits of
tants from his own pocket. In 1766 the first Nautical planets and the determination of parallax, and described
Almanac was published under the guidance of Nevil a design for a new kind of telescope (see GREGORIAN
MASKELYNE, fulfilling King Charles ambition. TELESCOPE). Gregory also experimented with the very
Throughout most of the 18th and 19th centuries, the first example of a DIFFRACTION GRATING, using a fine
Royal Observatory remained dedicated to positional sea birds feather to project the image of the spectrum of
astronomy. Investigations of the physical nature of celestial sunlight on to a wall in a darkened room. David
objects began in the late 19th century under the director- GREGORY was his nephew.
ship of William CHRISTIE. He installed a 0.71-m (28-in.)
refractor in the famous Onion Dome, and founded the GriggSkjellerup, Comet 26P/ Short-period comet,
Physical Observatory, equipping it with a 0.66-m (26-in.) initially discovered on 1902 July 23 by John Grigg
photographic refractor and a 0.76-m (30-in.) reflector. To (18381920), New Zealand. Poor weather restricted
these were added the 0.91-m (36-in.) Yapp Reflector in observations at the discovery apparition and prevented
1934, but by then the observing conditions in London derivation of a true orbit. A comet discovered on 1922
skies were deteriorating. May 17 by John Francis Skjellerup (18751952), South
Plans to move away from the capital were not acted Africa, was found to be identical, and an elliptical orbit
upon until 1948, when Harold Spencer JONES took up res- determined. The comet is usually faint. It has had its
idence at Herstmonceux Castle, Sussex, at the start of a perihelion distance gradually increased to 0.99 AU
ten-year transfer from Greenwich. The institution became following encounters with Jupiter. The current period is
the ROYAL GREENWICH OBSERVATORY (RGO), and contin- 5.11 years. Close approaches to Earth have given rise to
ued most of the activities previously carried out at Green- periodic displays of Pi Puppid meteors around April 23,
wich, including the time service. The old observatory as in 1972 and 1977. The GIOTTO spacecraft passed
buildings, known today as the Royal Observatory Green- through the tail of 26P/GriggSkjellerup on 1992 July
wich, were developed into a museum as part of the 10, finding a lower-than-expected dust density in the
National Maritime Museum. Its main attraction for many comets vicinity.
visitors is the Prime Meridian of the world.
Grimaldi Lunar impact basin (6S 68W), 193 km
Gregorian calendar System devised by Pope Gregory (120 mi) in diameter, with rim components reaching
XIII in 1582, and still in use today, which corrected 2750 m (9000 ft) above its floor. Grimaldi has two
errors in the previously used JULIAN CALENDAR. By 1582 rings, both so deeply eroded by later impacts that in
the Julian calendar, which approximated the actual solar some places they are difficult to identify. The floor of
year of 365.24219 days to a CALENDAR year of 365.25 Grimaldi is smooth, dark and almost featureless as a
days with a leap year every fourth year, had accumulated result of lava resurfacing. Indeed, it is one of the darkest
an error of 10 days. Pope Gregory XIII therefore regions on the lunar surface. A number of rilles, called
removed 10 days from the calendar, so that in 1582 Rimae Grimaldi, are found on Grimaldis floor.
October 15 followed October 4. He instigated a new
system in which only century years divisible by 400 (that GRO Abbreviation of COMPTON GAMMA RAY OBSERVATORY
is, 1600, 2000 and so on) would be leap years. The start
of the year was also changed from March 25 to January 1. ground state Lowest energy state for a system. The
The Gregorian calendar was not adopted in the UK, term is usually used in the context of the electron
however, until 1752, by which time the error had structure of atoms, ions and molecules. It is when the
168
Guth, Alan Harvey
electrons occupy those energy levels that give the atom, through X-ray emission. About two-thirds of the G
ion or molecule the lowest total energy. See also ATOMIC dwarfs exhibit Sun-like activity.
STRUCTURE; EXCITATION The highest luminosity (and longest period) Cepheids
are class G supergiants. Numerous planets have been
GRS Abbreviation of GREAT RED SPOT found orbiting G stars. Bright examples of G stars include
the Sun (G2 V), Alpha Centauri-A (G2 V) and Capella
Grubb, Parsons & Co. Irish telescope-making firm (G0 III + G8 III).
formed by the merger (1925) of firms founded by
Thomas and Howard Grubb and Charles Parsons. GTC Abbreviation of GRAN TELESCOPIO CANARIAS
Thomas Grubb (18001878) began making small
astronomical telescopes in the 1840s, experimenting with Guardians of the Pole Name sometimes given to the
reflector designs at a time when refractors were more stars and Ursae Minoris (KOCHAB and Pherkad),
popular. He became proficient at constructing sturdy which form part of the bowl of the Little Dipper, Ursa
equatorial mountings for large instruments. In 1834 Minor.
Thomas Romney Robinson (17921882) ordered from
Grubb a 15-inch (380-mm) Cassegrain reflector for the guide star Star on which a GUIDE TELESCOPE is tracked
ARMAGH OBSERVATORY. This was the first large to ensure that the main telescope is accurately aligned on
Cassegrain instrument, and the first large reflector to be its target for the duration of an astronomical exposure.
carried on a polar axis equipped with a clock drive.
In 1865 Howard Grubb (18441931) joined his Guide Star Catalogue (GSC) Catalogue created for G
father as a telescope-maker, and took over the running of the control and target acquisition of the Hubble Space
the business in 1868. The next year, the Grubbs complet- Telescope in 1990, containing positions and magnitudes
ed the 48-inch (1.2-m) Melbourne Reflector. Another of for about 20 million stars; it is mainly used for astromet-
their famous instruments was the 27-inch (0.69-m) ric calibration. A second-generation catalogue, the GSC-
refractor for the Vienna Observatory (1880). In 1901 they II, will include the positions, proper motions,
finished the Radcliffe Telescope for Oxford Universitys magnitudes in three colours and star/galaxy classifica-
Radcliffe Observatory, consisting of two refractor tube tions for about 1 billion objects.
assemblies, a 24-inch (0.6-m) instrument for visual obser-
vations and a 17 -inch (0.45-m) photographic telescope, guide telescope Smaller telescope mounted on the side
carried on a German equatorial mounting. Several of the of a main instrument and used for viewing a field star, the
astrograph photographic refractors used for the CARTE guide star, near the target object. By watching the position
DU CIEL sky-mapping project were made by Grubb. of the guide star relative to cross-wires in the guide tele-
In 1925 Howard retired and his telescope making busi- scopes eyepiece, the observer can make adjustments to
ness was taken over by Charles Algernon Parsons the DRIVE motion, ensuring that the target remains cen-
(18541931), son of the Third Earl of ROSSE and famous tred. An OFF-AXIS GUIDER may also be used, while modern
as the inventor of the steam turbine engine. The company instruments (both professional and amateur) are increas-
was renamed Grubb, Parsons & Co. and continued to ingly being equipped with CCD-based AUTOGUIDERS.
make many large telescopes, the last of which (1987) was
the Royal Greenwich Observatorys 4.2-m (165-in.) Gum Nebula Extensive faint nebula in the southern
WILLIAM HERSCHEL TELESCOPE erected on La Palma, in constellations of Puppis and Vela. It spans an angular
the Canary Islands. diameter of 36, making it the largest nebula in the sky.
Named after its discoverer, the Australian astronomer
Grus See feature article Colin Stanley Gum (192460), the nebula lies at a distance
of 1300 l.y. and has a true extent of 840 l.y. The ancient
GSC Abbreviation of GUIDE STAR CATALOGUE Vela supernova remnant is part of the Gum Nebula.
G star Any member of a class of yellow-white stars, the GUT Abbreviation of GRAND UNIFIED THEORY
spectra of which are characterized by relatively weak
hydrogen lines, strong ionized calcium lines Guth, Alan Harvey (1947 ) American cosmologist and
(FRAUNHOFER LINES H and K), and, as temperature particle physicist at Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
declines, the beginning of strong neutral calcium and with Andrei LINDE one of the principal conceivers of
sodium lines (Fraunhofer g and D). MAIN-SEQUENCE INFLATION, a process hypothesized to have operated in the
dwarf stars range from 5300 K at G9 to 5900 K at G0, very early universe (up to just 1037 seconds after the BIG
with zero-age masses from 0.9 solar mass to just over BANG). By providing an initial period of rapid expansion,
solar, zero-age luminosities from 0.5 to just above solar, inflation accounts for observed properties of the Big Bang
and dwarf lifetimes from 10 billion years to greater than Universe. Guth has also developed a theory of
the age of the Galaxy. Giants and supergiants, which, cosmological phase transitions to explain how the
because of lower densities, are about 800 K cooler than Universes symmetry altered in its earliest moments.
the dwarfs, are more difficult to distinguish
spectroscopically than in other classes. However, the
GRUS (GEN. GRUIS , ABBR . GRU )
WilsonBappu effect (see K STAR) can yield luminosities.
G SUBDWARFS have weakened metal lines and lower metal
abundances. The Sun is a G2 dwarf, allowing a good mall but not inconspicuous southern constellation, representing a crane,
understanding of G stars.
G stars have deep convection zones, the Suns occu-
S between Piscis Austrinus and Tucana. Grus was introduced by Keyser and
de Houtman at the end of the 16th century. Its brightest star, Alnair, is mag.
pying its outer third. Although they tend to be slow rota- 1.7. The constellation contains two naked-eye optical double stars: Gru,
tors (unless in binary systems where they are tidally spun which has yellow and red components, mags. 4.0 and 4.1, separation about 13;
up), G stars have active magnetic fields, which produce and Gru, two yellow stars, mags. 4.8 and 5.1, about 17 apart.
CHROMOSPHERES and hot CORONAE. The solar magnetic
BRIGHTEST STARS
field is amplified within the Sun. Ropes of magnetic flux
float upwards and produce SUNSPOTS where they exit Name RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance
h m mag. mag. type (l.y.)
and re-enter the Sun. Interacting and collapsing magnet-
ic fields create bright solar FLARES, releasing the magnet- Alnair 22 08 46 58 1.73 0.7 B7 101
ically confined corona in CORONAL MASS EJECTIONS. 22 43 46 53 2.07 1.5 M5 170
Chromospheres produce EMISSION LINES. Stellar chro- 21 54 37 22 3.00 1.0 B8 203
mospheres can be recognized by emissions set within the 22 49 51 19 3.49 0.5 A3 130
calcium H and K absorptions; coronae can be confirmed
169
HA
HA Abbreviation of HOUR ANGLE baryons and mesons. Examples of hadrons are protons,
anti-protons and pions.
habitable zone See ECOSPHERE
H
Haedi Nickname given to the stars and Aurigae, near
Hadar (Agena) The star Centauri, at visual mag. 0.61 Capella. The name is Latin for kids in mythology, they
the 11th-brightest star, although it is actually a pulsating were the offspring of Capella, the She-Goat. The goat
variable of Cephei type with a range of a few and kids are visualized as being carried on the arm of
hundredths of a magnitude and a period of 3.8 hours. It Auriga, the charioteer.
lies 525 l.y. away and its spectral type is B1 III. The name
comes from an Arabic expression referring to one halation Spreading of a point image on a photograph
member of a pair of stars, although the origin of the caused by light being reflected, scattered and diffused
designation is unknown. Its alternative title, Agena, is also within the emulsion during exposure. The image of a star
of obscure origin, although it may come from the Latin can spread into a small disk, and sometimes a halation
word genu, meaning knee, since it marks one of the ring is produced around it.
knees of the centaur, Centaurus.
Hale, George Ellery (18681938) American pioneer of
Hadley cell One of the primary circulation cells in the solar astrophysics who discovered the magnetic fields of
Earths ATMOSPHERE, in which air rises over the tropics sunspots and facilitated the construction of very large
and descends at the subtropical high-pressure regions telescopes: the 40-inch (1-m) refractor at Yerkes
located approximately at latitudes 30N and 30S. At the Observatory, the 60-inch (1.5-m) and 100-inch (2.5-m)
surface, the Hadley cells are represented by the trade reflectors at Mount Wilson Observatory, and the 200-
H winds on either side of the equator. The circulation was
originally proposed by George Hadley (16851768) in
inch (5-m) reflector on Mount Palomar, later named the
HALE TELESCOPE in his honour.
1735, as a single cell in each hemisphere, with warm air After graduating from the Massachusetts Institute of
ascending at the equator and cold air descending at the Technology in 1890, where he constructed the first spec-
HaleBopp, Comet poles. For dynamical reasons such a circulation cannot troheliograph (189096), Hale carried out solar research
Photographed on 1997 exist at tropospheric levels on Earth, although a similar from his private Kenwood Observatory, equipped with a
March 10, Comet HaleBopp circulation does occur in the STRATOSPHERE in winter. It fine 12-inch (300-mm) refractor. He brought these and
showed a clearly distinct has been proposed that the atmospheric circulation on other instruments to the University of Chicago, where a
bluish ion tail and yellowish Venus may be of this form. new, major observatory was being built Hale had con-
dust tail. Reaching magnitude vinced Chicago streetcar magnate Charles Tyson Yerkes
0.5, this magnificent object hadron Elementary particle that interacts through the (18371905) to fund the worlds largest refracting tele-
was the most spectacular strong force. All hadrons have nucleon numbers of 1, 0 or scope and the observatory to house it. The 40-inch refrac-
comet of the 1990s. 1, and can be divided into the subclasses baryons, anti- tor was first displayed at the 1893 Columbian Exposition,
then permanently installed at YERKES OBSERVATORY when
that facility opened four years later.
In 1905 Hale determined that sunspots are cooler than
the surrounding chromosphere, and by observing the ZEE-
MAN EFFECT, a splitting of the Suns spectral lines, he dis-
covered (1908) that sunspots are associated with strong
magnetic fields. He went on to show (1919) that solar
magnetic fields reverse their polarity twice every 2223
years. As early as 1904 Hale had persuaded the Carnegie
Institution to build an observatory devoted to solar
research atop Mount Wilson, near Pasadena, California.
The SNOW TELESCOPE was the first major instrument
installed at Mount Wilson Observatory, which Hale
directed from 1904 to 1923. Mount Wilson became the
worlds leading observatory after it acquired, through
Hales fundraising efforts, the 60-inch reflector in 1908
and, in 1919, the 100-inch HOOKER TELESCOPE.
170
Halley, Edmond
half-life (symbol t ) Time taken during an exponential 0.42 AU (April 11) and being fairly close to the Sun in the Halley, Comet 1P/ The
decay process, such as RADIOACTIVITY, for half the sky when at perihelion. In the early months of 1986, the elongated elliptical orbit of
available reactions to have occurred. Half-lives can range comet reached mag. 3.0 and showed a 10 tail. Halleys Comet takes it from
from tiny fractions of a second to billions of years. For
example, the oxygen-15 isotope that is involved in the
Although unfavourable in many respects for Earth-
bound observers, the 198586 return was extremely
aphelion beyond the orbit of
Neptune to perihelion between H
CARBONNITROGENOXYGEN CYCLE has a half-life of 124 rewarding scientifically. Observations across a range of the orbits of Venus and
seconds. The term can be used for related processes, astronomical disciplines were co-ordinated by an Interna- Mercury. The comets orbit is
such as a neutron splitting into a proton and electron tional Halley Watch, with the results being archived central- retrograde, and 1P/Halley was
(half-life of 12 minutes). The average, or mean, lifetime ly at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, USA. Early last at perihelion on 1986
of a particle is 1.44 times its half-life. in 1986 March a flotilla of spacecraft passed close to the February 9.
comet, sending back an immense quantity of data on its
Hall, Asaph (18291907) American astronomer who, in structure and composition. The nucleus was imaged by the
1877 August, discovered Phobos and Deimos, the two European Giotto spacecraft and found to be an irregular
tiny satellites of Mars. He used the United States Naval body with an extremely dark (albedo 0.04) outer crust and
Observatorys 26-inch (0.66-m) refracting telescope, at dimensions of roughly 15 8 km (9 5 mi). An estimated
the time the largest in the world, to detect the satellites 3.1 tonnes of dust was being ejected from the nucleus each
visually. He had previously used the same instrument to second at around the time of the Giotto close approach on
discover a white spot in Saturns atmosphere, allowing 1986 March 13; even at this rate of loss, 1P/Halley may
him accurately to determine that planets rotational have an active lifetime of more than 100,000 years.
period. Hall also found that the orbit of Saturns satellite Large ground-based telescopes were able to follow the
Hyperion was precessing by about 20 every year. comet on its way out from perihelion until it was at the
distance of Uranus orbit in 1994. Surprisingly, 1P/Halley
Halley, Comet 1P/ Brightest and probably most showed an outburst of activity in February 1991, when
famous SHORT-PERIOD COMET; it is the only one to have 14.3 AU from the Sun (beyond Saturns orbit). The cause
been seen regularly with the naked eye. Comet 1P/Halley of this brightening is uncertain, but it may have been con-
has been observed at each return since 240 BC, and it was nected with shockwaves from a CORONAL MASS EJECTION
first reliably noted in Chinese annals from the winter of propagated through the SOLAR WIND.
10591058 BC. The comet has a highly elliptical orbit, The comets next return, in 2061, will be even less
with a period of about 76 years. Its most recent favourable than that of 198586, with 1P/Halley at peri-
perihelion, 0.587 AU from the Sun, between the orbits of helion while close to conjunction on the far side of the
Mercury and Venus, was on 1986 February 9. Aphelion Sun from Earth.
carries 1P/Halley out beyond the orbit of Neptune, to a Comet 1P/Halley is the parent of the METEOR STREAM
distance of 35.295 AU from the Sun. The orbit is that produces the ETA AQUARIDS and ORIONIDS.
retrograde, with an inclination of 162.2.
The comet is named after the second British Halley, Edmond (16561742) English scientist, the
Astronomer Royal, Edmond Halley, who was first to cal- second ASTRONOMER ROYAL, famous for the long-period
culate its orbit, making the connection between a comet comet named after him, his observation and cataloguing
he had seen in 1682 and previous recorded apparitions in of southern stars, his part in the publication of Newtons
1531 and 1607. Halley successfully predicted its next Principia, and his discovery of stellar proper motions.
return, in 1759. Outside astronomy, his accomplishments were numerous.
Historically, Halleys Comet has made a great impres- He founded geophysics, charting variations in the Earths
sion on observers at a number of past returns. Its appear- magnetic field and establishing the magnetic character of
ance in 1066, when it passed 0.1 AU from Earth and the aurora borealis. He showed that atmospheric pressure
reached mag. 4, shortly preceded the Norman Con- decreases with altitude, and studied monsoons and trade
quest of England, and the comet is depicted in the Bayeux winds. Halley was one of the first to use mortality
Tapestry with the Saxon courtiers looking on in horror as statistics to cost life assurance policies.
King Harold totters on his throne. In 1301 the comet was He matriculated at Oxford University in 1673, where
seen by the Florentine painter Giotto di Bondone, who he made his earliest published observations, including one
used it as a model for the Star of Bethlehem in his 1304 of a lunar occultation of Mars in 1676. At that time he also
fresco Adoration of the Magi in the Arena Chapel in Padua. began assisting the first Astronomer Royal, John FLAM-
The comets apparitions vary considerably in terms of STEED, with observations of star positions at the Green-
how favourably it may be viewed. In AD 837, 1P/Halley wich Observatory. Halley never completed his formal
passed 0.034 AU (510,000 km/320,000 mi) from Earth, studies at Oxford, opting in 1676 November to voyage to
with the COMA shining as brightly as Venus and its tail the South Atlantic island of St Helena to map the stars of
spanning 90 of sky. At the 1910 return, closest approach the southern hemisphere. Despite poor weather, he made
was 0.15 AU, with the comet reaching mag. 0; Earth actu- observations from which he compiled a catalogue of 341
ally passed through the comets tail on May 20 of that southern stars, observed a transit of Mercury, and carried
year. The most recent return, in 198586, however, was out comprehensive meteorological and hydrographic
relatively unfavourable, with 1P/Halley never closer than studies. Also, he confirmed that the period of a pendulum
171
halo
located closer to the equator was longer than for a similar Harriot, Thomas (15601621) English mathematician,
device back in England, indicating that the Earth is oblate. astronomer and surveyor. He came to move in the circle
When Halley returned, King Charles II bestowed upon of John Dee (15271608), and under the patronage of Sir
him a degree from Oxford. Halley then published his Walter Raleigh, whom he had tutored, spent 1585 as a
southern star catalogue, Catalogus stellarum australium, member of a survey expedition to Virginia. He and his
and devised a method for determining the solar parallax Welsh friend William Lower (c.15701650) began to use
from his observations of the transit of Mercury. the telescope for astronomy some time before Galileo. By
In the 1680s, as an outgrowth of his interest in the 1609 he had studied Jupiters satellites, observed sunspots
INVERSE-SQUARE LAW of gravitation which he managed to (deriving the Suns rotation period) and mapped the
derive from Keplers third law and its implication that the Moon, though he never published his results.
planets must move in elliptical orbits, Halley befriended
Isaac NEWTON. He encouraged and paid for the publication Harrison, John (16931776) English instrument-
of Newtons PRINCIPIA, and even corrected the books maker who invented the MARINE CHRONOMETER to solve
proofs. From 1686 to 1693 Halley edited the famous Philo- the problem of finding longitude at sea. When in 1714
sophical Transactions of the Royal Society. In the 1690s, he the British Government offered a 20,000 prize for the
began a mathematical investigation of the orbits of comets, solution of the problem, Harrison devoted his life to the
paying close attention to the bright comets of 1531, 1607 perfection of a sea-going chronometer. Between 1735
and 1682. He concluded that these three comets, as well as and 1761, he produced four chronometers, each of
similar objects appearing in 1305, 1380 and 1456, were just which was an improvement on its predecessor, and in
different apparitions of the same comet, which had a period due course received the prize money. Contrary to
of 76 years. Taking into account the perturbations of popular mythology, Harrison was a highly respected
H Jupiter, he calculated an orbit for the comet indicating it
would return in 1758. Although he did not live to see his
scientist, not an outsider at odds with the British
scientific establishment.
prediction come true, he achieved immortality when it
appeared on Christmas Day of that year. Comet 1P/HAL- Hartebeesthoek Radio Astronomy Observatory
LEY has since become the best-studied of all comets. (HartRAO) South African national research facility in the
After further scientific voyages (16981701), Halley Magaliesburg Hills 65 km (40 mi) north-west of
was appointed Savilian Professor of Geometry at Oxford Johannesburg. Built as a NASA tracking station in 1961
in 1704, where he continued his astronomical work. In and converted for radio astronomy in 1975, the
1710, after noting that the observed positions of some stars observatory became a national facility in 1988. It has a
differed significantly from their coordinates given in Ptole- 26-m (85-ft) fully steerable dish the only major radio
mys catalogue, he confirmed PROPER MOTION in three telescope in Africa.
bright stars Sirius, Arcturus and Procyon. In 1720 he
published a paper in which he discussed what is now called Hartmann, Johann Franz (18651936) German
OLBERS PARADOX, arguing for the infinity of space. Also in astronomer who made many important breakthroughs
that year, Halley succeeded Flamsteed as Astronomer in astrophysics while working at the observatories at
Royal, a post he held for 21 years. During his tenure he Potsdam (18961909), Gttingen (190921) and La
modernized the Greenwich Observatory, installing the first Plata (192134), often with instruments he designed
transit instrument and devising a method for determining and built himself. One such device was a
longitude at sea by using lunar observations. microphotometer, which used photoelectric cells to
measure the density of light passing through
halo Ring of light seen round a celestial body. A halo is photographic plates of starfields; this intensity was then
an atmospheric phenomenon produced as a result of compared to images of stars to be photometrically
refraction by ice crystals in thin cirrus cloud at altitudes measured. He also devised a method for testing lenses
of 1015 km (69 mi), near the top of the TROPOSPHERE. that is named after him. Hartmann discovered the
The commonest form of halo is a 46 diameter ring of presence of interstellar matter by studying the spectrum
light with the Sun or Moon at its centre. Lunar haloes are of the spectroscopic binary Orionis in 1904.
usually only seen when the Moon is within five days of
full; at other times its light is not sufficiently bright. Solar Harvard classification Classification system for stellar
haloes often show some colour, with a blue outer and red spectra developed at Harvard College Observatory by
inner edge; the sky inside the halo is noticeably darker Edward PICKERING, Williamina FLEMING, Antonia MAURY
than that outside. and Annie CANNON between 1890 and 1901. Stars were
lettered from A to Q primarily on the basis of the strength
halo (galactic halo) Extensive distribution of stars in the of the HYDROGEN SPECTRUM. Several letters were then
outer regions of a GALAXY. The term also refers to the dropped as unnecessary, while B was placed in front of
invisible, extended distribution of DARK MATTER A, and O in front of B, such that other absorption lines
extending beyond the visible part of a galaxy. (principally helium) formed a continuous sequence. The
result was the spectral sequence OBAFGKM, which
halo population stars Oldest, most metal-poor stars, correlates with both colour and temperature. See also
found in the halo of the Galaxy and in GLOBULAR SPECTRAL CLASSIFICATION
CLUSTERS. See also POPULATIONS, STELLAR
Harvard College Observatory (HCO) One of the first
H See HYDROGEN-ALPHA LINE observatories established in the United States, founded
in 1839; W.C. BOND was its first director. Located at
Hamal The star Arietis, visual mag. 2.01, distance Cambridge, Massachusetts, the observatory is the home
66 l.y., spectral type K2 III. Its name comes from an of a 15-inch (38-cm) refractor dating from 1847 that
Arabic word meaning the lamb. was for twenty years the largest telescope in the United
States. It established itself as a major astronomy research
Hamburg Observatory Former national observatory, centre under its fourth director, Edward C. PICKERING.
dating from the beginning of the 19th century. It moved to Today, the HCO carries out a broad programme of
its present location at Bergedorf, 20 km (12 mi) east of research in collaboration with the Smithsonian
Hamburg, in 1909. The observatory operates several small Astrophysical Observatory (see HARVARDSMITHSONIAN
telescopes, including a 1-m (40-in.) reflector, and has been CENTER FOR ASTROPHYSICS).
part of the University of Hamburg since 1968. Today, the
observatorys research centres around theoretical HarvardSmithsonian Center for Astrophysics
astrophysics, together with studies of metal-poor stars, the (CfA) Major US institution that combines the resources
interstellar medium, quasars and gravitational lenses. and research facilities of the HARVARD COLLEGE
172
Haystack Observatory
OBSERVATORY and the SMITHSONIAN ASTROPHYSICAL programmes; his book A Brief History of Time (1988)
OBSERVATORY (SAO) to study the basic physical processes spent 4 years on the bestseller lists.
that determine the nature and evolution of the Universe.
The symbiosis between these institutions began when the Hawking radiation Radiation that is emitted from a
SAO moved its headquarters to Cambridge, BLACK HOLE; the process was proposed by Stephen
Massachusetts, in 1955, and was formalized by the HAWKING. From quantum field theory (the theory
establishment of the Center in 1973. The CfA has developed by Max PLANK in 1900, which proposes that
pioneered many new areas of astronomical various properties of a system, including energy, can only
instrumentation, and participated in the landmark CfA change by discrete amounts), it can be deduced that
Redshift Survey of the distances to some 20,000 galaxies. vacuum fluctuations occur throughout space whereby
pairs of virtual particles are created. If such a pair is
harvest moon Full moon nearest to the time of the created near the EVENT HORIZON of a black hole, one
autumnal equinox in the northern hemisphere (around particle may lie just on the inside, one on the outside, and
September 23). At this time of year, the inclination of the the outside particle would be free to radiate away. A black
Moons path to the horizon is very low, causing it to rise hole of one solar mass will evaporate over 1067 years. A
no more than 15 minutes later each evening, as opposed black hole at the centre of a galaxy will take around 1097
to the more usual half-hour or more, providing a succes- years to evaporate. Primordial black holes created in the
sion of moonlit evenings. The name derives from the fact Big Bang will have already disappeared.
that this was of great benefit to farm workers bringing in
the harvest. In the southern hemisphere, the harvest moon Hayashi track Path on a HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL
is the full moon nearest to the vernal equinox, around DIAGRAM that a pre-MAIN-SEQUENCE star follows as it
March 21. See also HUNTERS MOON evolves on to the main sequence. It is named after the
Japanese astrophysicist Chushiro Hayashi (1920 ), who H
Hat Creek Observatory Radio observatory near studied stellar evolution during the 1950s and 1960s.
Redding, California, some 400 km (250 mi) north of PROTOSTARS lie to the right of the main sequence. An
Berkeley. Its principal instrument is the BIMA initial rapid collapse of the protostar, which is poorly under-
(BERKELEY ILLINOIS MARYLAND ASSOCIATION) Millimeter stood, moves the star leftwards out of the so-called Hayashi
Array, an aperture synthesis telescope that operates at forbidden zone. This collapse is followed by a large
wavelengths of 3 mm and 1 mm. It has ten antennae decrease in LUMINOSITY, caused by the contracting radius.
6.1 m (20 ft) in diameter that can be located at various This line on the diagram is called the Hayashi track. During
stations along a T-shaped track. this phase the star is almost entirely convective, with only a
small radiative core. Finally, the star becomes radiative and
Haute Province, Observatoire de (OHP) French approaches the main sequence along the HENYEY TRACK.
national facility, established in 1937 on a 645-m
(2100-ft) high plateau at Saint-Michel, some 100 km Haystack Observatory Multidisciplinary research halo The most prominent
(60 mi) north of Marseilles. The OHPs telescopes facility of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology components of spiral galaxies
include a 1.93-m (76-in.) reflector, operating since 1958, (MIT) at Westford, Massachusetts, engaged in radio like the Milky Way are the stars,
and a 1.52-m (60-in.) reflector built in 1967. Both these astronomy, geodesy, atmospheric science, radio gas and dust populating their
instruments are used for spectroscopy, while two smaller interferometry and radar imaging, established in 1964 nuclear bulge and disk. Many
reflectors and a Schmidt camera are used for imaging. A originally as a military facility. The principal instrument is are also surrounded by
search for extrasolar planets is being undertaken with the a 37-m (120-ft) fully steerable antenna, enclosed in the tenuous halos of hot plasma.
1.93-m telescope. worlds largest space-frame radome. The telescope can be This X-ray image of a Milky
used either for single-dish observing or as part of a VERY Way-type galaxy reveals how
Hawking, Stephen William (1942 ) English LONG BASELINE INTERFEROMETRY network. vast such a halo can be.
theoretical physicist who has applied general relativity and
quantum theory to cosmology, greatly advancing the
understanding of BLACK HOLES and SPACETIME. While
still a graduate student at Cambridge University, where
he has spent his entire career, Hawking was diagnosed in
1963 with a degenerative neuromuscular disease and told
he had only 18 months to live; against these odds, he has
survived to become the foremost researcher of theoretical
relativistic cosmology.
In the late 1960s, Hawking demonstrated that a singular-
ity must have characterized the beginning of the Universe
in the BIG BANG. In the early 1970s, he developed mathe-
matical proofs of the no hair theorem originated by physi-
cist John Archibald Wheeler (1911 ), which states that a
black holes gravitational field is defined by three quantities
its mass, angular momentum and electric charge.
In 1971 Hawking showed that the Big Bang could have
given rise to numerous mini black holes, exotic objects
the size of a proton but with a mass of about a billion
tonnes. In 1974 he discovered that the physical tempera-
ture of a black hole is not necessarily absolute zero. Hawk-
ings model of black holes showed that they can emit a
kind of thermal radiation by the simultaneous creation of
pairs of matter and anti-matter particles. This process,
called HAWKING RADIATION, implies that the black hole
shrinks and may eventually evaporate, since it is gradually
converting its own mass into thermal energy.
Cambridge University appointed Hawking Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics in 1979. In 1983 he put forth
his no-boundary proposal: that although both space and
time are infinite, these quantities have no physical bound-
aries. Hawking has popularized many of his theories
through a series of magazine articles, books and television
173
HD
HD Abbreviation of HENRY DRAPER CATALOGUE located on Mount Graham, Arizona, and operates in the
0.32-mm wavelength range. It is named after the
HDF Abbreviation of HUBBLE DEEP FIELD German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (185794),
pioneer investigator of electromagnetic waves.
heat death of the Universe Eventual fate of the
Universe, perceived in the 19th century to be the logical Hektor Third TROJAN ASTEROID to be discovered, in
outcome of applying the second law of thermodynamics 1907; number 624. It is the largest of all Trojans, at
to the whole Universe. This law states that in a closed approximately 225 km (140 mi) in size. Variations in
system, ENTROPY can only increase or remain constant Hektors brightness indicate that it has an elongated
or that heat is transferred only from warmer masses to shape, perhaps like a dumbbell.
cooler ones. The Universe dies once when all matter has
reached the same temperature, for then the Universes Helene Small satellite of SATURN; it is co-orbital with
entropy will have reached a maximum, and there will be DIONE. It was discovered by Pierre Laques (1934 ) and
no energy available. This running down was pointed out Jean Lecacheux (1944 ) in 1980. It is spheroidal in
by Lord KELVIN, who preferred to avoid such a fate by shape, measuring about 32 km (20 mi). Helene has a
invoking an omnipotent force that created living beings. near-circular, near-equatorial orbit, remaining close to the
In terms of modern cosmology, the heat death would not L4 LAGRANGIAN POINT associated with Diones orbit
occur in a closed finite universe in which the DENSITY around Saturn. It takes 2.74 days to make a circuit of
PARAMETER is greater than 1, but it would occur in a Saturn at a distance of 377,400 km (234,500 mi).
universe that expanded for ever.
heliacal rising Strictly, the rising of a celestial body
H Heaviside layer See KENNELLYHEAVISIDE LAYER simultaneously with the Sun. More commonly, it refers to
the date when the body first becomes visible in the dawn
heavy elements All the chemical elements apart from sky, rising just before the Sun. The heliacal rising of SIRIUS,
hydrogen and helium. Within astronomy, the term the brightest star in the sky, was used by the ancient Egyp-
metals is sometimes used as a synonym for heavy tians to predict the annual flooding of the River Nile, and
elements. The concept of the heavy elements is valuable to denote the beginning of the new year. The Nile flood
because in terms of relative abundance (see was an important event in the Egyptian calendar, heralding
ASTROCHEMISTRY) hydrogen and helium account for the first of three seasons; after the river subsided, planting
around 98% of the mass of the observable Universe, while of crops could commence, followed by the harvest.
the remaining heavier elements amount to just 2%. Hence
it is often useful to consider them all under one heading. heliocentric parallax Alternative name for ANNUAL
PARALLAX. See also DIURNAL PARALLAX; TRIGONOMETRIC
Hebe Large MAIN-BELT ASTEROID discovered in 1847; PARALLAX
number 6. Hebe is about 186 km (116 mi) in diameter.
heliocentric theory Model of the Solar System in which
HED Abbreviation for HOWARDITEEUCRITEDIOGENITE the Sun is at the centre and the planets revolve around it.
ASSOCIATION A heliocentric theory was proposed by the Greek
helioseismology This astronomer ARISTARCHUS in the 3rd century BC, but it
series of SOHO images shows Heinrich Hertz Telescope Joint facility of STEWARD seemed counter-intuitive at the time and was not widely
shockwaves propagating away OBSERVATORY and the MAX-PLANCK-INSTITUT FR adopted. GEOCENTRIC THEORY, championed by Aristotle
from a flare associated with an RADIOASTRONOMIE run by the Submillimeter Telescope and Ptolemy and by later scholars and theologians, was to
active region on the Sun. Observatory. The enclosed 10-m (33-ft) telescope is remain supreme for nearly 1500 years.
It was Nicholas Copernicus who re-invigorated helio-
centric theory with his COPERNICAN SYSTEM, published the
year of his death. Opposed by both Roman Catholic and
Protestant ecclesiastics, its influence spread only very slow-
ly. However, the great improvements in observational
accuracy introduced by Tycho BRAHE showed up the inad-
equacy of geocentric theory. Brahe himself favoured a
hybrid, now referred to as the TYCHONIC SYSTEM, in which
the Earth remained at rest and was orbited by the Sun, but
the other planets orbited the Sun. His observations showed
that the stars were much more distant than the planets and
he also realized that comets moved in orbits that would
have taken them through the crystalline spheres of Aristo-
tles geocentric theory. Thus the spheres could not be real.
The telescopic discoveries by GALILEO that a body
other than the Earth, namely Jupiter, had moons in orbit
around it, that the planet Venus exhibited phases like the
Earths Moon and that the Sun was covered in spots which
made it less than perfect was evidence enough to put an
end to the geocentric theory. Galileos open advocacy of the
Copernican position placed him in conflict with elements
within the Catholic Church. His main publication in sup-
port of heliocentrism, the DIALOGUES of 1632, led to his trial
before the Inquisition. When Johannes Kepler, using data
accumulated by Brahe, discovered his three laws (see
KEPLERS LAWS), the need for the complicated epicyclic
motions was swept aside by the simplicity of elliptical orbits.
In the decades following Keplers and Galileos discov-
eries, heliocentric theory gained wide acceptance. Isaac
Newton, with the publication of his PRINCIPIA in 168687,
showed that the assumption of an INVERSE-SQUARE LAW of
gravitational attraction would account for Keplers laws.
Following his work, the heliocentric theory of the Solar
System could no longer be questioned.
174
Hellas Planitia
heliostat Flat, equatorially mounted mirror that is driven helium flash Theoretically predicted event in the
to follow the Suns apparent motion across the sky and to evolution of a lower-mass star (around 1 to 2 solar
direct its light into a fixed solar telescope. Because of the masses) whereby helium fusion occurs explosively, with
long focal length of a SOLAR TELESCOPE, and the fact that changes in the central regions of the star occurring over
the heat of the Sun creates a layer of warm, turbulent air timescales of minutes.
close to the ground, the heliostat is usually mounted on After the hydrogen in the core of a MAIN-SEQUENCE
the top of a tall tower. As it follows the Sun across the sky, star has been exhausted, the star becomes a RED GIANT,
the image it forms slowly rotates during the course of the with hydrogen SHELL BURNING occurring. The core col-
day and, because of this, the more sophisticated COELO- lapses until temperatures of 108 K are reached, when heli-
STAT is sometimes preferred. See also SIDEROSTAT um burning can start. In stars of low mass, this event
occurs explosively and is known as the helium flash. In
helium (symbol He) Second lightest chemical element; it stars of higher mass, helium fusion will commence gradu-
is the second most abundant element in the Universe (see ally because the temperature in the core can reach this
ASTROCHEMISTRY). Helium-4 forms almost 100% of the point before the core becomes degenerate. See also
naturally occurring element and has an atomic number of DEGENERATE MATTER
2 and an atomic mass of 4.0026 amu. Helium is the
lightest of the noble gases those elements that are helium star Non-white dwarf star, the outer layers of
virtually inert chemically. Its boiling point is 4.2 K. There which contain more helium than hydrogen. A helium star
are five known isotopes, three of which (helium-3, is an EVOLVED STAR that has lost its hydrogen-rich
helium-4 and helium-5) are stable. The nucleus of envelope, possibly by the effect of a companion in a CLOSE
helium-4 is also called the -particle (alpha particle). BINARY system, thereby exposing its helium core. The R
Helium is thought to be generated by NUCLEOSYNTHE- CORONAE BOREALIS stars are examples of helium stars. The
SIS in stars. The basic reaction, which powers MAIN- term helium star was also originally used for B-type stars.
SEQUENCE stars, involves the FUSION of hydrogen to form
helium via the PROTONPROTON REACTION and the CAR- Helix Nebula (NGC 7293) PLANETARY NEBULA in
BONNITROGENOXYGEN CYCLE. However, the present southern Aquarius (RA 22h 29m.6 dec. 2048). Lying
abundance of helium in the Universe cannot be explained less than 300 l.y. away, the Helix is one of the closest
solely by nucleosynthesis in stars. It is now generally planetary nebulae and, as a result, subtends a large
accepted that most of the helium observed today was syn- angular diameter of 13. Ostensibly bright, at mag. 7.3,
thesized during the first few minutes of the BIG BANG. The the nebula is spread over such a wide area that it has low
sequence of nucleosynthetic reactions continues after the surface brightness and is consequently rather difficult to
formation of helium with the TRIPLE- PROCESS, in which observe visually. The central star has mag. 13.6.
three helium-4 nuclei collide almost simultaneously to
form carbon-12. The reaction requires a temperature of Hellas Planitia Largest impact basin on MARS (43.0S
around 100 million K for its initiation. 290.0W); it has an average diameter of 1800 km
Helium was first identified in the solar spectrum by (1100 mi). Hellas Planitia appears on early maps of Mars
Jules JANSSEN and Joseph LOCKYER in 1868 as a set of as a roughly circular region of ochre hue. It is situated
lines that did not correspond with those for any element south of the Martian equator, in a hemisphere
then known. It was named after Helios, the Greek for predominantly well above datum (an arbitrary height at
175
Helwn Observatory
which the pressure is 6.2 millibars). Hellas Planitia itself undertake an all-sky photographic survey, the Carte du Ciel,
lies well below this level, and at its deepest point, near to using astrographs telescopes identical to the 13.5-inch at
the western rim, it descends to 5 km (3 mi). Paris about half of which were made by the Henrys.
Hellas rugged hilly rim is between 50 and 400 km
(30250 mi) in width and is associated with a concentric Henry Draper Catalogue (HD) Catalogue of stellar
pattern of fracturing that extends as far as 1600 km spectra compiled by Annie CANNON at Harvard College
(1000 mi) from the centre of the floor. The floor of the Observatory. It was named after American pioneer of
basin is occupied by plains materials, which are believed astrophotography Henry DRAPER, whose widow
to be volcanic in origin, and is mantled by windblown supported the work financially. The catalogue, completed
debris. Large sections of the rim are either missing or dif- in 1924, classified about 225,000 stars to 10th magnitude
ficult to trace due either to erosion or to later burial by according to the Harvard system: O, B, A, F, G, K, M, in
younger deposits. The most continuous section lies on the order of decreasing surface temperature. The Henry
western side, where it passes into the blocky mountains of Draper Extension (HDE), with spectral classifications of
Hellespontus Montes. Spacecraft imagery reveals there to 47,000 11-th magnitude stars, appeared in 1936. Stars
be several annular, inward-facing scarps outside of the are still widely known by their HD or HDE numbers. See
main rim, together with a small number of large ancient also SPECTRAL CLASSIFICATION
volcanic structures, such as Amphitrites Patera and
Hadriaca Patera. The floor of Hellas Planitia is occupied Henyey track Evolutionary path on a
by rather complex plains units, on the surface of which are HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM that a pre-MAIN-
small impact craters and some short channel systems. SEQUENCE star follows from the base of the HAYASHI
TRACK to the main sequence. It is named after the
Henry, Paul Pierre (18481905) and Henry, Prosper Heraclides, Promontorium Southern termination of
Mathieu (18491903) French brothers whose the Moons Sinus IRIDUM; it rises to 1220 m (9000 ft)
achievements in ASTROPHOTOGRAPHY helped to stimulate and appears as a cape-like structure jutting out into Mare
the CARTE DU CIEL sky survey. The Henrys discovered 14 IMBRIUM. With the northern termination, Promontorium
asteroids, beginning with (175) Liberatrix in 1872. Their Laplace, it forms the outer boundaries of a much larger
searches required the preparation by hand of detailed star impact structure. This structure was inundated with lava,
charts for the ecliptic, so that asteroids would not be covering the eastern rim. Multiple mare (wrinkle) ridges
confused with stars a labour-intensive and error-prone lie between the two promontories.
procedure. Their successful photography of star clusters,
including the Double Cluster in Perseus, a -hour HerbigHaro object (HH object) Any of a class of
exposure that recorded stars as faint as 12th magnitude, small, faintly luminous nebulae discovered,
convinced them that good charts could be prepared independently, by George Herbig (1920 ) and
photographically. Guillermo Haro (19001990) in the 1950s. HH objects
The Henrys designed and built a 13.5-inch (340-mm) are irregular in outline and contain bright knots; they are
refractor for Paris Observatory specifically for astrophotog- found in regions rich in interstellar material. Their
raphy, completed in 1885. At the Astrographic Congress spectra reveal a weak continuum dominated by emission
on 1887 April 18, observatories round the world agreed to lines from hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and iron. HH
objects are produced when high-velocity material, ejected
from young stars, interacts with surrounding material.
The stars that produce HH objects are thought to be
young, pre-main-sequence stars that are accreting materi-
al via an ACCRETION DISK. The whole system is surround-
ed by the material from which the star is forming.
High-velocity ejections are then produced, although the
mechanism by which this occurs is not yet fully under-
stood, and they interact with the surrounding material
producing shock waves. The shock waves heat and ionize
the surrounding gas, producing the emission lines
Hellas Planitia The largest observed in HH objects.
impact structure on Mars, HH objects are roughly split into low and high-excita-
Hellas Planitia is one of the tion objects, according to their spectra. The difference is
most obvious features in the thought to be caused by the velocities of the shock waves.
planets southern hemisphere. High-excitation HH objects, with strong emission lines of
The roughly circular basin has a highly ionized material, suggest shock wave velocities of
diameter of 1800 km (1100 mi). 200 km/s (120 mi/s), while low-excitation HH objects
176
Herschel, (Frederick) William
during his fathers sojourn at the Cape of Good Hope, HerbigHaro object High-
determined a number of meteor radiants and their speed jets from the young
association with cometary orbits. The male line of the object HH 34, near right centre,
British Herschels is now extinct. impact on the surrounding
interstellar material to produce
Herschel, Caroline Lucretia (17501848) German V-shaped shockwaves. HH 34
astronomer, sister of and assistant to William HERSCHEL, lies in Orion, in a region of
and aunt of John HERSCHEL. Karoline Herschel (the ongoing star formation.
German form of her name) was born in Hanover and
worked as a family drudge until 1772, when William
brought her to England, where she became first his
domestic companion, then his musical protge, and
finally his astronomical assistant. When they moved to
Datchet and Slough she started sweeping the sky herself,
discovering several nebulae (including the Sculptor
Galaxy, NGC 253, in 1783) and eight comets. When
William died in 1822, she returned to Hanover, where
she received many honours.
177
Herschelian telescope
Herschel, (Frederick) dense starfields all around, whereas when one looked at
William Originally trained as a right angles out of the plane, one saw relatively few stars.
musician, William Herschel This observation still holds good for the general structure
made many important of our Galaxy, though not for the Universe in general.
astronomical discoveries, Herschels discovery of Uranus fundamentally changed
including that of the planet his career. The international fame that it brought won him
Uranus in 1781. His sky (and his sister Caroline) royal patronage, Williams fellow-
surveys yielded extensive ship of the Royal Society, and an annual pension of 200,
catalogues of stars, clusters which enabled him to give up music and devote himself
and nebulae. full-time to astronomy. This drop in income was more
than made up, however, by commercial demand for his
telescopes. Herschel produced the optics, and employed
joiners to make the elegant mahogany tubes and stands. A
Herschel 6-inch refractor of 7 ft (2.1 m) focal length sold
for 105, while bigger instruments, built for European
royalty, could cost as much as 3150.
Herschels truly creative decade was the 1780s, for in
the wake of the MESSIER CATALOGUE of 1784, his sky sur-
veys increased the number of known deep-sky objects to
over 2000. He was the first scientist to realize that the cos-
mos is not unchanging, but dynamic, as stars were now
H understood to form clusters under gravity, disintegrate
into nebulous matter, and then re-condense into incandes-
cent stars. Herschel also realized that the light from dim
objects gathered by his 18 -inch (0.48-m, 1783) and
48-inch (1.2-m, 1788) aperture telescopes of 20 and 40 ft
(6 and 12 m) focal length had been travelling through
space for so long that when observing them, one was look-
ing into the past. By 1795 Herschel had pushed contem-
(1787) and two of Saturn (1789). He observed and porary optical technology as far as it could go, and he
catalogued many double stars, nebulae and clusters. spent the remaining 27 years of his life trying to obtain
Herschel realized that the Milky Way is the plane of a new data to make further breakthroughs. But not until the
disk-shaped stellar universe, the form of which he invention of ASTROPHOTOGRAPHY and astronomical spec-
calculated by counting the numbers of stars visible in troscopy in the next century would this be possible. In
different directions, thus establishing for the first time 1788 Herschel married Mary Pitt, and in 1792 John Fred-
what he called the construction of the heavens. erick William HERSCHEL was born to them.
Wilhelm Friedrich Herschel, as he was christened,
was born in Hanover, the son of an army band musician. Herschelian telescope Type of telescope developed by
As a boy he received a surprisingly good education at the William HERSCHEL in the late 18th century. It uses a
garrison school, especially in music, and visited England PARABOLOIDAL primary, as in the NEWTONIAN TELESCOPE,
in 1756 with his regiment. Finding that England offered but the primary is tilted so that the image is formed to
abundant well-paid opportunities for skilled musicians, one side of the incoming light, obviating the need for a
he returned in 1757, resolved to seek his fortune. After secondary mirror: there is thus no central obstruction.
several years of hard work, his reputation won him the The EYEPIECE is aimed down the tube, with the observer
prestigious post of organist at Baths fashionable Octa- facing the main mirror. This optical arrangement, also
gon Chapel in 1766. In 1772 he brought his sister Caro- known as the front-view system, introduced image
line Lucretia HERSCHEL from Germany to become his distortions, and was soon superseded by the achromatic
domestic companion and to allow her to pursue her own refractor and the silver-on-glass Newtonian reflector.
musical career.
By 1771 William Frederick (as he now called himself) HerschelRigollet, Comet 38P/ Comet found by
was earning 400 a year from music a very handsome Caroline Herschel on 1788 December 21 and
income for the time and, as Caroline recorded, Williams unexpectedly recovered in 1939 July by Roger Rigollet
interest in the mathematical harmonics of music aroused (190981). At each return, the comet attained peak mag.
in him a curiosity about the mathematical basis of light 7.5. Initially thought to be parabolic, the comets
and astronomy. In 1773 he started to make reflecting tele- elliptical orbit has a current period of 155 years.
scopes with mirrors made from speculum (Latin for mir-
ror) metal, and used them to observe the heavens from Herschel Space Observatory (Far Infrared and
the Herschels house at 19 New King Street, Bath (now Submillimetre Telescope, FIRST) EUROPEAN SPACE
the Herschel Museum). He soon showed himself to be a AGENCY (ESA) observatory to be launched in 2007. It
brilliantly gifted practical optician, for it was later declared will orbit at the L2 Lagrangian point between the Earth
by Nevil MASKELYNE, the Astronomer Royal, that his and the Sun, 1.5 million km (0.9 million mi) from the
reflecting telescopes were superior to any professionally Earth. Named after William HERSCHEL, who discovered
made instruments then on sale in London. Herschel was infrared light, the craft is equipped with a 3.5-m (11-ft)
thrust into international celebrity in 1781 when he discov- diameter primary mirror. It will cover the full FAR-
ered a comet that soon turned out to be the planet INFRARED and SUBMILLIMETRE waveband with the prime
Uranus the first new planet in the Solar System to be objective of studying the formation and evolution of stars.
discovered in recorded history. Herschel will be working in tandem with another ESA
This find, however, was the unexpected by-product of astronomical observatory, PLANCK.
one of Herschels surveys of the sky with a 6-inch
(150-mm) reflecting telescope. He had begun systemati- Hertzsprung, Ejnar (18731967) Danish astronomer
cally to sweep the skies on a zonal basis, primarily as part after whom the HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM is
of a strategy aimed at discovering star clusters, binary named. Hertzsprung spent most of his career (191944)
stars and nebulae, and trying to understand their distribu- at the Leiden Observatory, which he directed for nine
tion on the sky. By the mid-1780s, indeed, this technique years. He was a prolific gatherer of stellar data, making
had led him to conclude that the Milky Way consisted of a more than a million photographic observations of binary
flat plane of stars running through space, so that when stars and finding the brightnesses, spectral types and
one looked through the long axis of the plane one saw proper motions of thousands of stars in the Pleiades. He
178
HertzsprungRussell diagram
began to establish the mathematical form of Henrietta the data on these graphs. Such graphs have become
Leavitts periodluminosity relation for Cepheid variable extremely important in modern astronomy and are today
stars, and used it to determine accurately the distance to called HertzsprungRussell diagrams.
the Small Magellanic Cloud. Hertzsprungs work A HertzsprungRussell diagram, or HR diagram, is
spanned the extremes of stellar types: the Cepheids are any graph on which a parameter measuring stellar bright-
highly luminous yellow supergiants; and, in contrast, he ness is plotted against a parameter related to a stars sur-
was the first to classify, in 1911, the giant and dwarf face temperature. For example, apparent magnitude,
subdivisions of late-type stars. absolute magnitude, absolute BOLOMETRIC MAGNITUDE or
The culmination of this work, based in part on the LUMINOSITY may be plotted along the horizontal axis,
work of pioneering astronomer Antonia MAURY, was his while spectral class, COLOUR INDEX or EFFECTIVE TEMPER-
invention of the HertzsprungRussell diagram, so called ATURE may be plotted along the vertical axis.
because the American astronomer Henry Norris RUSSELL Three HR diagrams are shown with this article, with
later rediscovered the relation. Hertzsprung found, by diagram A being a schematic showing all the different
plotting luminosity against temperature for many individ- regions. Diagram B resembles Russells original graph.
ual stars, that most normal stars, including the Sun, fall Each dot represents a star whose absolute magnitude and
along a well-defined curve called the main sequence. His spectral class have been determined from observations.
results were published in 1905 and 1907 in an obscure Most of the data lie along a broad line called the MAIN
journal, and were unknown to Russell. SEQUENCE, which extends diagonally across the diagram.
The Sun (absolute magnitude around +5, spectral type
Hertzsprung gap Region to the right of the MAIN G2) is a typical main-sequence star. A second prominent
SEQUENCE on the HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM where grouping of data points represents very large, cool stars
very few stars are seen. The gap exists because stars
move very rapidly through this region. In the gap, the
called RED GIANTS. In the lower left corner, a third grouping
identifies compact, hot stars called WHITE DWARFS. H
stars are evolving off the main sequence, burning Diagram C shows an HR diagram with luminosity of
hydrogen in shells before helium burning starts in the stars plotted against their surface temperature. Notice that
core. They travel on near-horizontal tracks with near- temperature increases towards the left. The spectral class-
constant luminosity as the radius expands with a es OBAFGKM constitute a temperature sequence, and
corresponding drop in effective temperature. the first HR diagrams were drawn with the hot O stars on
the left and the cool M stars on the right because the
HertzsprungRussell diagram (HR diagram) Plot astronomers did not realise exactly what they were plot-
of the ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDE of stars against their ting. Although this means the temperature scale increases
spectral class. It is equivalent to a plot of the luminosity of to the left, HR diagrams are still plotted this way today.
stars against their surface temperature. The These HR diagrams show that the total range in stellar
HertzsprungRussell diagram is an extremely valuable brightness is around 27 magnitudes (corresponding to a
tool wherein observational and theoretical information are factor of 1011 in luminosity), and the range in the surface HertzsprungRussell
blended to produce a deep understanding of STELLAR temperature of stars is from 2200 K to 50,000 K. The size diagram A plot of stars
EVOLUTION. It is a very powerful diagram, able to of a star is related to both its luminosity and its surface luminosity against temperature.
represent almost the entire evolution of any star. There temperature, as indicated by the dashed lines. Most main- Most stars lie on the main
are a finite number of equations defining a stars structure sequence stars are roughly the same size as the Sun. White sequence running from top left
at every point in its life. These equations are interpreted dwarfs are about the same size as the Earth, while red to bottom right. Part B shows
on an HR diagram, so that determining the position of giants can be as big as the Earths orbit. the principal regions of the
any star on an HR diagram will give information on its The statistical distribution of data on an HR diagram HertzsprungRussell diagram,
structure and evolutionary phase. demonstrates that stars fainter than the Sun are far more with giant stars above the main
In the early 1900s Ejnar HERTZSPRUNG in Denmark numerous than those brighter than the Sun. About 90% of sequence to the top right, and
and Henry Norris RUSSELL in the United States indepen- stars are main-sequence stars, about 10% are white dwarfs dwarfs to the lower left. Part C
dently began to consider how the brightnesses of stars and about 1% are red giants or SUPERGIANTS. The three illustrates some of the
might be related to their spectra. In 1911 Hertzsprung main groupings on the HR diagram correspond to the evolutionary tracks that stars
plotted the APPARENT MAGNITUDES of stars in several clus- three very different stages through which a typical star may take as they branch away
ters against their spectral class. In 1913 Russell plotted the passes during its life. Computer models reveal how the from the main sequence. For
absolute magnitudes of stars in the solar neighbourhood luminosity and surface temperature of a star change as it example, hot, massive O-class
against their spectral class. Both astronomers emphasized evolves. With this information, the path followed by an stars (top left) evolve to become
the non-random patterns they saw in the arrangement of evolving star can be plotted on an HR diagram. red supergiants (top right).
A spectral type B C
O B A F G K M
106 106
typical evolutionary -10
track for 5Mstar Cepheids supergiants
supergiant stars NGC2362
RR Lyrae stars h and Persei
instability
10 4
strip
turn off -5
point giant stars 104
red giants
M11
102 horizontal
absolute magnitude
0
luminosity in L
branch
luminosity in L0
Henyey track
in
Sun
se
1
qu
subdwarf stars +5
en
T Tauri stars
M67
102 1
main sequence +10
179
Hess, Victor Francis
180
Hipparchus of Nicea
high-velocity cloud (HVC) Cloud of mostly neutral centre. It has a substantial inclination (near 27) and highlands, lunar As it H
hydrogen that is moving 100 to 200 km/s (60120 mi/s) moderate eccentricity (0.162). See also ELARA passed Earth, picking up speed
faster than the expected circular orbital velocity for its for its long trip to Jupiter, the
distance from the centre of the Galaxy. The clouds are Hinds Crimson Star Name given to the deep-red Galileo spacecraft obtained this
normally only detectable from their radio emissions. The variable star R Leporis, the colour of which was likened false-colour image of the lunar
best-known example is an enormous bridge of material by the English astronomer John Russell Hind (182395) highlands. The light highlands
between our Galaxy and the MAGELLANIC CLOUDS. to a drop of blood. R Leporis is a MIRA STAR, ranging contrast with the dark maria,
Known as the Magellanic Stream, it probably resulted from 12th magnitude at minimum to a peak of mag. 5.5 and are heavily cratered.
from a close passage of the Magellanic clouds with the with a period of 14 or 15 months. It is a carbon star of
Galaxy at some time in the past. Other HVCs may be the spectral type C6 II.
result of SUPERNOVA explosions or may be infalling
intergalactic material still being accreted by the Galaxy. Hipparchus Lunar crater (6S 5E), 135 km (84 mi) in
The origin of most HVCs is not known. diameter, with rim components reaching 1220 m
(4000 ft) above its floor. An ancient crater, Hipparchus
high-velocity star Star whose space motion exceeds has been severely modified by meteorite erosion. Indeed,
about 100 km/s (60 mi/s). There are several quite distinct this erosion has removed all remnants of its ejecta blanket
classes. Many nearby Population II stars have high and has brought its walls to near level with the
velocities by virtue of their galactic orbits, which may be surrounding surface. The floor of Hipparchus is relatively
neither circular nor close to the galactic plane; the nearby smooth because of lava flooding.
red dwarf binary 61 Cygni is an example. RUNAWAY
STARS are young massive O or B stars moving at very Hipparchus of Nicea (c.190120 BC) Greek
high velocities, thought to have been ejected from binary astronomer, geographer and mathematician who made
systems or clusters. Somewhat older A stars of high observations from Nicea (in what is now modern
velocity include many binary systems, making them less Turkey), Alexandria, Egypt and the Greek island of
likely to have been ejected from clusters, and have orbits Rhodes. Little is known of his life, and the only book of
that inhabit a thick disk. They may trace the remnants of his to survive is a commentary on the work of ARATUS.
smaller galaxies that have merged with the Milky Way Most information about him comes from Ptolemys
and not yet settled into its thin gas-rich disk. High- ALMAGEST, from which it is clear that Hipparchus was the
velocity neutron stars originate in the disruption of a greatest observational astronomer of antiquity. He is best
binary during a supernova explosion; asymmetric known for his discovery of the PRECESSION OF THE
explosions can impart a velocity kick. EQUINOXES. Hipparchus measured the length of the
TROPICAL YEAR to within 6 minutes; this allowed him to
Hill, George William (18381914) American compare the dates of the equinoxes with the dates given
mathematician who applied his skills to celestial by ARISTARCHUS of Samos and other earlier astronomers,
mechanics. He is most famous for his work on lunar and he found that the equinoxes had moved westwards
theory, a working out of the Moons complex motion and around the ecliptic. His catalogue of some 850 stars
the perturbations exerted upon it. Hill solved many believed by some scholars to form the basis of the
complicated problems involving the orbits of Jupiter and catalogue in the Almagest was the first to classify stars
Saturn and made innovative strides towards solving the by their apparent visual magnitudes.
THREE-BODY PROBLEM. Hipparchus developed mathematical models describ-
ing the apparent motion of the Sun and Moon, introduc-
Hilda asteroid Any of a group of ASTEROIDS with ing epicycles, basing his work on his own and older
orbital periods close to two-thirds that of JUPITER. The Babylonian observations. He determined the sizes and
archetype is (153) Hilda. Unlike the resonances distances of the Sun and Moon from observations of
represented by the KIRKWOOD GAPS, this 2:3 resonant solar and lunar eclipses. Finding the Suns parallax too
position attracts objects and provides for long-term small to measure, he assumed a value based on the accu-
dynamical stability. See also HIRAYAMA FAMILY racy of his observing equipment. This was almost five
times too large, giving a value for the Suns distance
Himalia One of the small satellites in JUPITERs almost five times too small, and a figure for the Suns
intermediate group, discovered by Charles Perrine diameter less than one-sixteenth of the true value, but
(18671951) in 1904. Himalia is c.186 km (c.116 mi) in these results were a vast improvement on previous esti-
size, making it the largest of Jupiters family of satellites mates. Hipparchus calculations of the Moons average
apart from the GALILEAN SATELLITES and AMALTHEA. It distance as 5967 Earth radii (modern value 60.4) and its
takes 250.6 days to circuit the planet at an average diameter as 0.33 times the Earths (modern value 0.27)
distance of 11.46 million km (7.12 million mi) from its were more accurate.
181
Hipparcos
Hipparcos Astrometric data recent past (during the last hundreds of millions of years
from the Hipparcos satellite as opposed to billions). Such disintegrations are known to
revealed warping of the disk of Cygnus have occurred from other lines of evidence; for example
the Galaxy. The scale of the iron meteorites must once have been part of much larger
warping is exaggerated in this GeminiTaurus bodies, which were sufficiently massive for internal
artists rendition. outlying star heating to have occurred and caused the liquefaction and
chemical fractionation that is obvious from the
Sun
centre
meteorites appearance. Similarly, the family associated
of gravity with VESTA appears to be the source of several distinct
meteorite types, in that the reflectivities of these
meteorites are matched by the surface regions of that
Sagittarius
asteroid and its cohorts. Bands of INTERPLANETARY DUST
axis of warp believed to be associated with certain families may be
Vela debris produced by collisions in relatively recent times
(within the past few million years).
Other types of asteroid family may be recognized on
the basis of orbital similarity, but with that similarity
having been produced by dynamical segregation and
Hipparcos (High Precision Parallax Collecting Satellite) accumulation around certain sets of orbital parameters,
EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY satellite, the first satellite to be rather than by a common genesis. The TROJAN
designed for ASTROMETRY. The launch in 1989 was only ASTEROIDS represent an obvious example, another being
182
Holden, Edward Singleton
however, they can look greenish when seen visually The mirror consists of 91 identical segments forming a
because of a prominent pair of FORBIDDEN LINES at 496 hexagon 10 11 m (33 36 ft) in size. The working
and 501 nm emitted by oxygen. aperture of 9.2 m (30 ft), determined by the optics of the
Three main classes of HII regions are recognized: SAC, is smaller than the primary mirror to allow the beam
ultra-compact HII Regions (UCHIIRs), which are less to track across the mirror during observation. An imager
than about 0.1 l.y. in size; compact HII regions, which are and a spectrograph are mounted at the prime focus, while
about 1 l.y. across; and classical HII regions, which may larger spectrographs are mounted below the telescope and
be several tens of light-years in size. Giant and supergiant connected by fibre-optic feeds.
HII regions, with sizes up to several hundred light-years,
are found in some external galaxies. UCHIIRs and com- Hoffleit, (Ellen) Dorrit (1907 ) Pioneering American
pact HII regions occur around single stars, but the larger woman variable-star astronomer and compiler of the Yale
classes usually have from a few to 100,000 stars within BRIGHT STAR CATALOGUE. Working at Harvard College
them. The amount of ionized gas in the cloud ranges from Observatory, she discovered over a thousand variable
a small fraction of a solar mass to millions of solar masses. stars, mostly in the southern sky. Between 1948 and 1956
The gas density similarly ranges from 107 to 1011 parti- Hoffleit determined very accurate spectroscopic absolute
cles m3, with the largest clouds being the least dense. magnitudes for many southern stars, which allowed other
The smaller HII regions are often, but not always, roughly astronomers to map the Milky Ways large-scale structure.
spherical in shape. The larger regions can have very com- In 1956 she joined Yale University and undertook a
plex morphologies arising from the distribution of gas and thorough revision of the Bright Star Catalogue, first
stars within them. The ORION NEBULA is a good example compiled by Frank SCHLESINGER. She has produced three
of a classical HII region. editions of this catalogue, which contains positional,
Regions of ionized hydrogen can occur for many rea-
sons, such as ultraviolet emission from old hot stars or
spectral and other basic data for over 9000 stars.
H
from nova or supernova explosions, or they may form as a Hoffmeister, Cuno (18921968) German astronomer,
result of high velocity jets impacting the material of the founder, and for 42 years the director, of the Sonneberg
interstellar medium. Conventionally, however, these are Observatory, who specialized in variable stars. Using a
not included in the term HII region, but are instead given battery of fourteen small cameras, he secured over
their own specific names (see PLANETARY NEBULA, SUPER- 100,000 photographic plates of the night sky. His
NOVA REMNANT and HERBIGHARO OBJECT). careful examination of these plates resulted in the
HII regions are stellar nurseries. The hot stars that ion- discovery of over 10,000 new variables. Hoffmeister also
ize the gas have recently been formed through gravitation- conducted long-term visual meteor counts to refine the
al collapse within a GIANT MOLECULAR CLOUD. The life of positions of shower radiants and the parameters of
an HII region is only a few million years. The presence of meteor streams. He made detailed studies of the
such regions, along with the hot stars, marks out the arms zodiacal light and gegenschein.
in spiral galaxies. HII complexes also characterize STAR-
BURST galaxies, in which high-mass star-forming activity Hogg, Helen (Battles) Sawyer (190593) American
is occurring strongly. astronomer who spent her entire professional career in
Canada, investigating variable stars in globular clusters
HM Nautical Almanac Office Principal organization in and popularizing astronomy. In 1930 she married
the UK for providing astronomical almanacs and other Canadian Frank Scott Hogg (190451), and they both
numerical data. With the US NAVAL OBSERVATORY it is joined the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory. From
responsible for producing The ASTRONOMICAL ALMANAC, 1931 to 1935, she used DAOs 72-inch (1.82-m) reflector
The Nautical Almanac and The UK Air Almanac. The to photograph variable stars, work that would lead to the
Office dates back to the foundation of the ROYAL compilation of an important catalogue of those objects. In
GREENWICH OBSERVATORY (RGO) in 1675; with the 1935 the Hoggs moved to David Dunlap Observatory,
closing of the RGO in 1998, it moved to its present where Helen used the 74-inch (1.88-m) telescope to
location at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory. discover hundreds of new variable stars.
Hoba Largest single METEORITE known. Hoba is Holden, Edward Singleton (18461914) American
approximately 3 3 m (10 10 ft) across, and at least astronomer, director of Washburn (University of
1 m (3.3 ft) deep; it is estimated to weigh c.60 tonnes. Wisconsin) Observatory (188185) and first director of Hoba The worlds largest
Hoba is an ataxite IRON METEORITE. It was found in 1920, Lick Observatory (188897). At Washburn, Holden single meteorite, Hoba lies
near Grootfontein, Namibia, where it still lies in the studied Saturns rings, prepared catalogues of red stars where it fell in Namibia. This
ground, preserved as a national monument. and southern stars, and encouraged Sherburne Wesley iron meteorite is now preserved
BURNHAM to search for new double stars using as a national monument.
HobbyEberly Telescope (HET) Large optical
telescope of unusual design at an elevation of 2025 m
(6640 ft) on Mount Fowlkes at MCDONALD OBSERVATORY.
It is run by a consortium consisting of Penn State
University, Stanford University, Ludwig-Maximilians
Universitt Mnchen, and Georg-August Universitt
Gttingen. With its innovative simple mounting, it was
only a fraction of the cost of a conventional 8-metre class
telescope. It entered operation in 1997. It is named after
William P. Hobby and Robert E. Eberly, American
supporters of public education.
The HET utilizes a tilted arecibo concept: the tele-
scope tube is fixed at 55 from the horizontal; the tele-
scope itself remains stationary during observations,
though the whole structure can rotate through 360 of
azimuth on air bearings. This single rotational axis, com-
bined with the apparent rotation of the heavens, gives the
HET access to 70% of the sky visible from McDonald
Observatory over the course of the year. To follow the
stars, there is a tracker mounted in the focal plane of the
spherical primary mirror; this carries a Spherical Aber-
ration Corrector (SAC).
183
Holmes, Comet 17P/
184
Hoyle, Fred
the core. When a star is burning helium in its core, it is Hourglass Nebula A
on the horizontal branch. Low-mass stars start helium Hubble Space Telescope
core burning with a HELIUM FLASH, and the star moves image from 1996, showing
rapidly to the horizontal branch. If the mass of the star is delicate loops in the twin lobes
small, it lands on the left extension of the horizontal from which the Hourglass
branch; if the mass of the star is larger, it will fall farther Nebula takes its name.
to the right on the horizontal branch.
HertzsprungRussell diagrams of GLOBULAR CLUS-
TERS show differences in the form of their horizontal
branches from cluster to cluster. As yet there is no consen-
sus of opinion as to what causes the differences, although
the metal abundance of the stars and the age of the cluster
appear to be two contributing factors. RR LYRAE VARIABLES
are formed where the INSTABILITY STRIP crosses the hori-
zontal branch. On some HertzsprungRussell diagrams,
variable stars are not shown and thus there is a gap in the
horizontal branch.
185
HR diagram
explanation of how stars synthesize elements heavier than said that what Nicholas Copernicus did for the Solar
helium. In 1957 he co-authored, with Margaret and System, and William Herschel did for the Galaxy, so
Geoffrey BURBIDGE and William FOWLER, the seminal Hubble did for the Universe.
paper Synthesis of the Elements in Stars. Dubbed A native of Missouri, Hubble worked briefly
B2FH for the initials of its authors surnames, this paper (191417) as a research assistant at Yerkes Observatory,
describes how stars synthesize chemical elements heavier then, following a stint in the United States Infantry from
than hydrogen and helium. Hoyles major contribution to 1917 to 1919, he joined the staff of MOUNT WILSON
this theory of stellar nucleosynthesis was his prediction of OBSERVATORY, where he remained for the rest of his
an excited state of the 12C nucleus. In 1948, with career. He was also involved with the construction of the
Hermann BONDI and Thomas GOLD, Hoyle conceived a 200-inch (5-m) HALE TELESCOPE at Palomar Observato-
cosmological theory describing the Universe as flat space ry, which he used in his latter researches (194853). For
expanding at a constant rate, the expansion being most of his career, Hubble used Mount Wilsons 60-inch
balanced by the continuous creation of matter so that its (1.5-m) and 100-inch (2.5-m) reflecting telescopes to
mean density remains unchanged. This steady-state study CEPHEID VARIABLES in the Andromeda Galaxy
theory was proposed as an alternative to the BIG BANG, a (M31), M33 and NGC 6822, the distance and nature of
term Hoyle coined to poke fun at the model accepted by which were the subjects of the so-called GREAT DEBATE in
most cosmologists. 1920. From 1925 to 1929 he published three important
Hoyle later helped Geoffrey Burbidge to develop a papers showing that these nebulae were galaxies lying at
quasi-steady-state theory, which, unlike the original ver- distances much greater than any object in the Milky Way,
sion, accounts for the COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND confirming the island universe model of Heber CURTIS.
radiation. This theory suggests that the isotope 4He is In 1932 he discovered the first globular clusters outside
H produced, not in the Big Bang, but by stellar hydrogen
burning, as are the isotopes 2H (deuterium), 3He, 6Li,
7Li, 9Be, 10B and 11B.
the Milky Way, in M31.
Extending the earlier work of Vesto M. SLIPHER, Hub-
ble measured the spectral REDSHIFTS of 46 galaxies,
Hoyle modelled the collapse of interstellar dust clouds attributing the redshifts to a recession of the galaxies and
to form stars, and in the 1940s he was the first to describe using the results to find their recessional velocities. Com-
mathematically the process of accretion, by which stars paring these velocities to the distances of the galaxies, in
accumulate INTERSTELLAR MATTER. He suggested that the 1929 he announced what is now called HUBBLES LAW: the
dust clouds are composed of inorganic carbon graphite farther away a galaxy is, the faster it is receding. When
grains or organic forms of carbon, the latter forms possi- these two quantities, velocity and distance, were plotted
bly imported to Earth with other organic molecules where against each other, the result was an almost perfectly lin-
they formed the building blocks of life, thus reviving the ear fit the slope of the line is the HUBBLE CONSTANT
PANSPERMIA theory. With this and other non-mainstream (H0), and its reciprocal, the Hubble time, is the age of the
theories, Hoyle often courted controversy. Universe since the Big Bang. These discoveries provided
For many years Hoyle was Plumian Professor of powerful evidence that the real Universe resembled the
Astronomy at Cambridge University, founding its Insti- kind of expanding universe derived theoretically by Albert
tute of Theoretical Astronomy (1966). EINSTEIN and Willem DE SITTER.
From 1929 to 1936, Hubble and his assistant, Milton
HR diagram Abbreviation of HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL HUMASON, published a series of studies showing conclu-
DIAGRAM sively that for velocities of recession up to 40,000 km/s
(25,000 mi/s), the velocitydistance relation holds true.
HST Abbreviation of HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE The two astronomers also invented the first (1925) sys-
tematic scheme for the classification of galaxies (now
H2 Booster by which Japan achieved its own independent called the HUBBLE CLASSIFICATION) based on their mor-
launch into geostationary orbit. The H2 booster was first phologies, labelling these objects as elliptical, normal spi-
launched, two years late, in 1994. It flew five successful ral or barred spiral galaxies, which they further divided
missions but there were two failures, and high costs into subtypes. Hubble believed that his scheme indicated
forced a cancellation of the programme. The new H2A an evolutionary sequence for galaxies, from ellipticals to
was intended to launch in 1999, but the programme was spirals, though this is now known not to be the case.
delayed by technical problems until 2001. The standard Hubbles surveys of bright galaxies, carried out in the
H2A will replicate the capability of the original booster, 1930s and 1940s, showed them to be distributed isotropi-
carrying 4 tonnes to geostationary transfer orbit; larger cally on the largest scales of the Universe. On more local
versions will increase this capability to 7.5 tonnes in 2005. scales, galaxies were often found in clusters composed
mostly of elliptical galaxies Hubble was the first to mea-
Hubble, Edwin Powell (18891953) American sure accurately the surface brightness profiles of ellipticals.
astronomer who proved that the spiral nebulae were His counts of galaxies confirmed that they are compara-
galaxies lying far beyond our own Milky Way, established tively scarce in the ZONE OF AVOIDANCE along the plane of
a widely used scheme for the classification of galaxies, the Milky Way, where they are obscured by our Galaxys
and who derived the velocitydistance relation for these disk of dust and gas. Hubbles studies of the Milky Ways
objects, thus allowing the scale of the Universe to be spiral arms (193543) provided the first strong evidence
reckoned for the first time. It is difficult to overstate that they trail as the Galaxy rotates, instead of opening
Hubbles impact on observational cosmology; it has been outwards ahead of the galactic rotation, as some
Hubble classification A Sa Sb Sc
useful way of describing galaxy
shapes, the Hubble
classification splits these into E0
E4
three main classes. Ellipticals E7
(E) are subdivided on the basis
of how far they are from
spherical. The classification
branches (and is hence
sometimes known as the
tuning-fork diagram) to afford
description of spiral (S) and SBa SBb SBc
barred spiral (SB) galaxies.
186
Hubble Space Telescope
changes with time and the Hubble parameter and its rate Hubble Deep Field A
of change. are related to the deceleration parameter, q0, by composite of many long
H0 = R/R exposures, the Hubble Deep
2
q0 = R/(RH 0 ) Field shows extremely faint and
both values being calculated for the present epoch. remote galaxies. Some of these
The search for accurate values for H0 and q0 has been formed very early in the history
the driving force behind much of observational cosmolo- of the Universe.
gy in the last 80 years. Many different methods of obtain-
ing values for H0 have been devised. But they all have in
common redshift and distance measurements of a set of
similar objects carefully chosen to eliminate selection and
measurement bias to the greatest extent possible. A key
project for the Hubble Space Telescope was the task of
deriving an accurate value for the Hubble constant. After
many years of work, the best value of H0 available at pre-
sent from the Space Telescope Key Project is 68 6.0 km
per second per megaparsec.
Hubble classification System for classifying GALAXIES Hubble diagram Graph in which the apparent
according to their shape on photographs; it was introduced magnitude of galaxies is plotted against the redshift of
by Edwin HUBBLE in 1925, with extensions and revisions their spectral lines. It is a straight line, demonstrating the
by several later workers, including Allan SANDAGE, Gerard linear relation between redshift and distance, as embodied
DE VAUCOULEURS, and Sidney Van den Bergh (1929 ). in the HUBBLE LAW.
ELLIPTICAL GALAXIES are denoted E with a numeral
describing the apparent shape, from E0 for a circular Hubble law Law proposed by Edwin HUBBLE in his
image, through E5 for an image with an axial ratio of 2, to landmark paper of 1929 claiming a linear relation
the most flattened ellipticals at E7. Ordinary (nonbarred) between the distance of galaxies from us and their
SPIRAL GALAXIES are denoted S with a letter a,b,c,d to velocity of recession, deduced from the redshift in their
indicate a stage along the TUNING-FORK DIAGRAM. Sa spectra. The law can be stated as:
galaxies have large and bright central bulges, with tightly v = H0d
wound arms. Sc galaxies have small and faint bulges, with where v is the radial velocity of a galaxy, d is the distance
prominent and loosely wound arms. Intermediate types to the galaxy and H0 is a constant now known as the HUB-
Sab and Sbc can also be used. A parallel sequence of BLE CONSTANT. This linear velocitydistance relation
BARRED SPIRALS includes SBa, SBb and SBc. IRREGULAR could be readily explained if the Universe as described by
GALAXIES are denoted Irr or simply I. Originally two general relativity were expanding.
types, Irr I and Irr II, were used, but Irr II galaxies appear
to be temporary results of gravitational collisions and not a HubbleSandage variable See S DORADUS STAR
distinct kind of galaxy. The extension to the system by de
Vaucouleurs recognized inner ring-like or spiral-shaped Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Telescope put into
structures, as well as external rings. The van den Bergh orbit by the Space Shuttle Discovery STS 31 in 1990
classification added the use of the spiral pattern as a rough April. The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is in an orbit
indicator of galaxy luminosity. inclined to the equator by 28.5, which is almost circular
While the Hubble classification was originally designed at an altitude of about 607 km (380 mi). HST was
to be descriptive, and based on blue-light photographs of
a particular exposure range, it has retained enormous util-
300,000
ity because these designations correlate well with physical-
ly interesting galaxy properties. Stellar and gas content
and star formation rate, for example, change systematical-
ly between Hubble types. 100,000
redshift speed of light (km/s)
187
Hubbles Variable Nebula
188
Huygens
In 1875 Huggins married Margaret Murray, herself an close to the inner edge of the MAIN BELT, these asteroids
accomplished amateur astronomer and telescope-maker. are objects with low eccentricity orbits and relatively high
Lady Margaret Lindsay Huggins (18481915) collabo- inclinations. When viewed from the Earth, Hungaria
rated with her husband for 35 years. As early as 1863, asteroids display large declination motions but lower right
Huggins had photographed the spectra of Sirius and ascension movements than other main-belt asteroids.
Capella, but was frustrated by the impracticalities of the
wet collodion plates then available. In 1876 he pho- hunters moon First full moon following the HARVEST
tographed the spectrum of Vega on a gelatine dry plate, MOON. This usually occurs in October in the northern
the first such application by an astronomer. The dry hemisphere, providing a succession of moonlit evenings.
plates allowed longer exposures and thus fainter details In the southern hemisphere, it occurs in April or May.
could be captured, including features in the near-ultravio-
let part of the spectrum. Over the next 30 years, Huggins Huygenian eyepiece Basic EYEPIECE consisting of two
obtained numerous photographic spectra proving that simple plano-convex elements, commonly used on small
many of the chemical elements known on Earth (for refractors. The eye relief is good, the angular field of view
example, hydrogen, calcium, sodium and iron) are also is large and the eyepiece is relatively free from
present in stars and nebulae. CHROMATIC ABERRATION. It is named after Christiaan and
Constantijn HUYGENS, who invented it in 1703.
Hulse, Russell Alan (1950 ) and Taylor, Joseph
Hooton, Jr (1941 ) American physicists whose 1974 Huygens, Christiaan (162995) Dutch physicist and
discovery of the first binary pulsar provided strong astronomer, born into a prominent family in The Hague.
evidence for the gravitational waves predicted by After studying mathematics and law at the universities of
Einsteins general theory of relativity. Using Arecibo
Observatorys 305-m (1000-ft) radio telescope, they
Leiden and Breda, Huygens worked at the Bibliothque
Royale in Paris (1666-81), before returning to The H
found a pulsar designated PSR 1913+16, a neutron star Hague. He and his brother Constantijn Huygens
of 1 solar mass and diameter 10 km (6 mi), with a close, (162897) became skilled opticians and telescope-
equally massive companion. Observations showed that makers, designing the achromatic HUYGENIAN EYEPIECE.
this exotic stellar system has a decaying orbit, and Hulse Christiaan Huygens first telescope, which he made
and Taylor deduced that the binary pulsar is losing himself, had a focal length of 3.5 m (11.5 ft). He used it
energy by emitting gravity waves. For their discovery they in 1655 to discover TITAN, determining that this satellite
received the 1993 Nobel Prize for Physics. revolved about Saturn in 16 days.
With a better instrument of 7-m (23-ft) focal length,
Hulst, Hendrik Christoffel van de (19182000) Huygens made observations of Saturns rings that were
Dutch physicist and pioneer radio astronomer who in detailed enough for him to deduce their true nature.
1944 predicted that interstellar HI regions (gas clouds GALILEO had seen these changing features as lobes or
composed of neutral hydrogen) emit radio waves at a arms, but Huygens correctly described them as a single,
wavelength of 21 cm. Radio studies of the Milky Way thin ring system, detached from Saturns globe, and pub-
(and other galaxies) by observing the 21-cm emission, lished his results in Systema saturnium (1659).
first done by Edward Mills Purcell (191297) and Harold Huygens also made many fundamental contributions to
Irving Ewen (1922 ) in 1951, have allowed galactic physics that are relevant to astronomy. He explained the
structure to be mapped more accurately than by using optical phenomena of refraction and reflection, and was
optical methods alone. Van de Hulst also researched the the first to describe the wave nature of light in his magnum
nature of the solar corona and the interstellar medium. opus, Trait de la lumire (1678). He derived the formula
F = mv2/r to describe centrifugal force. In 1656 he patent-
Humason, Milton Lasalle (18911972) American ed the first pendulum clock, which would prove useful in
astronomer who made many of the earliest redshift astronomical timekeeping and for finding longitude at sea.
measurements of galaxies. He had no formal training,
and was at first a mule driver and janitor at MOUNT Huygens European spacecraft scheduled to land on
WILSON OBSERVATORY, but in 1917 became a night TITAN, Saturns largest moon, in 2004. Huygens will ride
assistant on the 60-inch (1.5-m) telescope there, working to the Saturn system aboard CASSINI, landing on the
under George Ellery HALE. In early work, Humason surface of Titan in 2004 November. During its parachute
became an expert observer and was Edwin HUBBLEs descent, Huygens will study Titans atmosphere,
chief assistant, measuring the redshifts for many nebulae currently understood as an orange-red smog that rains
and helping to show that they were actually galaxies liquid methane. Huygens may still be operating when it
similar to but far beyond the Milky Way. This work,
begun in 1928, led to the discovery that the Universe is
expanding. Over the next three decades, Humason
collaborated with astronomers such as Allan SANDAGE,
using the largest telescopes in the world the 100-inch
(2.5-m) at Mount Wilson and the 200-inch (5-m) at
Mount Palomar to measure the redshifts of hundreds of
fainter, more distant galaxies. The results of this work,
published in 1956, showed that Hubbles law was valid
out to a recessional velocity of 60,000 km/s (37,000 mi/s).
189
Hyades
lands on the surface becoming the first probe to do so Also belonging to the cluster are a score of WHITE DWARF
on a moon other than our own the nature of which stars. A considerable share of the cluster members is
remains uncertain. believed to consist of BINARY STAR systems.
The central concentration, primarily of the more mas-
Hyades Second nearest OPEN CLUSTER to the Sun. The sive stars, indicates that the cluster is nearly relaxed,
Hyades has more than 200 member stars, most of which meaning that the stars have had time to distribute the
lie within a distance of 20 l.y. It covers an area of about 6 available kinetic energy equally amongst themselves. The
in the constellation of TAURUS. The brightest stars, relaxation is, however, not complete, as is seen from the
together with Aldebaran, which is a foreground star and somewhat ragged distribution of stars in the outskirts of
not a member of the cluster, form a distinctive V shape. the cluster.
Recognized since antiquity, and even mentioned in Due to the close distance of the Hyades, there is no
Homers Iliad, the Hyades derived its name from a group apparent EXTINCTION of light by cosmic dust in front of
of daughters of Atlas and Aethra, half-sisters of the the stars, and also no dust has been found within the clus-
PLEIADES. The cluster is about 600 million years old. ter. See also URSA MAJOR MOVING CLUSTER
In the 19th century, from studies of stellar PROPER
MOTIONS, it was realized that the Hyades cluster moves in Hyakutake, Comet (C/1996 B2) Long-period comet
a general south-easterly direction, together with numerous discovered on 1996 January 31 by Japanese amateur
other stars in the surrounding parts of the sky, in what is astronomer Yuji Hyakutake (19502002). The comet
called the Taurus stream. Refined proper motion mea- made a remarkably close passage (0.10 AU) to Earth on
surements subsequently revealed that the Hyades shares a March 25, becoming a prominent naked-eye object.
common motion, to within very narrow limits, with an Around the time of closest approach, C/1996 B2
H appreciable number of stars in its vicinity. This cluster was
designated the Taurus moving cluster; the name Hyades
Hyakutake was particularly well placed for observers in
the northern hemisphere, lying close to Polaris, with a
was often used to denote the central denser clustering, bluish ion tail stretching for up to 70 through the
which includes the original stars. Today the name Hyades Plough and beyond. Several DISCONNECTION EVENTS
is generally used for the whole cluster, and individual were observed in the ion tail. The COMA reached a peak
members are sometimes termed Hyads. magnitude of 1. Comet Hyakutake faded somewhat
The distance to the Hyades has been determined in after its near-Earth approach, but brightened again in
several ways, most recently by the Hipparcos satellite. It late April as it neared its May 1 perihelion, 0.23 AU
lies at a distance of around 151 l.y. This distance can be from the Sun. The comet, possibly making its first visit
used to derive absolute magnitudes for cluster members of from the OORT CLOUD to the inner Solar System, has an
different kinds, and these values are in turn used as cali- orbital period of about 14,000 years.
Hyakutake, Comet brators for determinations of distances to other stellar Around 1996 May 1, the ULYSSES spacecraft recorded
Reaching a peak brightness of aggregates, also containing intrinsically brighter objects. anomalies in the SOLAR WIND, later determined to be due
magnitude 1 in 1996 March, In this way the distance to the Hyades forms one crucial to an encounter with the ion tail of Comet Hyakutake.
Comet Hyakutake made a step on the distance ladder of the Universe. Stretching some 3.8 AU downstream from the nucleus,
close approach to Earth. The The majority of the Hyades cluster member stars the comet tail is by far the longest yet found.
comet was particularly notable belong to the MAIN SEQUENCE, the brightest of these being
for its strong bluish ion tail, of spectral type A2. It is from this fact that the age esti- Hydra See feature article
which showed much fine mate is derived, since more massive stars have had time to
structure and underwent evolve away from the main sequence. A few such stars are hydrocarbons See INTERSTELLAR MOLECULES
several disconnection events. known in the Hyades; they are now yellow GIANT STARS.
hydrogen (symbol H) First and lightest of the chemical
elements; it is the most abundant element in the Universe
(see ASTROCHEMISTRY). Hydrogen-1 (that is, an atom
with a single proton as its nucleus with a single electron
attached to it) forms almost 100% of the naturally
occurring element and has an atomic number of 1 and an
atomic mass of 1.007825 amu. Its boiling point is
20.29 K and its melting point is 14.02 K. Hydrogen-2,
which is also known as DEUTERIUM, is present on Earth in
the proportion of 0.015%. A third isotope, hydrogen-3,
also known as tritium, is radioactive, with a half-life of
12.26 years; it is produced in nuclear reactors. The name
hydrogen derives from the Greek hydro (water) and genes
(forming), and was first used by the French chemist
Antoine Lavoisier (174394). Hydrogen was recognised
as a distinct substance, which he called inflammable air,
in 1766 by the English chemist Henry Cavendish
(17311810). In the visible region, hydrogen produces
the familiar BALMER LINE spectrum, which arises from
transitions to and from hydrogens first excited level.
Transitions to and from the ground state produce the
ultraviolet LYMAN SERIES; from higher excited levels, a
number of sets of lines in the infrared are produced,
starting with the PASCHEN SERIES.
Our most familiar contact with hydrogen is in the
form of one of its two oxides, water (H2O, the other is
hydrogen peroxide, H2O2), or more rarely as the gas that
appears when an acid and a metal react. It is widely used
in industry, to make metals and margarine, to fix nitro-
gen via the Haber process and, in liquid form, as a con-
venient, if hazardous, rocket fuel. Its presence in the
molecules of carbohydrates also makes it fundamental to
the existence of life.
Beyond our immediate environment, the everyday
chemistry of hydrogen is of little consequence. Within the
190
hyperfine structure
191
Hyperion
spin in the same direction; in the lower, they spin shape, which lead to a strongly variable tidal pull from
oppositely. The transition between the two levels creates Saturn. See data at SATURN
the TWENTY-ONE CENTIMETRE LINE of interstellar neutral
hydrogen. Hyperfine splitting in hydroxyl (OH) hypersensitization Technique in which film for long
underlies the interstellar OH lines at 1667, 1712, 1612 exposures in ASTROPHOTOGRAPHY is heated or treated
and 1665 MHz, the last two being powerful MASERS chemically to overcome RECIPROCITY FAILURE. One way to
associated with star-forming regions. increase the performance of film is to bake it for several
hours, but this has now been superseded by chemical
Hyperion Largest, irregular-shaped SATELLITE of hypersensitization (known as hypering), in which the film
SATURN; it measures 370 280 225 km (230 174 is soaked for several hours in hydrogen gas, or a gas that
140 mi). Hyperion was discovered in 1848 jointly by contains a proportion of hydrogen.
W.C. and G.P. BOND in the United States and William
LASSELL in England. It is dark and reddish and may be a hypervelocity impact Impact with velocity high
fragment of the interior of a larger satellite destroyed by a enough to generate a stress of an order of magnitude
collision. Hyperions reddish colour and irregular shape larger than the compressive strength of the target
could also be consistent with it being perhaps a captured material. Velocities at which impacts attain hypervelocity
cometary planetesimal or asteroid. Hyperion is one of are different for different materials but are typically in
the few satellites to have an orbital period that is not the range of 1 to 10 km/s (0.66 mi/s). Hypervelocity
synchronous with its orbit (see SYNCHRONOUS impact into solid surfaces of planets and satellites results
ROTATION). In fact, as Hyperion progresses round its in the formation of an impact CRATER. Accompanying
orbit it tumbles in a seemingly random way, with both its phenomena include impact melting and vaporization of
H rotation period and the axis of rotation itself changing in
a chaotic fashion. This random movement is probably
the impactor and target material, and formation of high-
density mineral phases, such as diamond at the expense
caused by Hyperions eccentric orbit and elongated of graphite.
192
IkeyaSeki, Comet
I
19 km (12 mi) across. Iapetus
is remarkable in having a very
dark leading hemisphere which
contrasts with the brighter
trailing hemisphere.
Iapetus Outermost of the main SATELLITES of SATURN. Ida Asteroid (243) Ida
It is the third-largest but was the second to be discovered, imaged by the Galileo
by G.D. CASSINI in 1671, thanks to its great distance from spacecraft in 1993 August.
the glare of the planet. It has the remarkable property of Idas tiny satellite Dactyl is
appearing much fainter when lying to the east of Saturn visible at right.
in the sky, when we see its leading hemisphere, than when
lying to the west, when we see its trailing hemisphere. geologists now only consider rocks to be igneous if they
This observation can be explained by the fact that most are derived from melts formed in the interiors of planets
of the leading hemisphere has a sooty coating with an or satellites, usually as a result of decompression of high
albedo of less than 0.1, whereas the trailing hemisphere is temperature solid material from the interior, as, for
relatively clean ice with an albedo of about 0.5. The best example, in a hot mantle PLUME. Igneous rocks formed
VOYAGER images revealed that the trailing hemisphere is on the surface of a planet or satellite, where the melt cools
heavily cratered, but they were not capable of showing rather fast, are known as volcanic rocks; they typically
any features in the opposite hemisphere. It has been
suggested that the dark material is dust originating from
contain varying proportions of silicate glass together with
mineral crystals. Igneous rocks formed at depth in the
I
PHOEBE, a dark red irregular satellite in a retrograde orbit interior, where the cooling is much slower, are known as
outside that of Iapetus, but the spectroscopic match is plutonic rocks; they are fully crystalline. The principal
rather poor. See data at SATURN minerals in igneous rocks are olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4,
pyroxene (Mg,Fe,Ca)2Si2O6, feldspars CaAl2Si2O8-
IAPPP Abbreviation of INTERNATIONAL AMATEURPRO- (Na,K)AlSi3O8 and quartz SiO2. The most widespread
FESSIONAL PHOTOELECTRIC PHOTOMETRY volcanic igneous rock on the surface of TERRESTRIAL
PLANETS and non-icy satellites is BASALT. Ices on the
IAU Abbreviation of INTERNATIONAL ASTRONOMICAL surface of satellites of giant planets, if formed from non-
UNION impact melts, should be considered as igneous rocks.
193
IMAGE
ular sight in the pre-dawn sky for observers at southerly lat- where individual pixels on an image are manipulated to
itudes. The orbit is elliptical, with a period of 880 years. enhance brightness and contrast. This type of processing
is useful to remove the effects of LIGHT POLLUTION from
IMAGE Acronym for IMAGER FOR MAGNETOPAUSE TO the sky background or to enhance faint features such as
AURORA GLOBAL EXPLORATION the arms of spiral galaxies. Another method of boosting
the level of information is by the co-addition or stacking of
image intensifier Opto-electronic device for amplifying multiple images to improve the SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO of
the brightness of an image. The optical image from a tele- faint astronomical objects.
scope is focused on to a photocathode, causing electrons More complex is the use of logarithmic scaling to
to be liberated, the number of which depends on the boost selectively or withhold brightness values on images
intensity of the incoming optical signal and its wavelength. that contain a wide range of intensity levels. When
The electrons are accelerated through a potential of applied to images of globular clusters, for example, a
around 40 kV and focused by an electric or magnetic field logarithmic scale extracts information contained in the
on to a phosphor screen. In addition to being accelerated, bright core region, which would normally be overex-
the number of electrons may be increased by cascading posed, yet maintains a high level of detail in the outer
successive photocathode stages (see also CASCADE IMAGE reaches of the cluster. In a new technique called digital
TUBE). A drawback of the system is the slight distortion of development processing, a dual routine simultaneous-
the image caused by the electronic focusing. ly compresses the brightness levels contained in an
image and applies UNSHARP MASKING to produce
image photon-counting system (IPCS) Electronic unprecedented levels of detail.
imaging device sensitive enough to detect individual pho- Spatial filters are used to sharpen images or to blur as
tons of light. The system comprises a high-gain IMAGE a means of reducing instrument noise or processing arte-
INTENSIFIER on the front of which is mounted a photo- facts. Other useful routines include positional translations,
cathode. A photon falling on the photocathode releases an notably rotation and scaling of image size. Many
I electron, which produces a cascade of further electrons
through the image instensifier, which are detected by a
astronomers use these functions when combining images
for the analysis of transient events, for example in super-
CCD. An important feature of the system is the centre nova and asteroid searches. One of the most powerful of
detection logic, which identifies the position on the photo- all image-processing procedures is the use of fast Fourier
cathode of each photon event, thus providing increased transforms. In principle, an image is broken down into a
spatial resolution. As each individual photon is counted, a discrete spread of spatial frequencies, to which mathemat-
two-dimensional image is built up in the detector memory. ical operations are applied before the image is reconstruct-
The system is used mainly for high-dispersion SPEC- ed. By varying the type of operations applied, many
TROSCOPY of faint objects. different forms of image manipulation are possible. Per-
haps the best known of these is deconvolution. Indeed,
image processing Science and practice of extracting this method was used to correct images that were taken by
image processing Raw, information from digital images, or from images on tra- the original faulty mirror of the Hubble Space Telescope.
digitized images of celestial ditional photographic emulsion which have been For ground-based astronomy, deconvolution is used to
objects can be manipulated scanned and converted to digital form. Most profession- improve resolution that has been degraded by viewing
using a range of computer al and increasing numbers of amateur astronomers carry through an unsteady atmosphere.
programs to reveal and out image processing to glean the maximum amount of Most CCD detectors can only take images in shades of
enhance otherwise invisible information contained in their astronomical images. grey, so to build a colour picture it is necessary to take
details. This pair of images of With the ready availability of low-cost computers and multiple exposures of astronomical objects through differ-
the galaxy M95 in Leo shows CCDS, amateur astronomers are able to apply complex ent coloured FILTERS. A common method is to employ
the benefit of contrast processing routines and produce results that match or red, green and blue filters and to take an exposure through
enhancement to bring out exceed those achieved by their professional counterparts each of these in turn, although other filter combinations
details of the spiral arms only a decade ago. are possible. Once the images are stored on a computer,
structure. Colour has been In general terms, image processing is the manipulation they can be combined and image processing applied to
added using information from of information recorded by the pixels (light-sensitive synthesize a colour image and to extract useful scientific
images obtained through areas) that make up a modern astronomical detector. The information. If care is taken during the combination and
separate filters. most basic form of image processing is linear scaling, processing of these image sets, it is possible to produce
194
Indian astronomy
195
Indus
196
infrared cirrus
infrared point sources, more than 100 times the number infrared cirrus Infrared
known before launch. emission from dust grains
Many discoveries were made both during and after the heated by stellar radiation
mission. Solar System discoveries included: six new produces this wispy structure
comets, notably Comet IRASARAKIALCOCK; huge invisi- in the PuppisVela region of the
ble tails on Comet Tempel 2 and other comets; several Milky Way.
asteroids, including the unusual object 3200 PHAETHON;
and bands in the ZODIACAL DUST.
Dust shells, possibly related to planetary formation,
were discovered around VEGA and several other stars. Star
formation regions in DARK NEBULAE were studied in great
detail and many PROTOSTARS were discovered. The star
BETELGEUSE was found to have ejected three huge dust
shells, and clouds of dust named infrared cirrus were dis-
covered all over the sky. IRAS also studied the galactic
centre in great detail. Beyond the Milky Way, IRAS
observed that many galaxies are powerful emitters of
infrared radiation and some of these, the STARBURST
GALAXIES, emit much more infrared than visible light. See
also INFRARED ASTRONOMY
infrared astronomy Study of astronomical objects at (UIBs). The molecular bands are not only indicative of
infrared wavelengths. INFRARED RADIATION penetrates chemical composition but also of the physical processes in
dust clouds more easily than that at optical wavelengths, progress, such as the passage of shock waves through
so astronomers using the infrared can study stars forming
deep inside dense dust clouds, the centre of the Galaxy,
regions in which star formation is occurring.
The infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum
I
and other galaxies (both normal and peculiar). Astronom- has many broad features due to the solid material (dust)
ical sources of infrared radiation also include the planets in interstellar space or around stars. The dust grains
and other Solar System bodies, stars and the dusty regions range greatly in size, but a typical value is a few tens of
themselves. Wiens law shows that relatively low-tempera- micrometres. Very small dust grains (with sizes of a few
ture objects (less than 3000 K) emit most strongly, and so micrometres) can be transiently heated to about 1000 K
are easiest to observe, in the infrared. and emit MID-INFRARED radiation. Silicate dust has often
Astronomers on the ground, using the infrared, must been found in crystalline form as well as the amorphous
confine their observations to the atmospheric windows (astronomical) silicate form, giving sharp spikes in the
where there is very little absorption by water vapour or car- normally very smooth broad emission features. Water-ice
bon dioxide, and infrared telescopes are usually sited on and carbon dioxide ice have also been detected in the
mountain tops (above about 3000 m/l0,000 ft) to take infrared, in star-forming regions. Carbon-rich dust, such
advantage of the windows at 0.752.5 m, 35 m, as silicon carbide, can also be observed via its infrared
7.514 m and 1621 m. Mauna Kea in Hawaii and Ata- emission features. Both old and young astronomical
cama in Chile are examples of good sites. To avoid the objects show these dust features.
Earths atmosphere, infrared observations have been made Probably the most studied and most famous molecu-
from high-flying aircraft, notably the KUIPER AIRBORNE lar cloud is in Orions sword, where star formation is
OBSERVATORY (KAO) and the new STRATOSPHERIC OBSER- observed in progress in the densest parts of the ORION
VATORY FOR INFRARED ASTRONOMY (SOFIA), from MOLECULAR CLOUDS. Temperatures in this cloud reach
unmanned balloons, rockets, and from Earth-orbiting satel- about 2000 K in regions where shock waves excite mole-
lites. The INFRARED ASTRONOMICAL SATELLITE (IRAS) sur- cular hydrogen, but other regions range from a few tens
veyed the entire sky at several infrared wavelengths to a few hundred degrees. The infrared region of the
cataloguing almost a quarter of a million objects. More spectrum is very sensitive to the slightest heating of the
recently the INFRARED SPACE OBSERVATORY (ISO) targeted dust cloud as it starts to collapse. IRAS showed that
over 30,000 astronomical objects for detailed study. There there is a great deal of star formation occurring in Orion,
were several other early surveys, two of which were particu- not just in the sword region.
larly noteworthy: one from the ground, the 2m Sky Sur- The huge infrared emission output when stars are
vey by Gerry Neugebauer (1932 ) and Robert Leighton forming means that these regions can be detected at large
(191997), producing the IRC catalogue published in distances; the STARBURST GALAXIES are one example.
1969; and one using rockets, the Air Force Geophysics Another type that is very bright in the infrared, and hence
Laboratory survey by Steve Price and Russ Walker, pro- can be detected at large distances, is a galaxy with an
ducing the AFGL catalogue published in 1976. ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEUS (AGN), which is thought to
Astronomical sources can emit infrared radiation either be powered by a BLACK HOLE. The infrared can be used to
throughout the ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM (according detect the difference between these two types of galaxy,
to the PLANCK DISTRIBUTION of BLACK BODY RADIATION) since the starburst galaxy lacks some of the most energetic
or in one or more spectral lines or bands, depending upon forbidden lines found in the AGN spectrum.
the temperature and composition of the emitting gas (see Closer to home, Solar System scientists have used the
EMISSION SPECTRUM). The emission in the infrared lines is techniques of infrared astronomy to work out the basic
sometimes the main mechanism for cooling gas/dust chemistry of the planets, their satellites and the asteroids. In
clouds (such as the dense clouds where new stars are the NEAR-INFRARED, molecules in planetary atmospheres
forming). Among the most important infrared atomic exhibit a rich absorption spectrum, the analysis of which
lines are the FORBIDDEN LINES of carbon ([C II] at permits the composition and temperature of the atmos-
157 m) and oxygen ([O III] at 88.35 m). There are pheres to be established. By careful selection of a precise
very important molecular bands found in emission and infrared wavelength, different layers in the atmosphere can
ABSORPTION, in particular hydrogen (H2), water (H2O), be probed in detail because of the variations in temperature.
carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Observations of the outer planets from ISO have shown the
Infrared observations from space, with ISO, have shown presence of water in their upper atmospheres due to icy
that water is very common in the Solar System, in the material falling on to them from interplanetary space.
Galaxy and in other galaxies. The infrared has revealed
the existence of another type of molecule, polycyclic aro- infrared cirrus Tenuous cold dust in interstellar space
matic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the emission bands of which which emits faintly in the infrared. When FAR-INFRARED
were originally known as the Unidentified Infrared Bands data are displayed as maps, the emission resembles the
197
Infrared Imaging Surveyor
wispy structure of cirrus clouds in the sky. The infrared insolation is also called the SOLAR CONSTANT. At the top
cirrus clouds were first mapped with the INFRARED of the Earths atmosphere it has a value of 1366.2 Wm2.
ASTRONOMICAL SATELLITE (IRAS) and they have been
detected everywhere in the Galaxy. The temperature of instability strip Part of the HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL
the dust is typically around 2030 K. DIAGRAM where pulsating stars are located. It is a narrow
strip, extending from the CEPHEIDS through the RR LYRAE
Infrared Imaging Surveyor (IRIS) Japans Astro F VARIABLES, DELTA SCUTI VARIABLES and dwarf Cepheids,
series spacecraft, to be launched in 20032004 into a down to the pulsating white dwarf (ZZ CETI) stars.
750-km (460-mi) Sun-synchronous Earth orbit. The Most stars will pass through this region at some time in
satellite will survey the infrared sky with greater sensitivity their lives: they become pulsating variables of some type
than any previous Astro mission, using a 70-cm (28-in) when they have a small imbalance in the gravitational
telescope cooled with liquid helium. It will investigate the force and the outward internal pressure so that they are
formation and evolution of galaxies, stars and planets. not in hydrostatic equilibrium. The part of the instability
strip that a star passes through depends on its mass.
infrared radiation Portion of the ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM in the wavelength range 0.75350 m, lying Institut de Radio Astronomie Millimtrique (IRAM)
between optical and radio wavelengths. Historically, Multi-national scientific institute that operates two major
wavelengths between 1 m and 1 millimetre (mm) were facilities: a 30-m (98-ft) telescope on Pico Veleta in the
Infrared Space considered to be infrared. Recent developments in Sierra Nevada, southern Spain, and an array of five 15-m
Observatory (ISO) A detectors mean that the submillimetre region is now (49-ft) telescopes on the Plateau de Bure in the French
composite ISO image of the considered to start at 350 m. Most objects emit some Alps. Tragedy struck the Plateau de Bure site in 1999 July
Eagle Nebula. Shorter infrared infrared radiation, but according to WIENS LAW those when a cable car fell to the ground, killing all 20 scientists
wavelengths are rendered in with temperatures less than 3000 K emit most intensely and engineers on board.
blue, longer wavelengths in red. in the infrared. Many molecules (for example molecular
I hydrogen, H2) have important spectral features in the
infrared. See also INFRARED ASTRONOMY
Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh
Research institute within the Department of Physics and
Astronomy of Edinburgh University, located in the
Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) EUROPEAN SPACE grounds of the ROYAL OBSERVATORY EDINBURGH. Areas of
AGENCY (ESA) spacecraft launched in 1995 November to specialization include cosmology, the Universe at high
observe the sky with enhanced sensitivity and resolution redshifts, X-ray surveys, galaxy formation and studies of
using a 60-cm (24-in.) diameter primary mirror. It had the intergalactic medium. The Institutes Wide-Field
four science instruments an infrared camera, a Astronomy Unit supports the UNITED KINGDOM
photopolarimeter, and two spectrometers, provided by SCHMIDT TELESCOPE and other wide-field telescopes. It is
France, Germany, the Netherlands and the UK, cooled responsible for the operation of the SuperCOSMOS
by a cryostat of liquid helium. The craft was able to plate measuring machine and the overall management of
operate fully for an additional eight months until 1998 the 6dF Galaxy Survey.
May when the coolant was depleted. A short-wavelength
spectrometer, however, was used until 2001. Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawaii
Research institute founded at the University of Hawaii in
initial mass function Distribution of stellar masses at 1967 to manage the Haleakala Observatory and MAUNA
birth, which is taken to be when nuclear fusion begins in KEA OBSERVATORY and to pursue its own programme of
the stars cores. Determined by Edwin SALPETER in fundamental astronomical research. Its main base is at
1955, and sometimes called the Salpeter mass function, Manoa on the island of Oahu, close to the main campus
the initial mass function (M) represents the number of of the university. Its sea-level telescope operations and
stars with mass M at birth per unit volume of space. In instrument-development facility for Mauna Kea is at Hilo
the solar vicinity, (M) is approximately equal to on the Big Island of Hawaii.
M2.35, but there are deviations from this law for
massive stars. It is also difficult to estimate how many Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge
low-mass stars (less than 0.1 solar mass) exist, even in (IoA) Department of the University of Cambridge
the solar neighbourhood. engaged in teaching and research in theoretical and
observational astronomy. It came into being in 1972 with
inner planet Term used to describe any planet, the orbit the amalgamation of the Cambridge University Obser-
of which lies inside that of the ASTEROID BELT. The inner vatory (founded 1823), the Solar Physics Observatory
planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth or Mars. See also (1912) and the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy
TERRESTRIAL PLANETS (1967). Some of the best-known names in modern
astronomy have been associated with the IoA, including
Innes, Robert Thorburn Ayton (18611933) Scottish- Fred Hoyle and Martin Rees.
born double star observer and discoverer of PROXIMA
CENTAURI, director of the Union (later Republic) Institute of Space and Astronautical Science
Observatory in Johannesburg (190327). Innes (ISAS) Japanese institute for space science research, oper-
emigrated to Australia in 1884 and again in 1896, this ating its own launch vehicles, scientific satellites, planetary
time to the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa), where he probes and balloons. ISAS had its origins in the Universi-
became a first-rate observer at the observatory there. ty of Tokyo in the 1950s, but took its present form in
Innes observed and catalogued many new southern 1981. Its work complements that of the NATIONAL SPACE
double stars, culminating in the Southern Double Star DEVELOPMENT AGENCY OF JAPAN, which operates applica-
Catalogue (1927). He also revised the Cape Photographic tions satellites and their launch vehicles.
Durchmusterung, a massive catalogue of stars visible from
the southern hemisphere. Innes was an ardent advocate of Instituto Argentino de Radioastronomia (IAR) Prin-
southern hemisphere astronomy, urging many older cipal institution for radio astronomy in Argentina, created
observatories to establish southern stations. He was one in 1962, located near Buenos Aires. It operates two 30-m
of the first to recognize the astronomical usefulness of the (98-ft) radio telescopes.
blink comparator, which he used in 1915 to discover
Proxima Centauri (known for a while as Innes Star). Instituto de Astrofsica de Canarias (IAC) Interna-
tional research centre in the Canary Islands, comprising
insolation Total amount of radiant energy from the Sun the Instituto de Astrofsica, La Laguna, and the Observa-
falling on to a body per unit area perpendicular to the torio del Teide (both situated on the island of Tenerife)
direction of the Sun, in unit time. For the Earth, the and the ROQUE DE LOS MUCHACHOS OBSERVATORY on La
198
International Astronomical Union
Palma. Together they constitute the European Northern There are two types of interferometry, using SPECKLE
Observatory. Both observing sites are noted for their INTERFEROMETRY or an INTENSITY INTERFEROMETER, to
exceptional sky-quality. The IAC is the host organization determine spatial detail, and there are other types to study
for the GRAN TELESCOPIO CANARIAS. spectral lines in detail (see FABRYPERT
INTERFEROMETER). An interferometer works on the
INT Abbreviation of ISAAC NEWTON TELESCOPE principle that ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION (usually
optical or radio) will follow two paths to produce the
Integral (acronym for International Gamma Ray interference, either because of Earths atmosphere in the
Astrophysics Laboratory) EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY case of speckle interferometry, or through two paths in the
(ESA) Horizon 2000 mission to be launched on a Russian same instrument (as in the case of FabryPert), or via
PROTON booster in 2002 into a high two telescopes (intensity interferometer). If the two signals
(40,000 km/25,000 mi) Earth orbit. Developed in are combined correctly they will either reinforce or cancel,
collaboration with NASA and Russia, Integral is dedicated depending on the delay: when the signals are in phase
to fine spectroscopy observation and high-resolution (that is, they either have no delay or a delay corresponding
imaging of celestial gamma-ray sources, with concurrent to a whole number of wavelengths) then the maximum
source monitoring in X-ray and visible wavelengths. combined signal will be obtained. See also STELLAR
INTERFEROMETER; VERY LONG BASELINE INTERFEROMETRY
integrated magnitude Total brightness of an extended
body. Stellar and planetary bodies typically have brighter intergalactic matter Matter in the space between
and darker regions and the integrated MAGNITUDE is the GALAXIES. There is no significant amount of dust in
sum of all of these. intergalactic space, but there is ample evidence for several
kinds of gas. Within galaxy clusters, the hot intracluster
intensity interferometer Instrument used to study an medium is at temperatures of typically 20 million K and
astronomical object by means of INTERFEROMETRY (see has been chemically enriched by supernovae. Outside these
also INTERFERENCE) in order to obtain more detail in the
map of the object. The first interferometer was developed
clusters, observations of absorption lines, above all from
material in front of distant and luminous QUASARS, shows
I
by Albert Michelson (18521931) in the 1920s, and it an intricate medium tracing the large-scale distribution of
worked at optical wavelengths. It consisted of mirrors at ordinary matter (which must be close to that of the DARK
either end of a steel beam placed across the aperture of MATTER as well, since its gravity will be the dominant
the 100-inch (2.5-m) telescope at Mount Wilson, and force). Hydrogen and helium absorption shows that this
with it Michelson measured diameters of a few large stars intergalactic matter is highly ionized everywhere, and more
by examining the interference pattern formed in the so in the least dense regions, where particle collisions that
eyepiece. Modern systems link two telescopes, either could lead to RECOMBINATION are less frequent. Because it
electronically or by laser beams, and use electronic is so highly ionized, and only the tiny neutral fraction is
devices, such as PHOTOMETERS, to record the signals. The observed, the amount and chemistry of this matter are still
technique has been used with great success at radio very uncertain. Even intergalactic matter in the lowest-
wavelengths (see also RADIO INTERFEROMETER). The two density regions, generally most remote from luminous
telescopes receive the signal at different times because the galaxies, has been enriched to some degree with atoms
waves of the electromagnetic radiation have to travel synthesized in stars, as shown by the presence of highly
farther to one of the telescopes than to the other. This ionized oxygen traced in observations from FUSE and the
delay is slightly different for separate, but adjacent, points Hubble Space Telescope. Thus the intergalactic medium is
on the sky, so that for an extended object, such as a large not simply leftover material that never formed galaxies: it
galaxy or nebula, the interference pattern is washed out. has, at least in the early Universe, participated in the stellar
recycling inside galaxies.
interacting galaxies Pairs or groups of GALAXIES
whose forms are distorted by the gravitational influence International AmateurProfessional Photoelectric
between them, sometimes leading to a merger. These Photometry (IAPPP) Organization that fosters partner-
interactions can set long tidal tails of stars and gas into ships among amateur, professional and student
motion well away from the original galaxy (some pieces astronomers who wish to make precise brightness obser-
of which can eventually clump together to form DWARF vations of celestial objects. Formed in 1980, the IAPPP
GALAXIES). Galaxy interactions are though to cause was far ahead of its time in promoting such collaborations, interacting galaxies A
STARBURST activity, including what appear to be newly which are becoming more important as the pace of astro- Hubble Space Telescope
formed GLOBULAR CLUSTERS, and perhaps some kinds of nomical discovery quickens and the need for continuing image of the edge-on galaxy
ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI. follow-up observations grows. ESO 510-G13 in Hydra. The
dark, dusty disk shows
Interamnia Sixth-largest MAIN-BELT ASTEROID; number International Astronomical Union (IAU) Principal warping indicative of a recent
704. It has a diameter of 316 km (196 mi). Interamnia coordinating body of world astronomy. Its mission is to collision with another galaxy.
was not discovered until 1910 due to its low albedo (0.07).
199
International Atomic Time
promote and safeguard the science of astronomy through the Time Service was the responsibility of the Royal
international cooperation. Founded in 1919, the IAU has Greenwich Observatory. See also TIMEKEEPING
11 scientific divisions and 40 commissions covering all
aspects of astronomy. Its membership includes most of International Cometary Explorer (ICE) NASA
the professional community active in astronomical spacecraft originally launched in 1978 as ISEE-3
research and education at PhD level and beyond, and (International SunEarth Explorer-3); it was renamed
amounts to some 8300 individuals in 67 countries. when it was diverted by means of a lunar gravitational
The IAU is perhaps best known as the sole authority assist to fly through the tail of Comet GIACOBINIZINNER.
responsible for naming celestial bodies and their surface The comet flyby the first ever made took place on
features. However, its remit extends far beyond that, and 1985 September 11. ICE later passed the sunward side of
ranges from the definition of fundamental astronomical Halleys Comet in 1986 March at a distance of 28 million
constants to strategic planning of future large-scale facili- km (17 million mi).
ties. It holds a General Assembly every three years at
which its long-term policy is defined, and sponsors about International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) Interna-
a dozen high-profile symposia and colloquia each year. tional non-profit organization, based in the USA, founded
The IAU also promotes education research in developing in 1988 to campaign against the adverse impact of LIGHT
countries through its International Schools for Young POLLUTION on optical astronomy. The IDA seeks to raise
Astronomers. The organizations headquarters are at the public awareness about good and bad outdoor-lighting
Institute dAstrophysique in Paris, where a permanent practices, including aesthetic, security and economic
secretariat is based. issues. The IDA is also building awareness of other threats
to the astronomical environment, such as from radio-fre-
International Atomic Time (TAI) Continuous and quency interference and space debris and from other pol-
uniform time scale derived from atomic clocks and used lutants such as aircraft contrails.
for scientific purposes. TAI is based on the SI second (see
I ATOMIC TIME) and is formed retrospectively by
intercomparing data from around 200 atomic clocks, or
International Date Line Imaginary, irregular line,
close to and sometimes coincident with that of 180
frequency standards as they are known, at around 40 longitude, marking the point on the Earth where the
laboratories across the globe. Each of these atomic clocks date changes; points east of the line being one day
should be accurate to within one second in three million earlier than those west of it.
years, but a large number are used to form the time scale Located mainly in the Pacific Ocean, therefore avoid-
in order to reduce the likelihood of the results from any ing places of habitation, the line avoids crossing land by
rogue timepieces affecting the overall combined mean. skirting around Siberia, the Aleutian Islands, the Fiji
The resultant TAI time scale is then used as a standard Islands and New Zealand. It was adopted by international
against which other clocks can be measured. agreement in 1885.
TAI has run continuously, without adjustment, since
0h 0m 0s GMT on 1958 January 1 and is co-ordinated by International Geophysical Year (IGY) Period of
the International Bureau of Weights and Measures intensive, multi-nation collaborative research, including
(BIPM) in Paris. Because it is both uniform and contin- studies of solar and auroral process, meteorology and
uous, it is ideal as a time scale for scientific purposes but oceanography, that was was carried out between 1957
not practical for everyday use, since it is not linked to the July 1 and 1958 December 31.
rotation of the Earth. For the purposes of forming an
accurate civil time scale COORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME International Meteor Organization (IMO) Organiza-
(UTC) was introduced. This is still derived from atomic tion dedicated to the study of meteors and their parent
clocks but is kept in step with the Earths rotation dust particles, established in 1988, with a worldwide
through the periodic introduction of LEAP SECONDS. membership. The IMO collects data taken visually, pho-
International Space Because of this, UTC differs from TAI by an integral tographically, by video and by radio. It maintains a data-
Station Seen from the Space number of seconds. base of visual observations extending back to 1984 and
Shuttle Endeavour is the Every major industrial nation contributes to Interna- publishes WGN, a bimonthly journal.
International Space Station tional Atomic Time. In the UK, responsibility for main-
under construction in 2001 taining the national time service is held by the National International Occultation Timing Association
December. Physical Laboratory (NPL) at Teddington. Prior to 1984 (IOTA) International organization founded in 1975 to
encourage and facilitate the observation of occultations
and eclipses. It provides predictions for grazing occulta-
tions of stars by the Moon and of stars by asteroids and
planets, and acts as a coordinating body for reports of
such events. IOTA is based at Topeka, Kansas, and has a
European Section.
200
interplanetary dust
201
interplanetary dust particle
POYNTINGROBERTSON EFFECT, results in a loss of kinetic solar sources have been isolated from chondritic
energy and produces a deceleration, causing the particles meteorites. These grains were presumably introduced
to spiral slowly in towards the Sun over a long period of into the pre-solar nebula prior to its collapse and the
time. As they approach the Sun, the particles are eroded, onset of protoplanet formation.
chiefly by evaporation and the effect of the SOLAR WIND.
The rate of depletion of the dust particles indicates that interstellar matter Molecules that exist in interstellar
the cloud must be continually replenished by some mech- MOLECULAR CLOUDS. The main constituents of
anism, otherwise it would have completely dispersed by interstellar matter are everywhere the same, mostly
now. Collisions between ASTEROIDS had long been sus- hydrogen with some helium, but the proportions of the
pected as a possible source of replenishment, and in 1983 minor constituents differ widely between different
the INFRARED ASTRONOMICAL SATELLITE (IRAS) located locations. The total density and other properties of this
three bands of dust in the region of the asteroid belt matter also differ widely from place to place. Mostly, the
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. These bands are matter is gaseous but a small proportion is embodied in
believed to be the result of collisions between asteroids. the form of minute solid dust particles. On average there
Over a long period of time, the particles within the bands are about 106 atoms m3 and one dust grain per
slowly decelerate, moving inwards from the asteroid belt 100,000 m3 of space (for comparison, there are about
towards the Sun and spreading out into the background 3 1025 molecules m3 in Earths atmosphere at sea
cloud of interplanetary dust. level). Although the density of interstellar matter is
Asteroid collision alone cannot produce sufficient extremely low, the volume of the space in a galaxy is so
material to replenish the cloud at the required rate, howev- great that the total quantity of interstellar material is very
er, and analysis of data from both the IRAS and the COS- considerable. Our own Galaxy contains about 1010 solar
MIC BACKGROUND EXPLORER (COBE) satellites indicates masses of material between the stars, making up about
that main-belt asteroids are the source of approximately 10% of its total mass. Most of this matter is distributed in
only 33% of the interplanetary dust. the spiral arms and the disk of our Galaxy and is confined
I Comets are another source of interplanetary dust, pro-
ducing dust each time they enter the inner Solar System.
to a layer only a few hundred light-years thick.
The most obvious manifestations of interstellar materi-
The largest particles produce METEOR STREAMS, whilst al are nebulae. Several types have been classified
the smallest are incorporated into the dust cloud. Even REFLECTION NEBULAE, HII REGIONS, PLANETARY NEBULAE,
this does not account for all the new material required, SUPERNOVA REMNANTS, GLOBULES and DARK NEBULAE.
though, and the remainder is thought to be cosmic in ori- The differences between these stem mainly from the way
gin. The issue as to the ultimate source of the dust is still the material is illuminated or the way light from other
open to debate, but satellite observations of the sky bright- sources is obscured; they also vary in density or recent his-
ness and in-situ measurements of the dust particles are tory. Other types of nebulae not apparent on optical pho-
advancing our understanding of the relative contributions tographs are molecular clouds, which can be detected by
from comets, asteroids and the interstellar medium. their emission or absorption of radio, microwave or
infrared radiation rather than of visible radiation.
interplanetary dust particle See MICROMETEORITE The existence of gas between the stars was discovered
in 1904 by Johann HARTMANN through the observation
interplanetary magnetic field See SOLAR WIND that a few of the absorption lines recorded in the spectrum
of the binary star Orionis did not change in wavelength
interplanetary medium Tenuous mixture of (by the Doppler effect) as the star moved around its orbit.
INTERPLANETARY DUST, charged atomic particles and This followed the observation in 1874 by William HUG-
neutral gas that occupies the space between the planets. GINS that certain nebulae had a spectrum characteristic of
The dust is believed to have originated from collisions rarefied gas. Since that time interstellar absorption lines
between asteroids and from comets entering the inner have been recorded in the spectra of many stars. In the
Solar System. The charged particles electrons, protons optical region these lines are few in number and are usual-
and helium nuclei (alpha particles) stream out from the ly much narrower than the stellar features themselves. Fre-
Sun as the SOLAR WIND, while the neutral gas exists in the quently they have multiple Doppler-shifted components,
form of hydrogen and helium atoms. As the Sun moves arising from clouds with different line-of-sight velocities.
through space it passes through interstellar matter, The strongest optical lines are due to neutral sodium and
resulting in a continual stream of neutral atoms through singly ionized calcium atoms. A large number of atoms in
the Solar System. Interstellar matter is quickly ionized by various states of ionization have their absorption lines at
the solar wind. See also ZODIACAL LIGHT ultraviolet wavelengths and have been studied by means of
telescopes borne on balloons, rockets or spacecraft. The
interstellar absorption ABSORPTION or EXTINCTION of Lyman- transition (see LYMAN SERIES) of neutral hydro-
light by interstellar dust (see INTERSTELLAR MATTER). On gen, falling at 121.6 nm wavelength, is by far the strongest
average, the extinction amounts to one stellar magnitude of all absorption lines observed. While most of the hydro-
per kiloparsec of distance. gen is neutral, some elements exist in the interstellar medi-
um primarily in an ionized state. The ionization of such
interstellar dust See INTERSTELLAR MATTER elements arises largely from the presence of energetic pho-
tons from stars. The low density of the general interstellar
interstellar grain Volumetrically insignificant, but medium ensures that the time an atom in the ionized state
scientifically critical, component within CHONDRITE has to wait before it can recombine with a free electron is
meteorites. Interstellar and circumstellar grains comprise quite long. Hydrogen molecules are detected at far-ultravi-
several populations of nanometre-sized diamond particles olet wavelengths from absorption lines in the spectra of hot
and micrometre-sized silicon carbide, graphite and stars. Some 120 other INTERSTELLAR MOLECULES have
aluminium oxide particles. The presence of the grains now been identified, many quite complex and mostly to be
was first inferred in the late 1970s to early 1980s on the found in the depths of GIANT MOLECULAR CLOUDS.
basis of the isotopic composition of noble gases found in The total number of atoms or molecules of each kind
mineralogical analyses of chondrites. The unusual between a background star and us can be calculated from
isotopic signatures of the noble gases implied the the shape and strength of the characteristic absorption
existence of several different hosts; analyses of acid- features in the stars spectrum. Significant differences in
resistant residues suggested that the hosts might be the abundances of the heavier elements relative to hydro-
carbon-rich. Together with the noble gas results, carbon gen are found between the interstellar medium and the
and nitrogen isotope data imply a variety of extra-solar stars. For example, in some cases the interstellar gas seems
sources for the grains, including supernovae and red giant to contain only a hundredth of the iron and a thousandth
stars. Currently, grains from at least 15 different extra- of the calcium that is commonly present in the atmos-
202
interstellar reddening
pheres of stars. The missing proportions are in the inter- lines. The energy stored in the form of molecular vibra-
stellar dust grains (small grains of matter, typically about tions or rotations is much less than that stored by elec-
100 nm in diameter, in interstellar space). These dust trons, and so the resulting spectrum lines are at long
grains are very effective at absorbing and scattering visible wavelengths. Vibrational lines mostly appear in the
and ultraviolet light, thus making distant stars appear infrared, and rotational lines in the microwave and radio
fainter and redder. Because the grains produce polariza- regions. Inside molecular clouds the temperature is low,
tion of starlight, they are believed to be elongated particles and so the molecules typically emit or absorb only via the
aligned by the galactic magnetic field. Most grains appear lowest energy rotational transitions.
to be composed of silicates or graphite; some have icy The most abundant molecule in molecular clouds is
mantles. The grains may form by condensing from gas expected to be that of hydrogen (H2). However, the
flowing out of the atmospheres of cool stars. hydrogen molecule is symmetrical, like a miniature bar-
Most of our knowledge about the large-scale distribu- bell, which means that the rotational transitions are FOR-
tion of the interstellar gas in our Galaxy has come from BIDDEN and so molecular hydrogen does not produce
the study of the emission and absorption of radiation spectrum lines within the molecular clouds. It can, howev-
detected at the TWENTY-ONE CENTIMETRE LINE of neu- er, sometimes be observed weakly when temperatures
tral atomic hydrogen. From the Doppler shifts of the reach 500 K or more, for example in shock fronts between
lines, clouds with different velocities along the same line colliding gas clouds. In 1963 the first interstellar molecule
of sight can be distinguished, allowing the distribution detected by radio astronomy was hydroxyl (OH). Detec-
and motion of the neutral gas in distant parts of the tion of the second most abundant molecule, carbon
Galaxy to be studied. Such observations show that neu- monoxide (CO), soon followed, from its lines at 115, 230
tral hydrogen clouds (HI REGIONS) are clustered mostly and 340 GHz (wavelengths of 2.6, 1.3 and 0.9 mm). The
along the spiral arms. carbon monoxide lines are now widely used as an easily
Even when taken together, molecular clouds and neu- observed tracer for molecular clouds.
tral hydrogen clouds very far from fill the volume of inter- Detection of polyatomic molecules such as water
stellar space. Although it is still a subject of speculation,
much of the gas between the clouds is thought to be very
(H2O) and ammonia (NH3) came in 1968. It was soon
followed by the discovery of some of the hydrocarbons
I
hot and very tenuous, at a temperature of around a million (compounds of hydrogen and carbon such as methane,
K and a density of a few thousand particles per cubic CH4). More recently, much more complex atoms includ-
metre. It is thought to be the outcome of the expansion of ing, possibly, the amino acid glycine (NH2CH2COOH),
numerous supernova remnants. which forms one of the building blocks for our form of
life, have been found. Currently a thirteen-atom molecule,
interstellar molecules Molecules that occupy the space HC11N, is the most complex found. About 120 interstellar
between the stars. In this harsh environment few molecules are now known and more are being added at
molecules are able to survive. The ultraviolet radiation the rate of a few every year.
from stars will quickly cause many of them to dissociate.
Some molecules, however, such as titanium oxide (TiO), interstellar planet PLANET that wanders in interstellar
cyanogen (CN) and diatomic carbon (C2), are sufficiently space, not gravitationally bound to any star. In recent
stable to survive in the immediate vicinity of stars, or even years candidate objects have been discovered in deep
in the outer layers of cool stars. These molecules can be space, for example in the Orion Nebula. There is debate
observed through the absorption bands that they produce as to whether these objects should properly be classed as
in the optical and infrared spectra of the stars. planets or whether they should be categorized as stars,
Most interstellar molecules, however, require shelter even though many of them have insufficient mass ever to
from ultraviolet radiation in order to survive. The mole- initiate hydrogen or even deuterium fusion in their cores,
cules themselves provide this shelter, since they can exist making them sub-brown dwarfs. The terms planetar or
in either gaseous or solid form (no liquids are known or to grey dwarf have been coined to label them. Considering
be expected in interstellar space). The solid takes the form bodies of a quite different size and nature much closer to
of interstellar dust particles (see INTERSTELLAR MATTER), home, there are several TRANS-NEPTUNIAN OBJECTS with
which appear to be composed of silicates or graphite and aphelion distances so large (some hundreds of
sometimes possess outer layers of frozen gases. The com- astronomical units) that they may be on the verge of
position of the particles is difficult to establish with cer- escaping into interstellar space. An example is 2000
tainty, but they are known to be a few hundred CR105, which is about 250 km (155 mi) in size and has
nanometres in size and possibly needle-shaped; they perihelion at 44 AU, aphelion at 413 AU.
absorb starlight very efficiently (see DARK NEBULAE). Con-
centrations of particles can shelter gaseous interstellar interstellar reddening REDDENING of starlight passing
molecules from the stellar ultraviolet radiation. Thus the through interstellar dust (see INTERSTELLAR MATTER). It
main sites where molecules can be found are inside cold
dense gas and dust clouds (see MOLECULAR CLOUDS).
KNOWN INTERSTELLAR AND CIRCUMSTELLAR MOLECULES (AS OF 2001)
Prior to the advent of radio astronomy, a few molecules
were discovered from the ABSORPTION LINES that they pro- Two atoms Three atoms Four Five Six Seven Eight Ten
atoms atoms atoms atoms atoms atoms
duced in the optical spectra of stars. These molecules were
CH, CH+ and CN, and they could only be detected with- H2 AlCl H3 C2S NH3 CH4 CH3OH CH3NH2 HCOOCH3 (CH3)2CO
in clouds that were thin enough for stars beyond the cloud CH AlF N2O c-SiC2 H3O+ SiH4 CH3SH CH3C2H CH3C3N CH3C5N
to be observed. Such clouds would not be dense enough to CH PN CH2 SO2 H2CO CH2NH C2H4 CH3CHO C7H NH2CH2COOH?
provide shelter for more complex interstellar molecules. NH SiN NH2 CO2 H2CS C3H2 CH3CN CH2CHCN C6H2
Most interstellar molecules have been detected from OH SiO H2O OCS C2H2 c-C3H2 CH3NC C6H CH3COOH
their emissions or absorptions at radio wavelengths. The C2 SiS H2S MgNC HCNH H2C2N HC2CHO HC5N
reason for this is that molecules can emit or absorb radia- CN CO C2H MgCN H2CN NH2CN NH2CHO c-CH2O CH2 Nine Eleven
tion by three separate processes. In the optical region, CO SO HCN NaCN C3H CH2CO HC3NH C7 atoms atoms
most spectrum lines from molecules are due to changes SiC HF HNC c-C3H HCOOH H2C4 (CH3)2O HC9N
in the energy state of electrons within the molecule. Ener- CP HCO HCCN C4H C5H C2H5OH
gy can also be stored by molecules in the form of the CS HCO HNCO HC3N C5S C2H5CN
vibrations of its constituent atoms and by the rotation of NO HOC HOCO HC2NC C5N CH3C4H Thirteen
the molecule itself. Just as the energies of electrons are NS N2H HNCS HNC3 HC7N atoms
quantized, so also can these vibrational and rotational SO HNO C3N C4Si C8H HC11N
energies only take specific values. Thus when the mole- HCl HCS C3O C5
cule changes its vibrational or rotational energy it does so NaCl C3 C3S H2COH
in discrete steps and produces emission or absorption KCl C2O c-SiC3
203
interstellar scintillation
arises because the dust is less effective at attenuating long- some planets are not so well known, and thus the
wave (red) light than short-wave (blue) light. calculation of the location of the invariable plane is a
little uncertain and it is not used much as a reference
interstellar scintillation Analogue of the twinkling of plane. It is, however, used in the definition of the north
stars seen with the naked eye that occurs for unresolved and south poles of planets and satellites, which are
radio sources. The source of the scintillation is defined as north if they are above the invariable plane.
irregularities in the electron and ion density of the
INTERSTELLAR MATTER. Movements within the medium, inverse-square law Frequently encountered
or more usually of the Earth and the radio source, cause relationship whereby the magnitude of a physical quantity
the radio source to fluctuate in brightness on a time scale diminishes in proportion to the square of distance.
of a few minutes to a few hours as the scattering and Common examples of the inverse square law include
delay within the interstellar medium alters. Newtons law of gravity:
Gm1 m2
intraterrestrial asteroid ASTEROID that has an orbit F =
r2
entirely interior to that of the Earth; it thus has an aphelion
distance of less than 0.9833 AU. By analogy, intravenusian Coulombs law, giving the force between two charged
and intramercurian asteroids might also be defined. No particles: Q1 Q2
such bodies are known, although they have been F =
suggested in the past (see VULCAN). The discovery of such 4 d2
bodies would be difficult using ground-based telescopes where Q1 and Q2 are the charges on the particles, d is
because they are always on the sunward side of our planet. their separation and , the permitivity of the intervening
medium.
intrinsic variable VARIABLE STAR in which the variations Also the brightness, Id, of a point light source a distance,
in brightness arise from processes that cause an actual d, away from the observer is given by an inverse-square
I change in the amount of radiation emitted, rather than
modulate a fixed output. Typical processes are pulsation
law:
1
Id
(both radial and non-radial) and eruptions (both from the
accretion of material, as in a CATACLYSMIC VARIABLE, and This last expression results in Pogsons equation relating
from internal mechanisms as in a FLARE STAR). See also the magnitudes, m1 and m2, of two objects to their
brightnesses:
EXTRINSIC VARIABLE
m1 m2 = 2.5log10 I1
invariable plane Plane of reference that is at right I2
angles to the total ANGULAR MOMENTUM vector of the invisible astronomy Astronomical research at wave-
Solar System; it is unaffected in orientation by any of lengths of ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION invisible to the
the PERTURBATIONS between the bodies in the Solar human eye. This covers GAMMA-RAY ASTRONOMY, X-RAY
System. It is inclined at 1.577 to the ECLIPTIC of EPOCH ASTRONOMY, ULTRAVIOLET ASTRONOMY, INFRARED
Io A composite of images J2000. As most of the angular momentum of the Solar ASTRONOMY, RADAR ASTRONOMY, RADIO ASTRONOMY,
from the Galileo orbiter, System is contained in the orbit of Jupiter, the invariable and the study of particles such as COSMIC RAYS and NEU-
showing the volcanically active plane has an INCLINATION of just 0.324 to Jupiters TRINOS. By studying celestial bodies across the whole of
surface of Jupiters moon Io. orbital plane. The angular momentum of a body the ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM, and not just at visible
Intense volcanism driven by depends on its position, velocity and mass. The wavelengths, astronomers are able to build up a more
tidal stresses leads to rapid positions and velocities of the planets at any instant complete picture of the Universe.
resurfacing of Io. relative to the ecliptic are well known, but the masses of
Io Innermost of the GALILEAN SATELLITES of JUPITER. Its
size, mass and density are all only a little greater than
those of the Moon, yet strong TIDAL HEATING by Jupiter
makes it by far the most volcanically active body in the
Solar System. Unlike the other Galilean satellites, Io is
ice-free, and it has a sulphur-stained rocky surface.
Of the many revelations from the VOYAGER tours of the
outer Solar System, the discovery of active volcanoes on Io
probably ranks among the most important. Before Voyager,
most people had assumed that bodies of Ios size, whether
rocky or icy, would be geologically dead like the Moon. It is
now realised that the orbital RESONANCE between the three
innermost Galilean satellites results in tidal heating. The
effect is greatest for Io because it is closest to Jupiter and
hence experiences the strongest tidal forces.
There are often more than a dozen volcanoes erupting
on Io at any one time. These are identified either by a visi-
ble eruption plume powered by the explosive escape of
sulphur dioxide, and rising 100400 km (60250 mi)
above the surface, or by infrared detection of a hot spot.
The record for the highest local temperature is at least
1700 K, whereas the normal daytime surface temperature
on Io is only 120 K.
Ios density indicates that it is predominantly a silicate
body, like the TERRESTRIAL PLANETS. Gravity and mag-
netic observations by the GALILEO orbiter confirm that it
has a dense, presumably iron-rich core below its rocky
mantle. Spectroscopic data show that Ios surface is cov-
ered by sulphur, sulphur dioxide frost and other sulphur
compounds. However, these are no more than thin,
volatile veneers resulting from volcanic activity, and the
crust as a whole is some kind of silicate rock.
Ios tenuous atmosphere contains sulphur dioxide, as
well as atoms of oxygen, sodium and potassium. The sur-
204
IPCS
ionization Name given to any process by which IOTA Abbreviation of INTERNATIONAL OCCULTATION TIM-
normally electrically neutral atoms or molecules are ING ASSOCIATION
converted into IONS, through the removal or addition of
one or more electrons. This gives them a positive or Iota Aquarids Minor METEOR SHOWER active during
negative electrical charge. An ion can itself be ionized, by July and August, with peak around August 6. It has a
losing or gaining a second electron. The minimum energy zenithal hourly rate (ZHR) no greater than 10. The
required to remove an electron from an atom, ion or meteors are generally swift and faint.
molecule is called its ionization potential. For negative
ions, the degree of ionization is denoted by a Roman IPCS Abbreviation of IMAGE PHOTON COUNTING SYSTEM
205
IRAS
206
Islamic astronomy
One type (I) includes many poorly understood variables inasmuch as its perimeter rises several kilometres above
as well as the various forms of NEBULAR VARIABLE. The the interior. Western Ishtar comprises Lakshmi Planum
second type (L) consists of slowly varying pulsating stars (a vast plateau encircled by a series of mountain belts),
that are otherwise very similar to various types of LON- Freya Montes to the north, Akna Montes in the west,
PERIOD VARIABLE and SEMIREGULAR VARIABLE. Although and the Danu Montes, which extend some 1200 km
many types of variable star (see CATACLYSMIC VARIABLE (750 mi) to the south and south-east. Immediately east
and FLARE STAR) exhibit fluctuations at random, are the Maxwell Montes, rising to 17 km (11 mi) above
unpredictable intervals, these types are not defined as the mean planetary radius, the highest point on Venus.
irregular under the classification scheme. Like the mountains around Lakshmi Planum, the
Maxwell Montes have a complex banded structure
Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes (ING) Group of clearly seen on radar images. Eastern Ishtar takes the
instruments consisting of the 4.2-m (165-in.) WILLIAM form of a rather hummocky plateau extending outwards
HERSCHEL TELESCOPE, the 2.54-m (100-in.) ISAAC NEW- between about 100 and 1000 km (60600 mi). These
TON TELESCOPE and the 1.0-m (39-in.) JACOBUS KAPTEYN highly deformed zones are below the level of the
TELESCOPE at the ROQUE DE LOS MUCHACHOS OBSERVATO- mountain chains; they slope down towards the exterior
RY on the island of La Palma. There is a sea-level base at plains or terminate in steep scarps.
Santa Cruz de La Palma. The ING is funded by the UKs
PARTICLE PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY RESEARCH COUNCIL, Isidis Planitia Impact basin on MARS (13.0N
the NWO (Nederlanse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk 273.0W). It is situated between SYRTIS MAJOR PLANITIA
Onderzoek) in the Netherlands, and Spains INSTITUTO and the Elysium Rise and is approximately 1100 km
DE ASTROFSICA DE CANARIAS. (680 mi) across. The basin is poorly defined on its
eastern side, where it merges on to the plains associated
Isaac Newton Telescope (INT) Optical 2.54-m with the Elysium volcanoes.
(100-in.) telescope, part of the ISAAC NEWTON GROUP on
La Palma, which can be used either for wide-field imag-
ing or spectroscopy. It was installed at the ROYAL GREEN-
Islamic astronomy Astronomy as practised in the
Middle East, North Africa and Moorish Spain during the
I
WICH OBSERVATORY, Herstmonceux, in 1967 and was flowering of the Islamic Empire, from around the 8th to
originally fitted with a 2.50-m (98-in.) mirror made from the 14th century. Although it is sometimes referred to as
a Pyrex blank cast in 1936 for Michigan University Arab or Arabic astronomy, some of its practitioners
Observatory. However, atmospheric conditions at Herst- were from other ethnic or linguistic groups, and the
monceux were poor, and when the UKs participation in unifying cultural force in this region and during this
ROQUE DE LOS MUCHACHOS OBSERVATORY was proposed period was Islam. Two circumstances fostered the growth
in the 1970s, it was decided to move the INT there. of astronomy under Islamic rule. The first was that the
Equipped with a new mirror, the telescope began opera- seats of ancient learning lay within or just outside the
tion on La Palma in 1984. bounds of the empire, and Islam was tolerant of scholars
from other creeds. A second impetus came from Islamic Isaac Newton Group of
ISAS Abbreviation of INSTITUTE OF SPACE AND ASTRO- religious observances, which gave rise to many problems Telescopes High above the
NAUTICAL SCIENCE in mathematical astronomy, mostly related to clouds on the Roque de Los
timekeeping. In solving these problems, Islamic Muchachos peak on La Palma,
ISEE Abbreviation of INTERNATIONAL SUNEARTH astronomers went far beyond the Greek mathematical the ING telescopes enjoy some
EXPLORER methods and provided essential tools for the creation of of the best observing
Western RENAISSANCE ASTRONOMY. conditions in Europe. Largest
Ishtar Terra Continent-sized highland block of VENUS. Following the foundation of Baghdad, the new capital of these instruments is the
It covers an area comparable to Australia and drops of the Abbasid dynasty, in AD 762, there began a massive Isaac Newton Telescope itself
steeply to the surrounding plains, especially on its south- effort to translate into Arabic all the major scientific texts (large dome at left), a 2.5 m
western flank. It is unique among Venus upland regions of antiquity. The most vigorous patron was the Caliph al- (98 in.) reflector.
207
isostasy
Mamun. Shortly after he came to power in 813 he come until the work of Ibn al-Shatir (130475/6) at Dam-
founded the Bayt al-Hikma (House of Wisdom) in Bagh- ascus around 1350. Although al-Shatirs solution, as well
dad. There, scholars of all creeds worked to translate as the work of the Maragha observatory, remained gener-
manuscripts acquired from the ancient libraries that now ally unknown in the West, this and other Islamic criticisms
lay within the empire, which stretched from Spain to of Ptolemy may have had an influence on Copernicus.
India, to stock what was to become one of the worlds Conspicuous examples of modern astronomys Islamic
great academies. heritage are found in its vocabulary in terms such as nadir
The chief scholar of this great enterprise was Abul- and zenith, but in particular in the names of stars: Betel-
Hasan Thabit ibn Qurra (c.835901), who wrote over a geuse, Rigel, Aldebaran and Altair are just a few of the star
hundred scientific treatises, including a commentary on names that are Arabic in origin or are Arabic translations
Ptolemys ALMAGEST. Another astronomer (and geograph- of Ptolemys Greek descriptions. (Some of the names as we
er) in 9th-century Baghdad was Abul-Abbas al-Farghan have them today bear little resemblance to their original
(c.82561), whose Elements helped to spread the more ele- forms, having been corrupted in transliteration and by cen-
mentary and non-mathematical parts of Ptolemys geocen- turies of transcription.) Many of these star names begin
tric astronomy to the West. By 900 the stage was set for the with Al- because al is Arabic for the. The Arabic star
spread of scientific knowledge throughout the Empire, nomenclature entered the West by another route the
with a single language, Arabic, as its vehicle. This knowl- making of ASTROLABES, on which star names were
edge later diffused into Christian Europe via Spain, where inscribed. The earliest dated astrolabe in Arabic dates from
there was considerable scholarly interaction with visiting 927928. It is primarily from Spain that astrolabe-making,
European translators until the defeat of the Moors in the together with Arabic names for the stars, reached the West
12th century (see MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN ASTRONOMY). via England in the late 13th and 14th centuries.
The times and dates of Islamic religious activities are
regulated according to a lunar calendar, and the first isostasy Principle that recognizes there to be a state of
appearance of the new moon is of great importance. Pre- balance between topographic masses and the underlying
I dictions of this and the preparation of almanacs regulating
the hours of prayer led to a considerable interest in spheri-
materials that support them. Higher elevations tend to be
supported by material of lower density; for example,
cal trigonometry, and the development of the modern continental crust is less dense than oceanic crust and is
trigonometric functions (although some originated in also thicker, and mountain ranges have roots of crustal
India) and the identities between them. material extending downwards towards the mantle. The
Islamic astronomers did not make exhaustive observa- depth of such features can be deduced from precise
tions of the sky. They restricted their sightings, or at least measurements of local variations in the gravity field. The
those they chose to record, primarily to measurements concept owes much to the work of Sir George AIRY.
that could be used for re-deriving key parameters of solar
or planetary orbits. An impressive example of an Islamic ISO Abbreviation of INFRARED SPACE OBSERVATORY
astronomer working strictly within a Ptolemaic framework
but establishing new values for Ptolemys parameters was isotherm Line drawn on a weather map, joining all places
Muhammad AL-BATTA NI , a younger contemporary of that are, at a given moment of time, experiencing the same
Thabit ibn Qurra. Al-Battans Z j ([Astronomical] temperature. Isotherms can also be drawn on plots of radio
Tables) was one of the most important works of astrono- or infrared emission from astronomical bodies.
my between the time of Ptolemy and the Renaissance
Nicholas COPERNICUS cites his 9th-century predecessor isothermal process Process in thermodynamics in
no fewer than 23 times. which a change in a system occurs with transfer of heat to
By contrast, one of the greatest astronomers of medieval or from the environment so that the system remains at a
Islam, Ali ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Yunus (9501009), constant temperature. The collapse of a PROTOSTAR (see
remained virtually unknown to European astronomers until HAYASHI TRACK) and the collapse of a star to form a
around 1800. Working in Cairo a century after al-Battan, WHITE DWARF are both isothermal processes.
Ibn Yunus wrote a major astronomical handbook called the
Hakimi z j. Unlike other Islamic astronomers, he prefaced isotopes Atomic nuclei that have the same atomic
his z j with a series of more than a hundred observations, number but different atomic masses; that is, they contain
mostly of eclipses and planetary conjunctions. the same number of protons but different numbers of
Ptolemys Almagest had contained a catalogue of over a neutrons. See also ATOM
thousand stars. The first critical revision of this catalogue
was carried out in the 10th century by Abul-Husain AL- isotropy Idea that the UNIVERSE looks the same in all
SU FI . His Kitab suwar al-kawakib al-thabita (Book on the directions.
Constellations of the Fixed Stars) followed Ptolemys
often faulty list, but it did give improved magnitudes. The ISS Abbreviation of INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION
books splendid pictorial representations became known
in the Latin West; it also contains the first known repre- Istituto di Radioastronomia, Bologna Institute of the
sentation of the Andromeda Galaxy. Italian National Research Council (CNR) which operates
Although most Islamic astronomers remained securely two stations, respectively in Medicina (Bologna) and
within the geocentric framework of Ptolemy and Aristotle, Noto (Siracusa). Its three radio telescopes, the
some criticized particular technical details of the PTOLEMA- 600 600-m (2000 2000-ft) Northern Cross array
IC SYSTEM which seemed to violate the ancient belief that and two single-dish 32-m (105-ft) antennae, are used
only uniform circular motion can explain the movements of mainly for VERY LONG BASELINE INITERFEROMETRY.
celestial bodies. One of the first critics was the physicist Ibn
al-Haytham (965?c.1041), known in the West as Alhazen, IUE Abbreviation of INTERNATIONAL ULTRAVIOLET
who held the planetary models of Ptolemys Almagest to be EXPLORER
false. Later, Muhammad ibn Rushd (112698), known in
the West as Averros, declared that Ptolemys eccentrics Izar (Pulcherrima) The star Botis, visual magnitude
and epicycles were contrary to nature. 2.35, distance 210 l.y. It is a striking double star of mags.
A fresh attack on the Ptolemaic system was undertaken 2.5 and 4.6, difficult to resolve in the smallest telescopes
in the 13th century by Nasr al-Dn AL-TU SI . A prolific because of the closeness of the components, less than 3
writer with 150 known titles to his credit, al-Tus con- apart. Their spectral types are K0 II or III and A0 V,
structed a major observatory at Maragha (in present-day producing a beautiful colour contrast of orange and blue.
Iran). Other astronomers at the Maragha observatory also The name Izar comes from the Arabic meaning girdle
offered new arrangements of circles, but a fully acceptable or loincloth. Its alternative title, Pulcherrima, is Latin for
alternative (from a philosophical point of view) did not most beautiful, from its telescopic appearance.
208
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Jacobus Kapteyn Telescope (JKT) Smallest of the ined these lines by constructing a spectrohelioscope,
three Anglo-Dutch telescopes of the ISAAC NEWTON with which the prominences could be observed spectro-
GROUP on La Palma. The JKT has a 1.00-m (39-in.) scopically without waiting for a total eclipse. Janssen
J
diameter mirror and is used exclusively for astronomical observed three bright yellow lines in their spectra, two of
imaging. It was installed at the ROQUE DE LOS MUCHACHOS which were already identified with the element sodium;
OBSERVATORY in 1985. the third, previously undiscovered, was attributed by
Lockyer to a new chemical element, called helium, not
James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT) Worlds discovered on Earth until 1895. Two years later, during
largest radio telescope capable of working at submillime- the FrancoPrussian War, Janssen escaped the besieged
tre wavelengths (0.32 mm), operated by the JOINT city of Paris in a balloon, intending to observe the1870
ASTRONOMY CENTRE. The JCMT is situated at MAUNA December total solar eclipse in Algeria. During the 1874
KEA OBSERVATORY in Hawaii, where it is above 97% per- and 1882 transits of Venus, he obtained multiple images
cent of the water vapour in the atmosphere an essential of the planet in rapid succession using a technique that
requirement for this waveband. The primary mirror, was a forerunner of cinematography. His collection of
15 m (49 ft) across, consists of 276 individually more than six thousand superb solar photographs taken
adjustable aluminium panels. An opening enclosure pro- between 1876 and 1903 was published as Atlas du pho-
tects the instrument. Since its inauguration in 1987, the tographies solaires (1904). Janssen helped to establish the
JCMT has undertaken pioneering work at submillimetre MEUDON OBSERVATORY (1875) and another at Mont
wavelengths, including the first observations made with Blanc (189395), which was later known as the PIC DU
an imaging bolometer array. MIDI OBSERVATORY.
Jansky, Karl Guthe (190550) American radio engineer, Janus One of the inner satellites of SATURN, identified
whose detection of radio waves from the Milky Way marked in 1980 in VOYAGER 1 images. It may have been
the beginning of RADIO ASTRONOMY. In 1928 Jansky joined the observed earlier, in 1966, by Audouin Dollfus. It is
Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdel, New Jersey, after spheroidal in shape, measuring about 200 180
graduating from the University of Wisconsin. He made his his- 150 km (120 110 90 mi). Janus has a near-circular
toric discovery with a rotating antenna that received both very orbit, with a very slight tilt to Saturns equator
short radio waves (20.5 MHz) and much longer waves
(45 kHz), which he was using to search for the cause of static
(inclination only 0.14), at an average distance of
151,500 km (94,100 mi) from the planets centre, giving
J
that interfered with ship-to-shore and other kinds of telecom- it an orbital period of 0.695 days. It is co-orbital with
munications. He identified three kinds of static. The first two EPIMETHEUS; the two may be derived from a single split
were associated with thunderstorms: localized storms, and body. See also CRUITHNE
more distant storms whose radio noise was reflected by the
ionosphere. The third kind, a steady hiss, was initially a mys- Jeans, James Hopwood (18771946) English theoret-
tery, but Jansky noticed that it reached a maximum intensity ical physicist who developed advanced mathematical
every 23h 56m, the SIDEREAL PERIOD. models to attack many fundamental astrophysical prob-
Jansky noted that during the solar eclipse on 1932 lems. Jeans first major theoretical work, published while
August 31, the intensity of the waves did not decrease, as he was at Trinity College, Cambridge, used statistical
it would have done if the radio emission came from the mechanics to explain the behaviour of gas molecules.
Sun. Also, the hiss was strongest along the galactic plane, Since many astrophysical objects, including stars and neb-
especially at a right ascension of around 18h, in Sagittarius ulae, are largely composed of gas, this kinetic theory of
the likely centre of the MILKY WAY already identified by gases became widely used by astronomers investigating
Harlow SHAPLEY and Jan OORT. Janksy concluded that the structure of stellar interiors and the interstellar medi-
giant ionized clouds of INTERSTELLAR MATTER in the um. A report written by Jeans in 1914 helped the QUAN-
Milky Way were producing the static, marking the birth of TUM THEORY to become accepted.
the new science of radio astronomy. Although this made He then began a long study of rotating fluid masses,
the front page of the New York Times, there was little inter- building on previous work by, among others, George
est from the scientific community. Jansky himself failed to Howard Darwin (18451912) and douard ROCHE.
see the potential of his discovery. It was taken up, initially This led him to reject the NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS of Pierre
single-handedly, by Grote REBER, and only after World Simon de LAPLACE by showing that the rotating pear-
War II did radio astronomy really take off. To honour Jan- shaped mass required by this theory was dynamically
sky, the IAU in 1973 adopted his name for the unit of flux unstable. Jeans proposed instead that the Solar System
density of extraterrestrial radio emissions. formed after another star passed close by our Sun and
violently removed some of its matter, which subsequent-
jansky (symbol Jy) Unit of FLUX DENSITY adopted by the ly coalesced into the planets. This tidal theory was later
International Astronomical Union in 1973 in honour of extended by Harold JEFFREYS. In 1928 Jeans proposed
Karl JANSKY. One jansky is equal to 1026 watts per CONTINUOUS CREATION, a concept that laid the founda- Janus Saturns small moon
square metre per hertz. tions for the STEADY-STATE THEORY of cosmology, Janus imaged from Voyager 1
though it was left to others, including Fred HOYLE, fully during its 1980 flyby. Janus is
Janssen, (Pierre) Jules (Csar) (18241907) French to develop that model. Jeans concluded his life in astron- seen here against the
astronomer who invented the spectrohelioscope and, omy by writing popular books, including The Universe background of the planet.
independently of Norman LOCKYER, discovered the spec- Around Us (1929), The Mysterious Universe (1930) and
tral line of helium in the solar chromosphere. Originally a Through Space and Time (1934), and radio broadcasts
businessman, he turned to solar astronomy after hearing aimed at a general audience.
of the spectroscopic discoveries of Gustav KIRCHHOFF.
Janssen built an observatory in 1862 atop his house at Jeffreys, Harold (18911989) British physicist who
Montmartre to investigate the dark bands in the Suns developed models for the structure and evolution of the
spectrum. Using a five-prism spectroscope, Janssen was Earth and the Solar System. His work in hydrodynamics
able to resolve the bands into fine lines that were most and geophysics led him to extend James JEANS tidal
intense during sunrise and sunset, when the Sun was hypothesis for the origin of the Solar System. This theory
observed through the thickest layers of the Earths atmos- suggests that the passage of stars close to the Solar System
phere, and identified water vapour in the atmosphere as triggers the formation of planets. Jeffreys also proposed
the source of these TELLURIC LINES. models of the circulation of Earths atmosphere and the
On an expedition to India, Janssen used a spectro- atmospheres of the outer planets.
scope to study solar prominences visible during the 1868
August total eclipse, demonstrating that the bright lines Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) Federally funded
in their spectra indicated a gaseous nature. He re-exam- research and development facility managed by the Cali-
209
jets
fornia Institute of Technology (Caltech) for the NATIONAL effect, and it requires the jet to be pointing almost direct-
AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA). It ly at Earth (within 10). This may mean that more
owes its origin (and its name) to rocket experiments car- objects have jets than expected, but they are not see
ried out by Theodor VON KRMN in the 1930s in a because they are not pointing towards Earth.
canyon near Pasadena, California. Spurred by the onset of A second generator of jets is a low-luminosity PROTO-
World War II, the laboratory conducted missile experi- STAR. The material around the fledgling protostar col-
ments on the site and it grew rapidly, eventually flying the lapses on to the star, helping to initiate the nuclear fusion
first successful US spacecraft, EXPLORER 1, in January reaction that turns hydrogen into helium. This reaction
1958. When NASA was created the following December, reverses the infall, and eventually an outflow occurs. The
JPL was transferred to the new space agency from US wind is millions of times stronger than the SOLAR WIND,
Army control, bringing expertise in building and flying and is usually supersonic, so that shock waves are pro-
spacecraft, propulsion systems, guidance, systems inte- duced in the interstellar medium where the jet impacts.
gration and space telecommunications. The shocked clumps of material are called HERBIGHARO
JPL is NASAs centre of excellence for deep-space OBJECTS; they can be as small as the size of the Solar Sys-
systems, and its broad remit covers most aspects of tem, and the mass of the Earth. The clumps have been
unmanned US space missions. It has been responsible found to be variable: they can be seen to move and
for the high-profile planetary probes of the past few change over several years. The protostar itself is invisible,
decades, and continues this role with such future pro- hidden behind a thick cocoon of dust and probably with a
jects as deep impact and EUROPA ORBITER. It also plays a large dust disk, but it is assumed that the jets leave the
major role in space observatories such as the HUBBLE system along the rotational axis of the star. The material
SPACE TELESCOPE and the SPACE INFRARED TELESCOPE in the jets can be detected in the optical, infrared and
FACILITY, as well as Earth science satellites such as Terra, radio regions, with the radio observations highlighting the
CloudSat and GRACE (the Gravity Recovery And Cli- presence of magnetic fields.
mate Experiment).
jet stream Narrow belt of high-speed wind in a
jets Long, thin gaseous structures characterized by radio planetary ATMOSPHERE. On Earth, the jet streams that
emission and/or optical nebulosity. There are always two have the greatest influence on the surface weather,
J jets, but one may be hidden by the central object or
disrupted by the medium through which it travels. Jets are
including the development, motion and decay of
depressions, are two westerly jets, the subtropical and
usually collimated (kept straight) and confined by strong polar jet streams, in each hemisphere. These typically
magnetic fields or winds, and the rotation of the central occur as discontinuous segments around the Earth,
object plays a significant role. Jets arise from two vastly thousands of kilometres long, hundreds of kilometres
different situations. wide, and a few kilometres deep. They lie in the upper
In highly luminous RADIO GALAXIES (double-lobed TROPOSPHERE and lower STRATOSPHERE, often being
radio sources) and QUASARS, two jets of highly superson- located where there is a break in the TROPOPAUSE.
ic, energetic electrons bore into the ambient intergalactic Seasonal jets, such as the easterly equatorial and the
medium. The jets remain collimated unless the sur- westerly polar-night jet streams, also occur within the
rounding gas causes wiggles and bends by refraction, or stratosphere. On Earth, jet stream wind speeds generally
until they impact upon sufficiently dense material so that lie in the range 160320 km/h (100200 mph), with a
they dissipate much of their energy in shocks, creating recorded extreme of 656 km/h (408 mph). Far higher
radio hot spots of SYNCHROTRON RADIATION within the speeds, sometimes in excess of 1400 km/h (870 mph),
large radio LOBES. Sometimes galaxies even generate have been observed on Jupiter, Saturn and Neptune.
knots along their jets that can be seen as optical nebulae.
The jet of M87 is 8000 l.y. long, and the Hubble Space Jewel Box Name given to the KAPPA CRUCIS CLUSTER by
Telescope is able to image knots and features as small as John HERSCHEL.
10 l.y. across in the jet. The jets connect the radio lobes
to the centre of the galaxy, and they are thought to be Jodrell Bank Observatory Major radio astronomy
powered by a BLACK HOLE at its centre. The central facility of the University of Manchester and the location
engine is able to pump the jets in the same two directions of Britains most famous scientific instrument, the
for periods of order 100 million years. At times the Lovell Telescope. The Jodrell Bank site, 32 km (20 mi)
velocity of the material in the jets of M87, and from sev- south of Manchester, was selected by Bernard LOVELL in
eral quasars, appears to be greater than the speed of 1945 as a suitable location from which to observe cosmic
light. This SUPERLUMINAL motion is actually a geometric rays. He used ex-army radar equipment to try to detect
the rays, but instead found reflections from meteors.
Building on this experience, he constructed a 66-m
(218-ft) fixed parabolic aerial in 1947 and, in 1957, the
fully steerable 76-m (250-ft) dish known originally as the
Mark I telescope that now bears his name. Both tele-
scopes were the largest of their kind in the world when
built, and the 250-ft telescope immediately became
famous through its tracking of SPUTNIK 1. Outstanding
debts on the telescope were eventually cleared by the
Nuffield Foundation, and what had been called the
Jodrell Bank Experimental Station became the Nuffield
Radio Astronomy Laboratories.
A second fully steerable radio telescope, the 26-m
(85-ft) Mark II, was completed in 1964 and, together
with a third telescope at Nantwich, began pioneering
work on long-baseline interferometry. The Multi-Tele-
scope Radio-Linked Interferometer project of 1976
extended this work to several other sites with telescopes
Jodrell Bank The 76-m operated by Jodrell Bank. In the early 1990s, this array
(250-ft) dish of the Lovell Radio (now renamed MERLIN) was extended to include a new
Telescope at Jodrell Bank. Built 32-m (105-ft) telescope at Cambridge. In the meantime,
in 1957, this is the worlds the Mark I had been upgraded and renamed the Lovell
second-largest fully steerable Telescope on its 30th anniversary. Further upgrades to
radio telescope. the Lovell in 20002002 ensure that the telescope will
210
Julian Day
continue to play a leading role in astronomy both as a 1923 to 1933 Jones served as His Majestys Astronomer at
single-dish instrument and as part of MERLIN. Its state- the Cape, South Africa. There he supervised studies of
of-the-art receivers make it 30 times more sensitive than lunar occultations, using data accumulated between 1880
when it was first built. and 1922 to verify and correct the lunar constants calcu-
lated by E.W. BROWN. He also measured the parallaxes,
Johnson, Harold Lester (192180) American and hence distances, to hundreds of stars in the Milky
astronomer who co-invented the UBV PHOTOMETRY sys- Way. In 1933 Jones returned to England to become
tem used to analyse the physical properties of stars and Astronomer Royal, retiring in 1955.
galaxies. Johnson was an electronics expert who designed Jones major lifetime project was a highly detailed
and built many kinds of photometer. He improved the analysis of tiny variations in the Earths rotation rate. He is
sensitivity of the detectors used in these instruments and most famous for his refinement of the solar parallax, and
found innovative ways of reducing the noise that inter- hence of the ASTRONOMICAL UNIT. In 1928 the IAU
fered with photometric observations. Johnson also appointed him president of a commission to determine
designed and built a prototype of the first multiple mir- the solar parallax from observations to be made of the
ror telescope, installed in the 1970s at the Mexican asteroid (433) Eros, which would be at opposition in
National Observatory. 1931. Using thousands of visual and photographic obser-
Working with William W. MORGAN in the early 1950s, vations from some fifty observatories in both hemi-
he developed the UBV SYSTEM for measuring stellar mag- spheres, Jones began a ten-year process of reduction and
nitudes in three basic colours or wavebands: U (ultravio- calculation that ranks as one of the most impressive calcu-
let), B (blue) and V (visual, or yellow). Later, Johnson lational feats of the pre-computer era. The result,
extended the system to include the R (red) and I (near- announced in 1941, was 8.790, corresponding to a value
infrared) bands, then to additional bands out to 4 m, for the AU of 149,670,000 km.
known as J, K and L. Johnson and his colleagues mea-
sured thousands of reference stars with the UBV and Jovian Pertaining to the planet Jupiter. The term Jovian
UBVRI photometry systems, and they were able to cali- planet is also used to describe the Solar Systems giant
brate the spectral energy distributions (absolute energy planets or gas giants: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
curves), resulting in more accurate stellar temperature Neptune. The atmospheres of the Jovian planets
scale. Using his new system of photometry, Johnson
evolved powerful tools for analysing stars and clusters of
represent a significant proportion of their total mass, in
contrast to those of the inner, terrestrial planets.
J
stars by plotting their apparent visual magnitudes against
BV differences or indices (colourmagnitude diagram) Joy, Alfred Harrison (18821973) American
or UB index versus BV index (colourcolour dia- astronomer who used spectroscopy to study variable stars
gram). He was able to estimate the ages of clusters from and novae, and to find stellar distances and radial motions.
their colourmagnitude diagrams. The same principles He spent almost 60 years at the MOUNT WILSON OBSERVA-
were applied to studies of individual stars, and using TORY, which he joined in 1915, working under George
these tools Johnson made many investigations involving Ellery HALE. He used the technique of spectroscopic par-
carbon stars, subdwarfs, Cepheids and M stars, as well as allax developed by Walter S. ADAMS to calculate the dis-
structures like circumstellar shells. tances to stars. Joy measured the radial velocities for
thousands of stars, including many Cepheid variables,
Johnson Space Center (JSC) In full, the Lyndon B. which allowed him to determine the distance of the Solar
Johnson Space Center, the NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND System to the centre of the Milky Way. He also was the
SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA) operational headquar- first to classify the T Tauri stars.
ters for all US manned space missions, and home to
NASAs Astronaut Corps. The JSC lies about 40 km JPL Abbreviation of JET PROPULSION LABORATORY
(25 mi) south-east of Houston, Texas. It was founded in
1961 as the Manned Spaceflight Center, but its name was Julian calendar CALENDAR devised by Julius Caesar
changed in 1973 February to honour the former US Pres- and the Greek astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria in
ident. The JSCs remit also includes spacecraft design, 45 BC. The system was based on a year of 365.25 days,
development and testing; the selection and training of fixed at 365 with a leap year of 366 days every four
astronauts; mission planning; and participation in the var- years to compensate. The year commenced on March
ious experiments conducted in space. Its facilities include 25. The calendar, which was completed by Caesar
the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory, a giant pool that can Augustus in 44 BC and adopted throughout the Roman
accommodate full-size mock-ups of the INTERNATIONAL Empire, established the present-day names, lengths and
SPACE STATION and allow astronauts to gain experience order of the months.
working in a weightless environment. The Julian calendar was in general use in the West until
1582, by which time the approximation to the true solar
Joint Astronomy Centre (JAC) Organization based in year of 365.24219 days had accumulated an error of ten
Hilo, Hawaii, that operates the JAMES CLERK MAXWELL days. It was superseded by the GREGORIAN CALENDAR but
TELESCOPE and the UNITED KINGDOM INFRARED TELE- was still used in the UK until 1752.
SCOPE on behalf of the three partner countries (the UK,
Canada and the Netherlands). Julian date Number of days that have passed since
noon GMT on 4713 BC January 1 (the JULIAN DAY
Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics (JILA) number), plus the decimal fraction of a mean solar day
Interdisciplinary institute for research and graduate edu- that has elapsed since the preceding noon. For example,
cation in the physical sciences, operated jointly by the the Julian date at 18.00 UTC on 2000 January 1 was
University of Colorado (CU) and the National Institute of 2,451,545.25. The modified Julian date (MJD) is a
Standards and Technology (NIST). Founded in 1962, it shortened form, using only the last five digits of the full
is located on the main CU campus in Boulder, Colorado. Julian date and commencing at 0h UTC on 1858
JILAs research areas include atomic and molecular inter- November 17. The modified Julian date at 18.00 UTC
actions, new states of matter, cooling and trapping of mat- on January 1 therefore was 51544.75, the 0.5 difference
ter and nanotechnology. Its laboratories host the coldest being because the Julian date changes at noon but the
place in the Universe. MJD at midnight UTC.
Jones, Harold Spencer (18901960) English Julian Day Method of easily accounting for the number
astronomer, the tenth ASTRONOMER ROYAL, who arranged of days that have elapsed over a long period of time,
the move of GREENWICH OBSERVATORY to Herstmonceux, independent of calendarial systems. Each day is allotted a
and improved the value of the SOLAR PARALLAX. From Julian Day number, which runs consecutively from
211
Juliet
212
Jupiter
sumed to be associated with the rotation of the conduc- Jupiter Three white oval
tive core, is approximately 9h 55m.5. Based on this data, a storms (lower centre) can be
standard rotating co-ordinate system, SYSTEM III, has seen approaching the Great
been selected by the International Astronomical Union Red Spot in this 1995 image.
(IAU). The zero longitude has been chosen, corre- Jupiters turbulent atmosphere
sponding to the central meridian of the planet at 0h UT shows constant change and
on 1965 January 1. Longitude has been defined to interactions between features
increase with time at a rate of 870.536 per 24 hours. such as these.
Within this system, the latitude and longitude of small
eddies within the cloud deck can be measured as a func-
tion of time; thus the prevailing winds can be derived.
These measurements are interpreted as atmospheric
motions relative to the interior of the planet, and, if fully
understood, they could reveal a great deal about energy
transport within the planet.
Average zonal winds are characterized by strong east-
wards winds within 10 of the equator and a series of
alternating westwards and eastwards jets extending
towards the poles. At latitudes equatorwards of 40,
bright zones are bounded on the equatorwards side by a
westwards jet and on the polewards side by an eastwards
jet. These regions have anticyclonic flow and are equiva-
lent to upwelling regions in the Earths atmosphere. The
brown intervening belts have cyclonic shear and, by
analogy, should be regions of downwards flow where shade of a specific cloud feature. The number of times
ammonia ice melts. Detailed photometric studies indi- the reflected photons have been scattered off particles
cate that there is an aerosol haze extending from high and the amount of ammonia ice located at high eleva-
altitudes to below the cloud deck. This haze contributes
a yellowish-brown coloration to the planet. The size of
tions both play a role in the observed ALBEDO.
Individual cloud features within the Jovian atmos-
J
the particles and the depth to which the line-of-sight phere are large and long-lived. A low effective tempera-
penetrates play a large role in determining the hue and ture causes Jupiter to lose the excess energy that is
brought up by convection cells more slowly than does
the Earths atmosphere; however, this does not explain
JUPITER: NOMENCLATURE the extreme longevity of some cloud systems. The most
OF BELTS AND ZONES well-known feature is the GREAT RED SPOT, centred at
Name Abbreviation about 22S. Nested between a westwards wind along the
North polar region NPR northern edge and an eastwards wind on the south, this
North north temperate zone NNTZ giant elliptical cloud system rotates in a counter-clock-
North north temperate belt NNTB wise, or anticyclonic, sense. To a large extent, the visibil-
North temperate zone NTZ ity of the Great Red Spot is determined by the amount of
North temperate belt NTB turbulence present in the westwards jet deflected around
North tropical zone NTropZ its northern perimeter. White eddies enter the feature
North equatorial belt NEB during periods of active convection, rendering the con-
Equatorial zone EZ trast so low that detection is difficult. Actually, the Great
South equatorial belt SEB Red Spot reflects no more red light than do the sur-
South tropical zone STropZ rounding white clouds. Its uniqueness lies in the fact that
South temperate belt STB the circulation of the feature brings to the surface some
South temperate zone STZ unknown constituent that is a strong ultraviolet and vio-
South south temperate belt SSTB let absorber; hence observing through a broad-band vio-
South south temperate zone SSTZ let haze filter enhances the visibility of the feature. Small
South polar region SPR red spots, displaying the same ultraviolet absorber,
213
Jupiter-crossing asteroid
214
K corona
Kant, Immanuel (17241804) German philosopher ent directions, by essentially the same method as used by
whose cosmological speculations anticipated later discover- William HERSCHEL. Their model of the Milky Way was
ies about our Galaxy and others. Forced to work for room too small by about one-third because they were unable to
K
and board as a tutor after his father died, Kant studied the account correctly for the effects of interstellar reddening
philosophy of science at the University of Knigsberg, of starlight, which makes stars look closer than they really
where he later became professor of logic and metaphysics. are. In 1906 Kapteyn announced his plan to make sys-
In 1754 he suggested that the Moons tide-raising forces tematic statistical studies of stars in 206 so-called Selected
cause its near hemisphere always to face the Earth and that Areas (later extended to 252) to gain a better picture of
these same frictional forces have the long-term effect of the structure of our Galaxy.
slowing down the Earths rotation rate. In 1755 Kant pub-
lished Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens, Kapteyns Star Star with the second-largest proper
the first comprehensive model of the Milky Ways structure. motion known, 8.7 per year, covering a distance on the
Commenting on the cosmological theories of Thomas celestial sphere equivalent to the apparent diameter of the
WRIGHT of Durham, who argued that the bright band of Moon in just over 200 years. It is a red dwarf of spectral
light crossing the night sky consisted of innumerable suns in type M0 V, with only 0.4% of the Suns luminosity. Its
a disk-shaped distribution, Kant concluded that the Solar visual magnitude is 8.86 and it lies 12.8 l.y. away in the
System lies in that plane of stars or very near it. He likened southern constellation Pictor. The stars rapid motion was
our Galaxy to the structure of the Solar System, where the discovered in 1897 by Jacobus KAPTEYN.
planets are also approximately in the same plane. The
Milky Way, he said, was lens-shaped, its appearance deter- Karl Schwarzschild Observatory Optical observatory
mined by our perspective in space. Kant is usually credited 350 m (1150 ft) above sea level at Tautenburg near Jena,
with coining the term island universe to describe our Germany. The principal telescope, inaugurated along
Galaxy as it related to the other patches of nebulous light with the observatory itself in 1960, is a 2-m (78-in.)
that we now know are other galaxies. In his magnum opus, reflector that can be used in various configurations,
Critique of Pure Reason (1781), he maintained that cosmol- including as a SCHMIDT TELESCOPE. In this format, it is the
ogists cannot ascertain with absolute certainty the finiteness worlds largest Schmidt.
or infinity of space and time.
Kasei Valles Major outflow channel area that enters Kappa Crucis Cluster
Kappa Crucis Cluster (NGC 4755) Open star on MARS.
CHRYSE PLANITIA Also known as the Jewel Box,
cluster in the southern constellation Crux (RA 12h the Kappa Crucis Cluster NGC
53m.6 dec. 6020); it was first recorded by Nicolas
LACAILLE in 175152. The cluster, also known as the
K corona Inner part of the Suns white-light CORONA; it
is caused by light from the PHOTOSPHERE that has been
4755 is one of the brightest in
southern hemisphere skies. It is
K
Jewel Box because of its colourful stars, is young scattered by free electrons in the corona. The K corona is comparatively young, and
(estimated age 7.1 million years) and contains several responsible for the greatest part of the brightness of the contains a number of coloured
luminous O- and B-class giants. Its apparent diameter is corona out to about two solar radii. It is polarized and stars.
10 and mag. 4.2. The Kappa Crucis Cluster lies at a
distance of 7600 l.y.
215
Keck Telescopes
decreases rapidly in intensity with distance from the Sun, first properly scientific attempts at estimating the age of
extending to about 700,000 km (400,000 mi) from the the Earth, based on known cooling rates of materials,
photosphere. The coronas electron density can be although his result (20400 million years) was far too low.
inferred from white-light observations of the K corona.
The K corona emits a CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM without Kennedy Space Center (KSC) NATIONAL AERONAU-
absorption lines, and the K stands for the German word TICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA) facility for the
Kontinuum or Kontinuierlich. See also E CORONA; F preparation and launch of US manned space missions and
CORONA; T CORONA its spaceport technology centre. Located at the Cape
Canaveral Spaceport, Florida (on Merritt Island, north of
Keck Telescopes See W.M. KECK OBSERVATORY Cape Canaveral itself), the site was selected for guided
missile tests in 1947, but the main complex was commis-
Keeler, James Edward (18571900) American sioned in 1961 as the launch facility for the APOLLO PRO-
astronomer who was director of both the ALLEGHENY GRAMME. It was named after former president John F.
OBSERVATORY (189198) and the LICK OBSERVATORY Kennedy. The KSC is NASAs centre of excellence for
(18981900). He specialized in spectroscopy, the study of launch and payload processing systems and the lead cen-
nebulae and planetary research. His spectroscopic study tre for the management of expendable launch vehicle ser-
of Saturn (1895) revealed different Doppler shifts in the vices. It is best known for handling the check-out, launch
inner and outer parts of the ring system, showing that it and landing of the SPACE SHUTTLE and its payloads. The
did not rotate at a single rate, supporting the theory of HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE, the CHANDRA X-RAY OBSERVA-
James Clerk MAXWELL that the rings were composed of TORY and the modules of the INTERNATIONAL SPACE STA-
many individual particles. TION all passed through the facility.
Kellner eyepiece Eyepiece with large EYE RELIEF, which KennellyHeaviside layer (Heaviside layer) Term
makes it widely used for binoculars as well as telescopes. It formerly used to denote either the whole of Earths
is essentially a RAMSDEN EYEPIECE with one element IONOSPHERE or a single region (the E-LAYER) within it.
replaced by an achromatic doublet. Like the Ramsden, the After Guglielmo Marconis successful transmission of
Kellner is prone to GHOSTING, caused by internal reflec- radio signals across the Atlantic Ocean, Arthur Edwin
tions within the eyepiece. It is, however, popular with Kennelly (18611939) and Oliver Heaviside
many observers. It was invented in 1849 by the German (18501925) suggested that an electrically conducting
optician Carl Kellner (182655). region existed in the ATMOSPHERE at high altitudes
K Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson) (18241907) Scot-
capable of reflecting radio waves back to Earth.
tish mathematical physicist who gave his name to the Kepler, Johannes (15711630) German astronomer
Kelvin TEMPERATURE SCALE, based on absolute zero. and mathematician, remembered for his three laws of
When just fifteen years old, the University of Glasgow planetary motion. A convert to Copernicanism, he
awarded Kelvin its Gold Medal for his Essay on the Fig- became in 1600 assistant to Tycho BRAHE, who died the
ure of the Earth, an amazingly sophisticated work on geo- next year. Kepler then began the task of completing
detics, and in 1846 he was elected professor there. He tables of predicted planetary positions begun by Tycho.
proposed his temperature scale in 1848 during the course From Tychos accurate observations Kepler concluded
of thermodynamical studies with the physicist George that Mars moves in an elliptical orbit, and went on to
Gabriel Stokes (18191903). Apart from his major influ- establish in 1609 the first of his laws of planetary motion
Kennedy Space Center ence on physics, Kelvin made contributions to astronomy. (KEPLERS LAWS). Speculations on magnetism led him to
The 1994 November 3 launch He analysed the second law of thermodynamics, conclud- the second of these laws, and his desire to match celestial
of Atlantis on Space Shuttle ing (184952) that if ENTROPY always increases, this and musical harmony led to the third, published in 1619.
Mission STS-66. NASAs fleet would result in the HEAT DEATH OF THE UNIVERSE, from The Rudolphine Tables, based on Tychos observations
of four Space Shuttles is based which it would not be possible to observe or measure any and Keplers laws, appeared in 1627 and remained the
at the Kennedy Space Center. information about its physical state. He made one of the most accurate planetary tables until the 18th century.
Kepler also studied the supernova of 1604 (known as
KEPLERS STAR), and made important contributions to
optics and the theory of the telescope.
Johann von Kappel (though he is now always known
by the Latinized version of his name) was born at Weil
der Stadt, near Stuttgart. His father was a mercenary who
was apparently killed while fighting in Holland when
Johannes was only five, and the boy was raised by his
mother at her fathers inn. A precocious child, Kepler
obtained a scholarship in 1587 to Tbingen University.
There he showed himself to be an able mathematician,
and though he began studying Protestant theology after
gaining his masters degree, he was nominated provincial
mathematician and teacher of mathematics at the Luther-
an school in Graz. Despite his mixed views on astrology
(he called it the foolish little daughter of astronomy),
Kepler followed fashion and provided astrological predic-
tions about the weather, peasant uprisings and Turkish
invasions all of which happened to be fulfilled. Casting
horoscopes would later bring Kepler the income he need-
ed to pursue his astronomical work.
At Tbingen, he was influenced by the professor of
astronomy, Michael Mstlin (15501631), who was well
versed in Copernicus HELIOCENTRIC THEORY. Kepler was
fired with enthusiasm for the Copernican idea that the
Earth and the other planets orbit the Sun. Despite being
twice excommunicated from the Lutheran Church,
Kepler remained a lifelong believer in a divine plan for the
cosmos, and came upon what seemed to him a proof of
the idea. He found that the sizes of the spheres upon
216
Keplers Star
Tycho died the next year, was appointed his successor as P (1) (1.88081) (11.86179) (29.4566)
2
= 3
3
3
3
217
Keyhole Nebula
Korea made fairly systematic brightness estimates for up where m is the mass of the body and v its linear velocity
to a year. The smooth light-curve closely resembles that of or by
a Type I supernova. Accurate measurements by both 2
Kepler and David FABRICIUS fixed the position of the star I
KE =
to better than one arcminute. The remnant is a powerful 2
source of electromagnetic radiation. where I is the moment of inertia of the body and its
rotational velocity. It is equal to the energy that would be
Keyhole Nebula (NGC 3324) Region of dark released (or the work done) if the body were brought to a
nebulosity seen in silhouette against the ETA CARINAE halt. See also POTENTIAL ENERGY
NEBULA (RA 10h 44m.3 dec. 5953). It was named
after its shape by John HERSCHEL in the 19th century. It Kirch family German astronomers, noted for compiling
covers an area of about 3 11. calendars, who played a leading role in founding astrono-
my in what was then Prussia. Gottfried Kirch
Keystone Popular name for the distinctive quadrilateral (16391710), who was taught by Johannes HEVELIUS, was
marked out by the four stars , , and Herculis. The the first astronomer at the Berlin Observatory (1700). He
Keystone represents the pelvis of Hercules. made the calculations for, and published, many astronom-
ical ephemerides and calendars, and made detailed obser-
kiloparsec Unit of distance measurement equivalent to vations of the 1699 comet.
one thousand parsecs; a PARSEC being the distance at Gottfrieds wife, Maria Margarethe Kirch
which a star would subtend a PARALLAX of one arcsecond. (16701720), assisted her husband in much of his
ephemeris and calendar work, and also discovered a
kinematics Branch of mechanics devoted to the study bright comet in 1702. Maria had taken up astronomy
of the motions of bodies. Forces are not considered before meeting her husband, learning the science from the
within kinematics but form a separate branch of self-taught Christoph Arnold (165095). After her hus-
mechanics called DYNAMICS. Thus, for example, the bands death in 1710, Maria worked with her son, Christ-
kinematic PARALLAX (also known as the MOVING CLUSTER fried Kirch (16941740), at the Berlin Academy.
METHOD) of stars is obtained by knowing only the PROPER Christfried carried on the calendrical work of his parents
MOTIONS of stars in a STAR CLUSTER. and restored the observatory of Hevelius, from where he
Keyhole Nebula Taking its discovered the bright comet of 1723. He was assisted in
name from its shape, the kinetic energy (KE) ENERGY that a body possesses his astronomical computations by his mother and his sis-
K Keyhole Nebula is a dark
region seen in silhouette
because of its motion. It is given by ter Christine Kirch (c.16961782).
mv2
against the bright emission of KE = Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert (182487) German physi-
the Eta Carinae Nebula.
2 cist, born in Knigsberg (in modern Russia), a leading
physicist of his time who, with Robert Wilhelm Eber-
hardt Bunsen (181199), developed the techniques and
principles of astronomical spectroscopy. After teaching
at the universities of Berlin and Breslau, Kirchhoff fol-
lowed Bunsen to Heidelberg to become professor of
physics. The two men established the principles of
analysing absorption and emission spectra, but it was
Kirchhoff who saw its potential for astronomy. Even
more relevant to astrophysics are his three gas laws, all
announced in 1860. The first provides that a dense
object produces a continuous blackbody spectrum
when heated. His second gas law says that a low-density
excited gas will produce a bright emission-line spectrum
as electrons lose energy. Kirchhoffs third gas law states
that a continuous spectrum source will produce dark
absorption lines as it passes through a cooler low-density
gas. Using these laws Kirchhoff discovered the elements
caesium and rubidium, named for the blue and red
colours of their emission lines. Applying his gas laws to
the solar atmosphere, Kirchhoff reached four important
conclusions: (1) solar sodium atoms produce the
orange-yellow Fraunhofer emission lines; (2) the Suns
light is produced by a high-temperature gas; (3) dark
absorption lines must come from a hot gas, but one
which is cooler than the interior layers of our star; and
(4) the dark absorption lines in the solar spectrum origi-
nate as the cooler chromosphere absorbs photons from
the photosphere below.
218
Kottamia Observatory
219
KPNO
KPNO Abbreviation of KITT PEAK NATIONAL OBSERVATORY track fairly well the range of class K. Moderate carbon
abundances combined with heavy-element excesses are
Kraus, John D. (1910 ) American radio astronomer found in the BARIUM STARS, which are enriched as a result
noted for his design of radio antennae and receivers and of mass transfer from companions that have evolved to
his work with Ohio State Universitys Big Ear radio tele- white dwarfs.
scope. Big Ear, built near Delaware, Ohio (195663), Bright examples of K stars include Dubhe and Pollux
consisted of a large, flat surface tilted about its horizontal KO III, Arcturus K1 III, Epsilon Pegasi K2 Ib, Alpha
axis and reflecting signals to a fixed paraboloidal reflec- Centauri-B K1 V and Epsilon Eridani K2 V.
tor. It was demolished in 1998. From 1965 Kraus used
Big Ear to make the most detailed map of the radio sky Kuiper, Gerard Peter (190573) Dutch-American
in history, discovering over 20,000 new sources of radio astronomer (born Gerrit Pieter Kuiper) responsible for
waves. In 1970, after completing the Ohio Survey, revitalizing Solar System astronomy in an era dominated
Kraus and his collaborators used Big Ear to search for by stellar and galactic research. After studying astronomy
extraterrestrial life. at the University of Leiden with Bart BOK, Kuiper emi-
grated to the United States in 1933, joining the staff of
KREEP Specific type of lunar material enriched in Lick Observatory, where he concluded from studying
potassium (K), rare-earth elements (REE) and stars of large parallax that at least half of all nearby stars
phosphorus (P). It was first found among the samples are double or multiple systems. He invented the term
brought by APOLLO 12 astronauts. In its chemistry and contact binary to describe the very close double star
bulk mineralogy KREEP is a variety of lunar BASALT. It is BETA LYRAE. Moving to the Yerkes Observatory in 1938,
believed to be formed from melt residue from the he tightened the definition of the massluminosity rela-
crystallization of large masses of crust and upper mantle tion, and concluded that white dwarfs are highly dense
materials of the Moon. objects that behave differently from main-sequence stars.
He was later director of Yerkes and of the McDonald
Kreutz sungrazer Any of a group of COMETS with Observatory, established by Yerkes in the darker skies of
similar orbits that at perihelion lie within 0.01 AU (1.5 west Texas in 1939.
million km/1 million mi) of the Sun. The group was first During World War II Kuiper used the large telescopes
recognized by the German astronomer Heinrich Carl at Yerkes and McDonald for photographic studies of the
Friedrich Kreutz (18541907) in 1888. Kreutz planets and their satellites at wavelengths in the visual and
sungrazers have RETROGRADE orbits with periods of near-infrared; his 1944 discovery of methane on Titan
K 5001000 years; there are two principal subgroups.
Kreutz sungrazers are believed to result from
proved for the first time that planetary satellites could
have atmospheres of their own. A string of Solar System
fragmentation in the remote past of a single large discoveries followed: a tenuous CO2 atmosphere on
progenitor comet. The numerous smaller members of Mars, a fifth satellite of Uranus (Miranda), a second
the group have been produced from further break up of satellite of Neptune (Nereid) and methane in the atmos-
the parent comet. SOHO spacecraft coronagraph pheres of Uranus and Neptune. In 1960 he fulfilled an
observations have revealed large numbers of very small early ambition to set up an institute devoted to Solar Sys-
fragments on Kreutz sungrazer orbits. Larger fragments tem studies the lunar and planetary laboratory (LPL) at
have produced some of the brightest comets in history, the University of Arizona. Intimately involved in most of
with C/1965 S1 IKEYASEKI being a noteworthy NASAs space programmes, he was Chief Experimenter
example. Their orbital inclination of 141.9 means that for the pioneering Ranger missions to the Moon. First at
Kreutz sungrazers are usually best observed after Yerkes and then at LPL, Kuiper directed the preparation
perihelion from southerly latitudes. Many sungrazers of several important photographic lunar atlases that
fail to survive the intense solar heating experienced close ensured the choice of safe sites for the Apollo landings.
to perihelion. His search for superior observatory sites led to the CERRO
TOLOLO INTER-AMERICAN OBSERVATORY in Chile and
KSC Abbreviation of KENNEDY SPACE CENTER MAUNA KEA OBSERVATORY in Hawaii. He also initiated the
use of telescopes in high-flying aircraft for infrared obser-
K star Any member of a class of yellow-orange stars, the vations (see KUIPER AIRBORNE OBSERVATORY).
spectra of which are characterized by weak hydrogen
lines, with strong ionized calcium lines (Fraunhofer H Kuiper Airborne Observatory (KAO) Lockheed C-
and K) in the warmer K stars, and powerful neutral 141 transport aircraft containing a 91-cm (36-in.)
calcium (Fraunhofer g) and neutral sodium (Fraunhofer short-focus Cassegrain reflecting telescope designed for
D) in the cooler ones. Molecular bands of CH INFRARED ASTRONOMY. The KAO was named in honour
(Fraunhofer G) and CN are also strong. Main-sequence of Dutch-American astronomer Gerard KUIPER. It was
dwarfs range from 4000 K at K9 to 5200 K at K0, with operated from NASAs AMES RESEARCH CENTER in
zero-age masses from 0.5 to nearly 0.9 solar mass, and California from 1975 to 1995. The KAO was used to
luminosities from 0.1 to 0.5 solar. Dwarf lifetimes are discover the rings of Uranus, water vapour in Jupiters
longer than the age of the Galaxy. K giants and atmosphere and Halleys Comet, condensed cores in
supergiants (because of lower densities typically 600 K BOK GLOBULES, and more than 60 previously
cooler than the dwarfs) are distinguished from dwarfs by unobserved spectral features in the interstellar medium.
the prominent weakening of the CN absorption bands. Its successor is the STRATOSPHERIC OBSERVATORY FOR
Stellar luminosities are also found from the INFRARED ASTRONOMY (SOFIA).
WilsonBappu effect, in which luminosities are directly
tied to the width of a chromospheric emission line set Kuiper belt See EDGEWORTHKUIPER BELT
within the broad ionized calcium H and K absorptions.
K supergiants, which are rare because of rapid evolu- Kwasan and Hida Observatories Observatories of
tion through the class, can range to high masses. Promi- Kyoto University, Japan. Kwasan Observatory dates from
nent among K giants are visually numerous 1929, when it was established on Mount Kwasan in
helium-burning clump stars of modest mass, which on Kyoto city for solar and stellar research. Increasing light
the HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM clump together near pollution led to Hida Observatory being set up in 1968 at
absolute magnitude zero. K subdwarfs have weakened Kamitakara, 350 km (220 mi) north-east of Kyoto, at an
metal lines and lower metal abundances. Except where altitude of 1275 m (4180 ft). Hida has a 0.65-m (26-in.)
they are members of short-period binary systems, most K refractor (the largest refractor in Asia, built in 1972), a
stars are slow rotators. Some K giants are carbon rich: 0.6-m (24-in.) reflector and the 0.6-m (24-in.) Domeless
class R CARBON STARS, which begin at G5 temperatures, Solar Telescope (DST), built in 1979.
220
lander
L
these vicinities are stable). The TROJAN ASTEROIDS are
close to the L4 and L5 points of Jupiters orbit around the
Sun, with oscillation amplitudes around the equilibrium
points of up to 30. Similar orbits occur in Saturns
satellite system. The tiny satellites Telesto and Calypso
are close to the L4 and L5 points of Tethys orbit around
Saturn, and Helene is close to the L4 point of Diones
orbit. The spacecraft SOHO has been placed into a stable
orbit close to the L1 point of the Earth. This point is Lagoon nebula A high-
located between the Earth and the Sun at about resolution Hubble Space
1,500,000 km (930,000 mi) from the Earth, which is Telescope image of the
about four times the distance of the Moon and one Lagoon Nebulas centre,
hundredth of the distance to the Sun. showing twister structures.
Globules, precursors of star
Lalande, (Joseph) Jrme Le Franois formation, are also found in
(17321807) French astronomer, skilled mathematician abundance here.
and observer and popularizer of astronomy, who became
director of PARIS OBSERVATORY (1768). He compiled
many accurate tables of planetary positions and a
catalogue of over 47,000 stars. Lalande organized
expeditions to observe the transits of Venus in 1761 and
1769, preparing detailed reports. He collaborated with
Nicolas-Louis de LACAILLE in determining a highly
improved value for the lunar parallax, Lalande observing
Lacaille, Nicolas-Louis de (171362) French from Berlin, Lacaille from South Africa.
astronomer, known as the father of southern
astronomy. He led an expedition to the Cape of Good Lambda Botis star Population I galactic disk star that
Hope (175054) where he formed 14 new southern is severely depleted in certain metals. The prevailing
constellations which he named after items of scientific theory is that when young, these stars accreted interstellar
equipment. The major achievement of this expedition gas that was depleted in refractory (high-condensation
was the cataloguing of over 10,000 stars, published
posthumously as Coelum australe stelliferum (1763).
temperature) metals. L
Using only small refractors, Lacaille also discovered 42 LAMOST Abbreviation of LARGE-AREA MULTI-OBJECT
previously unknown nebulae, which he correctly SURVEY TELESCOPE
deduced were objects within the Milky Way. He also
postulated that the Magellanic Clouds are detached lander Spacecraft that reaches the surface of a planet
parts of our Galaxy. With Jrme LALANDE, he or other solid body. The first spacecraft to achieve a
measured the lunar parallax. landing on another Solar System object was the Soviet
LUNA 2 (Lunik 2) in 1959. The first controlled landing
Lacerta See feature article was by Luna 9 in 1966. The first manned lander was
the Lunar Module Eagle during the APOLLO 11 mission
Lagoon Nebula (M8, NGC 6523) Bright EMISSION
NEBULA surrounding the young open star cluster NGC LACERTA (GEN. LACERTAE , ABBR . LAC )
6530 in the constellation Sagittarius (RA 18h 03m.3 dec.
2423). The eastern half of the nebula is illuminated by
hot O-class stars in NGC 6530, while the western half is mall, inconspicuous northern constellation, representing a lizard, between
illuminated by 9 Sagittarii. The Lagoon Nebula is divided
by a broad lane of obscuring dark dust. First recorded by
S Cygnus and Andromeda. Lacerta was introduced by Hevelius in 1687. Its
brightest star, Lac, is mag. 3.8. Deep-sky objects include NGC 7243, an
John FLAMSTEED in 1680, the Lagoon has angular open cluster of several dozen stars of mag. 8.5 or fainter; and BL Lac, the
dimensions of 45 30 and mag. 6.0. It lies 5200 l.y. variable nucleus (range 12.417.2) of a remote elliptical galaxy and the first
away in the direction of the galactic centre, and covers an object of its type (see BL LACERTAE OBJECT) to be recognized.
area of 60 38 l.y.
221
Langley Research Center
lander A 360 panoramic in 1969. See also LUNAR PROSPECTOR; MARS PATHFINDER; after Isaac Newtons PRINCIPIA, the most important work
view of the Martian surface VENERA; VIKING MISSIONS on the subject. His instructors at Caen University, where
taken from the Mars Pathfinder he matriculated at the age of sixteen, soon recognized his
lander in 1997. The Sojourner Langley Research Center NATIONAL AERONAUTICS talents for complex mathematical methods, and three
rover vehicle can be seen next AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA) facility at years later Laplace secured a position as professor of
to the large boulder at centre. Hampton, Virginia, for research in advanced aerospace mathematics at the cole Militaire. By 1771 he had pub-
technologies such as airframe systems. More than half of lished a fundamental study on the orbits and perturba-
Langleys research is in aeronautics, with applications not tions of the planets that was the cornerstone of his later
only to military and civilian aircraft but also to spacecraft. studies of Solar System dynamics.
Studies of the behaviour of materials in non-terrestrial This work was followed by a three-part study
atmospheres will ensure that next-generation spacecraft (178486) of the orbital mechanics of Jupiter and Saturn
will be able to survive extreme environments. that utilized methods first developed by Joseph Louis de
LAGRANGE to demonstrate that not only those two giant
Langrenus Lunar crater (9S 61E), 132 km (82 mi) in planets, but all the Solar Systems bodies, will tend to
diameter, with rim components rising 2750 m (9000 ft) assume orbits of small eccentricity and small inclination
above its floor. A nearly circular crater, it is near the limb over long time periods. This was the first major post-
of the Moon, appearing oblong as a result of Newtonian work to show that the Solar System is stable
foreshortening. Langrenus has bright ray EJECTA, which is under the precepts of Newtonian gravity. Many of these
fragmental because of its age. The floor contains several ideas were more fully explicated in his five-volume mas-
central peaks, due to rebound after impact. The side walls terwork Trait de mchanique cleste (17991825). In
are heavily terraced. Exposition du systme du monde (1796) Laplace proposed
his NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS. His studies of comets led him
L Langrenus, Michael Florentius (or Michiel Florenz
van Langren) (16001675) Flemish engineer and
to issue a warning that comets could collide with the
Earth, which would have catastrophic consequences for
cartographer who, in 1645, compiled the first published life on our planet.
map of the Moon. Langrenus began mapping the Moon
as part of a project to find longitude at sea by noting the Large-Area Multi-Object Survey Telescope (LAM-
precise times at which specific lunar mountains were OST) Chinese optical telescope of unusual design, locat-
illuminated or darkened by the Sun as observed from ed at the Xinglong station of the BEIJING ASTRONOMICAL
different locations. He introduced the practice of naming OBSERVATORY and expected to become operational in
lunar features after famous persons. 2004. A 5.7 4.4-m (220 170-in.) reflective Schmidt
corrector feeds light to a fixed spherical mirror
Langley Research La Palma Observatory See ROQUE DE LOS MUCHACHOS 6.7 6.0 m (265 236 in.) in size. Both components use
Center This model of the OBSERVATORY segmented-mirror technology, and the corrector moves to
Space Shuttle is undergoing allow the telescope to track objects across the sky. Fibre-
wind tunnel tests at NASAs Laplace, Pierre-Simon de (17491827) French math- optic tubes transmit light from some 4000 objects in
Langley Research Center to ematician who did much to establish celestial mechanics LAMOSTs 5 field of view to stationary spectrographs.
simulate the stress of re-entry. as a major scientific discipline; his Mchanique cleste is,
Large Binocular Telescope (LBT) Unique facility for
optical astronomy at MOUNT GRAHAM INTERNATIONAL
OBSERVATORY consisting of two 8.4-m (331-in.) tele-
scopes mounted in parallel on the same structure with an
axial separation of 14.4 m (47 ft). Due for completion in
2004, it will have the light-gathering power of a single
11.8-m (465-in.) telescope. The binocular configuration
makes interferometric imaging easier than with separately
mounted telescope arrays like the VERY LARGE TELE-
SCOPE. The LBT project is a partnership between the
University of Arizona, the ARCETRI ASTROPHYSICAL
OBSERVATORY, a consortium of German institutions and
other US universities.
222
Lassell, William
classed with the spiral galaxies. The TARANTULA NEBULA direction of propagation as the stimulating photon, and
complex is found within the LMC and is one of the the emitted radiation is said to be coherent. In a laser,
largest HII REGIONS known. The complex is a vigorous large numbers of electrons are pumped up into a higher
star-forming region, and this, together with other star- energy level by means of a suitable energy source so that
forming regions, may be the result of a close passage there are more electrons in the higher level than the lower
between the LMC and our Galaxy some 200 million level; this distribution of electrons is known as an inverted
years ago. There is also an enormous bridge of material population. The electrons are then stimulated to emit a
between the Galaxy and the MAGELLANIC CLOUDS. beam of coherent radiation.
Known as the Magellanic Stream, this bridge is one of the Laser action can be produced in solids, liquids or gases,
largest HIGH-VELOCITY CLOUDS known and probably and lasers may be pulsed or continuous in operation.
resulted from the same close passage. The LMC orbits Lasers are used in various astronomical contexts. For
our Galaxy roughly at right angles to the plane of the example, very precise measurements of the lunar dis-
Milky Way, and it may at some time in the future be tance, and the Moons slow rate of recession, have been
disrupted and captured by our Galaxy. made by bouncing laser beams off reflectors placed on
Young objects, such as hot stars and Cepheids, in the the lunar surface by the Apollo astronauts, and laser
LMC lie in a thin disk, which is seen nearly face-on (an beams reflected from orbiting satellites allow the rate of
angle to the plane of the sky of about 27). Older objects, continental drift to be measured. Lasers are also used to
such as planetary nebulae, form a somewhat thicker disk check and maintain the alignment of optical compo-
structure, but there is no evidence at present for a spheri- nents, particularly in very large telescopes with segment-
cal halo such as is formed by very old objects in our own ed primary mirrors.
Galaxy. In our Galaxy, GLOBULAR CLUSTERS are all old
objects. However, the cluster NGC1866 in the LMC, Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observa-
though globular in form, is a young system. Several such tory (LIGO) Giant laser interferometer at Livingston,
blue globulars exist in the clouds. No similar objects are Louisiana, about 80 km (50 mi) north-west of New
known in our own Galaxy. Orleans, consisting of mirrors suspended at the corners of
an L-shaped vacuum vessel 4 km (2.5 mi) on a side. It is
large-scale structure Overall distribution of galaxy designed to sense the minute motions of the mirrors that
clusters and galaxies in the visible Universe. This would be caused by GRAVITATIONAL WAVES from superno-
distribution has been mapped in two wedges by va collapses and collisions of neutron stars, and the gravi-
astronomers up to a redshift of z = 0.04. A relevant tational remnants of the Big Bang. LIGO is a joint project
cosmological model must explain the large-scale of the CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY and the
structure of matter in the Universe, essentially the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and is sponsored
distribution of galaxies and galaxy clusters. This is by the National Science Foundation.
usually done by comparing the CORRELATION
FUNCTIONS derived from theoretical models utilizing La Silla Observatory First of the two observing sites of
L
COLD DARK MATTER or HOT DARK MATTER with the the EUROPEAN SOUTHERN OBSERVATORY, inaugurated in
correlation function of the observed large-scale 1969. It is near the southern extremity of the Atacama
distribution of galaxies. There are several features of Desert, 160 km (100 mi) north of La Serena, Chile, at
note in the observed distribution: VOIDS or regions an altitude of 2400 m (7900 ft). ESOs smaller tele-
generally devoid of galaxies; walls or linear distributions scopes were the first on the site: the 1-m (39-in.) and the
of galaxies and clusters; and SUPERCLUSTERS such as the 1.5-m (59-in.) were both installed in the late 1960s. The
Coma Cluster of galaxies. 1.0-m (39-in.) Schmidt telescope began work in 1971
and was joined in 1976 by the 3.6-m (142-in.), the
Larissa Second-largest (after PROTEUS) of the inner largest instrument at La Silla. The 1.4-m (55-in.) Coud
satellites of NEPTUNE. Larissa was first detected in 1981 Auxiliary Telescope (CAT) was built to provide an alter-
by Harold Reitsema and colleagues when it occulted a native feed to the 3.6-metres high-resolution spectro-
star; it was confirmed in 1989 in images returned by graph, while in 1984 the 2.2-m (87-in.) began operation.
VOYAGER 2. Larissa is near-spherical in shape, (The CAT and the Schmidt have since been decommis-
measuring about 208 178 km (129 111 mi). It sioned.) The NEW TECHNOLOGY TELESCOPE and
takes 0.555 days to circuit the planet, at a distance of SWEDISH ESO SUBMILLIMETRE TELESCOPE followed in the
73,500 km (45,700 mi) from its centre, in a near- late 1980s. In addition to the ESO telescopes, La Silla
circular, near-equatorial orbit. hosts a number of national telescopes operated by ESO
member states, the largest being the Geneva Observato-
Las Campanas Observatory Major optical observato- rys 1.2-m (48-in.) telescope.
ry in the southern Atacama Desert 100 km (60 mi)
north of La Serena, Chile, at an altitude of 2400 m Lassell, William (17991880) English Grand Amateur
(7900 ft). It was established by the CARNEGIE OBSERVA- astronomer. By the age of 25, he had founded the
TORIES in 1969, and remains their primary observing brewery that would finance his lifelong career in Larissa During its 1989
site. The main instruments are the two 6.5-m (256-in) astronomical research. Lassell studied primarily the August flyby, Voyager 2
MAGELLAN TELESCOPES. The 2.5-m (98-in.) Irne du bodies of the outer Solar System. Following the imaged Neptunes inner
Pont Telescope and the 1-m (39-in) Henrietta Swope announcement of the Berlin discovery of Neptune on satellite Larissa.
Telescope, completed in 1977 and 1972 respectively, 1846 September 30, he quickly located the new planet
both have unusually wide fields of view. and on October 10 identified its large satellite, Triton; five
years later he found Uranus satellites Ariel and Umbriel
laser (acronym for light amplification by stimulated (1851). He also co-discovered (with G.P. and W.C. BOND
emission of radiation) Device that produces a beam of at Harvard) Saturns Crepe (C) Ring and its satellite
high-intensity, coherent (all waves in phase), Hyperion (1848).
monochromatic (all of one wavelength) Lassells enduring reputation comes from his transfor-
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION at infrared, optical or mation of the big reflecting telescope from the timber and
shorter wavelengths. A similar device at microwave rope altazimuth constructions developed by William Her-
frequencies is known as the MASER. schel to beautifully engineered iron equatorials with
The stimulated emission of a photon of particular superlative optics. His 9-inch (230-mm) and 24-inch
wavelength occurs when an electron in a high-energy level (0.6-m) Newtonians were the first sizeable instruments of
of an atom is induced to drop to a lower level by an their type to be mounted equatorially. With his engineer-
encounter with a photon of energy exactly equal to the astronomer friend James Nasmyth (180890), Lassell
difference in energy between the upper and lower levels. pioneered the prototype steam-powered polishing
The emitted photon has exactly the same wavelength and machine for making 48-inch (1.2-m) mirrors, and con-
223
last contact
recognized by the asterism known as the SICKLE, a reversed question mark Lauchen, Georg Joachim von See RHAETICUS
formed by six of the constellations brightest stars, with the brightest of all,
REGULUS, mag. 1.4, at its base. Leo, DENEBOLA, marks the lions tail. Leo, launch window Period of time during which it is
ALGEIBA, is a fine visual binary with orange and yellow components, mags. 2.5 possible to launch a particular space mission.
and 3.6, separation 4.6, period about 600 years. The constellation also
contains Wolf 359 (also known as CN Leo, a variable star of the UV CETI type, leap second Periodic adjustment by one second of
range 11.517.1), the third-closest star to the Sun, just 7.8 l.y. away. Deep-sky COORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME (UTC) to ensure that it
objects in Leo include five 9th-magnitude spiral galaxies: M65 (NGC 3623), remains linked to the rotation of the Earth.
M66 (NGC 3627), M95 (NGC 3351), M96 (NGC 3368) and M105 (NGC The braking action of the tides causes the Earths peri-
3379), the first two and last three of which are grouped close together in the od of rotation to slow by between 1.5 and 2.0 milliseconds
sky. Leo I (10th magnitude) and Leo II (12th magnitude) are a pair of dwarf per day per century. In order that time as kept by atomic
spheroidal galaxies in the LOCAL GROUP, about 815,000 and 685,000 l.y. away, clocks (UTC) and that derived from observations of the
respectively. The Leonid meteor shower radiates from the constellation. stars (UT1, see UNIVERSAL TIME) do not differ by more
than 0.9 seconds, an extra second is introduced to UTC at
BRIGHTEST STARS
midnight on either December 31 or June 30 as required.
Name RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance This has the effect of producing an accumulated dif-
h m mag. mag. type (l.y.)
ference between UTC and INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC TIME
Regulus 10 08 11 58 1.36 0.5 B7 77 (TAI) of an integral number of seconds. The most recent
Algeiba 10 20 19 51 2.01 0.9 K0 126 leap seconds were inserted as follows:
Denebola 11 49 14 34 2.14 1.9 A3 36 Date TAIUTC
Zosma 11 14 20 31 2.56 1.3 A4 58 1989 December 31 25.0 sec
09 46 23 46 2.97 1.5 G0 251 1990 December 31 26.0 sec
Chertan 11 14 15 26 3.33 0.4 A2 178 1992 June 30 27.0 sec
Adhafera 10 17 23 25 3.43 1.1 F0 260 1993 June 30 28.0 sec
10 07 16 46 3.48 5.6 A0 2138 1994 June 30 29.0 sec
1995 December 31 30.0 sec
1997 June 30 31.0 sec
L structed a 48-inch Newtonian on a fork mounting. Then,
having developed the most technically exact and versatile
1998 December 31 32.0 sec
reflecting telescopes of the age (and published the details leap year Year containing 366 instead of the usual 365
of their construction), he spent over five years in Malta, days. The CALENDAR is based on a solar year of 365.25
using them in a prime sky location. days but fixed at 365. An extra day is therefore added at
the end of February every fourth year to compensate.
last contact See FOURTH CONTACT However, this still only approximates to the true solar
year of 365.24219 days and so century years (1800,
last quarter See PHASES OF THE MOON 1900, and so on) are not leap years unless exactly
divisible by 400 (1600, 2000, and so on).
late heavy bombardment Period of intense cratering
in the inner Solar System near the end of the formation of Leavitt, Henrietta Swan (18681921) American
the TERRESTRIAL PLANETS. Evidence for the astronomer who discovered 2400 variable stars, and
bombardment is seen in the distribution of craters on whose studies of Cepheid variables in the Small Magellan-
Mercury, Mars and the Moon. Ages of lunar rocks ic Cloud led to the discovery of the periodluminosity
indicate that the large mare BASINS were formed between relationship used to measure cosmic distances. Edward C.
about 4.0 and 3.8 billion years ago. Undoubtedly, the PICKERING hired Leavitt, who was deaf, to work at Har-
early Earth experienced impacts of comparable or larger vard College Observatory, originally as an unpaid volun-
magnitude, but much of the evidence has been erased by teer, on the tedious task of measuring the brightness of
erosion and TECTONICS. It is not clear whether the star images on Harvards massive collection of photo-
bombardment was simply the final stage of a graphic plates. In 1902 Leavitts work was recognized
continuously declining flux of impacts at the end of when she was appointed head of Harvards Department
ACCRETION of the planets, or whether it was a distinct of Photographic Photometry.
cataclysm with a temporary large increase in the impact She began to specialize in variable stars (in all she would
rate. If the latter, the projectiles may have been asteroids discover 2400 half the total known in her lifetime), study-
perturbed from the MAIN BELT by Jupiter, or comets ing images of CEPHEID VARIABLES on plates taken at Har-
scattered from the outer Solar System due to the vards southern station at Arequipa, Peru. While analysing
formation of Uranus and Neptune. images of stars in the Magellanic Clouds, Leavitt noticed
that the periods of stars that appeared to be Cepheids
late-type star Lower temperature star of spectral class depended on their apparent magnitudes the more lumi-
K, M, R, N or S. The term was devised when nous they were, the longer their periods. In her 1912 paper
astronomers erroneously believed that the sequence of summarizing this work, she gave the periods for 25
SPECTRAL TYPES was also an evolutionary sequence. Cepheids in the Small Magellanic Cloud. By 1918 Ejnar
The usage persists, late being a common astronomical HERTZSPRUNG and Harlow SHAPLEY had recast the PERI-
synonym for cool (for example, a G5 star is later than ODLUMINOSITY LAW in terms of absolute, rather than
a G0 star). apparent, magnitudes, which allowed Leavitts Cepheid
variables to be used as reliable yardsticks for measuring
latitude Angular measure from an equatorial great circle distances within the Milky Way galaxy and, once they had
or plane in a spherical coordinate system. On the surface been discovered in the Andromeda Galaxy, beyond.
of the Earth, latitude is measured in degrees north or Leavitts other studies included preparatory work on
south of the equator, reaching a maximum at the poles. the NORTH POLAR SEQUENCE, a standard reference for
Celestial latitude (or ecliptic latitude) is the angular photographic magnitudes she helped to establish by com-
distance north or south of the ecliptic to the ecliptic poles. paring nearly three hundred plates of the region around
Galactic latitude is a measure of angular distance from the north celestial pole taken through different telescopes.
224
Leonids
Leda One of the small satellites in JUPITERs intermediate Converging lenses often have two convex surfaces and
group, discovered by Charles Kowal (1940 ) in 1974. so are sometimes called convex lenses. Diverging lenses
Leda is only c.16 km (c.10 mi) in size. It takes 238.7 days often have two concave surfaces and so are called con-
to circuit the planet, at an average distance of 11.17 cave lenses. However, both types can have one convex
million km (6.98 million mi) from its centre. Leda has a surface and one concave so this terminology can be
substantial inclination (near 27) and moderate slightly misleading.
eccentricity (0.164). See also ELARA A lens can produce a focused image because light is
bent (refracted) as it passes from air to glass and then
Lematre, Georges douard (18941966) Belgian from glass back to air. It is the shape of the airglass sur-
Catholic priest and cosmologist whose theory of the face that determines how the light is bent and what effect
primeval atom foreshadowed the Big Bang theory. He this has on the image produced. Surfaces are usually
began his work on the expansion of the Universe during a spherical, although more complex shapes are used to
postdoctoral fellowship at Harvard (192425). Lematre reduce optical aberrations. Several manufacturers now
heard that Edwin HUBBLE had used CEPHEID VARIABLES in advertise binoculars with aspheric optics which offer
the Andromeda Galaxy to determine that it lay far superior performance.
beyond the Milky Way, and was aware of Vesto M. Single lenses produce ABERRATIONS in the images they
SLIPHERs earlier finding that the radial velocities of galax- produce. This is inevitable even with lenses that are per-
ies showed a redshift in their spectra. He realized that fectly shaped. It is caused by fundamental geometric
galaxies must be speeding away from one another. Inde- effects and the fact that the different wavelengths of light
pendent of similar ideas proposed by Aleksandr FRIED- (the different colours) are bent by different amounts as
MANN (which were not well known outside Russia), he they pass through a lens. Optical designers use multi-ele-
considered how this expansion would vary with time ment lenses and materials with different properties to
according to GENERAL RELATIVITY, taking into account minimize aberrations. Even a simple telescope eyepiece
the effect of the pressure of matter, and assuming a non- will contain two, three or four separate pieces of glass;
zero value of the COSMOLOGICAL CONSTANT. This complex ones can contain seven, eight or more. See also
LEMATRE UNIVERSE, as it became known, was the first to ACHROMAT; ANASTIGMAT; APOCHROMAT
attempt to reconcile a cosmological model with the
observed expansion of the Universe. lenticular galaxy GALAXY that appears lens-shaped
Lematre became professor of astronomy at Louvain in when seen edge-on. Lenticular galaxies are of a type
1927. That year he published a paper stating that the more intermediate in form between the much more common
distant a receding galaxy, the greater its velocity of recession elliptical and spiral types. They are classified S0, which
a concept not explained by Friedmann. Arthur EDDING- indicates that they have the flattened form of spirals but
TON publicized Lematres results at the 1927 meeting of no spiral arms. Lenticular galaxies contain both central
the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1931 Lematre pro-
posed that the Universe was born from a primeval atom
bulges and surrounding disks of stars, and the disks
include significant amounts of dust in some cases.
L
that disintegrated over time to produce gaseous clouds,
stars and cosmic rays, an idea we now know to be incorrect. Leo See feature article
The Belgian priest is often considered the father of the BIG
BANG theory (which Lematre himself colourfully called the Leo Minor See feature article
fireworks theory) of cosmology.
Leonids Interesting METEOR SHOWER, active between
Lematre universe Same as the FRIEDMANN UNIVERSE, November 1520 and usually peaking around
except that Lematre assumed the value for the November 17. The RADIANT lies within the sickle of
COSMOLOGICAL CONSTANT was non-zero. Leo. The shower produces reasonable activity each year,
with peak ZENITHAL HOURLY RATE (ZHR) about 15. It
Le Monnier, Pierre Charles (171599) French attracts most attention, however, in the ten-year span
astronomer and physicist whose scientific career spanned centred on the perihelion return of the parent comet,
many different disciplines. In celestial mechanics, he 55P/TEMPELTUTTLE, during which time rates are
analysed the perturbing effect of Saturn on Jupiters orbit greatly elevated, perhaps reaching meteor storm
and devised a theory to explain the Moons complex proportions on some occasions. Past Leonid storms
motions. His contributions to celestial cartography have been separated by roughly 33-year intervals: those
included the measurement of many star positions and on 1799 November 12 and 1833 November 12 did
compilation of the Atlas cleste. Le Monnier observed much to stimulate scientific interest in the study of
Uranus before it was seen by its discoverer, William meteors. The later time of maximum at the modern
Herschel, but failed to recognize it as a planet. epoch results from regression of the meteor stream
orbits descending node.
lens Basic optical component made of transparent Following the 1833 return, Hubert Newton
material through which light passes in order to produce (183096) of Princeton, United States, investigated the
or modify an image. Astronomical lenses range in size origin of the Leonids. He found historical records of the
and complexity from tiny spherical sapphire lenses shower going back to AD 902, including exceptional dis-
attached to the ends of fibre optics, through to large plays in 934, 1002, 1101, 1202, 1366, 1533, 1602 and
OBJECTIVE lenses used to collect and focus light in 1698. Newton surmised that these were caused by a
refracting telescopes. Lenses are also used to shape and dense cloud of meteoroids encountered by Earth at inter-
direct light as it passes through astronomical instruments vals of about 33 years; he made the bold prediction, con-
for analysis and measurement, but the most common firmed by Heinrich OLBERS, that another storm might
example as far as the amateur astronomer is concerned is occur in 1866. This prediction was duly borne out on
the telescope EYEPIECE.
There are two basic types of lens, converging and LEO MINOR (GEN. LEO MINORIS , ABBR . LMI )
diverging. Converging lenses are thicker in the centre than
at the edges and cause parallel light passing through them
to bend towards a common point, that is, to converge. mall, inconspicuous northern constellation, representing a small lion
The simplest example of a converging lens is the magnify-
ing lens. Diverging lenses cause parallel light to spread out
S (compared to Leo), between Ursa Major and Leo. Leo Minor was
introduced by Hevelius in 1687. Its brightest star, 46 LMi (there is no Leo
and to appear to come from a common point behind the Minoris), is mag. 3.8. LMi is a very close binary with yellow components,
lens, that is, to diverge. Diverging lenses are thicker at the mags. 4.4 and 6.1, separation 0.2. Deep-sky objects include NGC 3245, an
edges than at the centre and the most common example is 11th-magnitude lenticular galaxy.
the spectacle lens used to correct short-sightedness.
225
Leonov, Alexei Arkhipovich
226
life in the Universe
227
light, velocity of
228
light cone
tem, and can be expected to be common throughout the For astronomers, a consequence of the finite velocity
Universe. The most widespread and abundant forms of of light is that objects are seen as they were when they
life in the Universe will most likely have more in com- emitted the light that is now received, not as they may be
mon with microorganisms than with the complex multi- today. An object one light-year away is seen as it was a
cellular organisms that characterize the life on the year ago and so on. For more distant objects, this look
Earths surface. back time, can be very large, as much as 1010 years or so
for the most distant quasars. Some objects may thus have
light, velocity of The value for the velocity of light (and changed radically or even no longer exist, though they can
of all other forms of ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION) in a still be seen in the sky. Thus the 1987 SUPERNOVA in the
vacuum, usually symbolized as c, was officially Large Magellanic Cloud could still be seen as a star
recognised as 299,792,458 m/s by the International 170,000 years after it had actually exploded.
Astronomical Union (IAU) in 1976. For many purposes,
however, the approximate value of 300,000 km/s light, visible ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION, with
(3 108 m/s) is sufficient. wavelengths from about 380 to 700 nm, that may be seen
One of the first attempts to measure the velocity of by the human eye.
light was made by GALILEO in 1600, prior to that, most The nature of light is now thought to be fairly well
scientists had expected its velocity to be infinite. Galileo understood, yet it was the subject of controversy for
and an assistant stood about a kilometre apart with more than 200 years, as experimenters uncovered con-
lanterns. When the assistant saw a flash from Galileos flicting evidence of its nature. Some evidence suggested
lantern, he briefly opened the cover on his own. Galileo that light was composed of individual particles, other
then attempted to measure the time lag between uncover- evidence suggested that it was composed of waves. It was
ing his own lantern and seeing the flash from the other even found necessary to invent a substance to carry
lantern. Needless to say, the experiment failed since the these waves, the so-called luminiferous ether, which is
reaction times involved were ten thousand times longer now known not to exist. Not until the pioneering experi-
than the light flight times. The first reasonably successful ments of the Scottish physicist Thomas Young
determination of c was made be Ole RMER in 1676. He (17731829) was the wave-like nature of light firmly
had been observing and timing transits and occultations of established for the scientific community. EINSTEIN, how-
Jupiters Galilean satellites, when he noticed that the ever, in his 1905 explanation of the photoelectric effect
events were occurring later than he had predicted on the then showed that light also behaved as though it were a
basis of earlier observations. Rmer realised that this was stream of particles.
because the Earth and Jupiter had moved around their It is now known that light is both particle and wave.
orbits and were further apart than when he had made the That is, that light comes in small packets, called PHOTONS.
previous observations. The delays in the occurrence of the This is true whether light, radio waves or X-rays are con-
satellite phenomena therefore arose because of the time it
took light to cross the increased distance between the
sidered (all of which are types of electromagnetic radia-
tion). This packet is composed of an electric field and a
L
planets. From his measurements, Rmer determined a magnetic field, each of which oscillates at right angles to
velocity of 240,000 km/s for light. its direction of motion. The interaction of these fields was
Hippolyte FIZEAU made the first laboratory determi- first described in mathematical form by James Clark
nation of c in 1849. He shone light on to a mirror placed MAXWELL. His laws are now known to all students of
nearly 9 km (6 mi) away and looked at the reflection. physics as Maxwells laws and are the basis of the study
Both the outgoing and returning beams passed between of electromagnetism, the study of all phenomena related
the teeth of a rotating gearwheel. At slow rotations, the to the interactions of electric and magnetic fields.
returning beam would pass through the same gap Despite the opening-up of other regions of the ELEC-
between the teeth of the gearwheel as the outgoing beam, TROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM in recent years, our picture of
and so could be seen. When the speed of rotation was the Universe is still largely based on what we actually see,
increased, there would come a point where the returned that is, the information brought to us by light.
beam was intercepted by the next tooth, and so could not
be seen. Increasing the speed still further enabled the light cone In a spacetime diagram, line or curve that
returning beam to be seen again as it passed through the represents the path of a light ray. Spacetime diagrams are
gap next to the one used by the outgoing beam. The graphical three-dimensional representations of four-
number of teeth on the gearwheel (720) and its rotation- dimensional SPACETIME. Any journey through spacetime
al velocity (1500 rpm) when the returning beam was is represented by a line or curve in such diagrams. The
seen for the second time, provided Fizeau with the time path of a light ray emanating from a particular point
taken by light for the return journey, and from this he forms a cone with an angle of 45 from the vertical; these
found a velocity for light of 315,000 km/s.
As his apparatus was refined, Fizeau was able to show
that light passing through moving water had a higher
velocity when it went with the flow rather than against it,
and in 1853 Leon FOUCAULT showed that the velocity was
lower in water than in air. Experiments like these led to
the expectation that the velocity of light would vary
depending on whether a light beam was travelling in the future
same direction through space as the Earth, or in the
opposite direction. So in 1887 the German-American
physicist Albert Michelson (18521931) and the Ameri- light cone Events in
can chemist Edward Morley (18381923) conducted event spacetime can be
their famous experiment (see MICHELSONMORLEY mathematically modelled in
EXPERIMENT). Their failure to detect the Earths motion terms of a double cone. In this
by finding a changing velocity for light led directly to the model, the event lies at the tip
idea that the velocity of light was constant for all of the cones. Time runs
observers, whatever their motion, and so to EINSTEINS vertically, so that the upward-
theory of SPECIAL RELATIVITY. past
directed cone coming away
Michelson later (1926) determined a value of from the event represents the
299,796 km/s for the velocity of light, using a variation of future, while the downward-
Fizeaus method, with the light beam reflected out to and directed cone is the past. The
back from a mirror 35 km (22 mi) away via a rotating past converges upon, while the
octagonal prism. future diverges from, the event.
229
light-curve
5.0 limb Extreme edge of the visible disk of the Sun, Moon or
a planet. The term could refer to any celestial body that
6.0 shows a detectable disk. The limb on the same side as the
direction of travel of a body is called the PRECEDING limb,
and that farthest away, the FOLLOWING limb.
7.0
Magnitude
230
Liverpool Telescope
231
LMC
LMC Abbreviation of LARGE MAGELLANIC CLOUD are among the clusters contained in our local
supercluster. The local supercluster contains more than
lobe Region around an ANTENNA where reception (or 4500 galaxies.
transmission) varies in intensity. An antenna neither
radiates nor receives radio waves equally in all directions; local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) Simplifying
similarly a RADIO TELESCOPE receives radiation approximation used when constructing computer models
preferentially in one direction but also from other of stellar atmospheres. The equations describing the
directions too. A number of distinct lobes exist, properties of gases and plasmas, such as pressure and
resembling the petals on a daisy. The main lobe is in the excitation, are characterized by one temperature; the
direction of best reception (or transmission), where the equations describing the radiation are characterized by
telescope/antenna is pointing. All the others are called another, different, temperature.
side lobes and are usually unwanted. When a radio
telescope points at a faint astronomical object in the main local time Time at any given location on the Earths
lobe, the side lobes may pick up electrical interference surface, measured either as MEAN SOLAR TIME or
from ground-based appliances such as microwave ovens. APPARENT SOLAR TIME. Local time varies around the
A good design keeps the magnitude of these side lobes to globe with longitude, with a difference of 15 longitude
a minimum in most cases. equating to a difference of one hour in local time. By
convention, the Earth is divided into 24 TIME ZONES, each
lobe Region, usually one on each side, of radio emission one hour apart from its neighbours, but for convenience
from high-energy particles. The radio lobes are mostly the civil time kept in these zones may vary from actual
associated with RADIO GALAXIES, and there is one on each zone time, depending on centres of habitation. In the
side of the galaxy, connected to it by a JET. summer, many countries also adopt daylight saving time,
advancing their clocks by one hour.
local arm Segment of one of our GALAXYS spiral arms
within which the Sun is located. It is also known as the Lockyer, (Joseph) Norman (18361920) English
ORION ARM. amateur astronomer who discovered the previously
unknown chemical element helium in the Sun. From
local bubble Volume of interstellar space that encloses 1857 he worked at Britains War Office, taking up
the Solar System and other nearby stars. The gas density astronomy and other scientific researches in his spare
within the bubble is only about 10% of the average for time and constructing a private observatory at his home
the interstellar matter. The bubble may be the result of a in Hampstead. From 1864 Lockyer began to study the
supernova explosion some time in the past. The bubble Sun almost exclusively after hearing of Gustav KIRCH-
is about 300 l.y. across and the Solar System is about HOFFs discovery in 1859 that the solar spectrum con-
L 40 l.y. from its edge. tained lines indicating the presence of sodium atoms.
After discussions with William HUGGINS, Lockyer
Local Group Small group of about 40 galaxies that attached a small dispersion spectroscope to his own tele-
includes our GALAXY, the two MAGELLANIC CLOUDS, the scope in the hope of making similar discoveries.
ANDROMEDA GALAXY and the TRIANGULUM GALAXY; In 1868 he found, independently of Jules JANSSEN,
most are DWARF GALAXIES. They are distributed over a that solar prominences produced bright, yellow emission
roughly ellipsoidal space, about 5 million l.y. across. All lines. One of these lines did not appear in any laboratory
the members are gravitationally bound so that, unlike spectrum produced by a known terrestrial chemical ele-
more distant galaxies, they are not receding from us or ment, so Lockyer suspected that it was produced by a
from one another. new element, which he named helium, after the Greek
word for Sun. It was not until 1895 that William Ram-
local standard of rest (LSR) Frame of reference, say (18521916) managed to isolate helium from a ter-
centred on the Sun, in which the average motion of the restrial source. This discovery proved the worth of
stars in the immediate vicinity is zero. Each star, astronomical spectroscopy.
including the Sun, in a volume of space about 330 l.y. in In 1869 Lockyer founded the scientific journal
diameter, is moving relative to the local standard of rest, Nature, which he edited for 50 years. Combining astron-
with the Sun moving in the direction of the solar APEX. omy and archaeology, he was able accurately to date the
The zero point for the local standard of rest is an megalithic Stonehenge monuments by reckoning the
imaginary point in the galactic plane moving clockwise changing position of the summer solstice sunrise since
in a circular orbit around the galactic centre at a velocity the monuments were built. In 1890 he established the
of about 220 km/s (140 mi/s) with a period equal to that Solar Physics Laboratory at South Kensington, serving
of the Sun. Astronomers measure a stars velocity as its director until 1911. He spent the rest of his scientif-
components with respect to the LSR rather than to the ic life at his Hill Observatory at Sidmouth, Devon, now
Sun, because the Suns orbit around the galaxy is known as the Norman Lockyer Observatory.
slightly non-circular.
Loki Active volcano on Jupiters satellite IO. It was
local supercluster Group of galactic clusters that discovered on VOYAGER 1 images in 1979. Since then,
contains our LOCAL GROUP of galaxies and several other continuing eruptions have been documented by infrared
clusters. The Virgo, Centaurus and Ursa Major Clusters telescopic observations from Earth and by the GALILEO
spacecraft orbiting JUPITER. Loki is the most persistently
strong thermal source on Io. It is, on average, the site of
THE LOCAL GROUP: THE MAIN MEMBERS
about 25% of Ios global heat output. Most of the
Galaxy Apparent Absolute Distance (thousand l.y.) thermal radiance comes from a probable crusted lake of
mag. mag.
molten lava, to the north of which is a fissure where
Andromeda Galaxy (M31) 3.4 21.1 2365 plumes of sulphur dioxide are propelled up to hundreds
Milky Way 20.6 of kilometres skywards.
Triangulum Galaxy (M33) 5.7 18.9 2590
Large Magellanic Cloud 0.1 18.1 160 Lomonosov, Mikhail Vasilievich (171165) First
IC 10 10.3 17.6 2675 Russian scientist to make notable contributions to
M32 8.2 16.4 2365 astronomy. By 1745 he was a full member of St
Barnards Galaxy (NGC 6822) 9 16.4 1760 Petersburgs Imperial Academy of Sciences, and was
M110 (NGC 205) 8.0 16.3 2365 later appointed Professor of Chemistry at the university
Small Magellanic Cloud 2.3 16.2 190 there. He conceived early versions of the wave theory of
NGC 185 9.2 15.3 2020 light and of the law of conservation of matter.
232
Lovell, (Alfred Charles) Bernard
233
Lovell Telescope
and Lovell was able to justify the expense of the great type example, Malin 1, is a spiral behind the VIRGO
radio telescope originally known as the Mark I, but CLUSTER; its disk is invisible on typically exposed images.
renamed the LOVELL TELESCOPE in 1987 by using it suc- Although difficult to detect, low-surface brightness
cessfully to track the then-feared spaceship. In the 1960s galaxies may be quite common and account for an
he collaborated with Fred WHIPPLE to make important important fraction of the total mass in GALAXY CLUSTERS.
studies of FLARE STARS simultaneously at radio and optical
wavelengths, an observational technique now routinely L star New spectral class formally added in 1999 to the
used on all types of astrophysical objects. cool end of the SPECTRAL CLASSIFICATION system (as
were T STARS), making the sequence OBAFGKMLT.
Lovell Telescope See JODRELL BANK OBSERVATORY The class was needed as a result of the ability of new
infrared technologies to find cool, red really infrared
Lowell, Percival (18551916) Wealthy American diplo- stars. L stars are characterized by deep red colours and
mat and amateur astronomer from a distinguished family; no hydrogen lines; metallic hydrides (CrH, FeH) replace
he built the LOWELL OBSERVATORY and became famous the metallic oxides (TiO and VO) of M STARS. TiO is still
for his observations of Mars and his theory that the plan- present in the warmer L types, but it precipitates into
et was inhabited by intelligent beings. Lowell graduated solid mineral form and disappears completely in the
from Harvard in 1876 with a distinction in mathematics. cooler types. L stars exhibit powerful, remarkably broad
During the 1880s and 1890s, he spent time on diplomat- resonance lines of the alkali metals sodium, potassium,
ic missions to Japan and Korea. Around 1890 he became rubidium and caesium. Temperatures range from 2000 K
enthused by the Mars observations of Giovanni SCHIA- at L0 down to around 1500 K at L9, and are so low that
PARELLI and the theories that the planet might be inhabit- visual radiation is effectively non-existent (that is, L stars
ed by sentient life forms made popular by Camille in general have no visual magnitudes, only red and
FLAMMARION and others. Four years later, largely to infrared magnitudes).
determine whether these theories were true, Lowell built The masses of L stars range downwards from about
a private observatory at Flagstaff, Arizona, just in time 0.08 solar mass, which is near the critical mass required
for the 1894 opposition of Mars. for full hydrogen fusion to operate. The warmer L stars
For the next two decades, Lowell used his observato- are a mixture of real stars just off the end of class M and
rys refractors (the largest a 24-inch (600-mm) complet- BROWN DWARFS. The cooler L stars are all brown dwarfs.
ed by ALVAN CLARK & SONS in 1896) to study Mars Unlike the traditional classes, there are no giant or super-
closely. He concluded that the network of straight, dark giant L stars because giants and supergiants cannot
lines that Schiaparelli had called canali was a global irri- become so cool.
gation system, constructed by intelligent beings deter- Like cool M stars, L stars are convective and should
mined to save their planet from drought by transporting possess no magnetic fields (which are thought to be
L water from the planets polar icecaps to its arid temper-
ate and equatorial regions. He set out his theories in
anchored on radiatively stable cores). Also like cool M
stars, L stars have been seen to flare, which is the only
three popular books Mars (1895), Mars and its Canals form of variation known among them.
(1906) and Mars as the Abode of Life (1908) and pro-
duced intricate maps of the canal network. Today, the LTE Abbreviation of LOCAL THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
Martian CANALS are regarded as a mere optical illusion
and historical curiosity. luminosity Total amount of ENERGY emitted by a star
Although he was criticized for his bold, even unscien- per second in all wavelengths. It is dependent on the
tific approach to the question of life on Mars, Lowell left radius of the star and its temperature. Luminosity is
a rich astronomical heritage through his observatory. usually expressed in units of watts.
During the last eight years of his life he initiated a search
for a trans-Neptunian planet that led to Clyde luminosity class Parameter describing the size of a
TOMBAUGHs discovery of Pluto in 1930. It was Lowell STAR. It is usually combined with the spectral class to add
who in 1914 urged Vesto M. SLIPHER to make the obser- a second dimension in the Yerkes System. The classes
vations that led to the discovery of galaxy REDSHIFTS two range from I, for a SUPERGIANT, through III, for a GIANT,
years later. to V, for a DWARF STAR. There are a number of
subdivisions to these to provide a finer description. See
Lowell Observatory Observatory founded in 1894 by also SPECTRAL CLASSIFICATION
Percival LOWELL at Flagstaff, Arizona, at an altitude of
2200 m (7300 ft). It is managed by a sole trustee who is a luminosity function Numerical distribution of stars (or
Lowell descendant, while an internal advisory board and galaxies) among different values of LUMINOSITY or
director supervise day-to-day operations. It is famous for ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDE. Values of the luminosity
Lowells investigations of Mars, Vesto M. SLIPHERs dis- function are usually expressed as the number of stars
covery of galaxy redshifts, and Clyde TOMBAUGHs discov- per cubic parsec within a given range of luminosity or
ery of Pluto. The observatorys first major telescope was a absolute magnitude.
0.6-m (24-in.) refractor built in 1896. A second site at The value of the luminosity function in the solar neigh-
Anderson Mesa, south-east of Flagstaff, hosts the Ohio bourhood increases to a maximum at absolute magnitudes
Wesleyan Universitys 1.83-m (72-in.) reflector, operated of 1415, and decreases again at higher (fainter) magni-
jointly with Ohio State University. tude values. This implies that faint M-type dwarfs of
about one ten-thousandth of the solar luminosity are the
lower culmination Passage of a CIRCUMPOLAR STAR most abundant type of star locally.
across the meridian between the pole and the horizon. At Luminosity functions can also be plotted for special
this point the stars HOUR ANGLE is exactly 12h. categories of object, such as stars of particular spectral
Circumpolar stars do not set below the observers horizon classes, stellar clusters, galaxies or clusters of galaxies.
and therefore cross the meridian twice during each
SIDEREAL DAY, once at lower CULMINATION and once at luminous blue variable See S DORADS STAR
UPPER CULMINATION, between the pole and the ZENITH.
Luna Series of 24 spacecraft used (195976) by the
low-surface-brightness galaxy GALAXY whose Soviet Union for robotic exploration of the Moon. The
surface brightness falls well below those of the familiar first three were named Lunik. The programme was
luminous spirals and elliptical galaxies, either because it marked by a number of notable successes. Lunik 3
contains very few stars or because its stars are spread over returned the first views of the lunar farside in 1959
an unusually large area. Such galaxies range from dwarfs October. Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to achieve a
to very luminous systems, and may be quite gas-rich. The soft landing on the Moon in 1966. Later that year, Luna
234
Lunar Module
10 became the first spacecraft to enter lunar orbit. In At the distance of the Moons orbit, the dark shadow
1970 Luna 16 completed the first automated sample cone of Earths umbra subtends a diameter of about
return from the Moon and Luna 17 delivered the first 9200 km (5700 mi). The duration of totality in a lunar
roving vehicle, Lunokhod. Approximately 320 g of lunar eclipse depends on how nearly centrally the Moon passes
material were brought back by Luna 16, 20 and 24. through the umbra: a central passage gives a maximum
duration of 1 hour 47 minutes. During totality, any
Lunar A Japanese dual-lunar penetrator mission to be lighter border on the Moon will appear to move gradual-
launched in about 20022003 to study the lunar interior ly round from the westerly to the easterly limb. Totality
using seismometers and heat-flow probes. The ends when the Moons easterly limb re-emerges into
penetrators will be impacted on the nearside and farside sunlight, and over the next hour or so the full moon exits
of the Moon. The Lunar A spacecraft will first be the umbra to regain its usual brilliance, thereafter clear-
inserted into a lunar orbit with a low point of 40 km ing the penumbra.
(25 mi) and the penetrators released. Small retro rockets No two lunar eclipses are ever quite the same, and
on each penetrator will be fired and the craft will free- although some dismiss them as of less interest than solar
fall towards targets located on the nearside close to eclipses particularly total solar eclipses, where the
either the Apollo 12 or 14 landing sites for events centred on totality occur rapidly, in contrast with
comparisons between Lunar A and Apollo data and a the more stately progress of a lunar eclipse they are fas-
position near the antipodal point of some deep cinating to observe. Lunar eclipses also have the advan-
moonquake foci on the farside. The penetrators will tage of being visible from the entire hemisphere of the
impact at an estimated 8000 g and are predicted to Earth where the Moon is above the horizon, rather than
penetrate to depths of up to 3 m (10 ft). The mother being most impressive along a narrow track. The main
ship will fly into a 200-km (125-mi) orbit and act as the difference from one event to another is the degree to
penetrators data relay satellite. which the totally eclipsed Moon is darkened, and how
colourful it might be.
Lunar and Planetary Laboratory (LPL) Research and The level of darkening is often described in terms of
teaching establishment based at the University of Ari- the DANJON SCALE. Total lunar eclipses following major
zona, Tucson, and operated in conjunction with the uni- volcanic eruptions, which greatly increase the dust load
versitys Department of Planetary Sciences (PtyS). The and opacity of the upper atmosphere, can often be
LPL, the oldest institute devoted to planetary science, notably dark, as was the case with the 1992 December
was founded in 1960 by Gerard KUIPER, and the PtyS in 910 eclipse, a year after the Mount Pinatubo eruption in
1973. PtyS/LPL is concerned with the formation and the Philippines. Not only are these events relatively dark,
evolution of the Solar System; it conducts spacecraft mis- they also lack much of the colour seen at other times. By
sions, laboratory-based and theoretical research, and contrast, eclipses that occur when the upper atmosphere
astronomical observations. is fairly dust-free are often bright and strongly coloured,
an example being the 1989 August 17 event. Lunar
L
lunar eclipse Passage of the Moon through Earths eclipse brightness can also be influenced by the amount
shadow. Lunar eclipses, which may be total or partial, can of cloud in Earths atmosphere.
occur only at full moon when Sun, Earth and Moon are The diameter of Earths umbra is thought by some to
in line. Since the Moons orbit is inclined at 5.15 to that change in response to solar activity, perhaps decreasing at
of the Earth, lunar eclipses do not occur every month; solar maximum as the upper atmosphere becomes slightly
they can only happen when full moon occurs at or close more extended in response to increased ultraviolet and X-
to the ascending or descending node of its orbit. The ray emissions. Many observers try to measure the precise
westwards movement regression of the nodes means extent of the umbra during eclipses by timing the passage
that lunar eclipses occur in seasons, separated by an of its edge across identifiable lunar features such as craters.
ECLIPSE YEAR of 346.62 days. Lunar eclipses usually Unless a lunar eclipse is very dark, it is usually quite
precede or follow SOLAR ECLIPSES by a fortnight. easy to make out the dark maria, contrasting with the
As the Sun is an extended light source, Earths shadow brighter, cratered highlands, with the naked eye. Tele-
has two components a dark, central UMBRA, where the scopic observations during totality sometimes suggest
Sun is completely obscured, and a lighter outer PENUM- that some craters, notably Aristarchus, appear markedly
BRA, within which the obscuration is partial. During a brighter than their surroundings.
lunar eclipse, the Moon passes first through the penum-
bra, taking about an hour, moving eastwards by its own lunar meteorite METEORITE that originated on the lunar eclipse Earth casts a
diameter in this time, to reach the western edge of the Moon. There are currently 18 known lunar meteorites, shadow to the right in this
umbra. During the penumbral phase, the light of the full 15 of which have been collected in Antarctica. Several are diagram. The shadow has two
moon is only slightly reduced. In some cases, where the gabbroic or basaltic in nature, but the majority are components a dark central
Moon is only just too far north or south of the node to anorthositic regolith breccias. The rocks were removed umbra, and a lighter area of
pass through the umbra, a PENUMBRAL ECLIPSE is seen. from the Moon by impact events. partial shadow, the penumbra.
Following FIRST CONTACT, the Moons more easterly If the full moon opposite the
limb will show a growing dark nick as it begins to enter Lunar Module Section of an Apollo spacecraft that Sun in Earths sky passes
the umbra more deeply. At a total lunar eclipse, the carried two astronauts on to the surface of the Moon. It through the central cone of the
Moon takes about an hour to become completely comprised two stages, each with its own propulsion umbra, a lunar eclipse will result.
immersed in the umbra. To begin with, there is little to
see beyond a darkening of part of the Moon, but as the
eclipsed portion increases, some colour may become evi-
Moons orbit
dent. The curved edge of the umbra may show a slight
blue fringe. Refraction of sunlight particularly at the
red end of the spectrum through Earths atmosphere Sun penumbra
means that the umbra is not completely dark. Conse- Earth
quently, the Moon does not usually disappear from view; Moon
instead, it is dimmed and often takes on a reddish colour, umbra
which becomes increasingly apparent as the umbral
phase advances. At totality, the Moon completely
penumbra
immersed in shadow normally shows red, orange and
yellow colours, often with some gradation. Those parts
of the Moon closer to the edge of the umbra often
appear somewhat brighter and more yellowish than those
towards the centre, which are redder.
235
Lunar Orbiter
begins his descent from the launching platform for the ascent stage, was left on the Lunar Rover (Lunar Roving Vehicle) Battery-powered
Lunar Module Intrepid to join lunar surface. Nine Lunar Modules were flown on vehicle that was provided on the last three Apollo
Charles Conrad on the manned missions and six of them completed successful missions. It greatly improved astronaut mobility and
Moons surface on the sec- landings on the Moon. In the case of the crippled Apollo dramatically increased the area that could be explored.
ond, Apollo 12, landing in 13, the power and consumables provided by the Lunar The 220-kg rover was carried to the Moon in a storage
1969 November. Module enabled the astronauts to return safely to Earth. bay on the LUNAR MODULE descent stage. Distances
See also APOLLO PROGRAMME covered by each rover were: Apollo 15, 27 km (17 mi);
Apollo 16, 27 km (17 mi); and Apollo 17, 36 km (22 mi).
Lunar Orbiter Series of five NATIONAL AERONAUTICS See also APOLLO PROGRAMME
AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA) spacecraft that were
designed for lunar photography in order to aid selection of lunar transient phenomenon (LTP) Short-duration
suitable landing sites for the Apollo missions. They were (usually a few seconds to a few minutes) change
launched at three-monthly intervals between 1966 August observed to occur in the appearance of lunar surface
and 1967 August. Images were recorded on fine-grain features. Most LTPs are flashes or glows of light or dark
photographic film which was processed on board and obscurations of lunar features, or portions of them,
scanned for transmission back to Earth. The highest documented by visual observers, but some, notably bright
spatial resolution achieved was about 2 m (80 in.). Almost flashes of light that may be meteoric impacts, have been
all of the Moons farside was imaged, and many imaged by photography or CCDs.
scientifically interesting formations on the nearside were At least three different mechanisms may account for
photographed. See also APOLLO PROGRAMME such events impact flashes, release of gas from a vent,
and the electrostatic elevation of dust. Impact events are
Lunar Prospector Third of NASAs low-cost, the most easily distinguished. These are visualized as
Discovery-class missions; it was intended to provide bright flashes of extremely short duration, and are caused
global data on key characteristics of the MOON. The by the vaporization of impactor and target materials. The
236
Luyten, William
237
Lyman- forest
(position RA 09h 21m, dec. +34 24; absolute mag. 1.0; spectral type M0; Lynx See feature article
distance 222 l.y.); 38 Lyn is a binary with bluish-white components, mags. 3.9
and 6.6, separation 2.7. Deep-sky objects include NGC 2419, a relatively bright Lyot, Bernard Ferdinand (18971952) French
(10th-magnitude) yet unusually remote (310,000 l.y.) globular cluster; and NGC astrophysicist and instrument designer who worked at
2683, a 10th-magnitude spiral galaxy. Meudon and Pic du Midi Observatories. He invented a
coronagraph and a series of monochromatic filters (see
LYOT FILTER) with transmissions as fine as 0.1 nm
238
Magellan
M See MESSIER NUMBERS positions and sizes, using only a 3.75-inch (95-mm)
refractor. They also produced the first map of Mars to
McDonald Observatory Major US optical observatory show its albedo features (1830). From 1840 Mdler
M
720 km (450 mi) west of Austin, Texas, in the Davis directed Dorpat Observatory, Estonia, observing and
Mountains, on the twin peaks of Mount Locke cataloguing hundreds of double stars with the fine
(2070 m/ 6790ft) and Mount Fowlkes (1980 m/6500 ft). 9.6-inch (245-mm) refractor there.
It is a facility of the University of Texas at Austin, and
operates the 9.2-m (360-in.) HOBBYEBERLY TELESCOPE Maffei Galaxies Two relatively nearby galaxies in
and several smaller instruments, all equipped with state- Cassiopeia. Lying close on the sky to the plane of the
of-the-art instrumentation. These include the Milky Way, they are almost completely obscured by
2.7-m (107-in) Harlan J. Smith Telescope, opened in galactic dust and can only be detected at red or infrared
1968, and the 2.1-m (82-in.) Otto Struve Telescope, dat- wavelengths. They were discovered in 1968 by the Italian
ing from 1939. The observatory has one of the first and astronomer Paolo Maffei (1926 ) as two infrared sources
most productive lunar ranging stations. in line of sight close to the bright galaxy IC 1805. Their
nature as faint, extended objects with the attributes of
Mach, Ernst (18381916) Austrian physicist and nearby galaxies raised the exciting possibility that they were
philosopher. He was the first (1877) to discover the shock newly discovered members of the LOCAL GROUP.
waves produced by projectiles moving faster than the Maffei 1 (RA 02h 36m.3 dec. 5939) is now known to
speed of sound, and his name is best known in be a giant elliptical galaxy 4 million l.y. away on the edge of
connection with the Mach number, the ratio of an the Local Group. It has an absolute magnitude of 20.
objects velocity to the velocity of sound. His philosophy Maffei 2 (RA 02h 41m.9 dec. 5936) lies far
of science freed EINSTEIN from the theoretical restrictions beyond the Local Group, 20 million l.y. away, and is an
imposed by Newtonian spacetime and helped him Sb spiral galaxy.
develop his general theory of relativity. Machs principle
holds that all the inertial properties of a piece of matter Magellan NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE
are in some way attributable to the influence of all the ADMINISTRATION (NASA) mission to map the planet
other matter in the Universe. VENUS at high resolution, using synthetic aperture radar
(SAR). The spacecraft was launched from the Space
MACHO See MASSIVE COMPACT HALO OBJECT Shuttle Atlantis on 1989 May 4 and inserted into a near-
polar elliptical orbit around Venus, with a periapsis
McMathPierce Solar Telescope Worlds largest solar altitude of 294 km (183 mi), on 1990 August 10. Each
telescope, located at KITT PEAK NATIONAL OBSERVATORY, mapping orbit typically imaged an area 20 km (12 mi)
incorporating three separate optical instruments with wide by 17,000 km (10,600 mi) long. The raw SAR data
apertures of 1.6 m (63 in.) for the main telescope and were then processed into image strips that were
0.9 m (36 in.) for the two auxiliaries. Unusually, these assembled into mosaics.
instruments have all-reflective optics with no windows,
lenses or central obscuration, and produce a very high
The mission was divided up into cycles. Each cycle
lasted 243 days, the time necessary for Venus to rotate once M
image quality. The McMathPierce is operated by the under the Magellan orbit. The first three cycles (1990 Sep-
NATIONAL SOLAR OBSERVATORY. Completed in 1962, it is tember to 1992 September) were dedicated to radar map-
used mainly for solar spectroscopy, polarimetry and imag- ping of the surface. At the completion of this phase, 98% of
ing, but also for planetary work and observations of the surface had been imaged at resolutions better than
comets. It also provides a unique facility for monitoring 100 m (330 ft), and many areas were imaged several times.
the Earths atmosphere. The fourth and fifth cycles were mainly devoted to obtain-
ing gravity data. During the final stages of the mission, sci-
Mdler, Johann Heinrich (17941874) German entists carried out a windmill experiment to study the
astronomer who collaborated with amateur astronomer effects of atmospheric drag on the spacecraft.
Wilhelm BEER to produce Mappa selenographica (1837), Although its primary objectives were to map the sur-
the first truly accurate and comprehensive map of the face of Venus and determine its topographic relief, Mag-
Moon. They constructed their map by making ellan also collected radar emissivity, radar reflectivity,
numerous micrometer measurements of feature slope and radio occultation data.
McMathPierce Solar
Telescope The main shaft of
the McMathPierce Solar
Telescope is 152 m (500 ft)
long. Light is reflected from a
heliostat down the shaft to a
1.5-m (5-ft) mirror, back up to a
second mirror and then down
to the underground observation
room, to form an image of the
Sun 85 cm (34 in) across.
239
Magellanic Clouds
Magellan Telescopes Major southern-hemisphere magnetic star Variety of star that has a strong magnetic
optical astronomy facility consisting of two identical 6.5- field, well beyond the typical level of the Sun. The most
m (256-in.) telescopes at LAS CAMPANAS OBSERVATORY in common examples are the magnetic AP STARS, which
Chile. Its construction was a collaboration between the have odd chemical compositions (enhanced silicon,
CARNEGIE OBSERVATORIES (which operate it) and other strontium and rare earths) and starspots; their related
US universities, including the University of Arizona, fields run from a few hundred into the tens of thousands
whose STEWARD OBSERVATOR Mirror Laboratory fabri- of gauss (the Suns field has a strength of 20004000
cated the unusual optics. The spun-cast primary mirrors gauss over active regions).
are steeply curved, with a FOCAL RATIO of only f/1.25. Two classes of degenerate stars are strongly magnetic.
The two telescopes can be used independently or in A small percentage of DA (hydrogen-rich) WHITE DWARFS
combination, and are named after the astronomer Walter have fields in the megagauss (or even hundreds of mega-
BAADE and the benefactor Landon T. Clay (1926 ). gauss) range. These stars tend to be relatively massive and
They were completed in 2000 and 2002. are suspected to be the evolved descendants of the Ap
stars. NEUTRON STARS are by their nature even more mag-
Maginus Lunar crater (50S 60W), 177 km (110 mi) in netic. Typical field strengths for newly born pulsars are a
diameter, with rim components reaching 4270 m million million (1012) gauss. A small percentage of neu-
(14,000 ft) above its floor. An ancient crater, it has been tron stars, suspected to derive from higher mass super-
severely modified by impact erosion, having walls nearly novae, the magnetars, have fields a hundred times
level with the surrounding terrain. The rim is difficult to greater, up to 1014 gauss.
identify in places, while the EJECTA blanket has been
completely eroded away. The walls are deeply incised by magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) Study of the
impact scars. The floor contains several small central interactions between a PLASMA and a MAGNETIC FIELD.
peak remnants and later impact craters. The science of magnetohydrodynamics was founded
240
magnetosphere
largely by the pioneering work of Hannes Olof Gsta layer of electrical current known as the MAGNETOPAUSE.
ALFVN. A plasma is an ionized gas. It contains free In the solar direction, the magnetopause occurs at the
electrons and positively charged nuclei. In most point where the pressure associated with the planetary
astronomical plasmas, the nuclei will be predominantly magnetic field balances the pressure of the impinging
free protons. A plasma may also contain a proportion of solar wind flow. As the solar wind pressure is highly
neutral atoms, but their behaviour, in particular their variable, these boundaries expand outwards and contract
motions, will be governed by that of the plasma as a inwards in response to these variations. In the terrestrial
whole. The plasma is highly electrically conducting so system, however, the subsolar points on the bow shock
that if it moves across a magnetic field, an electric current and magnetopause stand at average distances of 15 Earth
is induced within it in exactly the same way that a current radii (RE) and 11 RE towards the Sun respectively. On the
is induced in the copper wire of a dynamo moving nightside, the deflected solar wind flow effectively creates
through its magnetic field. The electric current in the a vacuum, which the planetary magnetic field expands to
plasma sets up its own magnetic field, which interacts fill. MAGNETIC RECONNECTION occurring on the dayside
with the original magnetic field in such a way that the magnetopause results in magnetic flux being peeled from
relative motion between the field and plasma is opposed. the dayside and added to the nightside region. These two
The interaction may be sufficient to halt almost effects create the magnetospheric tail, or magnetotail. In
completely the relative motion of the plasma across the the terrestrial case, this feature is approximately
magnetic field lines. The magnetic field is then said to be cylindrical, with a diameter of order 5060 RE and a
frozen-in to the plasma. The movement of the plasma is length that extends many thousands of Earth radii.
then constrained to follow the magnetic field lines or to A planetary magnetosphere contains a number of
move with the magnetic field if it should change; or the regions with distinct plasma or energetic charged particle
magnetic field is dragged with the plasma as it moves. populations. Closest to the planet, these regions include
Most of the material in the Universe is in the form of the RADIATION BELTS (the VAN ALLEN BELTS at the Earth)
plasmas; therefore, magnetohydrodynamical behaviour is and the PLASMASPHERE. The radiation belts contain
involved wherever there is also a magnetic field. On the trapped energetic particles captured from the solar wind
Sun, for example, the shapes of both quiescent and active or originating from collisions between upper atmosphere
PROMINENCES clearly show linkage to magnetic fields; atoms and high-energy COSMIC RAYS. The plasmasphere
SUNSPOTS are cool and appear dark because the magnetic is populated by the polar wind, an upflow of plasma from
field within them inhibits convective transfer of heat; solar the upper IONOSPHERE. Farther out, the PLASMA SHEET
FLARES arise through magnetic fieldplasma interactions, occupies the central portion of the magnetotail and con-
although there is still some uncertainty in understanding tains a hot plasma of solar wind origin. Each of these
the exact process. There is also some uncertainty in exact- regions, indeed the magnetosphere as a whole, can be
ly how the solar sunspot cycle arises, but it is again clearly extremely dynamic, especially during times of enhanced
linked to magnetic field interactions. Other magnetohy- solar windmagnetosphere interaction. Magnetic storms
drodynamic behaviour occurs in the formation of plane- and MAGNETOSPHERIC SUBSTORMS are disturbances that Magellanic Clouds The
tary MAGNETOSPHERES, within ACCRETION DISKS and
STELLAR WINDS. Oscillations in the plasma and/or mag-
cause global restructuring of these magnetospheric
regions and significant energization of the particle popula-
Large Magellanic Cloud in
Dorado is the second closest M
netic field produce ALFVN WAVES. These move at the tions within them. In addition, there is significant coupling external galaxy. The LMC and
Alfvn speed between the magnetosphere and the ionosphere. At the SMC are joined to the Milky
B2
Earth this coupling is achieved by the flow of large-scale
electrical currents from the magnetosphere through the
Way by the Magellanic Stream,
an arc of neutral hydrogen gas
where B is the magnetic field strength, is the plasma polar ionosphere, which results in heating of the ionos- thought to be dragged from
density and is the magnetic permeability of the plasma. phere, particularly at disturbed times. It is also associated the smaller galaxies through
Such waves may be involved in transferring energy out to with spectacular displays of the AURORA. tidal interactions.
the solar CORONA and are thus involved in maintaining its
enormously high temperature.
241
magnetospheric substorm
Each of the other magnetized planets, Mercury, at distances ranging from 26.1 to 22.7 RS. A major dif-
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, is known to pos- ference between the Saturnian magnetosphere and that
sess a magnetosphere. The magnetic field of Mercury is of Jupiter is the concentration of highly electrically
relatively weak (only one-hundredth of the terrestrial charged dust in the ring plane. It is possible that this
field), and thus it has a very small magnetosphere. How- material is the source of the high-energy discharges in
ever, it still provides a definite interaction with the solar the rings. At Saturn the large system of rings and many
wind, with a well-defined bow shock and magnetopause. of the satellites have the effect of sweeping a path
MARINER 10 observations suggest that magnetospheric through the charged particle environment. The rings
substorms occur on timescales of minutes, rather than and the satellites are very efficient in absorbing the pro-
over one to two hours as occurs at Earth. Mercury has tons in the magnetosphere. The Saturnian magnetos-
no significant atmosphere or ionosphere, although, curi- phere is a major target of the CASSINI mission, due to
ously, these regions are known to be important for sub- arrive at Saturn in 2004.
storms in the terrestrial magnetosphere. The planet itself Uranus has an unusual magnetosphere in which the
also occupies a large fraction of the magnetosphere, such dipole magnetic field axis is tilted by an angle of 60 with
that the regions that would constitute the radiation belts respect to the planetary rotation axis, with a centre that is
lie below the surface. offset by 0.3 Uranus radii. At the time of the Voyager 2
The Jovian magnetosphere is the largest in the Solar encounter the Uranian magnetosphere extended 18 RU,
System: if it could be visualized from the Earth, it would and the magnetotail had a radius of 42 RU at a distance of
be seen to subtend a cross-section equivalent to the 67 RU. The extreme tilt of the magnetic axis, combined
Moons diameter in the sky. It is extremely variable in with the tilt of the rotational axis, causes the field lines in
size, extending to distances of between 50 and 100 RJ in the Uranian magnetotail to be wound up into a corkscrew
the direction of the Sun as a result of the changes in the configuration. Voyager 2 found radiation belts at Uranus
solar wind. The magnetotail of Jupiter is so large that it of intensity similar to those at Saturn, although they differ
extends over more than 5 AU and can interact with Sat- in composition. The moons Miranda and Ariel modulate
urn. The high-energy particles in Jupiters magnetic field the flux of the trapped radiation. It is possible that this
also form radiation belts, which are 1000 times more radiation environment is responsible for the creation of
intense than those of the Earth. Seven of Jupiters inner- the unusually dark material found on the satellites and
most satellites and the rings are in this hostile region. rings of Uranus. There are also radio emissions from the
These satellites are constantly bombarded by the high- magnetosphere of Uranus, although weaker than those
energy particles, which erode the surfaces and alter their from Saturn. A further magnetospheric interaction with
chemistry. In addition, the structure of the Jovian mag- the atmosphere, which is not known on Earth, is called
netosphere is influenced by the moon IO, which adds the electroglow. This is only seen on the dayside of
plasma to the inner regions by volcanic processes, creat- Uranus, where the aurorae are not observed.
ing a cloud of sodium, potassium and magnesium, Neptunes magnetic field is tilted 47 from the plan-
known as the Io torus, stretching around Ios orbit. The ets rotation axis, and is offset at least 0.55 RN from the
M rapid rotation of Jupiter accelerates plasma from the
torus to high velocities, and the resulting centrifugal
planets centre. As a result of this unusual arrangement,
Neptunes magnetosphere goes through dramatic
force distorts the magnetosphere outwards, in its equato- changes as the planet rotates in the solar wind. During
rial regions, to form the Jovian magnetodisk. Io and each rotation, the magnetosphere moves from an orien-
Jupiter are also connected by a magnetic flux tube, which tation similar to that at Earth to one in which the south
carries a current of order 5 million amps across a poten- pole points head on into the solar wind, and then back
tial difference of 400,000 volts. This electrical energy again. The pole-on orientation of the magnetic field was
plays an important role in the local heating of the surface observed when Voyager 2 flew into the southern cusp of
of Io and the generation of the volcanic activity. Jupiter Neptunes magnetosphere in 1989. The spacecraft sub-
emits waves at radio frequencies, corresponding to deca- sequently remained in the magnetosphere long enough
metric and decimetric regions of the electromagnetic to observe two of these rotation cycles. Voyager 2 detect-
spectrum, which are greater in intensity than any ed periodic radio emissions generated in the magnetos-
magnetosphere The extraterrestrial source other than the Sun. The interac- phere. These waves provided the first accurate
Earths moving iron core gives it tions between the charged particles and the Jovian estimation of the rotation rate of the planets interior.
an active magnetic field that atmosphere produces polar aurorae, which are about 60 Voyager 2 also detected weak aurorae in Neptunes
extends well beyond the times brighter than their terrestrial counterparts. atmosphere. Because of Neptunes complex magnetic
planet. The arrows indicate the The Saturnian magnetosphere is intermediate in size field, the aurorae occur over wide regions of the planet,
direction of the magnetic field. between those of Jupiter and the Earth, and, similar to not just near the planets magnetic poles.
The magnetosphere protects those, it is sensitive to variations of the solar wind. The Finally, it is possible for unmagnetized bodies to
us from solar radiation. VOYAGER 1 spacecraft crossed the bow shock five times, exhibit magnetospheric-like behaviour. For example, the
ionosphere of Venus and cometary comae also provide
obstacles to the solar wind flow. The slowing of the flow
in the vicinity of the body creates a draping of the solar
bow shock wind magnetic field around the obstacle, thus creating an
induced magnetotail. Regions of remnant surface mag-
netization on the Moon and Mars also interact with the
solar wind on a small scale, thus creating the mini-mag-
magnetotail netospheres detected, for example, by the Mars Global
Surveyor and Lunar Prospector missions.
plasmasphere
solar wind
neutral point magnetospheric substorm Major reconfiguration of
plasma sheet the terrestrial MAGNETOSPHERE resulting in an explosive
Earth release of energy stored in the magnetotail and subsequent
deposition of this energy into the polar IONOSPHERE,
RADIATION BELTS and downstream SOLAR WIND.
The growth phase of a magnetospheric substorm
cusp magnetopause begins with a period of enhanced coupling between the
solar wind and the magnetosphere, which may last several
hours. MAGNETIC RECONNECTION at the dayside MAGNE-
magnetosheath TOPAUSE results in a build-up of magnetic energy within
the magnetotail, reaching levels of 10161017 Joules. A
poorly understood instability occurring within the magne-
242
main sequence
totail PLASMA SHEET results in this energy being rapidly sequence stars are common because stars spend most of
released at the onset of the substorm expansion phase. their evolutionary lives on the main sequence.
This energy is converted into fast plasma jets within the The time for which a star remains on the main
magnetotail plasma sheet and is also dissipated by a shear- sequence is related to the ratio of its mass to its luminosity.
ing off of a large portion of the tail plasma sheet to form a Using the MASSLUMINOSITY RELATION, this gives rough
plasmoid, which is ejected away from the Earth and out main-sequence lifetimes proportional to M3.7 for solar-
into the solar wind. In the near-Earth region, energy is type stars and M0.6 for very high-mass stars (where M is
deposited as an injection of energetic particles into the the mass of the star). Very low-mass stars are fully convec-
radiation belts. A large, substorm-associated current con- tive and can continue core hydrogen fusion for much
nects the magnetosphere to the ionosphere, and flows longer than its massluminosity ratio would suggest, giv-
across the ionosphere at auroral latitudes. This current ing a star of mass one tenth of a solar mass a main-
dissipates energy by heating the ionosphere, and it is also sequence lifetime of around 1013 years.
associated with a major expansion of the nightside AURO- The internal structure of a main-sequence star consists
RA, both in the poleward and eastwest directions. Spec- of a core depleted in hydrogen (to a degree determined by
tacular high-latitude auroral displays are thus observed the time it has spent on the main sequence; that is, the
from the ground during substorms. Typically, after about time since NUCLEAR REACTIONS first started in its interior),
3060 minutes activity dies away, and the magnetosphere surrounded by a hydrogen-rich envelope. In stars heavier
and ionospheric systems relax to their pre-substorm state than the Sun the principal nuclear reaction network is the
during the recovery phase. Magnetospheric substorms CARBONNITROGENOXYGEN CYCLE and the core is mixed
are thought to occur at a much faster rate at Mercury, and by convection. In lower-mass stars the nuclear energy
probably also occur in the other magnetized planets. generation comes from the PROTONPROTON REACTION
and there is no convection in the core. An outer convec-
magnification Factor by which an optical system tion zone, extending in from the surface of the star,
increases the apparent size of an object. It is a measure of increases in depth for lower-mass stars. For stars of SPEC-
the increase in the angle subtended by the object at the TRAL TYPE A0 (about 3 solar masses) there is little or no
observers eye. It is usually designated by used before convective envelope; at the mass of the Sun the convection
or after the magnification power; for example, eight times zone reaches in about a quarter of the way to the centre; at
magnification would be written as 8 or 8. In the about 0.3 solar mass the zone reaches the centre.
specification of a pair of binoculars two numbers are The relatively short lifetimes of the hottest main-
usually given, separated by ; the first is the magnification. sequence stars result in their being very rare in the Galaxy,
For example, 1050 binoculars have a magnification of whereas the lifetimes of the lowest mass (spectral type K
ten times and an entrance aperture 50 mm in diameter. and M or RED DWARFS) are so long that none has evolved
The magnification of a telescope can be calculated by from the main sequence since the Galaxy was first
dividing the FOCAL LENGTH of the OBJECTIVE by the focal formed. This strong lifetime dependence, together with
length of the EYEPIECE. A telescope with a focal length of the fact that the processes of star formation produce far
1000 mm would give a magnification of 50 when used
with an eyepiece of focal length 20 mm.
more low-mass than high-mass stars, results in the lower-
mass dwarfs being much more populous. M
Most main-sequence stars have the same abundances
magnitude Brightness of an astronomical body. of hydrogen and helium as the Sun, and have abundances
APPARENT MAGNITUDE 1 is exactly 100 times brighter of the heavier elements which are within a factor of two of
than magnitude 6, each magnitude being 2.512 times those in the Sun. For stars with masses less than 0.08 times
brighter than the next. Magnitudes brighter than 0 are that of the Sun, the core temperatures do not become high
minus figures, thus Sirius is 1.4, and the Sun is 26.8. enough to start hydrogen-burning nuclear reactions; as a
The faintest objects yet photographed are about result the main sequence terminates at stars with surface
magnitude 26. See also ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDE; temperatures of about 2500 K. However, lower-mass stars
BOLOMETRIC MAGNITUDE; PHOTOGRAPHIC MAGNITUDE; are formed, probably in even greater numbers than the M
PHOTOVISUAL MAGNITUDE; VISUAL MAGNITUDE red dwarfs, and become BROWN DWARFS.
An upper limit to the masses of main-sequence stars is
main-belt asteroid One of the many ASTEROIDS that determined by the increase of radiation pressure in their
occupy the region of space between Mars and Jupiter. interiors: above about 150 solar masses the outward force
Most such bodies are dynamically stable, and they are exerted by radiation exceeds the attractive force of gravi-
believed to have remained in that part of the Solar System ty, preventing such a star from being formed, or making it
since their formation more than 4.5 billion years ago. The unstable with a short lifetime if it does form (see also
main-belt asteroids represent chunks of solid material, STELLAR MASS). At various places along the main
mostly rock and metal, which failed to form a major sequence variability of luminosity is found, such as in
planet because of the effect of the gravitational Beta Cephei, Delta Scuti, oscillating Ap and flare stars
perturbations of Jupiter. Their total remnant mass is small (see also VARIABLE STARS).
only about 5% the mass of the Moon. As well as the intrinsic properties of main-sequence
stars, their space velocities show some interesting correla-
main sequence Region of the HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL tions with other stellar properties. The dispersion of their
DIAGRAM where most stars are found. It runs diagonally velocities increases towards lower masses. This is a conse-
from top left (high temperature, high luminosity stars) to quence of the increase in average age of stars at lower
bottom right (low temperature, low luminosity stars). masses: stars of all masses are probably formed with
Stars spend most of their lifetime on the main sequence, approximately the same dispersion in space velocities, but
and a main-sequence star is one in which energy is the mechanisms that act to increase the dispersion have
primarily produced from the fusion of hydrogen into longer to work on those stars that remain as main-sequence
helium in its core. stars for the longest time. Thus O and B stars evolve off
The original line formed by stars shortly after their igni- the main sequence before their velocity dispersions have
tion is called the ZERO-AGE MAIN SEQUENCE. As composi- changed much from their initial values, but among the M
tional changes alter the internal structures of these stars, the main-sequence stars there is a spread of ages from that of
points that represent them on the HR diagram will move the Galaxy itself down to the most recent ones formed.
away from the main sequence and trace out an evolutionary Over long periods of time, encounters with massive inter-
track on the diagram (see also STELLAR EVOLUTION). stellar clouds (and, to a lesser extent, other stars) change
Main-sequence stars are the most common type of star the orbits of stars in the Galaxy, increasing their velocity
in the GALAXY: they constitute some 90% of the approxi- dispersion. Thus the oldest M main-sequence stars have
mately 1011 stars in the Galaxy and contribute about 60% greatly increased dispersions. See also HIGH-VELOCITY
of its total mass. From a theoretical point of view main- STARS; RUNAWAY STARS; STELLAR POPULATIONS
243
major planet
244
Mars
are often the only method available for identifying their becoming the first spacecraft to be placed in orbit around
location. Examples are visible in Mare Serenitatis and another planet (1971). Mariner 10 flew past Venus before
Mare HUMORUM. Significantly, the lavas failed to cover becoming the first spacecraft to study MERCURY.
the highest peaks in two of the Imbrium Basins inner
rings (for example, Mons Piton and Mons PICO). Thus, Marius, Simon (15701624) German mathematician
here the inner rings are marked by both mare ridges and and astronomer whose career was characterized by
individual peaks. controversy. In 1608 he learned of Hans LIPPERSHEYs
One other volcanic feature often associated with the design for a telescope and quickly made one from
maria are dark mantling deposits. These are consider- spectacle lenses. He was the first to use a telescope to
ably darker areas located around the edges of certain observe the ANDROMEDA GALAXY (1612), but could not
maria. Apollo 17 visited one such site in Mare Sereni- resolve its spiral structure. In 1614 he claimed to have
tatis, where astronauts found glass beads in the regolith. discovered the four brightest satellites of Jupiter in 1609
This kind of glass is produced by a process called fire November. Because of the five-year delay, he was accused
fountaining, which occurs when magma containing dis- of falsifying his observations by GALILEO, whom the
solved gasses ascends. As the confining pressure is scientific community had credited for this discovery.
released, the gasses come out of solution. If there is However, reliable records show that Marius observed the
enough gas in the fluid magma, it will both disrupt the Galilean moons at least as early as December 1610.
magma and act as a propellant, lobbing magma droplets
high above the surface. Here the droplets rapidly cool, Markab The star Pegasi, visual mag. 2.49, distance
forming a volcanic ash composed of small glass beads. 140 l.y., spectral type A0 III. Its name is the Arabic word
As the lunar variety of glass is high in certain metals for saddle.
(such as titanium), it assumes a dark colour.
Markarian galaxy GALAXY found to show excess
Maria Mitchell Observatory Small observatory on ultraviolet radiation in a survey carried out at the
Nantucket Island, off the coast of Massachusetts, Byurakan Observatory under the direction of the
founded in 1902 to commemorate Maria MITCHELL, the Armenian astronomer Benjamin Eghishe Markarian
first woman professor of astronomy in the United (191385). Markarian galaxies included the first large
States. It is now operated by the Maria Mitchell Associ- examples of SEYFERT GALAXIES, as well as many
ation, which aims to increase knowledge and public STARBURST GALAXIES and some QUASISTELLAR OBJECTS
awareness of the Universe and the natural world. The and BL LACERTAE OBJECTS.
Association supports both public astronomy and astro-
nomical research, and since 1997 has presented the Mars Fourth major planet from the Sun, popularly
annual Maria Mitchell Women in Science Award. known as the Red Planet. Mars is intermediate in size
between the Earth and Mercury. Mars coloration is a
marine chronometer Mechanical clock capable of function of widespread regions of reddish dust, which on
keeping time accurately for long periods on board a small
ship at sea. While latitude is easily found by observing the
occasions may be raised high into the tenuous Martian
atmosphere by winds. A great dust storm was observed at M
Sun or stars, finding longitude at sea requires an accurate close quarters in 1971 by the American spacecraft
knowledge of the time. Although land-based pendulum MARINER 9 as it approached the planet and eventually
clocks had achieved the necessary precision by the 17th went into orbit around it. This storm reached global
century, they could not be used at sea because the motions proportions, taking months to abate. On the surface the
of a ship disturbed the pendulum too much, not to men- dust collects into vast sand-sheets and dune fields.
tion variations in temperature and humidity. Telescopically, Mars shows bright regions at the poles,
In 1714 the British Parliament passed the Longitude sometimes bright areas at the LIMB or TERMINATOR, and
Act, which offered a prize of 20,000 for a satisfactory various dark markings. Most early observers believed the
solution to this problem. A useful marine chronometer dark features to be seas, but when, in the 19th century, it
which depended on a balance-wheel escapement was ulti- became apparent that the atmosphere was too tenuous for
mately devised by John HARRISON. Thereafter, the develop- this to be the case, the consensus view became that they
ment of chronometers proceeded rapidly. Chronometers were dried-up sea beds supporting lowly vegetation.
remained essential until the general availability of reliable Together with the Martian CANALS theory, this supposi-
radio time signals in the 1920s and 1930s. Nowadays, tion has been long rejected by scientists.
most practical navigation makes use of the GLOBAL POSI- The atmosphere of Mars is extremely tenuous, being
TIONING SYSTEM (GPS) satellites. only 1/150th that of Earth. Ninety-five per cent of it is car-
bon dioxide, the rest being nitrogen (2.7%), argon (1.6%)
Mariner spacecraft Series of ten US planetary and very small amounts of oxygen, carbon monoxide and
probes, of which seven were successful. Mariner 2 was water vapour (0.03%). The thin atmosphere, coupled with
the first probe to reach VENUS (1962). Mariner 4 Mars eccentric orbit and axial tilt, leads to a wide tempera- Mars The atmosphere on
achieved the first successful flyby of MARS, sending back ture range, from 136 K (over the winter south polar cap) to Mars is extremely tenuous. This
pictures of a cratered surface (1964). Mariner 5 made a 299 K (after noon in summer), with a mean of 250 K. is clearly shown in this true-
close flyby of Venus in 1967. Mariners 6 and 7 extended Most of the VOLATILES are frozen out of the atmosphere in colour Mars Pathfinder image of
the mapping of Mars, including the south polar region the polar caps, but there is sufficient water vapour for water the Martian sunset where there
(1969). Mariner 9 went into orbit around Mars, ice clouds to form at altitudes from 10 to 15 km (69 mi) in is very little refraction of light.
245
Mars
MARS: DATA
Globe
Diameter 6794 km (equatorial)
6759 km (polar)
Density 3.93 g/cm3
Mass 6.4191 1023kg
Reciprocal mass (Sun = 1) 1/3,098,710
Reciprocal mass (Earth=1) 0.107
Sidereal period of axial rotation 24h 37m 22s.6
Escape velocity 5.02 km/s
Albedo 0.15
Axial inclination 24.0
Surface temperature 299 K (maximum)
250 K (mean)
136 K (minimum)
Surface gravity (Earth =1) 0.379
Mean opposition magnitude 22.0
Orbit
Distance from the Sun 249,100,000 km (greatest)
227,940,000 km (mean)
206,700,000 km (least)
Eccentricity 0.093
Inclination to ecliptic 1.8
Sidereal period of revolution 686.980 days
Mean orbital velocity 24.1 km/s
246
Mars
and Elysium regions is a vast array of fractures, which presence of the iron-containing minerals haematite and
must have developed in response to the formation of the olivine in the basaltic bedrock areas observable in Mars
two crustal bulges. Mars has no plate TECTONICS, and southern hemisphere.
any volcanic hot-spot will remain in one place. Contin- The Vikings found the Martian soil to be sterile,
ued activity over a long period, aided by the low Martian bereft of organic matter, though long exposure to solar
gravity, has enabled high volcanic mountains to form. ultraviolet radiation would have destroyed any evidence
The planet is probably geologically inactive today. of such matter in time. The so-called microfossils
Olympus Mons seems relatively young, perhaps 30 mil- described in a Martian meteorite (ALLAN HILLS 84001)
lion years old, but the oldest volcanoes are estimated to in 1996 are now thought by a consensus of scientists to
be up to 3.4 billion years old. be simply crystals of inorganic origin, rather than past
To the east of Tharsis is an impressive canyon system Martian life-forms. This meteorite was blasted from the
named Valles Marineris. It extends from near the summit surface of Mars by a nearby impact over 16 million years
of the bulge at 5S l00W for 4500 km (2800 mi) east- ago and later picked up in Antarctica.
wards, eventually merging into an immense area of chaot- In addition to the volcanic shields and the surrounding
ic terrain between Aurorae Planum and Margaritifer lightly cratered plains, the heavily cratered terrain of the
Terra. Valles Marineris marks a vast faulted area up to southern hemisphere and the polar caps, there are exten-
600 km (370 mi) wide at the widest point; in places it falls sive regions adjacent to the poles that have been dissected
7 km (4 mi) below the rim. to reveal strongly laminated deposits. Such lamination
The oldest recognisable features are the roughly circular points to a geological history of alternating warmer and
impact basins, of which the most prominent is Hellas Plani- colder climates. This can be explained by the fact that the
tia. Also prominent are Argyre Planitia and ISIDIS PLANITIA. inclination of the Martian axis is known to oscillate from Mars The existence of water
A number of other, generally less well-defined basins have 14.9 to 35.5, and the planets orbital eccentricity is on Mars, whether as subsurface
been recognized on spacecraft images. For instance, known to vary from 0.004 to 0.141 over tens of thou- liquid or as ice, is vital for the
CHRYSE PLANITIA is believed to occupy an ancient multi- sands of years. question of whether there was,
ringed basin, although the surrounding ramparts are not so The polar caps are believed to represent the visible or is, life on Mars. A number of
clearly defined as those of Argyre and Hellas Planitia. summits of more extensive subsurface permafrost. Each outflow channels in crater walls,
The most exciting of all Martian features are the out- consists of a permanent cap perhaps several kilometres including this example in
flow channels, in no way related to the illusory canali. thick (water ice in the north, a mixture of water and car- Noachis Terra, were imaged by
These channels can be several hundred kilometres long bon dioxide in the south) and an overlying seasonal cap of the Mars Global Surveyor, and
and tens of kilometres wide. They generally start abrupt- carbon dioxide. The seasonal caps undergo cyclic appear to resemble closely
ly, without tributaries. Most channels are located north changes, occupying a diameter of over 60 in latitude in gullies on Earth.
of the great canyon system and converge on the plain
known as Chryse Planitia, although others appear to be
SELECTED MARTIAN FEATURES
associated with Elysiums north-west edge. They seem to
be related to a period of flooding in the distant past, Name Latitude Longitude Comments
47.0N 22.0W large low-albedo area
M
ACIDALIA PLANITIA
when the climate was quite different from that of today
and liquid water (probably ice-covered) could have ALBA PATERA 40.5N 109.9W low-profile shield volcano
existed in quantity on the Martian surface. Standing Antoniadi 21.5N 299.2W large crater, diameter 381 km (237 mi)
water could have extended beyond Chryse, but the mat- ARES VALLIS 9.7N 23.4W flood-plain valley, landing site of Mars Pathfinder
ter is controversial. ARGYRE PLANITIA 50.0S 44.0W impact basin
Mars Global Surveyor imaging greatly surpassed the ARSIA MONS 8.4S 121.1W shield volcano
resolution of the Viking Orbiters, enabling several intrigu- ASCRAEUS MONS 11.9N 104.5W shield volcano
ing discoveries to be made. High resolution images Cassini 23.8N 328.2W large crater, diameter 415 km (258 mi)
revealed many dozens of small channels within craters, Chasma Boreale 83.0N 45.0W rift in north polar cap
each apparently carved by running water. These features CHRYSE PLANITIA 27.0N 40.0W plains region, Viking 1 landing site
are generally more than 30 from the equator. Each feature Cimmeria Terra 35.0S 215.0W low-albedo feature
resembles a terrestrial gully, exhibiting boulders, a winding Deuteronilus Mensae 45.7N 337.9W Martian mesae area
channel and debris at the bottom of the flow. The lack of ELYSIUM FOSSAE 24.8N 213.7W aligned valleys flanking Elysium Mons
associated small impact features implies a geologically Elysium Mons 25.0N 213.1W volcano
recent history. The channels might have been eroded by Ganges Catena 2.8S 68.7W crater chain
water suddenly released behind a plug of ice. There are Hadriaca Patera 32.4S 268.2W one of the oldest recognisable Martian volcanic structures
also many examples of what look like small, dried-up Mar- Hecates Tholus 32.7N 209.8W shield volcano
tian lakes, which display apparent sedimentary layering: HELLAS PLANITIA 43.0S 290.0W largest Martian basin
these have mostly been imaged at low latitudes in canyons Huygens 14.3S 304.6W large crater, diameter 456 km (283 mi)
and deep craters. In this instance, however, dust deposits Isidis Planitia 13.0N 273.0W low elevation plain
could also have masqueraded as sedimentary strata. Ismenia Fossa 38.9N 326.1W long shallow depression
The Viking Lander probes took panoramic pho- Ius Chasma 7.0S 85.8W canyon in western part of Valles Marineris
tographs of the two landing sites, Chryse Planitia and KASEI VALLES 24.6N 65.0W major outflow channel area
UTOPIA PLANITIA, which are both plains areas. They Lunae Planum 10.0N 67.0W plain
recorded dune-like features and a reddish dusty surface Margaritifer Terra 5.0S 25.0W region of chaotic terrain
crowded with dark rocky blocks. Many of the blocks were Noctus Labyrinthus 7.0S 102.2W maze of intersecting canyons
vesicular and appeared similar in aspect to terrestrial Ogygis Rupes 34.1S 54.9W ridge
basaltic rocks. Chemical analyses carried out on the sur- OLYMPUS MONS 18.6N 134.0W giant shield volcano
face revealed that the soil was probably the result of Ophir Chasma 4.0S 84.7W part of central Valles Marineris canyon system
weathering and oxidation of basaltic rocks. Pulverization PAVONIS MONS 0.8N 113.4W large shield volcano
by meteorite impacts has created fine micrometre-sized PROTONILUS MENSAE 44.2N 309.4W Martian mesae area
dusty particles. The deep reddish coloration is due to the Sabaea Terra 2.0N 318.0W low-albedo feature
presence of iron (III) oxide. Mars Pathfinders landing site Sirenum Terra 40.0S 150.0W low-albedo feature
in ARES VALLIS looked broadly similar. Its Sojourner robot SOLIS PLANUM 25.5S 86.5W low-albedo feature
vehicle showed by X-ray spectrometry that the boulders SYRTIS MAJOR PLANITIA 9.5N 290.5W plateau and low-albedo feature
were of various types, some similar to terrestrial basalt and Tempe Terra 40.0N 71.0W desert area
andesite, and others apparently of a sedimentary nature. THARSIS MONTES 1.2N 112.5W Mars main volcanic region
These findings implied that the rocks had been transport- Tithoniae Catena 5.4S 82.4W crater chain
ed from geologically different places, underscoring the Tyrrhena Terra 15.0S 270.0W low-albedo feature
long-range impression from orbital imagery that the UTOPIA PLANITIA 50.0N 242.0W plain, Viking 2 landing site
region is an ancient flood-plain. The Thermal Emission VALLES MARINERIS 13.9S 59.2W great canyon system
Spectrometer aboard Mars Global Surveyor indicated the VASTITAS BOREALIS 68N Northern circumpolar plain
247
Mars-crossing asteroid
Mars Because Mars takes and will be equipped with a suite of seven instruments to
longer to orbit the Sun than study the surface and atmosphere in detail, including a
Earth, the mean period 10-m (33-ft) resolution photo-geology imager and a
between oppositions (the spectrometer with a resolution of 100 m (330 ft) to map
closest approach) is more than the mineralogy of the planet. The spacecraft will operate
two years. With the Earth at E1 M3 in a polar orbit and will complement the new US MARS
and Mars at M1, Mars is in EXPLORATION ROVER and MARS ODYSSEY missions.
E2
opposition. A year later the
Earth has come back to E1, but Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) One of the USAs
Mars has only reached M2. The most successful Mars probes. It was launched in 1996
next opposition occurs only 64-2065 November and entered orbit around Mars in 1997
after 780 days when Earth has E1 M1 September. The spacecraft was still operating in 2001 for
caught up with Mars, with the M2 Sun special observations after its primary mission had ended.
Earth at E2 and Mars at M3. The MGS took over 300,000 high-resolution images of
the Martian surface, including those that revealed what
seemed to be clear evidence that at one time liquid water
flowed across the surface. MGS was equipped with five
of the seven instruments that flew on the Mars Observer,
which failed to orbit the planet in 1993, probably because
of an engine explosion. The images returned by the
MGS and the MARS PATHFINDER, which landed in 1997
freely and widely available on the Internet, represented
winter, and shrinking in summer to just 10 or less. It is a new era in wide public access to and personal
estimated that the complete melting of the polar caps, involvement with the exploration of space.
which would only be possible given an adequate atmos-
pheric pressure, would cover the planet with 10 metres of Mars Odyssey NASAs 2001 Mars Odyssey is the
water sufficient for the supposed rivers and larger bodies former Mars Surveyor 2001 craft renamed in honour of
of water of Mars geological past. the English writer Arthur C. Clarke. Launched in 2001
April, Mars Odyssey entered an initial orbit around Mars
Mars-crossing asteroid Any of a group of in 2001 October and for the following 76 days used
ASTEROIDS with orbits that cross some part of the orbit of aerobraking in the upper atmosphere to manoeuvre into
Mars. In general this implies a perihelion distance of less its operational orbit. Mars Odyssey is equipped with a
than about 1.67 AU, although some NEAR-EARTH thermal emission imager, a gamma-ray spectrometer and
ASTEROIDS may be disqualified from this group because a radiation environmental experiment. The spectrometer
their aphelia lie within Mars perihelion distance of is identical to the instrument lost when the Mars
M 1.38 AU. Asteroids with perihelia less than 1.30 AU are
classed as AMOR ASTEROIDS, unless they actually cross the
Observer mission failed in 1993.
Earths orbit, in which case they are either APOLLO Mars Pathfinder First of NASAs faster-cheaper-
ASTEROIDS or ATEN ASTEROIDS. better Discovery-class missions, mainly designed as a
technology demonstration. It was launched on 1996
Mars Exploration Rover NATIONAL AERONAUTICS December 4 and arrived at Mars on 1997 July 4. Airbags
AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA) mission, originally were used to cushion the landing. The spacecraft impacted
known as Mars 2003, to land two roving vehicles on the surface at a velocity of about 18 m/s (60 ft/s) and
Mars. Although it is possible that NASA will be forced to bounced about 15 m (50 ft) into the air. After bouncing
reduce the mission to one rover, the plan in 2001 involved another 15 times it eventually came to rest about 1 km
two launches in 2003 June, with landings in 2004 January (0.6 mi) from the initial impact site. The landing took
and February, using an inflatable airbag method used place on an ancient flood plain in the Ares Vallis region.
successfully for MARS PATHFINDER in 1997. The craft Two days later, a small rover known as Sojourner
could bounce a dozen times and could roll as far as 1 km rolled down a ramp on to the rocky surface. The 10-kg
(0.6 mi). The bags will deflate and retract and petals will
open up, bringing the lander to an upright position and
THE MARTIAN SATELLITES
revealing the rover. The landings will be made in two
separate locations to be identified using MARS GLOBAL Phobos Deimos
SURVEYOR images. The criteria will be that the sites reveal mean distance from Mars (km) 9378 23,459
clear evidence of surface water, such as lakebeds or mean sidereal period (days) 0.3189 1.2624
hydrothermal deposits. The identical rovers will carry a orbital inclination() 1.068 0.8965
suite of instruments, including three spectrometers and a orbital eccentricity 0.01515 0.0003
microscopic imager, to search for evidence of liquid water diameter (km) 27 22 18 15 12 10
that may have been present in the planets past. The rocks density (g/cm3) 2.0 1.7
and soil will be collected by a sampler, while a rock magnitude at mean opposition 11.6 12.8
abrasion tool will expose fresh rock surfaces for study.
The 1500-kg rovers will be equipped with a 360
panoramic camera, giving three times the resolution of
that carried on the Mars Pathfinder. This will be used to
enable scientists to select samples. The rovers will be able
to travel about 100 m (330 ft) a day with an operational
lifetime expected to last 90 Martian days.
Phobos
Mars Express EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY (ESA) planetary orbit
Mars The Martian satellites mission to be launched in 2003 June and to enter orbit
Phobos and Deimos are around Mars in 2003 December. Mars Express was
thought to be captured originally envisaged as part of a wider international effort Deimos
asteroids. They orbit close to to return samples of Mars to Earth in 2004 and 2006.
the planets surface Phobos at The craft was to help track the US ascent vehicles. Such
9378 km (5827 mi) and Deimos missions are unlikely to take place until the 2010
at 23,459 km (14,577 mi) in timeframe. Nonetheless, Mars Express will carry the
almost circular orbits. UKs BEAGLE 2 Mars lander a late addition to the craft
248
mascon
rover carried a stereo camera system and an alpha-proton from a single impact event. At least three craters, with
X-ray spectrometer to study the composition of soil and minimum diameters of c.12 km (c.7 mi), are required to
rocks. Panoramic views showed a landscape of broad, produce the variety of Martian meteorite types. As of
gentle ridges overlain with numerous dark-grey rocks of summer 2001, there are 18 separate meteorites that
various shapes and sizes. Close-up images of the rocks almost certainly originated on Mars. The Martian origin
revealed pitted, layered and smooth surfaces. It was sug- rests on the age, composition and noble gas inventory of
gested that some of the rocks were conglomerates sedi- the meteorites.
mentary rocks that had formed when liquid water existed
on the planets surface. mascon (mass concentration) Concentration of mass
By the time rover operations ceased on 1997 Septem- below the Moons surface. Gravity mapping of the Moon
ber 27, Sojourner had travelled about 100 m (330 ft), car- has revealed mascons over many of the lunar basins,
ried out 16 chemical analyses of rocks and soil and taken
550 images. The lander, which was renamed the Sagan
including IMBRIUM, SERENITATIS and NECTARIS.
The gravity field over a planet is never completely even. M
Memorial Station in honour of planetary scientist Carl Places of large mass concentrations exist, which are usual-
SAGAN, relayed an unprecedented 2.3 gigabits of data, ly due to accumulation of either heavy materials (for
including 16,500 lander images and 8.5 million measure- example high-density minerals) or the piling up of materi-
ments of atmospheric pressure, temperature and wind. als (such as mountains). Planetary bodies usually even out
these mass concentrations through redistribution of mass,
Mars sample return missions Attempts to return in order to achieve isostatic equilibrium. On the Moon,
samples of Mars to the Earth to help answer finally the this occurs through movement (plastic flow) of the
questions about possible life on Mars. The first sample asthenosphere, which underlies the rigid lithosphere.
return mission was to have been made by a Mars Lunar mascons are always associated with basins, the
Surveyor mission in 2005. The Mars Surveyor class largest impact structures on the Moon. As enormous
lander would collect a modest 2 kg of samples and place amounts of surface material were removed by the crater-
them into a small ascent capsule, which would be fired off ing process, the asthenosphere moved towards the surface
the surface and on a course to Earth. The failures of the to replace the mass loss and to maintain isostatic equilibri-
Mars Climate Orbiter and Mars Polar Landing missions um. At a later time, lavas, which are much denser than
in 1999 were a milestone in Martian exploration, resulting crustal rock, poured into and filled the basins to depths of Mars Pathfinder The
in major re-evaluation of future plans and the realization 24 km (1.22.5 mi). These two processes together Sojourner rover was deployed
that such a mission is unlikely to take place until the 2010 formed the large mass concentrations. two days after Pathfinder
timeframe. The high cost and level of technology required Early in the Moons history, the lithosphere was rela- landed on Mars. It spent 12
for a mission are major stumbling blocks in times of low tively thin, and mass concentrations were mostly highly successful weeks
budgets, cut-price spacecraft and the technological smoothed out. Later, however, the lithosphere thickened examining a variety of rocks
disasters of losing two craft in a matter of months. because of continued cooling, so that new mass concen- strewn across the flood plain of
trations were maintained. Ares Vallis.
Mars-Trojan asteroid ASTEROID that has the same
orbital period as Mars, positioned around one of its
LAGRANGIAN POINTS, L4 or L5. By late 2001 there were
five Mars Trojans known, all of which are associated with
L5. See also EUREKA; TROJAN ASTEROID
249
maser
maser (acronym for microwave amplification by the deflection he calculated the mountains mass and thence
stimulated emission of radiation) Celestial object in the gravitational constant and the Earths density. His
which radio emission from molecules stimulates further value of 4.87 times the density of water is close to the
radio emission at the same energy from other molecules; accepted modern value of 5.52.
a maser is analogous to a LASER but in the radio region of
the ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM. A maser can be mass Measure of an objects INERTIA. The mass defined
created in an astronomical source when one energy level in this way is called the inertial mass. Mass may also be
of a molecule is preferentially populated by the radiation defined from the GRAVITATIONAL FORCE that it produces,
environment, and the molecule cools by stimulated leading to the gravitational mass. Experiments have
emission. Water (H2O), the hydroxyl radical (OH), shown that the two masses are identical to better than one
silicon monoxide (SiO) and several other molecules can part in 1012. This has led to the principle of equivalence
produce maser emission in galactic and extragalactic no experiment can distinguish between the effects of a
objects. The name maser is also used for the gravitational force and those of an inertial force in an
astronomical object itself. Since the molecular emission is accelerated frame, which underlies EINSTEINS theory of
amplified, the objects are easier to detect, and over GENERAL RELATIVITY.
10,000 are known in the Galaxy. Masers occur in places
where new stars are forming, and in the atmospheres of massive compact halo object (MACHO) Dark
evolved stars, or variable stars with high mass loss which object, perhaps a BROWN DWARF or BLACK HOLE,
are in the process of becoming planetary nebulae or postulated to explain the missing mass seen in galactic
supernovae. Some of the first masers to be discovered rotation curves.
were the OHIR stars, which radiate in the 1612 MHz
line (see OH). A star will have many masers in its envelope, massluminosity relation For stars on the MAIN
and they can be tracked using MULTI-ELEMENT RADIO- SEQUENCE there exists a one-to-one relationship between
LINKED INTERFEROMETER NETWORK or VERY LONG luminosity and mass, expressed approximately as L Mx.
BASELINE INTERFEROMETRY, showing that the conditions This relation enables mass to be determined from absolute
in the envelope change over months and years. OH, CH magnitude. The exponent x varies with mass, being 1.6
and H2O megamasers have been found in galaxies such for stars of around 100 solar masses, 3.1 for stars of
as the Large Magellanic Cloud, infrared luminous around 10 solar masses, 4.7 for stars of a solar mass and
galaxies, active galaxies, starburst and Seyfert galaxies. 2.7 for low-mass stars of around a tenth of a solar mass.
These differences are due primarily to the opacity of the
Maskelyne, Nevil (17321811) English astronomer stars caused by their different interior temperatures.
and clergyman, the fifth and longest-serving
ASTRONOMER ROYAL (17651811). After studying mass transfer Process that occurs in CLOSE BINARY
mathematics at Cambridge University, he became James stars when one star fills its ROCHE LOBE and material
Bradleys assistant at GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. In 1761 transfers to the other star through the inner
M he took part in a Royal Society expedition to the island
of St Helena to observe a transit of Venus. The voyage
LAGRANGIAN POINT. Material can be transferred directly
to the other star but is more usually transferred via an
inspired him to apply astronomy to navigational ACCRETION DISK.
problems, and in his British Mariners Guide (1763) he The material flowing through the inner Lagrangian
massive compact halo explained how to determine longitude at sea by point moves very like a free particle, but when the mater-
object Astronomers hope to comparing the Moons position as observed aboard ship ial impacts the accretion disk around the other star, it
detect MACHOs through their to its position as observed from a known terrestrial stops moving like a free particle, since gas cannot flow
gravitational effects on the longitude. He travelled to Barbados in 1764 to test John freely through other gas, and the energy is dissipated via
light from objects beyond Harrisons newly invented MARINE CHRONOMETER, shock waves.
them. In this microlensing which proved to be more practical and accurate than the The observed period of the outbursts from the shock
event, the MACHO is a nearby lunar method of finding longitude. Two years later waves gives information about the time it takes material to
red dwarf star (arrowed). Most Maskelyne founded the NAUTICAL ALMANAC. In 1774 he spiral from the secondary on to the accreting primary. For
of these objects, however, measured the deflection of a large pendulum erected dwarf novae, the time is typically a few days. These obser-
must be invisible. atop the Scottish mountain of Schiehallion; from the vations suggest that material accretes a lot faster than
should be allowed by the natural viscosity of gas. If it is to
accrete on to the primary, the material must first lose its
original ANGULAR MOMENTUM. It may be that the gas in
an accretion disk behaves like a fluid with a very high vis-
cosity, with the viscosity slowing the motion of the gas.
250
maximum entropy method
as the spacecraft headed for rendezvous with EROS. The named after Walter MAUNDER who in 1922 provided a
information returned shows that Mathilde has a mean full account of the 70-year dearth in sunspots, first
density somewhat less than that of stony meteorites, noticed by Gustav Friedrich Wilhelm SPRER in
indicating that it may contain voids and may thus be an 188789. The scarcity of sunspots during this period has
agglomeration of smaller rocky components held together been substantiated by other indicators of low solar
by self-gravity. activity, such as the amount of radioactive carbon-14 in
old tree rings and the occurrence of low-latitude aurorae.
Mauna Kea Observatory Worlds largest astronomical The Maunder minimum coincided with years of
observatory. It is situated at the 4205-m (13,796-ft) sum- sustained low temperatures in Europe, from about AD
mit of Mauna Kea (which means White Mountain), a 1400 to 1800, known as the Little Ice Age.
dormant volcano on the island of Hawaii and the highest
point in the Pacific Basin. It is above 40% of the Earths Mauritius Radio Observatory Location of the Mathilde Asteroid 253 is a
atmosphere and 97% of the water vapour in the atmos- Mauritius Radio Telescope, constructed to make a C-type, carbonaceous
phere, resulting in very high atmospheric transparency southern-hemisphere survey to complement the 6C asteroid, with a composition
and freedom from cloud. Laminar airflow over the moun- (sixth Cambridge) radio survey of the MULLARD RADIO typical of the outer parts of the
tain produces superb image quality. ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY. It also observes selected main asteroid belt. It is about
The observatory, operated by the University of Hawaii, southern pulsars. 55 km (34 mi) long, and has
hosts nine telescopes for optical and infrared astronomy several craters c.20 km
and two for submillimetre astronomy. They include the Maurolycus Ancient lunar crater with deeply incised (c.12 mi) across.
largest single-mirror optical/infrared telescopes in the walls (42S 14E), 105 km (65 mi) in diameter.
world, the twin reflectors of the W.M. KECK OBSERVATORY; Continued meteoritic erosion by meteorites has worn
and the largest submillimetre telescope in the world, the away most elements of its EJECTA. Its central peaks,
JAMES CLERK MAXWELL TELESCOPE. Also on Mauna Kea produced by rebound of the floor, are still visible.
is the CALTECH SUBMILLIMETER OBSERVATORY, while a Maurolycus lies over several older craters, the rims of
third submillimetre instrument (the SUBMILLIMETER which are visible to the south-west and north-west. At
ARRAY) is under construction. The westernmost antenna high Sun angles, the bright ray system of TYCHO can be
of the VERY LONG BASELINE ARRAY is nearby. seen on Maurolycus floor.
Astronomy on Mauna Kea began in the 1960s, when
the University of Hawaii placed a 0.6-m (24-in.) tele- Maury, Antonia Caetana (18661952) Pioneer
scope there, followed in 1970 by their 2.2-m (88-in.) American woman astronomer at the HARVARD COLLEGE
reflector. Three more telescopes were built on the site in OBSERVATORY. Maury, a niece of Henry Draper, helped
1979: the 3.2-m (126-in.) NASA Infrared Telescope to compile the HENRY DRAPER CATALOGUE, named as a
Facility (IRTF), the 3.6-m (142-in.) memorial to him. This work, carried out at Harvard
CANADAFRANCEHAWAII TELESCOPE and the 3.8-m from 1887 under the direction of Edward C. PICKERING,
(150-in.) UNITED KINGDOM INFRARED TELESCOPE. required Maury to examine and classify thousands of
Mauna Keas exceptional observing conditions attracted
four 810 metre class telescopes in the 1990s: the two
stellar spectra, in the course of which she refined the
classification system to account for the sharpness of M
Keck Telescopes, the Japanese SUBARU TELESCOPE, and spectral lines. In 1905 Ejnar HERTZSPRUNG showed that
the northern telescope of the GEMINI OBSERVATORY. Fur- Maurys modification could be used to distinguish
ther development of the site is likely. between giant and dwarf stars. Maury also became
Astronomers and technicians working on Mauna Kea expert at identifying spectroscopic binaries, helping
must first acclimatize to the altitude. A mid-level facility at Pickering to prove the true nature of the first star to be Mauna Kea Observatory
Hale Pohaku, at an altitude of 2800 m (9300 ft), provides identified as such, Mizar ( Ursae Majoris), and in 1889 The most recent generation of
accommodation and other facilities; it is named the Ellison calculated its 104-day period. telescopes on Mauna Kea,
Onizuka Center for International Astronomy to honour including Gemini North
Hawaiian astronaut Ellison Shoji Onizuka (194686), Maximum Aperture Telescope (MAXAT) Former (foreground), the twin Keck
who died in the Challenger disaster. name of the GIANT SEGMENTED-MIRROR TELESCOPE telescopes (right) and the
Japanese Subaru (beyond the
Maunder, (Edward) Walter (18511928) British solar maximum entropy method (MEM) Mathematical Keck domes), give results that
astronomer and a founder of the BRITISH technique applied to the inverse problem of how to make are second to none.
ASTRONOMICAL ASSOCIATION (BAA). He was appointed
Photographic and Spectroscopic Assistant at the Royal
Observatory, Greenwich in 1873, where he used various
instruments to observe sunspots, faculae and
prominences. Over the next thirty years, he compiled
the most complete record of sunspot activity,
supplementing the Greenwich data with observations
from overseas. By plotting the mean heliographic
latitude of sunspot groups against time, Maunder
created the first BUTTERFLY DIAGRAM and determined
that the Sun showed DIFFERENTIAL ROTATION. He also
researched historical sunspot records, discovering the
paucity of sunspot activity during the years 16151745
now known as the MAUNDER MINIMUM.
Maunder organized and participated in many expedi-
tions to observe total solar eclipses, on which he was often
accompanied by his second wife, Annie Scott Dill
Maunder (18581947), who also worked as an
astronomer at Greenwich. Annie Maunder took fine pho-
tographs during these eclipses on one image the corona
could be traced to a distance from the limb of six solar
radii. The Maunders were instrumental in the formation
of the BAA (1890), which soon became the worlds fore-
most group of amateur astronomers.
251
Max-Planck-Institut fr Astronomie
reliable deductions from noisy and uncertain data. It MaxwellBoltzmann distribution Law determining
derives its name from the concept of an increase in the speed of particles in a gas. It takes the form:
ENTROPY as equivalent to a decrease in the level of 1/2
N(v) dv 2m3 2
structure in a system. The MEM deduction is therefore = 3 T 3/2 v2 emv /2kTdv
the one that has the least amount of structure within it N k
(that is, the maximum entropy) and yet is still consistent where N(v) is the number density of particles with
with the data. The technique is mostly applied to the velocities in the range v to v + dv, N is the total number
interpretation of noisy images. density of the particles, m is the particle mass, T the
temperature and k is BOLTZMANNS CONSTANT. It gives a
Max-Planck-Institut fr Astronomie (MPIA) Insti- bell-shaped distribution, the peak of which moves to
tute located in Heidelberg, Germany, which conducts higher velocities as the temperature increases. The onset
research in astronomical instrumentation, stellar and of degeneracy (see DEGENERATE MATTER) in, for example,
galactic astronomy, cosmology and theoretical astro- WHITE DWARFS is indicated by deviations of particle
physics. The institute is responsible for operating the speeds from the MaxwellBoltzmann distribution.
CALAR ALTO OBSERVATORY.
Mayer, (Johann) Tobias (172362) German
Max-Planck-Institut fr Astrophysik (MPA) Institute mathematician, astronomer and cartographer who
located at Garching, near Munich, Germany, which produced precise tables of lunar positions, taking into
undertakes research in theoretical astrophysics. Its scien- account lunar libration, that were used by later
tists work closely with astronomers from the EUROPEAN astronomers to reckon longitude at sea. He produced the
SOUTHERN OBSERVATORY, whose headquarters are close first map of the Moon based upon micrometer
by. Also nearby is the Max-Planck-Institut fr extrater- measurements (1750). From his observations he
restrische Physik (MPE), which conducts observations in concluded that the Moon has no appreciable atmosphere.
spectral regions accessible only from space (for example, In 1753 Mayer began publishing his lunar tables, and he
far-infrared, X-ray and gamma-ray). developed a mathematical method of estimating longitude
to within half a degree. He also derived an improved
Max-Planck-Institut fr Radioastronomie (MPIfR) method for calculating solar eclipses.
Institute located in Bonn, Germany, with the primary pur-
pose of operating the fully steerable 100-m (330-ft) tele- Mayall Telescope See KITT PEAK NATIONAL
scope at Bad Mnstereifel-Effelsberg, 40 km (25 mi) OBSERVATORY
south-west of the city. The Effelsberg Radio Telescope is a
lightweight paraboloidal dish commissioned in 1972, and Mayan astronomy See NATIVE AMERICAN ASTRONOMY
it is used at centimetre wavelengths both as a stand-alone
instrument and as an element of global VERY LONG BASE- mean anomaly See ANOMALY
LINE INTERFEROMETRY experiments. The MPIfR collabo-
252
Menzel, Donald Howard
253
Merak
MERCURY: DATA
Globe
Diameter 4879.4 km
Density 5.43 g/cm3
Mass (Earth = 1) 0.055
Volume (Earth = 1) 0.0562
Escape velocity 4.4 km/s
Inclination of equator to orbit 0.1
Sidereal period of axial rotation 58.646 days
Surface gravity (Earth = 1) 0.378
Surface temperature 700 K (day) 100 K (night)
Albedo 0.11
Mean visual magnitude (greatest elongation) 0.0
Orbit
Semimajor axis 0.387 AU
Eccentricity 0.206
Inclination to ecliptic 7.0
Sidereal period of revolution 87.969 days
Mean synodic period 115.88 days
Mean orbital velocity 47.87 km/s
Mean longitude of perihelion 77.455
Satellites none
254
mercurymanganese star
er, by proportion, than those of the other terrestrial plan- Mercury Because Mercury
ets. The evolution of the planet must, therefore, be is nearer to the Sun than the
strongly influenced by core formation, probably from Earth, it displays phases. At
what is believed to be highly refractory material. The en u
s (1) it is new, at (2) it is half-
magnetic field is approximately a dipole aligned along fV phase, at (3) full, and at (4)
it o
orb
the axis of rotation and can probably be attributed to 2
half-phase again.
ry
dynamo action in a presumed fluid core. Alternatively, if ercu
the core is actually solid, Mercurys magnetic field may fM
oit
orb
uniquely among the terrestrial planets be a remnant of
magnetization of the crust that was acquired during the
planets formation. 3 1 Earth
Mercury orbits the Sun in 87.969 days and revolves
about its axis in two-thirds of the orbital period, 58.646 Sun
days. The slow rotation (see also VENUS) may have come 4
about through the retarding tidal action of the Sun. The
two-thirds resonance requires the trapping of Mercury
in this state, and a non-hydrostatic bulge is inferred, prob-
ably caused by convection in its MANTLE occurring by
solid state creep.
The lack of atmosphere, the intensity of solar radiation
and the length of the planets day lead to immense temper-
ature contrasts. On the equator at perihelion the noonday
temperature soars to 700 K. At night it plunges to 100 K. 1 km (0.6 mi), extending for hundreds of kilometres.
Although very little was known about Mercury prior to They may have formed as the crust cooled and shrank. In
the three MARINER 10 encounters in 1974 and 1975, places the scarps cut across craters, intercrater plains and
Earth-based photometric data did hint at a rough and smooth plains. No strike-slip faults are seen on Mercury
uneven surface analogous to that of the Moon. Mariner and there is no evidence of plate tectonics. Compressional
10 confirmed the supposition. It revealed an airless world, features are seen, however, which could be explained by a
the surface of which, in the form of craters, bright ray sys- contraction caused by cooling since the planets forma-
tems, ridges (dorsa), valleys (valles) and smooth lava tion. Estimates of the contraction required are about one
plains (planitia), showed the imprint of a violent past. part in 1000 or 10,000 and would be consistent with tem-
Craters are named after artists, authors and musicians; perature decreases of a few hundred degrees. Solidifica-
valleys after prominent radio observatories; and the plani- tion of a once-fluid core would be very effective.
tia after Mercury in various languages and after ancient Astonishingly, radar data indicate the possible exis-
gods with a role similar to the Roman god Mercury. The tence of small polar ice deposits. This is not as improbable
rupes or scarps commemorate ships associated with
exploration and scientific research.
as it seems. It is just one of the mysteries that await resolu-
tion when the next planned space mission starts to probe M
Mariner 10 imaged only 35% of Mercurys surface. Of the battered surface of our thin-shelled neighbour world.
this, 70% was found to be ancient, heavily cratered terrain. Mercury Discovery Rupes
The most significant formation is the CALORIS PLANITIA, mercurymanganese star Chemically peculiar late B is one of the most prominent
which is most likely the result of an impact by a body sim- STAR that has greatly enhanced abundances of mercury, lobate scarps imaged by
ilar to those that formed the multi-ring basins (circular manganese and other elements, including rare earths. In Mariner 10. It is obviously
maria) on the Moon. Characteristic surface features these class 3 CHEMICALLY PECULIAR (CP3) stars, mercury younger than many of the other
found on the planet are long, sinuous cliffs or lobate can be enhanced 100,000 times or more. The odd features in the image because
scarps. These scarps are steep, with an average height of element composition is caused by diffusion in the quiet it cuts through them.
255
meridian
atmospheres of slowly rotating stars, some chemical compilation of the famous MESSIER CATALOGUE of deep-
elements sinking under the force of gravity, with others sky objects. Little is known of his life before 1751, when
being lofted upwards by radiation. he was hired by Joseph-Nicolas Delisle (16881768) of
Paris Observatory to record observations in his neat,
meridian Northsouth reference line, particularly a legible hand. Delisle, who had found Messier a post at
GREAT CIRCLE on the Earths surface that runs through the observatory at the Htel de Cluny, calculated posi-
both poles and that connects points of the same tions for the 1758/9 return of Halleys Comet, and
longitude. A local meridian is the line that passes instructed his assistant to search for it. Messier recovered
through an observer, connecting both poles. The prime the comet on 1759 January 21.
meridian is the line that passes from pole to pole Messier, inspired by his success with Halleys Comet,
through the Greenwich Observatory and is the zero point searched for more. Between 1758 and 1801 he found
for measuring LONGITUDE. The CELESTIAL MERIDIAN is about twenty comets (14 of which were sole discoveries),
the great circle on the celestial sphere that passes through increasing his fame and status in 1770 he was elected
the north and south CELESTIAL POLES, together with the to the prestigious Paris Academy of Sciences, and was
ZENITH and the NADIR. dubbed the comet ferret by King Louis XV. But
Messiers lasting fame rests on the numbered list he
MERLIN Abbreviation of MULTI-ELEMENT RADIO-LINKED compiled of fuzzy, permanent objects that might be mis-
INTERFEROMETER NETWORK taken for comets. He had independently discovered the
first two objects on this list, the Crab Nebula (M1) and a
Merrill, Paul Willard (18871961) American globular cluster in Aquarius (M2), in 1758 and 1760.
astronomer who specialized in spectroscopy, pioneering His first sole discovery, the globular M3 in 1764,
infrared spectroscopy at Mount Wilson Observatory prompted him to make a systematic search, and by the
(191952). His most famous discovery was made in the end of that year he had observed and recorded objects
early 1950s, during his studies of S stars, including the up to M40. The list (up to M45) was first published in
variable star R Andromedae. Merrill identified the 1774, and longer versions appeared in 1780 (to M68)
chemical element technetium in these stars (see and 1781 (to M103). Todays Messier Catalogue of 110
TECHNETIUM STAR), providing observational support for objects includes seven others known to have been
the s-process of nucleosynthesis of elements in stars. observed by Messier.
mesosiderite One of the two subdivisions of STONY- Messier Catalogue Listing of nebulae, star clusters and
IRON METEORITES. They are a much more heterogeneous galaxies, numbering over 100, begun by Charles MESSIER.
group of meteorites than the PALLASITES, which comprise Messier drew up the list so that he and other comet-
the second stony-iron subdivision. Mesosiderites are a hunters would not confuse these permanent, fuzzy-
mixture of varying amounts of ironnickel metal with looking objects with comets. The first edition of the
differentiated silicates, the whole assemblage of which catalogue was published in 1774, with supplements in
M seems to have been brecciated. Mesosiderites are
subclassified on the basis of textural and compositional
1780 and 1781. Not all the objects in the catalogue,
known as Messier objects, were discovered by Messier
differences within the silicate fraction of the meteorites. himself; several were found by Pierre MCHAIN, and
Like main group pallasites, mesosiderites have oxygen others added by later observers.
isotope compositions similar to HOWARDITE- Objects in the catalogue are given the prefix M, and are
EUCRITEDIOGENITE ASSOCIATION achondrites. still widely known by their Messier numbers. The Messier
objects (see the accompanying table, page 25859), includ-
mesosphere Layer in the Earths ATMOSPHERE directly ing as they do many of the showpiece deep-sky objects vis-
above the STRATOSPHERE, in which the temperature falls ible from northerly latitudes, make popular targets for
with height to reach the atmospheric minimum of amateur observers. An attempt to observe as many as pos-
110173 K at its upper boundary, the mesopause. The sible during the course of one night is known as a Messier
mesopauses altitude shows two distinct values, 863 km marathon. See also CALDWELL CATALOGUE
(531.9 mi) and 1003 km (621.9 mi), the higher
value being encountered near the poles in summer, when Messier numbers Numbers allocated to clusters,
there is up-welling at high latitudes. Above the nebulae and galaxies listed by Charles Messier in his
mesopause, in the THERMOSPHERE, the temperature rises MESSIER CATALOGUE of comet-like objects.
again. Within the mesosphere, heating by the absorption
of solar ultraviolet radiation by ozone declines from the Me star M STAR that has hydrogen EMISSION LINES in its
high value found in the upper stratosphere. spectrum; the e is appended to the luminosity class. Me
stars are found at all luminosities. Among the dwarfs
Messier Catalogue M92 Messenger NASA Discovery programme spacecraft (dMe stars), the emissions become more prevalent
(NGC 6431) is a 6th-magnitude that will resume exploration of the planet MERCURY in towards later (cooler) subtypes. PROXIMA CENTAURI (M5
globular cluster in Hercules. It is 2008 January, after an interval of 33 years since MARINER Ve) is a good example. The emissions signify notable
visible in all but the smallest 10. Messenger, which will make an initial flyby of the chromospheres, which in turn indicate strong magnetic
amateur instruments. planet, will later orbit around Mercury in 2009 dynamos. As a result, dMe stars can produce powerful
September, marking a first in space exploration. The solar-like flares involving much or even all of the star.
orbit will be 200 km (125 mi) by 15,190 km (9430 mi), FLARE STARS extend to the K dwarfs as well, and even
with an inclination of 80. The spacecraft, designed to into class L.
monitor Mercurys surface, space environment and Among the class M giants, hydrogen emission caused
geochemistry, as well as ranging, will study the surface by pulsation-generated shock waves is seen in both oxy-
composition, geological history, core, mantle, magnetic gen-rich and carbon-star Mira variables; Mira itself (M7
field and very tenuous atmosphere of the planet. It will IIIe), Chi Cygni (S6 IIIe) and R Leporis (Hinds Crimson
search for possible water ice and other frozen volatiles at Star, C7 IIIe) are fine examples. In the most luminous
the poles over a nominal orbital mission of one year. The class M supergiants (Mu Cephei M2 Iae, VV Cephei M2
path of Messenger to Mercury will involve a gravity assist Iaep), the emission is related to powerful enveloping
flyby of the Earth in 2005 August, and two Venus flybys winds; such stars are also IRREGULAR VARIABLES.
in 2006 October and 2007 June. It will also make two
flybys of Mercury, in 2008 January and October, prior to metals Term used by astronomers to describe all
its orbital insertion in 2009. elements heavier than helium. Thus the metal content of
a star, denoted by Z, is the combined mass fraction of all
Messier, Charles Joseph (17301817) French elements heavier than helium. Mass fractions of hydrogen
astronomer known for his discoveries of comets and his and helium are denoted by X and Y respectively; thus a
256
meteor
typical star may have X = 0.75, Y = 0.24 and Z = 0.01. meteor Meteors sometimes
While the values of X and Y are relatively constant from leave a trail of ionized gas in the
one unevolved star to another, Z changes dramatically atmosphere as they burn up.
over a range approximately 104 to 0.02. Indeed, stars are This is known as a train, and
postulated (Population III stars) with Z = 0 (see may last for some minutes.
POPULATIONS, STELLAR).
The relative abundances of the elements are usually
quoted as a ratio to the amount of hydrogen, whose value
is arbitrarily set at 12.0. The following are the figures for
the solar abundances for the more common elements: H
(12.00), He (10.93), O (8.82), C (8.52), N (7.96), Ne
(7.92), Fe (7.60), Si (7.52), Mg (7.42) and S (7.20).
These figures probably reflect the relative abundance of
the heavy elements on a cosmic scale. The abundance of
elements in a star is measured from the absorption lines
in its SPECTRUM. STARS show a slight over-abundance of elements near iron
For stars other than the Sun the abundances of the ele- and an under-abundance of calcium and scandium.
ments are not generally so well known or easily measured. Again, a diffusion mechanism is thought to operate.
Thus Fe/H, the iron to hydrogen ratio, is often used to Amongst the cool giant stars, CARBON STARS (C stars)
measure the metallicity (total abundance of elements show carbon to oxygen ratio four times that of normal
heavier than helium) of stars, it being assumed that the stars. S STARS show an over-abundance of zirconium,
other heavy elements will be in the same proportion to yttrium, barium and even technetium, which has a half-
iron as found in the Sun. Formally, Fe/H is life of only 2 106 years (see TECNETIUM STAR). Some
log (NFe/NH)(star) log (NFe/NH)(Sun). G and K giants also show over-abundance of barium,
The reason for the large variation in metal content, Z, strontium and other elements produced by the S PROCESS
of stars is that the heavy elements are not primordial. Only as well as over-abundant carbon. These stars are called
hydrogen and helium (and very small quantities of lithi- BARIUM STARS.
um) are formed in the BIG BANG. All other elements are
synthesized in the NUCLEAR REACTIONS that take place in metastable state Relatively long-lived excited state
the centres of stars. This processed material is eventually (see EXCITATION) of an atom that has only forbidden
returned to the interstellar medium by stellar mass loss, of transitions (see FORBIDDEN LINES) to lower levels. In the
which the most dramatic example is the SUPERNOVA explo- rarefied interstellar medium an electron can remain in
sion. Thus the interstellar medium is continually being such a state for its natural lifetime, but under terrestrial
enriched with metals. It also follows that young stars that conditions atoms are very soon knocked out of
have recently formed from the interstellar medium will metastable states by collisions. See also LASER; TWENTY-
have large Z. Thus Population I stars, which are young,
have large Z whereas Population II stars, which formed
ONE CENTIMETRE LINE
M
first and are now old, have low Z values. The cosmic lithi- meteor Brief streak of light seen in a clear night sky
um abundance is an important indicator of the nature of when a small particle of interplanetary dust, a
the early Universe. Unfortunately, there are many reasons METEOROID, burns itself out in Earths upper
why stellar lithium abundances will not accurately reflect atmosphere. As the meteoroid collides with atoms and
primordial lithium abundances. molecules of air, a large quantity of heat energy is
The metallicity Z has important consequences for a produced, which usually vaporizes the particle
star. The most important effect is that a larger value of Z completely by a process of ABLATION. Vaporized atoms
gives rise to a greater opacity of the stellar gas. The from the ablating meteoroid make further collisions,
increase in opacity is due to the many possible lines, free- causing first excitation, then ionization as electrons are
bound transitions and free electrons produced by ionized stripped from air atoms and molecules.
and partially ionized heavier elements. This will radically An ablating meteoroid thus leaves behind it a trail of
affect the structure of a star at any stage and also its evolu- highly excited atoms, which then de-excite to produce
tion. Probably the most striking example of this is that the streak of light seen as a meteor. Ionization produces a
Population II MAIN-SEQUENCE stars (low Z) are both hot- trail of ions and electrons which can scatter or reflect
ter and more luminous than Population I stars of the same radio waves transmitted from ground-based equipment,
mass. Thus the Population II main sequence lies leftwards causing a radio meteor. The trail of ionization is only a
of the Population I main sequence in the few metres wide, but may typically be 2030 km
HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM (HR diagram). Fur- (1219 mi) long.
thermore, Population II stars will spend a shorter time on Most meteors appear at altitudes between 80110 km
the main sequence than their Population I counterparts. (5070 mi), where the air density becomes sufficiently
Thus a good knowledge of Z is essential for judging the high for ablation to occur. The altitude of this meteor layer
age of star clusters from the main sequence. Likewise, Z varies slightly over the sunspot cycle, being greater at
must be well known if the main sequences of two clusters times of high solar activity. A typical meteor reaches its
are to be compared for the purpose of measuring cluster maximum brightness at an altitude of 95 km (59 mi).
distances. A similar effect occurs on the HORIZONTAL Usually, a visual meteor will persist for between 0.1 and
BRANCH in the HR diagram. Thus low metallicity RR 0.8 seconds. Brighter meteors sometimes leave a faintly
LYRAE STARS are thought to be intrinsically brighter than glowing TRAIN or wake after extinction, and may show
high-metallicity RR Lyrae stars. bursts of brightening (flares) along their paths.
The original metallicity of a star can also affect its Meteoroids enter the atmosphere at velocities between
structure and evolution by modifying the nuclear burning 11 and 72 km/s (745 mi/s). At the lower end of this
in its centre. The most obvious example of this is that the range, the velocity is simply that of a particle in free fall
abundance of carbon and nitrogen will affect the CAR- hitting the Earth. The greatest value is obtained by sum-
BONNITROGENOXYGEN CYCLE for hydrogen burning in ming the maximum heliocentric velocity of the meteoroid
massive main-sequence stars. at a distance from the Sun of 1 AU (42 km/s or 26 mi/s)
Some stars have particular elements or groups of ele- with Earths mean orbital velocity of 30 km/s (19 mi/s).
ments that are relatively either over- or under-abundant. A typical naked-eye meteor around magnitude 2 is
For example, AP STARS show over-abundances of man- produced by ablation of a meteoroid 8 mm in diameter,
ganese or europium, chromium and strontium. This is and with a mass around 0.1 g. Over the whole Earth, 100
thought to be caused by some diffusion process which million meteors in the visual range down to magnitude
brings these elements up from the interior. Similarly AM 5 occur each day.
257
Meteor Crater
Meteors can occur at any time, with the bulk of the The outer slopes are quite gentle, but the inner slopes
annual influx of meteoroidal material (estimated at 16,000 are steep, being as much as 80 in the southern sector. A
tonnes) comprised of random, background SPORADIC whole 600-m (2000-ft) section of the pre-existing
METEORS. At certain times of year, numbers are enhanced sedimentary rocks has been lifted about 30 m (100 ft) to
by the activity of METEOR SHOWERS, which are produced form the south wall of the crater.
as Earth passes through streams of debris laid down by The feature first created interest in 1891, when large
short-period COMETS. quantities of meteoritic iron were discovered on the sur-
rounding plain. In 1905 boreholes and shafts were sunk
Meteor Crater (Arizona Crater, Barringer Crater) in the centre of the crater in an attempt to find the main
First crater to be recognized as being caused by mass of the meteorite. After passing through crushed
METEORITE impact. It is situated on a flat plateau sandstone and rock flour, undisturbed rocks were found
between Flagstaff and Winslow, Arizona, USA. The at a depth of 185 m (607 ft). In 1920 attention was con-
crater is a basin-shaped depression some 1200 m centrated on the southern rim without success. It is now
(3940 ft) in diameter. The walls surrounding the crater known that at times of such impacts, the meteorite is
rise 3750 m (121164 ft) above the surrounding plain. either vaporized or shattered to extents that depend on
MESSIER CATALOGUE
M NGC RA Dec. Mag Size Constellation Description
(2000.00) (vis.) ()
h m
1 1952 05 34.5 22 00 8.4 64 Taurus CRAB NEBULA
2 7089 21 33.5 00 49 6.3 12 Aquarius globular cluster
3 5272 13 42.2 28 23 6.4 19 Canes Venatici globular cluster
4 6121 16 23.6 26 32 6.4 23 Scorpius globular cluster
5 5904 15 18.6 02 05 6.2 20 Serpens globular cluster
6 6405 17 40.1 32 13 4.2 33 Scorpius BUTTERFLY CLUSTER
7 6475 17 53.9 34 49 4: 50 Scorpius open cluster
8 6523 18 03.3 24 23 6: 45 30 Sagittarius LAGOON NEBULA
9 6333 17 19.2 18 31 7.3 6 Ophiuchus globular cluster
10 6254 16 57.1 04 06 6.7 12 Ophiuchus globular cluster
11 6705 18 51.1 06 16 6.3 12 Scutum WILD DUCK CLUSTER
12 6218 16 47.2 01 57 6.6 12 Ophiuchus globular cluster
13 6205 16 41.7 36 28 5.7 23 Hercules globular cluster
14 6402 17 37.6 03 15 7.7 7 Ophiuchus globular cluster
15 7078 21 30.0 12 10 6.0 12 Pegasus globular cluster
M 16
17
6611
6618
18
18
18.8
20.8
13
16
47
11
6.4
6.0
8
20 15
Serpens
Sagittarius
gaseous nebula
OMEGA NEBULA
18 6613 18 19.9 17 08 7.5 7 Sagittarius open cluster
19 6273 17 02.6 26 16 6.6 5 Ophiuchus globular cluster
20 6514 18 02.3 23 02 6.3 20 Sagittarius TRIFID NEBULA
21 6531 18 04.6 22 30 6.5 12 Sagittarius open cluster
22 6656 18 36.4 23 54 5.9 17 Sagittarius globular cluster
23 6494 17 56.8 19 01 6.9 27 Sagittarius open cluster
24 6603 18 16.9 18 29 4.6 4 Sagittarius open cluster
25 IC4725 18 31.6 19 15 6.5 35 Sagittarius open cluster
26 6694 18 45.2 09 24 9.3 9 Scutum open cluster
27 6853 19 59.6 22 43 7.3 84 Vulpecula DUMBBELL NEBULA
28 6626 18 24.5 24 52 7.3 15 Sagittarius globular cluster
29 6913 20 23.9 38 32 7.1 7 Cygnus open cluster
30 7099 21 40.4 23 11 8.4 9 Capricornus globular cluster
31 224 00 42.7 41 16 3.4 180 80 Andromeda ANDROMEDA GALAXY
32 221 00 42.7 40 52 8.7 32 Andromeda galaxy
33 598 01 33.9 30 39 5.7 67 42 Triangulum PINWHEEL GALAXY
34 1039 02 42.0 42 47 5.5 30 Perseus open cluster
35 2168 06 08.9 24 20 5.3 29 Gemini open cluster
36 1960 05 36.1 34 08 6.3 16 Auriga open cluster
37 2099 05 52.4 32 33 6.2 24 Auriga open cluster
38 1912 05 28.7 35 50 7.4 18 Auriga open cluster
39 7092 21 32.2 48 26 5.2 32 Cygnus open cluster
40* 12 22.4 58 05 9.0, 9.3 Ursa Major double star
41 2287 06 47.0 20 44 4.6 32 Canis Major open cluster
42 1976 05 35.4 05 27 4: 66 60 Orion ORION NEBULA
43 1982 05 35.6 05 16 9: Orion ORION NEBULA
44 2632 08 40.1 19 59 3.1 95 Cancer PRAESEPE
45 03 47.0 24 67 1.6 120 Taurus PLEIADES
46 2437 07 41.8 14 49 6.0 27 Puppis open cluster
47* 2422 07 36.6 14 39 5.2 25 Puppis open cluster
48* 2548 08 13.8 05 48 5.5 35 Hydra open cluster
49 4472 12 29.8 08 00 8.6 44 Virgo galaxy
50 2323 07 03.2 08 20 6.3 16 Monoceros open cluster
51 61945 13 29.9 47 12 8.4 11 7 Canes Venatici WHIRLPOOL GALAXY
52 7654 23 24.2 61 35 7.3 13 Cassiopeia open cluster
53 5024 13 12.9 18 10 7.6 14 Coma Berenices globular cluster
54 6715 18 55.1 30 29 7.3 6 Sagittarius globular cluster
55 6809 19 40.0 30 58 7.6 15 Sagittarius globular cluster
* identification uncertain
258
meteorite
the characteristics of the particular event. It is, therefore, with the evidence gained from studies of the tilt of the
concluded that no large mass exists. rock layers forming the rim.
Over 30 tonnes of iron meteorite, known as Canyon Many attempts have been made to ascertain the age of
Diablo, have been found around the crater. The mete- the crater. Early attempts suggested 2000 to 3000 years;
orites consist mainly of iron with just over 7% nickel and current estimates give an age of about 50,000 years.
0.5% cobalt. In addition to the irons, oxidized iron shale
balls were found intermingled with the local rock debris. meteorite Natural object that survives its fall to Earth
Silica glass and very finely divided white sand (known as from space. It is named after the place where it was seen to
rock flour), together with forms of quartz known as fall or where it was found. About 30,000 meteorites are
coesite and stishovite, all point to the structure having known, of which c.24,000 were found in Antarctica, c.4000
been formed by meteoritic impact. in the Sahara Desert and c.2000 elsewhere.
Studies of the distribution of the meteoritic material When an object enters the atmosphere, its velocity is
around the crater have led to the conclusion that the greater than Earths escape velocity (11.2 km/s or 7 mi/s),
meteoroid responsible for the crater was travelling from and unless it is very small (see MICROMETEORITE) friction-
north-north-west to south-south-east. This is consistent al heating produces a FIREBALL. This fireball may rival the
259
meteoroid
Sun in brightness. For example, a brilliant fireball on 1890 position of the meteorite flux with time. Since 1969 mete-
June 25, at 1pm, was visible over a large area of the mid- orites have been found in large numbers on the surface of
west of the United States; the CHONDRITE fall at Farming- the ice in parts of Antarctica. The small number of
ton, Kansas, was the result. If an object (a meteoroid) Antarctic iron meteorites relative to stony types is similar
enters the atmosphere at a low angle, deceleration in the to the ratio in observed falls.
thin upper atmosphere may take tens of seconds. The fire- Although frictional heating during atmospheric flight
ball of 1969 April 25 travelled from south-east to north- causes the outside of a meteoroid to melt, the molten
west and was visible along its 500 km (310 mi) trajectory material is swept into the atmosphere as droplets. The
from much of England, Wales and Ireland. As commonly bulk of the heat is removed with the melt, and the inside
occurs, towards the end of its path the fireball fragmented. of the object stays cold. Only the melt during the last sec-
Sonic booms were heard after its passage, and two mete- ond of hypersonic flight solidifies on the objects surface
oritic stones were recovered, some 60 km (37 mi) apart, as it falls to Earth under gravity. The solidified melt is
the larger at Bovedy, Northern Ireland, which gave its known as fusion crust. On most stony meteorites it is dull
name to the fall. A meteorite that fell at Pultusk, Poland, in black, but on many achondrites it is a glossy black.
1868, after fragmenting in the atmosphere, is estimated to Ironnickel metal conducts heat more efficiently than
have had a total weight of 2 tonnes among some 180,000 stone, so some of the heat generated in atmospheric flight
individual stones. Large meteoroids of more than c.100 may penetrate to the interior of an iron meteorite. Stony
tonnes that do not break up in the atmosphere are not meteorites, however, preserve a record of their history
completely decelerated before impact. On striking the sur- before their encounter with our planet. Meteorites often
face at hypersonic velocity, their kinetic energy is released, record shock or thermal events when they were part of
causing them to vaporize and produce explosion craters, their parent bodies. For example, many L-group ordinary
such as METEOR CRATER. chondrites were shock-reheated 5001000 million years
Photographic observations of fireballs indicate that ago. Many chondrites preserve evidence of conditions in
more than 19,000 meteorites heavier than 100 g land the Solar System of 4560 million years ago, and none has
annually, but, of these, most fall in the oceans or deserts an age or isotopic signature consistent with an origin out-
and fewer than 10 become known to science. Photo- side it. They provide important clues to the origin and
graphic observations and visual sightings of meteorite- history of the Solar System, as well as records of condi-
producing fireballs show that they have orbits similar to tions in inter-planetary space.
those of EARTH-CROSSING ASTEROIDS. It is apparent that Various ages of meteorites can be measured. The for-
most meteorites come from the ASTEROID BELT, but a few mation interval is the period between stellar processing
come from the Moon (LUNAR METEORITES) or from and the incorporation of an element into a meteorite.
Mars (MARTIAN METEORITES). Meteorites can be divided Chemical elements heavier than hydrogen and helium are
into three main types, according to their composition: synthesized in stars, and many meteorites preserve a
STONY METEORITES (CHONDRITES, ACHONDRITES); record of these processes. Chondrites often contain the
STONY-IRON METEORITES (MESOSIDERITES, PALLASITES); decay products of short-lived radionuclides, such as plu-
M and IRON METEORITES. There is not always a clear-cut
distinction between types: for example, many iron mete-
tonium, indicating that this element was present in the
matter from which the Solar System formed. From the
orites contain silicate inclusions related to chondritic and quantity of plutonium that must have been present relative
achondritic meteorites. to other elemental abundances, the plutonium must have
Some 95% of the meteorites seen to fall are stony been formed within about 200 million years of the forma-
meteorites, being composed dominantly of stony miner- tion of the Solar System.
als. Iron meteorites constitute the bulk of the remainder, Most meteorites or their components, such as CHON-
while meteorites composed of equal-part mixtures of DRULES, went through a high-temperature event early in
ironnickel metal and stony material, known as stony- their history. The age of formation is the time, to the
iron meteorites, are very rarely seen to fall. However, present, since a meteorite first cooled to become a closed
many more iron and stony-iron meteorites have been chemical system. Uranium, for example, decays to lead
found than were observed to fall, which reflects their at a fixed rate, and the uraniumlead age of a meteorite is
resistance to erosion and their distinctive appearance rel- the time that has elapsed since the uranium and lead
ative to terrestrial rocks, rather than a change in the com- were able to exchange freely, when the body was hot.
The lead formed from the decay of uranium can be mea-
sured; the quantity is proportional to the uranium con-
SOME IMPORTANT ANNUAL METEOR tent, also measured, and to time, which usually is close to
SHOWERS AND COMETARY ASSOCIATIONS 4560 million years.
Radiant When an object is broken from its parent asteroid, it
RA Dec. continues to orbit the Sun. Cosmic rays from the Sun,
Stream Maximum Normal limits ZHR h m Parent comet
and beyond, bombard its surface. The exposure age is
Quadrantids Jan 34 Jan 16 100 15 28 50 96P/Macholz 1 ? the time during which this bombardment takes place.
Lyrids Apr 2122 Apr 1925 15 18 08 32 C/1861 G1Thatcher Radiation damage can be measured in various ways,
*Pi-Puppids Apr 2324 Apr 2126 40? 07 18 44 26P/GriggSkjellerup including the content of a substance produced in nuclear
Eta Aquarids May 56 Apr 24May 20 50 22 20 01 1P/Halley reactions, such as a radioactive isotope of aluminium.
Daytime Beta Taurids Jun 2930 Jun 23July 05 20 03 40 15 2P/Encke (The levels of radioactivity in meteorites are so low that
Alpha Capricornids Aug 23 July 15Aug 25 8 20 36 10 45P/HondaMrks specially prepared, ultra-sensitive counting equipment is
Pajdusakov required for their measurement.) Exposure ages range
Delta Aquarids July 2829 July 15Aug 20 20 22 36 17 96P/Macholz 1 ? from a few hundred thousand years for some stony
Perseids Aug 1112 July 25Aug 21 90 93 04 58 109P/SwiftTuttle meteorites to 1000 million years for a few iron mete-
*Giacobinids Oct 89 Oct 710 variable 17 23 57 21P/GiacobiniZinner orites. These ages reflect the susceptibility of stony types
Orionids Oct 2122 Oct 1630 25 06 24 15 1P/Halley to erosion by impact in space, compared with the dura-
Taurids Nov 45 Oct 20Nov 30 10 03 44 14 bility of ironnickel metal.
03 44 22 2P/Encke The terrestrial age is the time since a meteorite land-
**Leonids Nov 1718 Nov 1520 15 10 08 22 55P/TempelTuttle ed on Earth. The meteorite with the longest terrestrial age
Geminids Dec 1314 Dec 715 120 07 28 32 Asteroid 3200 known is a chondrite within a 460-million-year-old
Phaethon Swedish Ordovician limestone. The second-longest ter-
Ursids Dec 2122 Dec 1725 10 14 28 78 8P/Tuttle restrial age may be that of an iron meteorite found in 300-
*The Pi-Puppids and October Draconids are periodic streams, only giving good displays when the parent million-year-old coal in Russia. Apart from these
comets return to perihelion.
**The Leonids vary in peak activity from a ZHR of 15 in years between perihelion returns of the parent examples, most meteorites have much shorter terrestrial
comet, to storms, with estimated ZHR as high as 140,000 to 200,000 under favourable circumstances at ages. Some meteorites from Antarctica have lain in the ice
roughly 33-year intervals
for up to a million years, but these are exceptional.
260
MichelsonMorley experiment
meteoroid Small natural body in orbit around the Sun. important, even closing the 8 to 12 m window if the
Meteoroids may be cometary or asteroidal in origin. The vast quantities of the gas currently locked in permafrost
distinction between a large meteoroid and a small regions are released as the Earths temperature rises.
ASTEROID is rather vague; rocky bodies of, say, 10 m Methane is also found in significant quantities on TITAN,
(30 ft) in diameter could fit into either category. TRITON and PLUTO. On Titan, methane is the second
Millimetre-sized dusty cometary meteoroids entering most abundant atmospheric gas after nitrogen, though it
Earths atmosphere are completely destroyed by still forms only a few per cent of the atmosphere. It may,
ABLATION, producing short-lived streaks of light seen in however, also be present in liquid and/or solid form on
the night sky as METEORS. Cometary meteoroids have the surface. On Triton and Pluto methane is present in
typical densities of 0.2 g/cm3. small amounts, along with other frozen gases, as a thin
solid surface coating.
meteor shower Enhancement of METEOR activity
produced when Earth runs through a METEOR STREAM. Metis One of the inner moons of JUPITER, discovered in
About 25 readily recognisable meteor showers occur 197980 by Stephen Synnott in images obtained by the
each year, the most prominent being the QUADRANTIDS, VOYAGER project. It is irregular in shape, measuring about
PERSEIDS and GEMINIDS. Meteor showers occur at the 60 34 km (37 21 mi). With ADRASTEA, Metis orbits
same time each year, reflecting Earths orbital position, within Jupiters main ring, about 128,000 km (80,000 mi)
and its intersection with the orbit of the particular from the centre of the planet, taking 0.295 days to
meteor stream whose meteoroids are being swept up. complete one of its near-circular equatorial orbits.
Shower meteors appear to emerge from a single part of Metis is the also name of a large MAIN-BELT ASTEROID,
the sky, known as the RADIANT. Some showers are active number 9, discovered in 1849. It has a diameter of about
only periodically as a result of uneven distribution of 190 km (120 mi).
stream meteoroids, the GIACOBINIDS perhaps being the
best example. The accompanying table lists some of the Metonic cycle Interval of 19 years after which the
more important meteor showers; the zenithal hourly rate phases of the Moon recur on the same days of the year.
(ZHR) can vary, and values given here are intended This occurs because 19 years (6939.60 days) is almost
only as a rough guide. exactly equal to 235 lunar months (6939.69 days). Its
discovery is often attributed to the Greek astronomer
meteor stream Trail of debris, usually from a COMET, Meton around 433 BC and the cycle forms the basis of
comprised of METEOROIDS that share a common orbit the Greek and Jewish calendars.
around the Sun. Passage of Earth through such a stream
gives rise to a METEOR SHOWER. Meteor streams may also Meudon Observatory French observatory in a south-
be associated with some asteroids most notably 3200 ern suburb of Paris, dating from 1876. It originated when
PHAETHON, the debris from which produces the GEMINIDS. Meudons ancient royal estate was placed at the disposal
Meteor streams undergo considerable evolution over of astronomer Jules JANSSEN to pursue his research away
their lifetimes, which are probably measured in tens of
thousands of years. Initially, when the parent comet has
from urban pollution. A large refractor of 0.83 m (32 in.)
aperture and a 1-m (39-in.) reflector were commissioned M
only recently been captured into a short-period orbit, in 1893, and other instruments followed, including solar
debris (released only at perihelion) is found relatively telescopes. In 1925 Meudon became part of PARIS OBSER-
close to the comet NUCLEUS. Since the nucleus rotates, VATORY, and saw further expansion. Solar physics flour-
meteoroids are ejected both behind and ahead of the ished at the observatory in the 1960s, and a 36-m
comet. Over successive returns, more material is added to (118-ft) high solar tower was erected in 1969.
the near-comet meteoroid cloud, which begins to spread Astronomers from Meudon have traditionally used
around the orbit. French facilities such as the PIC DU MIDI OBSERVATORY,
Eventually, over an interval of only a few tens of years and today use EUROPEAN SOUTHERN OBSERVATORY and
for a very short-period comet, up to thousands of years other international telescopes.
for those with longer periods, meteoroids will spread right
around the orbit, completing loop formation. Many mete- MGS Abbreviation of MARS GLOBAL SURVEYOR
or streams are believed to have a filamentary structure,
with interwoven strands of meteoroids, released at sepa- MHD Abbreviation of MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS
rate perihelion returns of the parent comet, running
through them. Miaplacidus The star Carinae, visual mag. 1.67, dis-
Gravitational perturbations by the planets, and the tance 111 l.y., spectral type A1 III. The origin of its name
POYNTINGROBERTSON EFFECT, serve to increase the is unknown.
spread of material in a stream. Stream meteoroids come to
perihelion at very similar orbital positions (since this is Mice (NGC 4676 A and B) Pair of interacting galaxies
where they are released from the parent nucleus) but show a spiral and a lenticular in the constellation Coma
considerable spread in aphelion distances: consequently, Berenices (RA 12h 46m.2, dec. 3044); they are also
meteor streams are much narrower and more concentrat- catalogued as IC 819 and IC 820. Tails of stars, gas and
ed around the perihelion point. dust extend away from the pair, which have overall
As a stream ages further, and its parent comet ceases magnitude 14 and total angular size 4. The Mice lie at
to add new material, it begins to disperse, eventually a distance of 350 million l.y.
merging into the general background of the zodiacal dust
cloud permeating the inner Solar System. Michell, John (172493) English physicist and one of
the first to suggest the possibility of black holes. In 1784
methane (CH4) First of the alkanes or saturated acyclic he made complex mathematical calculations describing
hydrocarbons. Its melting point is 90.7 K and its boiling the physical characteristics of a star with the same
point 109 K. It was discovered on Earth in 1778 by the density as the Sun but having a much larger diameter,
Italian chemist Count Alessandro Volta (17451827). In showing that the escape velocity for such a hypothetical
1935 it was detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter by object was the velocity of light. Michell concluded that
Rupert WILDT from its spectrum lines. In 1977 it was light itself could therefore not escape from such a
identified in interstellar space through its emissions at a supermassive object.
wavelength of 3.9 mm.
Methane is principally significant as a greenhouse MichelsonMorley experiment Experiment carried
gas. On the Earth, it presently makes a smaller contribu- out by German-American physicist Albert Michelson
tion to global warming than does carbon dioxide. Poten- (18521931) in 1881 and, with greater precision, by
tially though, methane could become much more Michelson and the American chemist Edward Morley
261
Michelson stellar interferometer
262
Mimas
263
Mimosa
264
Miranda
apparent magnitude
refuse. Exercise equipment was located in the conical por-
tion of the working compartment. Spatial orientation was
aided by dark-green carpet on the floor, light-green walls 6
and a white ceiling with fluorescent lamps. The Vozdukh
electrolytic system was used to recycle station atmosphere, 8
with a back-up chemical scrubbing system.
The first addition to the core section came in 1987: the 10
11-tonne Kvant (Quantum) astrophysical module con-
tained a number of X-ray, gamma-ray and ultraviolet 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
time (days)
astronomy experiments. Next to arrive, in 1989, was the
19.6-tonne Kvant-2, which was designed to improve liv-
ing conditions on the station as well as carry out scientific Mirach The star Andromedae, visual mag. 2.06, Mira The light-curve of Mira
research. The 19.6-tonne Kristall followed in 1990, with a distance 199 l.y., spectral type M0 III. Its name is a ( Ceti) shows a slow fall in
number of furnaces intended for materials processing. In corruption of the Arabic word mizar, meaning loin cloth. brightness followed by a long
1995 the Spektr (Spectrum) module delivered many US minimum and then a steep
scientific experiments to the station. This module was Miranda Smallest and innermost of the five SATELLITES climb up to a short, sharp
abandoned after a collision with a Progress spacecraft on of URANUS that were known before VOYAGER 2s flyby in maximum.
1997 June 25. The final Russian-made module to be 1986. It was discovered in 1948 by Gerard KUIPER.
attached to Mir was Priroda (Nature), which was devoted Mirandas dimensions of 480 468 466 km (298
largely to Earth observation. A US interface module was 291 290 mi) are just large enough for it to be pulled
added to Kristall in 1995, opening the way for the Space into a near-spherical shape by its own gravity. Miranda
Shuttle to dock with Mir on nine occasions. was expected to be a passive ice-ball, like Saturns satellite
Cosmonauts on Mir carried out hundreds of experi- MIMAS, and therefore not especially interesting. However,
ments involving such diverse research as production of at the time of the Voyager 2 encounter, the orientation of
new alloys, protein crystal growth, production of semi- Uranus and its satellite orbits was such that it was
conductors, Earth observation and astronomy. However, convenient to direct the probe closer to Miranda than to
the space station was plagued by problems, including any of the other satellites, and Miranda turned out to be
equipment failures, lack of power, decompression after a one of the most fascinating bodies in the Solar System.
collision and at least one serious fire. Like all Uranus satellites seen by Voyager 2, only the
Mir was almost permanently occupied from 1986 Feb- southern hemisphere of Miranda was sunlit at the time,
ruary until 1999 August. During its lifetime it hosted 28
long-term crews and was visited by 104 cosmonauts/astro-
but that was enough to show a world unlike any other
known planetary body. Just over half the area seen is heav- M
nauts. Mir re-entered Earths atmosphere in 2001 March. ily cratered, but most of the craters are blurred, as if blan-
keted with dust or snow, perhaps dispersed from
Mira (Omicron Ceti) First star to be discovered to vary explosive cryovolcanic eruptions (see CRYOVOLCANISM). Miranda Uranus satellite
in a periodic manner. David FABRICIUS first noticed Mira The rest of the visible hemisphere is occupied by three Miranda was discovered by
as of third magnitude on 1596 August 13. He could not remarkable tracts of terrain, referred to as coronae. They Gerard Kuiper in 1948. Its
find it in star catalogues, atlases or globes. A few months do not closely resemble one another and, apart from their surface is unlike anything else
later it was invisible, but he saw it again on 1609 vaguely concentric pattern, they have little in common in the Solar System.
February 15 at third magnitude. Johann BAYER, in 1603,
lettered it Omicron and noted it as of fourth magnitude.
It was observed from 1659 to 1682 and thought to be a
new star, catalogued 68 of sixth magnitude. Johann
Holwarda (161851), in 1638, noted that Mira became
visible to the naked eye from time to time and invisible in
between these times.
In 1660 the star was shown to vary in an approximate
period of 11 months. Its period is 331.96 days, but sub-
ject to irregularities. Mean range in brightness is 3.0 to
9.9 mags. Maxima have been observed as bright as mag.
1.7 and as faint as mag. 4.9. Minima show a similar vari-
ation of from mag. 8.6 to 11.1. The magnitude of a
future maximum or minimum is not predictable. Usually
Mira has a protracted minimum phase followed by a
steep rise and a slow decline.
The spectrum varies M5e to M9e, which is that of a
cool star. There are strong bands of titanium oxide and
76-0292
also lines of neutral metals. An EMISSION SPECTRUM
becomes superimposed on the ABSORPTION spectrum
when Mira has reached seventh magnitude on the rise,
with the intensities of the lines increasing to well after
maximum light; they then disappear. The emission spec-
trum is mainly hydrogen.
Mira lies at a distance of 196 l.y. Robert AITKEN discov-
ered a faint companion to Mira in 1923. The separation is
0.61; the companion is now known as VZ Ceti, a variable
with a range of mag. 9.5 to 12. It shows small variations in
times of several hours on which are superimposed 10- to
15-minute variations. It also has very occasional flares,
which last for about two minutes. It is possible that VZ
Ceti is a white dwarf with an accretion disk. It orbits Mira
in 1800 years. See also MIRA STAR
265
Mira star
with the features called coronae on Venus. Mirandas Mirphak (Algenib) The star Persei, visual mag. 1.79,
coronae are named Arden, Inverness and Elsinore after distance 592 l.y., spectral type F5 Ib. Its name, which is
the settings of some of Shakespeares plays. Inverness also spelled Mirfak, comes from the Arabic mirfaq, mean-
Corona was informally referred to as the Chevron, for its ing elbow. Its alternative name, Algenib, comes from the
V shape. Craters within these coronae are fresh and sharp Arabic al-ja nib, meaning the side.
in appearance, as are the younger craters elsewhere, so
evidently the global mantling of the older terrain took mirror Reflecting surface used to shape or steer light
place before the coronae were created. beams. Mirrors have been used to collect and focus
It is unclear how Mirandas coronae originated. Arden starlight since Sir Isaac NEWTON constructed the first
and Elsinore Coronae were only partly visible, so their successful reflecting telescope in 1668. His design is still
complete shape is unknown. When the images were first in use today and the NEWTONIAN TELESCOPE remains one
received it was suggested that Miranda is a body that re- of the most popular types amongst amateur astronomers.
accreted following collisional break-up. Each corona was It consists of a concave mirror that reflects the incoming
thought to represent a discrete fragment, the tonal band- light from a star towards a focal point immediately in
ing apparent in Arden and Inverness Coronae represent- front of the mirror. A second small flat mirror is used to
ing cross-sections through the interior of the original intercept the light before it reaches the FOCUS and to steer
body. This explanation now seems unlikely, if only it out to one side where the observer can use an EYEPIECE
because of the much greater age of the terrain between the to magnify and examine the image.
coronae, as judged by comparing the relative numbers of Newtons first telescope used mirrors made of polished
impact craters. The edges of Inverness Corona appear to metal that had low reflectivity and tarnished easily. Never-
be related to faults. An alternative explanation, however, is theless, it overcame the inherent problem of CHROMATIC
that this and other coronae overlie internal density anom- ABERRATION that had affected early refracting telescopes.
alies inherited from a re-accretion event. If so, each corona Improvements in materials made metal reflectors more
could have been created by a past episode of TIDAL HEAT- useful, in particular the development of speculum metal,
ING through orbital interaction with ARIEL or UMBRIEL. an alloy of 71% copper and 29% tin. This metal could be
The bright patches on Arden and Inverness Coronae polished to provide fairly high reflectivity, but it still tar-
could perhaps be fresh powder erupted from explosive nished and needed periodic re-polishing.
vents. On the other hand, Elsinore Corona lacks tonal The largest successful reflector using speculum metal
variations and is more likely to be a product of multiple was the 72-inch (1.8 m) Newtonian telescope built by the
eruptions of cryovolcanic lava. In contrast with Saturns Earl of Rosse at BIRR CASTLE in Ireland in 1842.
satellites, where the presence of ammonia is possible but Optical mirror technology took another big step for-
not required by models of Solar System formation, it is ward with the development of coating techniques to place
extremely likely that Uranus icy satellites contain a signif- a highly reflective thin metal coating on to glass. Initially
icant proportion of ammonia mixed with the water ice. silver was used but aluminium is more common today as it
The lavas this mixture is likely to produce would be highly produces a more durable surface. Almost all mirrors used
M viscous, which could explain Elsinore Coronas bulbous
ridges. See data at URANUS
in astronomy are coated in aluminium, although gold, sil-
ver and other materials are used where their special prop-
erties are needed. Amateur telescope mirrors often have a
Mira star (M) Class of VARIABLE STAR named after MIRA, protective overcoat of silicon dioxide to increase the life of
the first star found to vary with an approximate period of the aluminium coating. Professional telescopes usually
several months. They are also called long-period variables dispense with the overcoat but are re-coated periodically,
and red variables, although the latter term is ambiguous, often every one or two years.
given that there are several other types of variable with The largest single (monolithic) mirrors used in astron-
late spectral classes. Mira stars are GIANTS or omy at present are just over 8 m (310 in.) in diameter.
SUPERGIANTS belonging to the disk population and with They are quite thin relative to their diameter (to keep
periods ranging from 100 to 1000 days. The difference in weight down) and require elaborate support mechanisms
their periods stems from whether they are Population I or to maintain their very accurate shapes as they point to dif-
II. The former generally have periods longer than 200 ferent parts of the sky. Segmented mirrors of 10-m
days, while the periods of Population II stars tend to be (393-in.) diameter are in use and even larger telescopes
shorter and less than 200 days. are planned using this technique.
The visual light variations of Mira variables range from The largest mirror in space at present is the 2.4-m
mag. 2.5 to 11, but in the infrared their amplitudes are (94-in.) diameter mirror of the HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE;
much smaller, below mag. 2.5 and less than one magni- the NEXT GENERATION SPACE TELESCOPE is planned to have
tude for most of them. Each star has a mean cycle that a segmented mirror around 4 m (160 in.) in diameter.
is, an average period during which it goes through a com-
plete cycle from maximum and back to maximum again Mirzam The star Canis Majoris, visual mag. 1.98, dis-
or from minimum to minimum. These periods for any tance 499 l.y., spectral type B1 II or III. It is a BETA CEPHEI
one star may vary by about 15%. Thus their periods are to STAR, a pulsating variable with a period of 6 hours and a
some extent irregular. total range of less than 0.1 mag. The name comes from
Amplitudes may also vary widely from one cycle to the the Arabic murzim, meaning announcer, thought to refer
next. Their light-curves show a wide diversity, but fall to the fact that it rises before the much brighter Sirius.
into three main divisions. There are those stars that have
rises steeper than the fall; these tend to have wide minima missing mass problem Quandary whereby most of
and sharp, short maxima. As the asymmetry becomes the matter in the Universe seems to be either
greater, the period lengthens. Stars with symmetrical subluminous or else invisible. This dark matter is
curves have the shortest periods. A third group shows thought to surround individual galaxies as haloes and to
humps on their curves or have double maxima and have pervade clusters of galaxies.
long and short periods. The first evidence of dark matter came from the work
Mira variables have late-type emission spectra. The of Jan OORT, who, in 1932, determined the thickness of
longer the period, the later the spectral type. They show a our Galaxy in the solar neighbourhood from the loca-
spectral (or temperature) relationship that is a continua- tions of red giants in the sky. These bright stars are suffi-
tion of the same relationship found in CEPHEID VARIABLES. ciently numerous that a map of their distribution in
Both Mira variables and Cepheids are hotter at maxi- space reveals that the galactic disk has a thickness of
mum, Mira variables having the smaller range in tempera- about 2000 l.y. In addition, however, Oort used the dis-
ture. Pulsation is thus the underlying cause of their tribution and speeds of the red giants in his study to cal-
variability. Pulsations send running waves through the culate the vertical gravitational field of the Galaxy as well
surface layers. as the mass in our vicinity needed to produce it. A dilem-
266
Mitchell, Maria
ma arose when Oort compared this calculated mass with missing mass problem
400
the observed masses of all the stars and gas clouds in the The dotted curve shows the
solar neighbourhood. The observed mass is only about rate at which bodies in our
half that needed to confine the red giants to a disk Galaxy should be circling the
2000 l.y. thick. Thus half of the matter in our part of the 300 centre, according to Keplers
Galaxy seems to be invisible. third law, if it consisted wholly
267
Mizar
268
Moon
269
moon
The Moon has only the most tenuous of atmospheres. Association. After serving in the Royal Air Force during
Apollo instruments detected traces of gases such as heli- World War II, he wrote the first of over 60 books on
um, neon and argon. The atmosphere is probably made astronomy aimed at a popular audience. In the 1950s,
up of solar wind particles retained temporarily, and with Hugh Percy Wilkins (18961960), he used Meudon
atoms sputtered (knocked off) from the surface by the Observatorys 33-inch (0.84-m) refractor to make a
solar wind. Consequently the surface temperature varia- thorough survey of the Moons topography, discovering
tion is extreme, ranging from 100 to 400 K. many new features. Since 1957 Moore has presented
The Sky at Night, the longest-running BBC television
moon Natural SATELLITE of one of the larger bodies in programme in history. The CALDWELL CATALOGUE is his
the Solar System. Mars, for example, possesses two extension of the Messier Catalogue.
moons, PHOBOS and DEIMOS. Each of the giant planets is
accompanied by a large retinue of moons. Smaller moons Mopra Telescope See AUSTRALIA TELESCOPE NATIONAL
may be termed moonlets, and the distinction between a FACILITY
moon/moonlet and a body too small to be so classified
(for example, the billions of individual items comprising Moreton waves Wave-like disturbances in the
planetary ring systems) is arbitrary. CHROMOSPHERE and lower CORONA by FLARES. They are
named after Gail E. Moreton, who first observed them in
Moore, Patrick Alfred Caldwell (1923 ) English 1960 as a circular hydrogen-alpha brightening that
author, television presenter and popularizer of astronomy, expanded away from a flare and across the solar disk.
an accomplished lunar and planetary observer who has Moreton waves travel to distances of about a million
directed the Lunar Section of the British Astronomical kilometres at velocities of about 1000 km/s (600 mi/s).
MOON
Name Position Diameter Comments
Abenezra 21S 12E 43 km central peak and ridges
Abulfeda 14S 14E 64 km craterlet string on floor
Aestuum, Sinus 12N 9W Bay of Heats
ALBATEGNIUS 12S 4E 129 km ancient walled plain
Aliacensis 31S 5E 82 km paired with Werner
Almanon 17S 16E 48 km makes pair with Abulfeda
49N
o
ALPES, MONTES 0 Alps Mountains
ALPES, VALLIS
49 N 2E Alpine Valley
ALPHONSUS 14S 3W 117 km walled plain in Ptolemaeus chain
ALTAI, RUPES 24S 22E scarp
75N 10W
M ANAXAGORAS
APENNINUS, MONTES
ARCHIMEDES
20N 2W
30N 4W
51 km
82 km
young crater with rays
Apennine Mountains
largest crater in Mare Imbrium
Ariadaeus, Rima 7N 13E fine rille
ARISTARCHUS 24N 47W 40 km bright crater, often shows lunar transient phenomena (LTPs)
ARZACHEL 18S 2W 97 km walled plain in Ptolemaeus chain
ATLAS 47N 44E 88 km paired with Hercules
BAILLY 67S 63W 298 km huge walled plain near south lunar pole
Blanconus 64S 21W 92 km walled plain with central peak
Boscovich 10N 11E 43 km dark, eroded crater
BULLIALDUS 21S 22W 63 km crater with magnificent walls
Byrgius 25S 22W 64 km near western limb
Casatus 75S 35W 105 km high-rimmed crater
CATHARINA 18S 24E 88 km part of Theophilus chain
CAUCASUS, MONTES 36N 8E mountain range
Censorinus 0 32E 5 km overlaps 100-km wide Klaproth
CLAVIUS 58S 14W 225 km large crater with many secondary impacts
CLEOMEDES 27N 55E 126 km walled plain with peaks and rilles
COPERNICUS 10N 20W 92 km magnificent bright ray crater
CRISIUM, MARE 18N 58E 500 km Sea of Crises
CYRILLUS 13S 24E 97 km part of Theophilus chain
DALEMBERT, MONTES 7S 87W mountain range near west limb
DESCARTES 12S 16E 50 km Apollo 16 landing site
o o
Dionysius 3 N 17 E 19 km bright crater in south-west Mare Tranquillitatis
Doppelmayer 29S 41W 68 km bay in Mare Humorum
ENDYMION 55N 55E 117 km lava-floded crater near limb
o o
ERATOSTHENES 15 N 11 W 61 km crater with prominent central peak
FRACASTORIUS 21 S 30E
97 km lava-flooded crater
Fra Mauro 6S 17W 81 km Apollo 14 landing site
Furnerius 36S 60E 97 km ancient walled plain
GASSENDI 18S 40W 89 km crater with central peak and rilles
GEMINUS 35N 57E 90 km crater with cental peak and terraced walls
GRIMALDI 6S 68W 193 km lava-filled impact basin
Hadley, Rima 26N 3E rille; Apollo 15 landing site
Harpalus 53N 43W 52 km one of the Moons deepest craters
HERACLIDES, PROMONTORIUM 41N 33W mountain range
Hercules 47N 39E 67 km lava-flooded crater
HERODOTUS 23N 50W 37 km lava-flooded crater
Hesiodus 29S 16W 45 km lava-flooded crater
Hevelius 2N 67W 122 km crater with rilles on floor
HIPPARCHUS 6S 5E 135 km ancient, eroded crater
Humboldtianum, Mare 57N 80E 165 km Humboldts Sea
270
MorganKeenan classification
Morgan, William Wilson (190694) American their UBV SYSTEM (which Johnson later extended) with the
astronomer whose work led to the MorganKeenan sys- MKK system to improve distance estimates for stars and
tem of spectral classification and the UBV system of pho- star clusters. In 1957 Morgan used these tools to devise
tometry. He spent his entire career at Yerkes Observatory the first system for classifying the integrated spectra of
(192694), briefly serving as its director (196063). globular clusters. He went on to classify galaxies by com-
Assisted by Philip Childs Keenan (19082000) and paring the galaxys integrated spectrum with its bulge-to-
Edith Marie Kellman (1911 ), Morgan classified huge disk ratio, in what was called the Yerkes system.
numbers of stars into six different LUMINOSITY CLASSES.
This luminosity classification was combined with a new MorganKeenan classification (MK system, MKK
two-dimensional spectral classification in An Atlas of Stel- system) Categorization of a stellar SPECTRUM from the
lar Spectra With an Outline of Spectral Classification visual appearance of its ABSORPTION LINES. In the early
(1943), still the standard work in its field. The MOR- 1940s, William MORGAN, Philip Keenan (19082000)
GANKEENAN CLASSIFICATION (abbreviated to MK or and Edith Kellman (1911 ) extended the one-
MKK system) allowed normal stars to be distinguished dimensional temperature-dependent HARVARD
from peculiar A-type and metallic-line A stars. It also CLASSIFICATION (OBAFGKM) to two dimensions by
made possible vastly more accurate calibrations of stellar adding Roman numerals to indicate luminosity I for
distances, especially for the nearer of the O and B stars. supergiant, II for bright giant, III for giant, IV for
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Morgan and Harold subgiant and V for dwarf. Brighter supergiants are Ia,
JOHNSON developed a new system for measuring stellar lesser ones Ib. (The Roman letters are also commonly
magnitudes in three basic colours or wavebands: U (ultra- used to separate giants of different luminosities, with IIIa
violet), B (blue) and V (visual, or yellow). They combined being brighter than IIIb.) R, N, C and S stars also use
MOON (CONTINUED)
Name Position Diameter Comments
HUMORUM, MARE 23S 38W Sea of Humours
HYGINUS, RIMA 8N 6E rille
IMBRIUM, MARE 36N 16W 1300 km Sea of Showers
IRIDUM, SINUS 45N 31W 255 km Bay of Rainbows
KEPLER 8N 38W 35 km bright ray crater
LANGRENUS 9S 61E 132 km crater with central peak and terraced walls
LINNE 28N 12E 1.5 km small crater in Mare Serenitatis
Littrow 22N 32E 35 km Apollo 17 landing site
Longomontanus 50S 21W 145 km ancient, eroded crater
MAGINUS 50S 60W 177 km ancient, eroded crater
12N 51W
Marius
MAUROLYCUS
Moretus
42S 14E
70S 8W
42 km
105 km
105 km
lava-flooded crater
ancient crater
crater with central peak and terraced walls
M
Nebularum, Palus 38N 1E Marsh of Clouds; light region in Mare Imbrium
NECTARIS, MARE 14S 34E 290 km Sea of Nectar
PETAVIUS 25S 61E 170 km crater with central peak and terraced walls
PICO 46N 8W mountain peak
PLATO 51N 9W 97 km dark-floored lava-flooded crater
Plinius 15N 24E 48 km bright ray crater
POSIDONIUS 32N 30E 96 km crater with central peak and terraced walls
PROCELLARUM, OCEANUS 10N 47W Ocean of Storms
PROCLUS 16N 47E 29 km bright ray crater
PTOLEMAEUS 14S 3W 148 km huge walled plain, part of chain
PURBACH 25S 2W 120 km ancient, eroded crater
PUTREDINIS, PALUS 27N 1W Marsh of Decay
RECTA, RUPES 22S 8W straight wall
RECTI, MONTES 48N 20W straight range mountains
REGIOMONTANUS 30S 48E 117 km irregular-shaped crater
Reichenbach 31S 49E 48 km old, featureless crater
Rheita, Vallis 39S 47E valley, 2.5 km deep
RICCIOLI 3S 75W 160 km lava-flooded, eroded crater
SCHICKARD 44S 54W 202 km ancient, eroded crater
SCHRTERI, VALLIS 26N 52W Schrters Valley
SERENITATIS, MARE 30N 17E Sea of Serenity
Sirsalis 3S 60W 32 km crater with central peak and terraced walls
SMYTHII, MARE 10S 88E Smyths Sea
SOUTH POLEAITKEN BASIN 55S 180W 2500 km largest basin on Moon
STADIUS 11N 14W 70 km ghost crater
STOFLER 41S 6E 145 km ancient, eroded crater
Theatetus 37N 6E 26 km small crater with central peak
THEOPHILUS 12S 26E 101 km crater with central peak and terraced walls
Timocharis 27N 13W 35 km crater with central peak and terraced walls
TRANQUILLITATIS, MARE 9N 30E Apollo 11 landing site
TRIESNECKER 4N 4E 23 km crater with rille system
TSIOLKOVSKY 29S 129E 180 km dark-floored farside crater
TYCHO 43S 11W 87 km crater with extensive rays
VENDELINUS 16S 62E 165 km ancient crater
WALTER 33S 1E 129 km ancient, eroded crater
WARGENTIN 50S 60W 89 km lava-flooded crater
Wilhelm Humboldt 27S 81E 193 km extensive rille system on floor
Zupus 17S 52W 26 km depression
271
morning star
MK luminosity classes. Keenan later added Arabic 0 for escape the light pollution of Canberra, and the institu-
extra-luminous hypergiants. tion became the Mount Stromlo and Siding Spring
The MK system defines each spectral class by the Observatories (MSSSO). In 1998 the name was
spectrum of a representative star (B0 V by Scorpii, B1 V changed again to the Research School of Astronomy
by Orionis, and so on.). The essence of the system is a and Astrophysics (RSAA).
set of MK blue-violet photographic spectra of standard
stars against which others stars are compared and which Mount Wilson Observatory One of the most famous
form the basis for the extension of the system to other observatories in the world, located in the San Gabriel
wavelength domains. range near Pasadena, California, at an elevation of 1740 m
Though commonly applied to stars of Population II, (5700 ft). It was founded in 1904 as Mount Wilson Solar
MK classification is formally appropriate only for solar- Observatory by George Ellery HALE, using funds from the
metallicity Population I. Outside the system, subdwarfs Carnegie Institution of Washington, and the SNOW TELE-
and white dwarfs are sometimes referred to as VI and VII. SCOPE for solar spectroscopy was installed the following
year. Mount Wilson was developed as a site for stellar
morning star Popular name for the planet VENUS when astronomy with the completion of a 1.5-m (60-in.) reflec-
it appears, prior to superior conjunction, as a bright tor by George W. RITCHEY in 1907. It was followed in
object in the eastern sky before sunrise. The term is 1917 by the 2.54-m (100-in.) HOOKER TELESCOPE, which
occasionally applied to MERCURY. See also EVENING STAR dominated US astronomy until the completion of the
HALE TELESCOPE at Palomar Observatory in 1948. This
Moulton, Forest Ray (18721952) American was the instrument Edwin HUBBLE used in 1919 to identi-
mathematician and astronomer who specialized in celestial fy CEPHEID VARIABLE stars in the Andromeda Galaxy, and
mechanics. He was a long-time professor at the University for subsequent work that led to the realization that the
of Chicago (18981926). With Thomas CHAMBERLIN, he Universe is expanding. In 1917 the word Solar was
conceived the planetesimal hypothesis that the Solar dropped from the observatorys name.
System formed when a passing star caused the Sun to eject Today, Mount Wilson remains part of the CARNEGIE
filaments of matter that condensed into protoplanetary OBSERVATORIES. Although seriously affected by the lights
bodies, which later accreted to form the planets. of Los Angeles, 32 km (20 mi) to the south-west, the
observatory has entered a new era with the installation of
Mount Graham International Observatory Major Georgia State Universitys CHARA Telescope Array.
US optical observatory on Mount Graham in the CHARA, the Center for High Angular Resolution
Pinaleno Mountains, some 110 km (70 mi) north-east of Astronomy, consists of a Y-shaped arrangement of five
Tucson, Arizona, at an altitude of 3260 m (10,700 ft), 1-m (39-in.) telescopes within a 400-m (quarter-mile)
operated by the University of Arizona. The site is in the radius linked interferometrically. It is possible that the
Coronado National Forest, and in 1988 controversy fol- Hooker and 60-inch telescopes will be incorporated into
lowed Congressional approval of the observatorys con- the array.
M struction because the forest is home to the endangered
Mount Graham red squirrel (the population of which moving cluster MOVING GROUPS of stars close enough
has since increased). The observatory hosts the VATICAN to have their distance determined by the moving cluster
ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY TELESCOPE, the HEINRICH parallax method, as follows.
HERTZ TELESCOPE of the Submillimeter Telescope If the moving cluster is close to Earth, then projecting
Observatory and, when it is completed, the LARGE the spatial motions of the stars backwards will produce a
BINOCULAR TELESCOPE. set of paths that converge at one point. The direction of
this convergent point is parallel to the space motion of the
mounting Means of supporting the weight of a TELE- cluster. Observing individual stars within the cluster will
SCOPE and aiming it at different points in the sky. Of give a value for the PARALLAX and hence the distance of
necessity, all large professional instruments are on perma- the system. This is known as the moving cluster parallax
nent mounts; many amateur telescopes and their mounts method of distance determination. Using:
are portable. Whether a mounting is permanent or
portable, rigidity is a prime requirement. See ALTAZIMUTH vr = vcos
MOUNTING; EQUATORIAL MOUNTING and
vt = vsin = 4.74
Mount Palomar Observatory See PALOMAR OBSERVA-
TORY where v is the SPACE VELOCITY, vr is RADIAL VELOCITY and
vt is the TANGENTIAL VELOCITY in km/s; is the PROPER
Mount Pleasant Radio Observatory Observatory run MOTION in arcseconds per year; and is the parallax in
by the Physics Department of the University of Tasmania, arcseconds. Measuring the radial velocity of individual
Australia, located 20 km (12 mi) east of Hobart. It is stars and the angle to the convergent point gives a value
equipped with two antennae: a 26-m (85-ft) donated to for the space velocity and hence the tangential velocity.
the University by NASA in 1985, and a 14-m (46-ft). The proper motion of the individual stars then gives an
idea of the parallax of the cluster.
Mount Stromlo Observatory One of the oldest insti- The moving cluster parallax method has been used to
tutions in the Australian Capital Territory, at an alti- determine the distances of several nearby OPEN CLUSTERS.
tude of 760 m (2500 ft) in the south-western suburbs The proximity of these clusters allows distances to be cal-
of Canberra. It was founded in 1924 as the Common- culated with a high precision. The HYADES in particular is
wealth Solar Observatory, and in the 1920s and 1930s often used as the main calibrator of the distance scale of
research was conducted there on solar and atmospheric the Universe.
physics. In 1957 the Observatory became part of the
Australian National University. During the same moving group Group of stars that share the same
decade, four new instruments came to the mountain, motion through space, and have the same age and similar
including the 1.88-m (74-in.) reflector (for twenty chemical compositions. Moving groups can be in many
years the joint-largest telescope in the southern hemi- forms, including OPEN CLUSTERS, GLOBULAR CLUSTERS,
sphere) and a 1.27-m (50-in.) reflector that had started OB ASSOCIATIONS and T ASSOCIATIONS. If they lie close
life in 1868 as the Great Melbourne Telescope. This enough to Earth for the spatial motions of the individual
instrument, now refurbished, is used for the MASSIVE stars to be determined, they are termed MOVING
COMPACT HALO OBJECT dark-matter project. During the CLUSTERS and the cluster distance can be determined by
1960s, under the directorship of Bart BOK, Mount the moving cluster parallax method. The nearest moving
Stromlo founded SIDING SPRING OBSERVATORY to group to Earth is the URSA MAJOR MOVING CLUSTER.
272
Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory
273
Mller, Johannes
274
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
nadir Point on the CELESTIAL SPHERE directly below the NASA Acronym for NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE
observer and 180 from the ZENITH. ADMINISTRATION
N
Nagler eyepiece Telescope eyepiece with a very wide NASDA Acronym for NATIONAL SPACE DEVELOPMENT
apparent field of view, 80 or more, making it suitable for AGENCY OF JAPAN
activities such as searching for comets or novae. The
Nagler eyepiece offers excellent EYE RELIEF, and is Nasireddin (or Nasiruddin) See AL-TU SI
relatively free from ABERRATION, COMA and FIELD
CURVATURE. It is named after its designer, Al(bert) Nasmyth focus Focal point of an altazimuth-mounted
Nagler (1935 ). reflecting telescope in which the converging light beam is
reflected by means of a third mirror to a point outside the
naked-eye Celestial object visible, or an observation lower end of the telescope tube, one side of the altitude
made, without the use of any optical instruments such as a axis. This allows large or heavy instruments, such as
telescope. In theory, stars down to sixth magnitude should spectrographs, to be mounted on a permanent platform
be visible to the naked eye under perfect conditions but which rotates in AZIMUTH with the telescope. An arrange-
this is rarely achieved. ment of prisms and mirrors compensates for the rotation
of the image as the telescope tracks the object, holding it
naked singularity SINGULARITY that is not hidden by an stationary relative to the instrument. This arrangement
EVENT HORIZON and so is visible to the outside world. See was first used by the Scottish engineer James Nasmyth
also BLACK HOLE (180890) and has been revived with the latest genera-
tion of altazimuth-mounted, large professional tele-
Nakhla METEORITE that fell as a shower of around 40 scopes. See also COUD FOCUS
stones over the El Nakhla el Baharia village in Alexandria,
Egypt, in 1911 June; approximately 10 kg of material was National Aeronautics and Space Administration
recovered. The legend that one of the stones of Nakhla (NASA) US national aeronautics and space agency, with
struck and killed a dog is almost totally without overarching responsibility for American civilian aerospace
foundation. Nakhla is the type specimen of the nakhlites, exploration and associated scientific and technological
one of the main subgroups of the MARTIAN METEORITES research. NASA was created in 1958, following the
(SNCs). Nakhlites are almost unshocked clinopyroxene- USSRs success with SPUTNIK, and inherited the work of
rich cumulate rocks. They formed at or near the Martian the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
surface in a thick flow or sill. They have crystallization (NACA) and other government organizations. It began
ages of c.1.3 billion years. Their secondary minerals working almost immediately on human spaceflight, and
(clays, carbonates, and sulphates) are tracers of low managed the successful MERCURY and GEMINI projects
temperature aqueous processes and can be used to infer before embarking on the APOLLO lunar landing
conditions on the Martian surface. programme. After the SKYLAB missions and the joint
ApolloSoyuz Test Project in the 1970s came the SPACE
NaI detector Crystals that produce a flash of visible SHUTTLE programme, starting in 1981, and todays
light (scintillation) when hit by gamma rays. NaI INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION.
detectors were used in the BATSE instrument on the
COMPTON GAMMA RAY OBSERVATORY to detect GAMMA-
NASAs unmanned space projects are no less well
known. Scientific probes such as PIONEER, VOYAGER, N
RAY BURSTS. VIKING, MARS PATHFINDER and MARS GLOBAL SURVEYOR
have explored the planets, while orbiting observatories
Nanay Radio Telescope Large transit-type radio such as the HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE and the CHANDRA
telescope at the Nanay Radio Observatory, 200 km X-RAY OBSERVATORY have sharpened our view of the Uni-
(125 mi) south of Paris and operated by PARIS verse. The agency has also managed landmark projects in
OBSERVATORY. It has a fixed spherical reflector communications and terrestrial remote sensing.
300 35 m (985 115 ft) fed by a tiltable flat reflector The headquarters of NASA are in Washington, D.C.,
200 40 m (655 130 ft). and the agency operates a large number of specialist facili-
ties. They include the AMES RESEARCH CENTER, the GLENN
Nanjing Observatory See PURPLE MOUNTAIN OBSERVA-
TORY
275
National Astronomical Observatory of Japan
276
NEAR Shoemaker
vessel at sea or an aircraft. It is now largely of historical n-body problem See MANY-BODY PROBLEM
interest thanks to the GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
(GPS) of navigational satellites. NEA See NEAR-EARTH ASTEROID
The need for celestial navigation arose with the ever-
increasing distances travelled by European seafarers from neap tide Low-level high TIDES that occur when the
the 15th century onwards. Latitude was easy enough to directions of the Sun and Moon are at a right angle.
determine by observing the altitude of Polaris (or that of
the Sun) and consulting tables giving its declination for a NEAR Abbreviation for Near Earth Asteroid
given date. Simple instruments such as the CROSS-STAFF, Rendezvous spacecraft, later known as NEAR SHOEMAKER.
QUADRANT and ASTROLABE were used for this purpose.
The determination of longitude depended on having near-Earth asteroid (NEA) ASTEROID with an orbit
accurate time available. Various methods, such as tables that brings it close to the Earths orbit. NEAs are
of the Moons position among the stars or observations subdivided into three main classes ATEN ASTEROIDS,
of Jupiters satellites, were proposed for determining time APOLLO ASTEROIDS and AMOR ASTEROIDS. See also
at sea. However, they depended on the ability to predict POTENTIALLY HAZARDOUS ASTEROID; NEAR-EARTH OBJECT
positions with sufficient accuracy. An additional
difficulty was that the observations required for near-Earth object (NEO) ASTEROID or COMET with an
comparison with positions in the tables were by no orbit that brings it close to the orbit of the Earth. By
means easy to make on a rolling and pitching ship. The analogy with the classes of orbit that comprise the near-
development of the MARINE CHRONOMETER in the 18th earth asteroids, the criterion for an NEO is that the
century and the annual publication of The Nautical perihelion distance be less than 1.3 AU. It is usual, though,
Almanac in Britain from 1766 eventually made possible to regard NEOs as including only those objects with
the determination of longitude at sea. Time signals smaller perihelia, making very close approaches to the
derived from transit observations were provided at Earth (and possibly impacts) feasible in the near term.
various ports so that chronometers could be accurately
set and checked. near-infrared Region of the electromagnetic spectrum
Radio time signals became common in the 1920s and between around 0.75 and 5 m. Near-infrared radiation
1930s, thus removing the need for independent can be observed from the ground at good dry sites, except
timekeeping except at times of war; navigators on naval for a few narrow regions that are absorbed by water vapour
ships and military aircraft received training in and carbon dioxide in Earths atmosphere. Many objects,
astronavigation. Further developments based on radio including stars, emit strongly in this range, and there are
techniques were the Loran, Decca and Omega systems, important atomic and molecular features present, notably
which involved (in essence) timing the radio due to hydrogen. See also INFRARED ASTRONOMY
transmissions from fixed transmitters, multiplying by
the speed of light to get the distances and plotting the NEAR Shoemaker First spacecraft to orbit and land on
result on a chart to get the position. an asteroid, EROS, in 2000 February and 2001 February
277
near-ultraviolet
NEPTUNE: DATA
Globe
Diameter (equatorial) 49,528 km
Diameter (polar) 48,686 km
3
Density 1.64 g/cm
Mass (Earth 1) 17.14
Volume (Earth 1) 57.67
Sidereal period of axial rotation 16h 07m
Escape velocity 23.5 km/s
Albedo 0.41
Inclination of equator to orbit 29 34
Temperature at cloud-tops 55 K
Surface gravity (Earth 1) 0.98
Orbit
Semimajor axis 30.06 AU
4497 10 km
6
Eccentricity 0.0097
Inclination to ecliptic 1 46
Sidereal period of revolution 164.79 years
Mean orbital velocity 5.43 km/s
Satellites 8
278
Neptune
maticians John Couch ADAMS, working in England, and Neptune In 1989 Voyager 2
Urbain LE VERRIER, working independently in France, both imaged Neptunes rings. The
predicted the location of the unseen planet. A comedy of material in them is unevenly
errors and ineptitude prevented English astronomers fol- distributed, leading to an
lowing up Adams predictions, and it was Le Verrier who observed clumpy structure.
eventually persuaded the German astronomer Johann
GALLE in Berlin to search the region of the sky in which he
had calculated that the new planet would lie. On 1846 Sep-
tember 23, Galle and his student, Heinrich DARREST,
located the new planet very close to the predicted position.
76-0304
Scholars have largely given joint credit for the discov-
ery to Adams and Le Verrier because their predictions
were based on a sound analysis of data and a thorough
knowledge of gravitational theory. At least, this was the sit-
uation for 134 years. In 1980, however, the astronomical
world was astonished when an astronomer and Galileo
scholar announced that Galileo himself had first seen
Neptune with his telescope in 1613 January, some 233
years before it was identified by Galle. It was not recog-
nized as a planet: Galileos sketches showed its apparent
motion, but his interest was concentrated on Jupiter and
the satellites and so the discovery was delayed.
Although Neptune is sometimes described as a jov- Neptune The blue planets
settle down on the main sequence. The T Tauri stars ian planet, its resemblance to JUPITER and SATURN is atmosphere has many
(classified as INT) vary irregularly in brightness, whereas superficial. Neptune is, however, quite similar to Uranus features, including this high-
the FU Orionis stars (FU) exhibit a single brightening, in many ways, including diameter, composition and level cirrus. Most atmospheric
possibly as they assume a stable state. Nebular variables mass. Seen through the telescope, both planets are nearly structures on Neptune, such
are F-, G- or K-type giant stars, many still surrounded by featureless, in strong contrast to the abundant cloud as the Great Dark Spot,
warm cocoons of dust and gas. There are a great number structures on Jupiter and the banded appearance of Sat- appear to be short-lived.
in the ORION NEBULA. While contracting, nebular
variables probably lose large amounts of material in the
form of a stellar or T-Tauri wind. The rate of mass loss is
about one-ten millionth of a solar mass per year. Such
stars are also rotating very rapidly, throwing off material
at speeds of up to 300 km/s (180 mi/s). Subclasses of the
nebular variables are named after their prototype stars
YY Orionis (extremely young), T ORIONIS and RW
AURIGAE. The UVN subtype of FLARE STAR is also
sometimes considered to be a nebular variable.
N
nebulium Hypothetical element once thought to exist in
planetary and diffuse nebulae in order to explain
unidentified green emission lines at 500.7 and 495.9 nm
(as well as others later found). The nebulium lines were
later discovered to be FORBIDDEN LINES of various
ionization states of oxygen, nitrogen, neon and other
atoms (the 500.7 and 495.9 nm lines coming from
doubly ionized oxygen [OIII]).
279
Nereid
urns clouds. While Uranus is a faint greenish colour, Nereus APOLLO ASTEROID discovered by Eleanor Helin
Neptune is weakly tinted blue. in 1982; number 4660. Nereus is a prime candidate for
Nereid The atmosphere of Neptune shows faint bands rather future visits by space probes because of its low speed
like those of Jupiter and Saturn. The bands are not easily relative to the Earth. Its name reflects this fact: it is near
seen from Earth as the planet appears so small, subtending us in terms of accessibility, if not distance. See table at
only 2.5. The planet is composed mainly of molecular NEAR-EARTH ASTEROID
hydrogen and helium, with a small silicate and metallic
core. The atmosphere is primarily methane and other neutral point Position between two bodies where their
planetary orbit hydrocarbons. During its 1989 encounter, VOYAGER 2 gravitational pulls are equal in strength; the neutral point
Triton identified several dark spots, the largest of which was called is closer to the less massive body.
the Great Dark Spot, though recent images from the
Hubble Space Telescope show that it has now disappeared. neutrino astronomy Study of bodies in the Universe
There was also a bright, fast-moving spot, referred to as via their emission of neutrinos.
Neptune Among Neptunes the Scooter. Whether these spots have dissipated or faded The neutrino is an electrically neutral subatomic parti-
eight known satellites are is not known. Also identified were bands of light-coloured cle whose existence was first suggested in 1930 by the
some of the largest planetary cirrus cloud, which from the shadows cast appeared to be Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli (19001958) in order
satellites. Triton, which was some 50100 km (3060 mi) higher than the tops of the to account for the apparent non-conservation of energy in
discovered only a few days main cloud belts. The overall haziness of the atmosphere -decays. The neutrino was required to take away a vary-
after the planet itself, orbits in may be anti-correlated with the sunspot cycle, in that at ing amount of excess energy during the reactions in an
a retrograde direction. Nereid times of maximum solar activity Neptune appears in our (almost) undetectable manner, so that the total energy
is farther out has a highly telescopes to be a little fainter than average, while at released remained constant. The neutrino was discovered
elliptical orbit. The other six sunspot minimum it is brighter. The Suns activity thus experimentally in 1955 by the American physicists Clyde
satellites are all closer to the appears to influence the atmosphere of Neptune, some Cowan Jnr (1919 ) and Frederick Reines (1918 ). Its
planet than Triton. 4500 million km (2800 million mi) away, by the formation interaction with other forms of matter is indeed weak: of
of a global haze affecting the apparent brightness of the all the neutrinos produced at the centre of the Sun,
planet as seen from Earth. However, a recent analysis of 99.99% escape without any contact with other particles
brightness observations of Neptune and also Uranus does during their 700,000 km (400,000 mi) journey to the
not support this view in the long term. Suns surface. There are now known to be three varieties
By following the motions of the cloud top features, of neutrino, together with their antiparticles. The original
Voyager 2 and Earth-based astronomers (observing in the neutrino is associated with normal electrons and is called
infrared) have measured the period of the planets rota- the electron-neutrino. The other two neutrinos are associ-
tion. These measurements give periods in the region of ated with the heavy electrons (leptons) known as muons
about 17.7 hours for the rotation of the upper atmos- and tau particles and so are named muon-neutrinos and
phere. From radio emissions, Voyager 2 determined a tau-neutrinos. It has recently been shown experimentally
rotation period of 16 hours and 7 minutes for the planet. that one type of neutrino can metamorphose into another.
Being a GAS GIANT, Neptune has only a small solid This is of great significance for the SOLAR NEUTRINO
core, which is thought to be of silicon, iron and other met- problem and also implies that neutrinos have a mass,
als. The bulk of the planet is largely composed of hydrogen albeit perhaps only a millionth that of a normal electron.
N and helium, which under the temperature and pressure act
as supercooled liquids. Neptunes mean density is
Neutrinos from space are detected in two main ways,
either through their taking part in nuclear reactions, or by
1.64 g/cm3, which is somewhat higher than the other gas their collisions with other particles. The first detector start-
giants. Convection currents in the mantle carry heat up ed operating in 1968 and continues to this day. Devised by
from the core region. As Neptune continues to contract, the American chemist Raymond Davis, Jr (1916 ), it
because of its own strong gravitational field, and as the operates by detecting the radioactive decay of argon-37.
constituents of the mantle gradually differentiate, with the The argon-37 is produced by a neutrino interacting with
heavier molecules settling to the bottom, energy is liberated chlorine-37, and so each decay corresponds to a neutrino
from the planet. This energy is emitted as excess heat. The capture. The detector is a tank containing 600 tonnes of
temperature in the stratosphere at the 100 mbar pressure tetrachloroethene; it is buried 1.5 km (0.9 mi) below
level was measured to be 55 K, though the temperature ground at the HOMESTAKE MINE in Dakota in order to
predicted on the basis of Neptunes distance from the Sun shield it from unwanted interactions. Two other detectors,
and other parameters is a few degrees cooler. Voyager 2 SAGE (in the Caucasus) and GALLEX (in Italy), detect
also identified a weak magnetic field, inclined at 47 to the neutrinos in a similar fashion, but based upon the conver-
rotation axis, radio emissions, aurorae and radiation belts. sion by a neutrino of gallium-71 to radioactive germani-
Neptune has eight known satellites, the brightest of um-71. The second class of detectors operates by
which, TRITON, was discovered by William LASSELL short- detecting the C ERENKOV RADIATION from high energy elec-
ly after Neptunes discovery was announced. The others trons in water. The electrons result either from inverse beta
are much fainter. Nereid was discovered in 1949, with a decay, in which a neutrino and proton convert to a neutron
further six identified during Voyagers flyby. Analysis of and positron (positive electron), or gain their energy by
observations during stellar occultations by Neptune sug- direct collision between the neutrino and an electron. The
Nereid Neptunes gested that several ring arcs surrounded the planet, and water for this class of detectors is either contained in large
outermost satellite was Voyager 2 imaged several rings of varying intensity. Four tanks buried underground, as at IMB (the Irvine Michigan
discovered in 1949 by Gerard obvious rings were detected, with ring particles found in Brookhaven experiment) in the USA, Super-Kamiokande
Kuiper. The most detailed much of the space in between. in Japan and SNO (Sudbury Neutrino Observatory) in
images of it were obtained by Canada; or is a part of the ocean, for example DUMAND
Voyager 2 from a distance of Nereid Second satellite of NEPTUNE to be discovered, by (Deep Undersea Muon and Neutrino Detection) in the
4.7 million km (2.9 million mi). Gerard Kuiper in 1949. It is about 340 km (210 mi) in Pacific Ocean and NESTOR in the Mediterranean Sea; or
size. Despite being slightly smaller than PROTEUS, Nereid is part of the Antarctic icecap, for example the Antarctic
was discovered telescopically long before any of the inner Muon and Neutrino Detector Array (AMANDA).
Neptunian satellites were spotted (in VOYAGER 2 images), Neutrinos are expected to be produced in many reac-
because of its much greater distance from the glare of the tions, but to date have only been detected from three
planet. Nereid takes 360 days to orbit Neptune, at an astronomical sources. The first is from the core of the
average distance of 5.51 million km (3.42 million mi) Sun, where two neutrinos result from the formation of a
from the planets centre. It has an unusual orbit, with a helium nucleus (see NUCLEOSYNTHESIS); the second is
low inclination (near 7) and the highest eccentricity of from the 1987 SUPERNOVA in the Large Magellanic Cloud;
all known planetary satellites (0.751), indicating that and the third is as a result of COSMIC RAY interactions with
Nereid is likely a captured body, previously a CENTAUR nuclei at the top of the Earths atmosphere. The potential
or a TRANS-NEPTUNIAN OBJECT. importance of neutrinos, however, lies in their ability to
280
neutron star
rich core. When all nuclear fuel in the core has been neutrino astronomy When
exhausted, the core must be supported by degeneracy operating, neutrino detectors
pressure alone. Further deposits of material from shell such as the Super-Kamiokande
burning cause the core to exceed the Chandrasekhar limit. in Japan contain exceptionally
Electron degeneracy pressure is overcome and the core pure water. Because neutrinos
collapses further, sending temperatures soaring to over 5 themselves are so difficult to
billion K. At these temperatures, photodisintegration (the detect most instruments search
breaking up of iron nuclei into alpha particles by high- instead for radiation and decay
energy gamma rays) occurs. As the temperature climbs particles resulting from
even higher, electrons and protons combine to form neu- collisions between the neutrinos
trons, releasing a flood of neutrinos. When densities reach and atoms in the water.
nuclear density of 4 1017 kg/m3, neutron degeneracy
pressure halts the contraction. The infalling outer atmos-
phere of the star is flung outwards and it becomes a Type
II or Type Ib supernova. The remnant left is a neutron
star. If it has a mass greater than about 23 solar masses, it
collapses further to become a BLACK HOLE. Other neutron
stars are formed within CLOSE BINARIES.
The surface of the neutron star is made of iron. In the
presence of a strong magnetic field the atoms of iron poly-
merize. The polymers pack to form a lattice with density
about ten thousand times that of terrestrial iron and
strength a million times that of steel. It has excellent electri-
cal conductivity along the direction of the magnetic field,
but is a good insulator perpendicular to this direction.
Immediately beneath this surface the neutron star is still
solid, but its composition is changing. Larger nuclei, par-
ticularly rich in neutrons, are formed, and materials that on
Earth would be radioactive are stable in this environment,
for example nickel-62. With increasing depth the density
rises. When it reaches 400 thousand million times that of
water the nuclei can get no larger and neutrons start drip-
ping out. As the density goes up further the nuclei dissolve
in a sea of neutrons. The neutron fluid is a superfluid it
has no viscosity and no resistance to flow or movement.
Within a few kilometres of the surface the density has
reached the density of the atomic nucleus. Up to this point
the properties of matter are reasonably well understood, but
allow us to see directly what is happening at the centres
of stars, and in providing information on the Universe that
beyond it understanding becomes increasingly sketchy. The
composition of the core of the star is particularly uncertain: N
is independent of ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION. it may be liquid or solid; it may consist of other nuclear par- neutron star A hot X-ray
ticles (pions, for example, or hyperons); and there may be source within the supernova
neutron Electrically neutral subatomic particle that along another phase change, where QUARKS start dripping out of remnant IC443 is thought to
with the PROTON forms the nuclei of atoms. The British the neutrons, forming another liquid. be the neutron star created in
physicist Sir James Chadwick (18911974) discovered A neutron star has a mass comparable to that of the the explosion. Measurements
the neutron in 1932. Inside a nucleus it is stable, but as an Sun, but as it is only about 10 km (6 mi) in radius, it has of its movement through the
independent particle it decays with a half-life of about 12 an average density 1000 million million times that of nebula have led to the
minutes to a proton, electron and anti-neutrino. Its mass water. Such a large mass in such a small volume pro- conclusion that light from the
is 1.674929 1027 kg (1.008793 amu). duces an intense gravitational force: objects weigh supernova reached Earth
100,000 million times more on the surface of a neutron some 30,000 years ago.
neutron star Densest and tiniest star known, composed
of DEGENERATE MATTER and supported by neutron
degeneracy pressure. Neutron stars are the end points of
stars whose mass after nuclear burning is greater than the
CHANDRASEKHAR LIMIT for white dwarfs, but whose mass
is not great enough to overcome the neutron degeneracy
pressure to become BLACK HOLES. The neutron, which
along with the proton makes up the atomic nucleus, was
discovered in 1932. At the end of 1933 Walter BAADE and
Fritz ZWICKY tentatively suggested that in SUPERNOVA
explosions, ordinary stars are turned into stars that
consist of extremely closely packed neutrons. They called
these stars neutron stars.
Neutron stars were thought to be too faint to be
detectable and little work was done on them until 1967
November, when Franco Pacini (1939 ) pointed out that
if the neutron stars were spinning and had large magnetic
fields, then electromagnetic waves would be emitted.
Unbeknown to him, radio astronomer Antony HEWISH
and his research assistant Jocelyn Bell (see BELL BURNELL)
at Cambridge were shortly to detect radio pulses from
stars that are now believed to be highly magnetized, rapid-
ly spinning neutron stars, known as PULSARS.
Any star with an initial main-sequence mass of around
10 solar masses or above has the potential to become a
neutron star. As the star evolves away from the main
sequence, subsequent nuclear burning produces an iron-
281
Newall Telescope
star than on the surface of the Earth. The intense gravi- with more recent observations by a number of other
tational field affects light and other electromagnetic radi- astronomers. The NGC, published in 1888, contains
ation emitted by the star, producing significant redshift nearly 7840 non-stellar objects (including galaxies,
(z approximately equal to 0.2). although their real nature was not then known) and over
The strong gravitational attraction allows neutron 5000 more are listed in two subsequent INDEX CATA-
stars to spin rapidly (hundreds of revolutions per second) LOGUES. Objects are still referred to by their NGC num-
without disintegrating. Such spin rates are expected if the bers. A revision for the present epoch has been
core of the original star collapses without loss of angular published as NGC 2000.0 (1988).
momentum. If the original star has a magnetic field, then
this too may be conserved and concentrated in the col- New Millennium NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE
lapse to a neutron star. Pulsars, GAMMA-RAY BURST ADMINISTRATION (NASA) programme to pioneer new
sources, and the neutron stars in some X-RAY BINARIES technologies for all types of spacecraft, from planetary
are believed to have magnetic fields of strength about 100 explorers to Earth observation satellites, including new
million Tesla (roughly a million million times the strength propulsion technologies and sensors. See also DEEP SPACE 1
of the Earths magnetic field).
There are thought to be of the order of 108 neutron New Technology Telescope (NTT) Innovative 3.6-m
stars in the Galaxy, but they can only be easily detected in (142-in.) telescope at LA SILLA OBSERVATORY, operated by
certain instances, such as if they are a pulsar or part of a the EUROPEAN SOUTHERN OBSERVATORY. Completed in
binary system. Non-rotating and non-accreting neutron 1989, the NTT pioneered several aspects of modern tele-
stars are virtually undetectable, but the Hubble Space scope design, including the use of ACTIVE OPTICS and
Telescope has observed one thermally radiating neutron ADAPTIVE OPTICS, and is essentially a prototype of the
star (RX J185635-3754). Its surface temperature is VERY LARGE TELESCOPE. Frequently operated remotely,
6 105 K and its radius 1213 km (7.58 mi). Neutron the instrument had its control system upgraded to VERY
star mergers may produce gamma-ray bursts. LARGE TELESCOPE standards in 1997. It is equipped with
spectroscopic and imaging instruments designed to capi-
Newall Telescope Refractor of 0.63 m (25 in.) aper- talize on its excellent image quality.
ture built by Thomas Cooke & Sons for amateur
observer Robert Stirling Newall (181289) of Newton, Isaac (16421727) English physicist and math-
Gateshead, England. Completed in 1869, it was for a ematician. Most of his theories on gravitation, light and
while the worlds largest refractor; it is now in Greece, calculus, for example he developed in basic form while in
and is operated by the National Observatory of Athens. his early twenties. In 1668 he built the first reflecting tele-
scope in order to avoid the chromatic aberration inherent
Newcomb, Simon (18351909) American mathemati- in lenses. In 1684, urged by Edmond Halley, he began
cal astronomer, born in Canada, who calculated highly work on Principia (1687), in which he put forward his law
accurate values for astronomical constants and tables of of gravitation and laws of motion, and showed how gravi-
the motions of the Moon and planets and was the most tation explained Keplers laws. In his Opticks (1704) he set
influential astronomer of his day. In 1861 he became pro- out his theories of light, including how white light is made
fessor of mathematics at the US NAVAL OBSERVATORY up of the colours of the spectrum. Newtons greatest math-
N (USNO), Washington. Studying the orbits of asteroids, he
proved that they could not have originated from the
ematical achievement was his invention of calculus.
Born prematurely at Woolsthorpe, a hamlet near
break-up of a single body, a once-popular theory. New- Grantham, Lincolnshire, three months after his fathers
comb began a lifelong study of the Moons motion. His death, Newton was left in the care of his grandmother,
results suggested that the discrepancy between the during which time his mother married again. Hating his
Moons calculated and observed motion was caused by a stepfather, Newton suffered all his life from a sense of
gradual slowing of the Earths rotation; this was finally insecurity; it was this that later in life made him abnormal-
proved by others, including E.W. BROWN. ly sensitive to criticism of his scientific work. When his
Four years later, Newcomb became superintendent of stepfather died, Newtons mother determined that he
the US Nautical Almanac Office, where he set about should become a farmer and manage her estates, but he
refining the orbits of the planets, using observations dating showed no interest in such a career, and she was persuad-
back to 1750. This was a major feat of celestial mechanics, ed to allow him to be prepared for university. In 1661
carried out with the collaboration of E.W. Brown, G.W. Newton entered Trinity College, Cambridge, as a subsizar
HILL and others. The work required an accurate value of an impoverished undergraduate who performed menial
the SOLAR PARALLAX (), which Newcomb had begun tasks to help pay for his keep.
working towards some years before. To this end he Newton graduated in 1665 April, having already
observed the 1874 and 1882 transits of Venus, but decid- invented his mathematical method of fluxions, though few
ed that ultimately the accuracy of depended on having people were aware of the fact. However, the university was
an accurate value of c, the speed of light, to measure which then closed because of the plague and the scholars dis-
he devised a method based on that of Lon FOUCAULT. He persed. Newton went back to Woolsthorpe where, except
also established that the discrepancy between the observed for a return for a couple of months to Cambridge, he con-
and calculated values of the advance of Mercurys perihe- solidated his mathematical work and his nascent optical
lion was 43, exactly the difference later explained by the theory of the nature of colour. He also recognized that
theory of GENERAL RELATIVITY. each planet was held in its orbit by a force emanating from
Newcombs planetary tables, published in 1899, the Sun which diminished according to the square of its
remained in use until the 1950s. Equally enduring was his distance an inverse-square law. But he published nothing.
consistent system of refined astronomical constants, cal- By 1671 Newton had built his first reflecting telescope
culated jointly with Arthur Matthew Weld Downing (see NEWTONIAN TELESCOPE). At the time all telescopes
(18501917) of the UK Nautical Almanac Office, and were refractors, forming their image with a lens, not a mir-
adopted worldwide in 1901. ror. To avoid CHROMATIC ABERRATION and to provide good
sharp images, lenses had to be of very long focal length,
New General Catalogue (NGC) In full, the New Gen- making telescopes equally as long and thus very cumber-
eral Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars, compiled some. Newtons theory that white light is a mixture of the
by J.L.E. DREYER. At the suggestion of the Royal Astro- light of all colours persuaded him (wrongly) that the refrac-
nomical Society, Dreyer combined what were then the tor could not be cured of this defect. He therefore designed
three main catalogues of nebulae John HERSCHELs a reflecting telescope the first successful one ever to be
General Catalogue of Nebulae (which Dreyer had already made and it aroused much interest; not only was it free
revised, in 1879), and those of Heinrich DARREST and from chromatic aberration, but it was far shorter than any
Lord ROSSE; and supplemented the amalgamated listing refractor. A duplicate instrument was sent to the Royal
282
Newtons laws of motion
Society in London at their request, and Newton was used. Indeed, his influence on the physical sciences was
promptly elected a Fellow. At his own suggestion he then profound and long-lasting: physics was Newtonian physics
submitted a paper on his theory of light and colour. This until the arrival of RELATIVITY and QUANTUM PHYSICS.
historic paper was criticized, and the ensuing controversy
severely upset him, though in 1675 he did submit two other Newton European Space Agency (ESA) X-Ray Multi-
optical papers. One was about the colours seen in very thin Mirror (XMM) telescope launched in 1999 December as
films of oil and other materials, the other on his theory that the second Cornerstone Horizon 2000 science mission.
light was composed of tiny particles, or corpuscles. These Newton carries high-throughput X-ray telescopes with an
also caused controversy, and in the end, Newton shut him- unprecedented effective area and an optical monitor, the
self away in Cambridge and shunned further publication. first flown on an X-ray observatory. The large collecting
Not until late in 1679 did his resume correspondence, area and ability to make long uninterrupted exposures
with Robert Hooke, Honorary Secretary to the Royal provide highly sensitive observations.
Society and previously a severe critic of Newtons theories
of light and colour. An exchange of letters led Newton to Newtonian telescope REFLECTING TELESCOPE having a
re-examine his work on planetary orbits, but again he PARABOLOIDAL primary mirror, and a diagonal plane
published nothing; not until 1684 was he stimulated to mirror positioned to divert the light path through 90 to
consider making his ideas known. This was the result of a a focus near the side and towards the upper end of the
visit from Edmond HALLEY. telescope tube. For apertures less than 150 mm (6 in.),
In London, Halley had been discussing the problem simpler spheroidal primaries can be used without signif-
with Hooke and with the astronomer-architect Christo- icant loss of optical performance. Before the rise of the
pher Wren (16321723). No one had been able prove SchmidtCassegrain telescope, the Newtonian was the
mathematically that an inverse-square law would result in reflector of choice for many amateur observers.
elliptical planetary orbits, and Halley decided to visit
Newton and ask him whether he knew the reason. New- Newtons law of gravitation Law governing the
ton replied that he did, and had a mathematical proof. mutual attraction between two masses that arises from the
Unable to locate it among his papers, he promised to con- GRAVITATIONAL FORCE. In his Principia, published in
vey it to Halley later. This he did, sending a small tract 1687, Sir Isaac NEWTON announced that the force of
with the title De motu (On Motion). When Halley gravity between any two masses, m1 and m2, is
received it, he was mathematician enough to realize that proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
here was a document of the greatest significance. He proportional to the square of the distance, r, between
therefore prevailed on the Royal Society to publish an them: Gm1 m2
entire book on the subject by Newton, and also persuaded F =
r2
Newton to continue expanding his ideas for publication.
There were difficulties, however. On the one hand the where G is the gravitational constant (= 6.6726 1011 N
Royal Society was short of money and could not afford to m2 kg2). Although gravity is the weakest of the four forces
publish; Halley himself had to edit the manuscript and pay (the others being the strong and weak nuclear forces and
the printer out of his own pocket. On the other hand, the electromagnetic force), it operates at long range and
Hooke raised objections, claiming that Newton had stolen there are no negative masses to counter-balance the effect
his results. Newton was furious he went through his text
deleting nearly every reference to Hooke, and refused to
of normal mass (in the way that positive and negative
electric charges cancel out each others effects). Gravity is, N
complete the book. It took all of Halleys undoubted diplo- therefore, the dominant force governing large scale
matic gifts to save the situation, and at last, in 1687 July, phenomena within the Universe. It determines, amongst
the volume appeared with the title Philosophiae naturalis many other things, the shapes and sizes of satellites, planets
principia mathematica (The Mathematical Principles of and stars, the nature of their orbits, the shapes of galaxies
Natural Philosophy). The book, known by its shortened and clusters of galaxies and their interactions.
name, PRINCIPIA, was a tour de force, one of the most impor-
tant scientific works ever written. It not only solved virtual- Newtons laws of motion Laws governing the
ly all the questions and problems of traditional astronomy, movement of bodies proposed by Sir Isaac NEWTON in his
but stimulated a vast amount of further research. Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica (The
Newton was exhausted after this vast intellectual effort, mathematical principles of natural philosophy, usually
and seems to have suffered a nervous breakdown. He known as the PRINCIPIA), which was published in 1687.
withheld publication of his Opticks and his acceptance of The laws are: (1) A body continues in a state of rest or
the presidency of the Royal Society until after Hookes uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an
death, and did no more major scientific work. Thereafter
he spent his time researching biblical chronology and
practising alchemy, as well as seeking public preferment.
He was appointed Warden of the Mint in 1696 to take
charge of a great recoinage scheme; later he became Mas- secondary
mirror
ter of the Mint. This work he carried out with outstanding
ability, and was knighted in 1705 in recognition of his
exceptional service.
Newtons later years were darkened by two major con-
troversies. The first was over the publication of the obser-
vations of John FLAMSTEED, which he persuaded Halley to
edit; the other was a priority dispute over the invention of eyepiece
calculus. Newton had expanded his fluxions into the tech-
nique now known to have been discovered independently
by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (16461716). Newton was Newtonian telescope In
encouraged by others to accuse Leibniz of stealing his this form of reflecting
ideas, and the controversy became very bitter, pursued telescope, light is reflected
even after Leibnizs death. from a parabaloidal primary
By the end of his life not only was Newton considered mirror to a flat secondary
the doyen of British science, but his reputation had mirror (or sometimes a prism),
become international. He died on 1727 March 20 in Lon- placed diagonally within the
don, and was buried in Westminster Abbey following a tube, and directed to a side-
state funeral. His achievements were so important for primary mounted eyepiece. The
mirror
astronomy that the phrase Newtonian revolution is often resulting image is inverted.
283
new moon
mall, inconspicuous southern constellation, representing a surveyors level, NOAO See KITT PEAK , CERRO TOLOLO
S between Lupus and Ara. It was named Norma et Regula (the Level and
Square) by Lacaille in the 18th century. It brightest star, Nor, is a naked-eye Nobeyama Radio Observatory Facility of the NATION-
double, with bluish-white components, mags. 4.0 and 5.0; Nor is a wide binary AL ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY OF JAPAN located at
with components of mags. 4.8 and 7.5, separation 23. Normas brightest deep-sky Nagano in central Japan. It operates the Nobeyama
object is NGC 6087, an open cluster of about 40 stars between mags. 6 and 10. Radio Telescope, a 45-m (148-ft) millimetre-wave instru-
ment equipped with a 25-beam focal plane camera. It
284
nova
285
nova-like variable
normally with an amplitude of 1112 magnitudes. Nova emission at maximum outburst is of a similar order to that
Cygni 1975 (V1500 Cyg) had the exceptionally large of a supergiant star of type F8, of which Wezen, the
amplitude of 19 magnitudes. The subsequent decline is fourth-brightest star in the constellation of Canis Major is
much slower. Two subtypes are recognized on the basis an example. A typical nova rises to its maximum in a few
of the time taken to fall 3 magnitudes from maximum: days, and declines thereafter in brightness by a factor of
fast novae (NA) take less than 100 days; slow novae (NB) about 10 in 40 days, although cases of both slower and
take 150 days or more. A further subtype (NC) shows more rapid declines are known and studied.
both a slow rise (sometimes as long as a decade) and an Clouds of gas are ejected at high speeds during out-
extremely slow decline. bursts, speeds typically of about 1500 km/s (930 mi/s),
The appearance of a bright star-like point of light in which is more than sufficient for the expelled gases to
the sky over only a few nights of observation, at a posi- become entirely lost into interstellar space, together with
tion where previously no star had been known, was a myriad fine dust particles that condense within the gases
matter of great interest in ancient times. The phenome- as they cool during their outwards motion. The total
non tended to be ignored by European chroniclers dur- amount of material thus lost is estimated to be about one
ing the Middle Ages because the prevailing culture belief part in ten thousand of the total mass of the parent white
was that the heavens represented a perfect and therefore dwarf star, although the amount in especially violent cases
unchangeable creation by God. When change did in fact is almost certainly appreciably larger than this.
occur in the sky the matter was dealt with by ensuring Much thought has been given in recent years to the
that no written record of it was made. When cause of novae. The consensus of opinion is that the basic
astronomers today are concerned to know about what mechanism of the explosion of a nova is the same as for
happened a thousand years ago they consult the records the explosion of a thermonuclear weapon. To begin with,
of cultures other than the European, notably of the Chi- energy is produced at a comparatively gentle rate by
nese (see CHINESE ASTRONOMY). The appearance of NUCLEAR REACTIONS in material that is covered (tamped)
TYCHOS STAR and KEPLERS STAR (both actually SUPER- by a layer of relatively inactive other material. Because of
NOVAE) in 1572 and 1604, respectively, were seminal the tamping material, the energy produced by nuclear
events in bringing about a complete change in the Euro- reactions cannot escape and accumulates within the
pean conception of the heavens. reacting material itself. Provided the tamping effect is
Because astronomers nowadays have photographic strong enough, the rising temperature and pressure can-
plates of the whole sky on which even exceedingly faint not be alleviated by expansion, causing the nuclear reac-
stars may be seen, it is often possible to locate a novas tions to become progressively more violent. The same
precursor. An even greater amount of information may be cycle of events is repeated with the energy released from
obtained by following the spectral features of a nova the nuclear reactions, and it accelerates at an ever-
through its sudden outburst into its decline over a time increasing rate, until eventually the situation gets out of
interval of weeks and months. The outcome of such inves- hand (in a thermonuclear runaway), or until the tamp-
tigations is that novae are in the main, if not indeed whol- ing effect of the overlying material fails, and the material
ly, WHITE DWARF stars that happen to be members of is expelled from the strong gravitational field of the white
BINARY STAR systems, more specifically, that they are dwarf. Depending on the mass of the white dwarf, its
interacting binaries. chemical composition, and the amounts of the reactions
N Novae may be observed in galaxies other than our own,
and attempts have been made to use such observations as
and tamping materials, the details of explosion may vary
in ways that are subject to mathematical calculation, and
an indicator of the distances of other nearby galaxies. The which have been found to agree with many of the
great majority of observed cases are within our own observed features of novae.
Galaxy, where for the limited region of the solar neigh- Novae are now considered to be like other forms of cat-
bourhood they are found to occur at a rate of about two aclysmic variable in consisting of an interacting binary
per year. The solar neighbourhood is determined by the system. The secondary component is a class K or M
fogging effect of INTERSTELLAR DUST, which cuts down giant, subgiant or dwarf star, which transfers matter on to
the range of effective observation to about 5% of the the white-dwarf primary. Unlike certain supernovae, the
whole Galaxy, for which the rate of occurrence of novae is outbursts do not disrupt the system, although material is
estimated to be about 40 per year. expelled into space, and it is generally accepted that the
Our subjective perception of a nova is confined to light system settles down into a POST-NOVA stage. Mass transfer
nova The light-curve of a in the visual and photographic ranges of wavelength, is later resumed and after a long interval a second nova
nova typically shows a steep omitting the ultraviolet. Because the ultraviolet is of vari- outburst may occur. The recurrence time is related to the
rise in brightness by a factor of able importance, probably being of greater importance mass of the white dwarf and (with reasonable assumptions
many thousands followed by a before outburst than during it, our subjective perception about the mass-transfer rate) is of the order of 30,000
slow, irregular, decline. The tends to exaggerate the contrast between the pre-nova years for a white dwarf of 1.3 solar masses, and one mil-
rapid rise in brightness is state and the maximum emission of light during the out- lion years for a white dwarf of 0.6 solar mass.
caused by thermonuclear burst. The observed contrast for visible light is usually Certain stars that apparently resemble novae are
runaway explosive hydrogen about 10,000 to 1, but if all wavelengths were included the known to undergo explosions repeatedly, for example T
burning on the surface of the contrast would probably be about 100 to 1. Coronae appeared as a low-amplitude nova in 1866 and
white dwarf component of the The emission of visible light in the pre-nova stars is of a 1946, with two smaller outbursts in 1963 and 1975, while
binary pair. similar order to the emission from the Sun, whereas the T Pyxidis did so in 1890, 1902, 1922, 1944 and 1966.
Although it was once thought that these systems (see
RECURRENT NOVA) might represent a stage following a
principal nova outburst, this now appears unlikely,
-2
because of their different physical characteristics.
0 The circumstances in which the nuclear reactions in a
nova occur, especially if a supply of protons is available
2
apparent magnitude
286
nucleosynthesis
duce various nuclei, including the radioactive species STELLAR EVOLUTION. It also provides the energy released
22
Na and 26Al. Novae now appear to make a substantial in hydrogen bombs; and it may eventually be harnessed
contribution (together with supernovae and red giants) for power generation in fusion reactors.
to the abundance of such isotopes in the interstellar The main astronomical occurrences of fission are
medium. When the Solar System formed from interstel- within novae and supernovae, where very short wave-
lar material, some grains derived from novae would be length gamma rays cause nuclei between about sulphur
present. The presence of 22Ne and 26Mg (the daughter and iron to disintegrate to lighter nuclei (photo-disinte-
products of 22Na and 26Al, respectively) in meteorites gration). In addition, in the interstellar medium cosmic
indicates that the protosolar nebula did indeed contain ray impacts fragment carbon, nitrogen and oxygen
species from one or all of these sources. nuclei to lithium, beryllium and boron (see SPALLATION).
The total energy of explosion of a typical nova has Fission accounts for the production of some elements
been estimated at 1045 ergs, which is about as much and isotopes that are not produced by other processes. It
energy as the Sun emits in 10,000 years. It has been sug- is also involved in many radioactive decay processes, and
gested that novae might be precursors for Type I super- is the basis of current nuclear energy generation and
novae. Spectroscopic evidence, however, indicates that atom bombs. See also ASTROCHEMISTRY; BINDING ENER-
some of the material from the white dwarf is lost at each GY; CARBONNITROGENOXYGEN CYCLE; NUCLEOSYN-
outburst. This suggests that despite the accretion of THESIS; P PROCESS; PROTONPROTON REACTION;
material and the production of certain heavier elements R PROCESS; S PROCESS
in the outburst, the overall mass of the white dwarf is
unlikely to increase sufficiently for it to reach the CHAN- nucleosynthesis Process whereby HELIUM and the
DRASEKHAR LIMIT. HEAVY ELEMENTS are created from HYDROGEN. There are
four main areas involved in nucleosynthesis: the early
nova-like variable (NL) VARIABLE STAR subtype, a stages of the BIG BANG; the energy-generating reactions
form of CATACLYSMIC VARIABLE. Nova-like variables are inside stars; reactions during NOVA and SUPERNOVA
poorly known. Their general characteristics (particularly explosions; and COSMIC RAY collisions within the
changes in light and spectra) resemble those of a NOVA or interstellar medium.
POST-NOVA rather than a DWARF NOVA or SYMBIOTIC STAR. The first nucleosynthesis reactions to be identified
Some show nova-like outbursts, but others have never were the PROTONPROTON REACTION and the
displayed such activity. Once an object of this type is CARBONNITROGENOXYGEN CYCLE. Both of these were
studied in detail it is normally possible to assign it to a suggested in 1938 as sources for the energy of the Sun,
more specific cataclysmic type. the former by Hans BETHE, and the latter, independently
of each other, by Bethe and Carl von WEIZSCKER. The
Nozomi Japans first MARS explorer. Nozomi was processes both convert hydrogen into helium-4, the pro-
launched in 1998 July and was propelled towards a tonproton reaction being most important for stars with
rendezvous with Mars in 2004 by a series of gravity- masses up to that of the Sun and the
assisted lunar flybys. It will be placed into a low orbit carbonnitrogenoxygen cycle becoming dominant with-
around Mars, with the primary objective of studying the in more massive stars.
planets upper atmosphere with emphasis on its In 1956 and 1957 Geoffrey and Margaret BURBIDGE,
interaction with the SOLAR WIND. Nozomi will measure
the Martian magnetic field for the first time, investigate
William FOWLER and Sir Fred HOYLE identified most of
the remaining reactions inside stars that synthesise the ele- N
the ionosphere, take images of the weather and the ments up to iron, though only the most massive stars are
moons, PHOBOS and DEIMOS, especially to confirm if there able to follow the whole sequence. The next stage after
is a dust ring along the orbit of Phobos. helium formation is not the production of beryllium-8,
because that decays back to two helium-4 nuclei (-parti-
N star Member of a class of cool CARBON STARS. Class cles) in 2 1016 s, but it is the TRIPLE- PROCESS pro-
N, part of the original Harvard system of SPECTRAL ducing carbon-12. The triple- process involves two
CLASSIFICATION, was introduced to describe red stars helium nuclei combining and then a third being added
that lack the class M absorption bands of TiO, and before the beryllium-8 can decay. It requires a tempera-
instead have strong absorptions produced by carbon ture of about 108 K before it will start since the NUCLEAR
compounds, particularly C2, CN and CH. Class N REACTIONS involved are slightly endothermic (requiring
second-ascent giants (asymptotic giant branch stars and the supply of energy) and therefore need the input of ther-
some Miras) divide into subclasses N0 to N9, whose mal energy to get them to occur. The triple- process
temperatures roughly track those of the M giants (3600 overall is exothermic: more energy is released by the
to 2000 K). The class, along with the warmer R STARS, process than is used in starting it, because the carbon-12
has been subsumed into class C, with subtypes of nucleus that is the result of the reaction is in an excited
roughly C6C9. state and emits a high-energy gamma ray.
Once carbon-12 has been produced, helium-4 nuclei
Nubecula Major See LARGE MAGELLANIC CLOUD can be added to it (a process known as -capture) to pro-
duce, successively, oxygen-16, neon-20, magnesium-24,
Nubecula Minor See SMALL MAGELLANIC CLOUD silicon-28, sulphur-32 and argon-36. For the Sun, the
sequence will probably come to a halt with the produc-
nuclear reactions Interactions between atomic nuclei tion of oxygen-16. -capture can also start from other
or between atomic nuclei and subatomic particles or elements and this is particularly significant for the nitro-
gamma rays. Nuclear reactions produce transformations gen-14 left by the carbonnitrogenoxygen cycle, leading
from one ELEMENT or ISOTOPE to another. There are two to fluorine-18 and neon-22. As the temperature increas-
basic types of reaction, FUSION and FISSION. es, carbon and oxygen start to combine directly and
The main astronomical occurrences of fusion are eventually, at about 3 109 K, silicon-28 combines with
within stellar interiors, novae and during the early stages itself to produce nickel-56. The latter is radioactive and
of the BIG BANG, resulting in the build-up of elements up decays to cobalt-56 and then to the stable isotope
to iron from lighter nuclei. In stellar interiors and in iron-56, although those decay processes will occur out-
SUPERNOVAE absorption of protons and neutrons by side the star, because the production of nickel at the stars
nuclei builds up elements heavier than iron. The fusion centre occurs immediately prior to its explosion as a
reactions build elements of heavier mass number from supernova. There are many more reactions than are listed
the lighter. The first of these, thermonuclear fusion, is the here, and some result in the release of neutrons. Those
process that created most of the helium in the Universe in neutrons combine with nuclei to produce intermediate
the first few minutes after the Big Bang; it provides the elements and isotopes (see S PROCESS). The reactions up
main energy output of the stars, and indeed it governs to the production of iron-56 are exothermic. The BIND-
287
nucleus
nucleus, galactic At X-ray ING ENERGY per nucleon however is a maximum for iron, nucleus Small solid body containing the main mass of
wavelengths the nucleus of the and so the formation of heavier elements requires more a COMET. Comet nuclei are comprised of icy, volatile
Milky Way shows hundreds of energy to be supplied than is produced. The elements material with an admixture of dust, surrounded by a
white dwarf and neutron stars, above iron are therefore thought to be formed during dark outer crust. They are mechanically fragile, and
together with black holes, supernova explosions by the successive addition of neu- many have been observed to undergo catastrophic
surrounded by incandescent trons (the R PROCESS) and protons (the P PROCESS), with disintegration when close to the Sun. Comet nuclei
gas at a temperature of 10 the energy of the explosion fuelling the reactions. range in size from the relatively tiny bodies (only tens of
million K. The bright white patch Although helium-4 is produced within stars, its abun- metres in diameter) detected in large numbers by the
in the centre of the image is the dance at about 25% by mass (see ASTROCHEMISTRY) SOHO coronagraphs, through to kilometre-sized
site of the supermassive black throughout the Universe is far too high to be accounted for objects, and up to much larger icy planetesimals.
hole at the heart of the galaxy. in this way. It is therefore thought that most of the helium-4, Among this last category, asteroid 2060 CHIRON (also
along with hydrogen-2 (deuterium), helium-3 and lithium- given a periodic comet designation of 95P/Chiron) is
7, was generated during the early stages of the Big Bang. At thought by many astronomers to be a giant cometary
a time a few seconds after the start of the Big Bang, the nucleus, c.180 km (c.110 mi) in diameter, which will in
numbers of protons and neutrons would be in the ratio of some tens of thousands of years enter the inner Solar
N about 87% to 13%. The abundance ratio of protons to neu-
trons is largely independent of the exact conditions in the
System and fragment to spawn a new group of short-
period comets on similar orbits.
Big Bang. This is because, in equilibrium, the ratio is deter-
mined by the balance between the number of protons and nucleus, galactic Central region of a GALAXY, meaning
electrons combining to form neutrons and neutrinos and a region from a few thousand light-years in size down to
the number of neutrons and neutrinos combining to form the small volume of an ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEUS. This
protons and electrons, and this depends only upon the is the region of greatest density of stars and gas and least
reaction rates. About 100 seconds after the Big Bang , the angular momentum in a galaxy, where massive objects
temperature would have fallen sufficiently for deuterium to may be formed. Bursts of star formation as well as
form and to be stable. All the available neutrons would then ACCRETION on to massive BLACK HOLES can generate
quickly combine with protons to produce deuterium, and enormous amounts of energy.
nucleus NASAs Deep the deuterium would build up to helium-4. Since the 13%
Space 1 imaged the inactive of the mass of the Universe in the form of neutrons com- Nuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratories See JODRELL
nucleus of Comet Borrelly from bines with 13% in the form of protons during this process, BANK OBSERVATORY
3417 km (2123 mi). The bright the final amount of helium-4 produced this way is about
patches on the surface of the 26%, which is convincingly close to the observed 24.9%. Nunki The star Sagittarii, visual mag. 2.05, distance
8-km (5-mi) long body are Finally, some of the light elements exist in far greater 224 l.y., spectral type B2.5 V. The name is of
thought to be the source of the abundance than might be expected from the amounts pre- Babylonian origin, but its meaning is not known.
material that forms a cometary dicted by the above processes. They are also easily
coma when heated by the Sun. destroyed inside stars. Such nuclei as lithium-6, lithium-7, nutation Small, cyclical oscillation superimposed upon
beryllium-9, boron-10 and boron-11 are therefore thought the 25,800-year PRECESSION of the Earths rotational axis,
to be produced in the interstellar medium by SPALLATION caused by the combined gravitational effects of the Sun
reactions. In these reactions high-energy cosmic ray pro- and the Moon. Discovered by James BRADLEY in 1747,
tons and -particles collide with nuclei of carbon, nitrogen nutation produces a slight nodding of the Earths axis; it
and oxygen, fragmenting them and producing the lighter changes with the continually varying relative positions of
nuclei. See also FISSION, NUCLEAR; FUSION, NUCLEAR the Sun, Moon and Earth. Lunar nutation, which is
caused by the 5 inclination of the Moons orbit to the
nucleus Central part of an ATOM, containing most of the ecliptic, causes a variation of 9 on either side of the mean
mass of the atom and formed from PROTONS and position, in a period of 18 years 220 days. Solar nutation
NEUTRONS. The nucleus has a density of about has a period of 0.5 of a TROPICAL YEAR. Fortnightly
2.3 1017 kg/m3 and is a few times 1015 m across. nutation has a period of 15 days.
288
observatory
O and B subdwarf Hot star with luminosity less than oblateness Measure of the amount by which a spheroid
that of O and B DWARFS but greater than that of a WHITE deviates from a perfect sphere; it is defined as the ratio of
DWARF. They are generally stars in the final stage of the difference between the equatorial and polar radii of a
O
collapse to white dwarfs. body to its equatorial radius. Any celestial body that
rotates tends to bulge at its equator by an amount that
OAO Abbreviation of ORBITING ASTRONOMICAL depends both on its speed of rotation and on whether it is
OBSERVATORY solid or fluid in composition. Oblateness is therefore a
good indicator of the rotational speed of a star or planet.
OB association Group of stars of spectral type O and See also ELLIPTICITY
B. OB associations are regions of space where massive
stars are currently being formed or have just recently been oblate spheroid See SPHEROID
formed. They are one of the least dense type of star cluster.
The predominance of the very luminous high-mass obliquity of ecliptic Angle between the plane of the
O STARS and B STARS renders OB associations recogniz- ECLIPTIC and the CELESTIAL EQUATOR, caused by the
able at great distances, even through the dusty haze of inclination of the Earths rotational axis to the plane of its
interstellar space. Tens or hundreds of these massive stars orbit. The present value of the obliquity of the ecliptic is
can occur in a single association. Low-mass (faint) stars 2326 but the effects of PRECESSION and NUTATION
may exist in abundance too, but they are far harder to see cause it to vary between 2155 and 2418 over a period
in distant OB complexes. The Great Nebula in Orion, of 40,000 years. It is currently decreasing by about 0.47
with its core of hot stars, is part of an OB association that per year and in about 1500 years time will begin to
is relatively close to us, hence low-mass young stars are increase again. This value also represents the maximum
also detected. angular distance the Sun can lie north or south of the
Recent computer models suggest that OB associations equator. See also SEASONS
could be self-perpetuating: that is, an appreciable popula-
tion of massive stars can lead to the preferential formation Observatoire de la Cte dAzur French research insti-
of new massive stars. The mechanism involves the power- tution formed in 1988 by amalgamating Nice Observatory
ful stellar winds from the surrounding O stars. Vigorous with the Centre for Geodynamic and Astronomical Study
stellar winds could disperse parental clouds, inhibiting the and Research (CERGA, which dates from 1974). Nice
formation of lower-mass stars. Observatory was founded in 1881 and equipped with a
OB associations are a feature of the gas-rich spiral and 29-inch (0.74-m) telescope named after the observatorys
irregular galaxies, but not of elliptical galaxies in which no sponsor, Raphael Louis von Bischhoffsheim (18231906),
young stellar population is apparent. The frequency with which was completed in 1886. CERGA operates a 0.9-m
which stars of different mass occur in a galaxy (or part of (35-in) Schmidt telescope. Today, the observatory special-
one) is called the mass spectrum. In our Galaxy, low- izes in theoretical and observational astrophysics using
mass stars (like our Sun, and smaller) are prodigiously facilities such as the SOLAR AND HELIOSPHERIC OBSERVATO-
more abundant than high-mass stars and contribute most RY and the VERY LARGE TELESCOPE.
of the mass. However, hot blue stars are unrepresentative-
ly more obvious because of their tremendous luminosities. observatory Any facility specifically for making celestial
The high-mass of these stars leads to the high incidence of observations and measurements. Some structures such as
supernovae observed within OB complexes. See also OPEN Stonehenge (see ARCHAEOASTRONOMY) may well have
CLUSTER; T ASSOCIATION been used for observations. The observatory proper
289
occultation
because the observatory operates a space facility (as with straightforward. Observational reports are collected by the
the SPACE TELESCOPE SCIENCE INSTITUTE). International Lunar Occultation Centre in Japan for
Increasingly important are observatories dedicated to reduction, and the resulting data are available for use by
popular astronomy. These range from the private obser- professional astronomers.
vatories of amateur astronomers (some of which, like their Stars are not the only bodies to be occulted by the
18th-century forebears, challenge the smaller professional Moon; on occasion, a planet or asteroid may also be
observatories in the quality of their equipment) to major occulted. In the case of Jupiter, the planets own satellite
educational facilities such as the FAULKES TELESCOPE. system can be seen to be occulted. The major planets,
Public education and outreach is giving a new lease of life being very much closer than the stars, show disks, so that
to the older facilities of professional observatories, whose occultations are gradual, lasting several seconds; the
working astronomers now use newer telescopes elsewhere. brightness of Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn allows
A good example is the 0.91-m (36-in.) reflector of the events occurring at the Moons bright limb to be observed
ROYAL OBSERVATORY, EDINBURGH (1928), which is now quite readily. Occultations of the planets, while rare and
the centrepiece of the observatorys Visitor Centre. yielding less scientific data than those involving stars, can
be spectacular to watch in a small telescope or binoculars.
occultation Event in which one body is obscured by A spectacular planetary occultation was observed
another in other words, when a distant object is hidden from central England on 1980 October 4, when, in the
by a nearer one. An obvious example is a SOLAR ECLIPSE, pre-dawn sky, Venus was grazed by the Moons limb,
which is, strictly, an occultation of the Sun by the Moon. being only partially obscured. Lunar mountains and val-
The term occultation can be applied to a range of leys were seen in profile against Venus bright gibbous
celestial objects, but the most commonly observed are disk. Graze occultations for a star can be seen along a
lunar occultations, which occur as the Moon obscures track no more than 1 km (0.6 mi) wide on Earths surface
stars during its passage along the band of the ECLIPTIC. and are consequently rare. Teams of observers spread
The most readily observed lunar occultations are disap- perpendicular to a graze track can obtain multiple tim-
pearance (immersion) events, occurring on the Moons ings of events as the Moons irregular limb alternately
leading (easterly) limb before full. At this time, the leading covers and reveals the star, gaining much useful informa-
limb is dark; occultations occurring when the Moon is a tion about the lunar profile.
waxing crescent may be especially favourable for observa- Planets may also, on rare occasions, occult stars.
tion, with the limb dimly visible by EARTHSHINE as it Brightening and fading of stars during immersion or
approaches the target star. Inexperienced observers are emersion can provide information about planets atmos-
often surprised by the suddenness with which the star pheric layering. Among noteworthy events was the occul-
vanishes: this is due to the Moon having no atmosphere tation of 28 Sagittarii by Saturn and its rings on 1989 July
and the star being at such a great distance that it is virtual- 3. The following night, Saturns satellite Titan occulted
ly a point source of light. the star in an event seen extensively from Europe, with a
After full moon, reappearance (emersion) events are brightening at mid-occultation resulting from refraction of
more readily observed, occurring at the dark trailing lunar starlight by Titans dense atmosphere. The rings of
limb. As with disappearances, these events occur very Uranus were discovered during an occultation of the star
abruptly. Successful observation depends on good predic- SAO 158687 on 1977 March 10.
tions, including an accurate forecast of the POSITION At certain times, when the plane of their orbits aligns
ANGLE on the Moons limb at which reappearance will with Earth, Jupiters Galilean satellites may undergo
take place. mutual occultations. They are also, of course, frequently
O Visual study of lunar occultations has been undertaken
for over a century, and still plays a role in astronomy. Pre-
seen to be occulted by Jupiter itself as they pass behind it
on their orbits.
cise timings of events, coupled with precise positional data Occultations of stars by asteroids are also rare, but pro-
for the observing location, provide useful information on vide extremely valuable opportunities to determine the
the Moons orbital motion. Timing accuracy can be further profiles of these small bodies. Essentially, an asteroid casts
ocean The Conamara improved by the application of video recording techniques. a shadow equivalent to its diameter (usually less than
Chaos region of Jupiters High-speed photometry has also been used to obtain light 200 km/120 mi) as it occults a star. The critical observa-
satellite Europa, imaged from curves for stars during immersion, allowing identification of tion in these cases is whether an occultation occurs at all,
the Galileo orbiter in 1997. previously unknown close double stars and measurement and its duration (defining a cord across the asteroids
These irregularly shaped blocks of the diameters of some of the nearer stars. diameter). Secondary occultations have revealed the pres-
of ice are thought to overlie and In the course of a year, the Moon may occult more ence of satellites orbiting some asteroids, including (6)
occasionally be moved by a than 4000 stars in the range of a fairly standard amateur Hebe, (18) Melpomene and (532) Herculina.
deep liquid ocean beneath telescope. Good star catalogues and modern computing
Europas surface. capabilities make the calculation of predictions relatively occulting disk Small metal disk placed in the focal plane
of a telescope to cover a bright object in order that a
fainter one may be observed. An occulting disk is used in
a CORONAGRAPH to produce an artificial eclipse of the
Sun. It blocks the light from the Suns disk and enables
observations to be made of the fainter CORONA. The
Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) also made use of
an occulting disk to block out the direct light from stars,
allowing it to image the infrared radiation from their sur-
rounding regions.
290
Olympus Mons
Octans See feature article observer were to look he or she would eventually end up
looking at the surface of a star and so the entire sky should
ocular Alternative name for an EYEPIECE, now seldom be as bright as the surface of the Sun.
used. The paradox can be resolved in various ways. For
example: if the Universe is not sufficiently old, light from
Odysseus Impact CRATER on Saturns satellite TETHYS; the more remote objects cannot yet have reached us; or
its diameter is 440 km (270 mi). Odysseus is the largest the expansion of the Universe ensures that radiation emit-
known crater in the Solar System, relative to the size of ted by galaxies is weakened by the redshift and cannot be
the body on which it is found. detected beyond a certain range.
off-axis guider Optical arrangement whereby a GUIDE Oljato One of the earliest APOLLO ASTEROIDS to be
STAR close to but outside a telescopes field of view can be discovered, in 1947; it was numbered as 2201 after its
used to ensure that the instrument remains accurately recovery in 1979. Possible outgassing activity has been
aligned with the target during imaging. A mirror or prism observed, and Oljato may perhaps have an associated
may be used to acquire the light of the guide star, which METEOR SHOWER, suggesting that it may have originated
is then directed to a small telescope for manual guiding, as a cometary nucleus. See also ADONIS; PHAETHON; table
or to an AUTOGUIDER. In off-axis guiding, the guide star at NEAR-EARTH ASTEROID
cannot itself be imaged.
Olympus Mons Most spectacular shield volcano in the
Of star O STAR whose spectrum contains EMISSION LINES Solar System. Situated at 18.6N 134.0W on the north-
of helium (at 468.6 nm) and doubly ionized nitrogen western flank of the THARSIS MONTES on MARS, it rises
(463.4 and 464.0 nm) as a result of high luminosity and some 24 km (15 mi) above the surrounding plains and is
some chemical change caused by early evolution. O(f) more than 700 km (430 mi) in diameter. It comprises a
stars have only a weak 468.6 nm line, while O((f)) stars central nested caldera 80 km (50 mi) across, from which
have nitrogen in emission but ionized helium strongly in the terraced flanks slope away at angles of only 4. The
absorption. Of* stars display a strong [NIV] line. flanks are traversed by numerous lava flows and channels
with a roughly radial arrangement. In many respects
OH Hydroxyl radical, the first INTERSTELLAR MOLECULE to Olympus Mons is similar to terrestrial basaltic shields Olympus Mons A Viking
be discovered at radio wavelengths (18 cm), in 1963. like those of Hawaii, but with a volume that is between mosaic image of Olympus
There are four components to the line (at frequencies 50 and 100 times greater. Towards the north and south Mons, the Solar Systems
1612, 1665, 1667 and 1720 MHz). In some places one
component of the line may be enhanced up to a million
ends of the main shield, lava flows drape a prominent
peripheral escarpment, which, in places, forms a cliff
largest volcano. The summit
caldera is about 80 km (50 mi)
O
times the expected strength by MASER action. OH maser 6 km (4 mi) high. Numerous landslides degrade this cliff across, while the gently sloping
sources are associated with late-type stars and HII regions. and spread out on to the adjacent plains. The flows flanks cover an area 700 km
themselves are very long compared with terrestrial flows, (430 mi) wide on the Tharsis
Olbers, Comet 13P/ Short-period comet discovered a phenomenon that may be explained either by very high Montes region of Mars.
on 1815 March 6 by Wilhelm Olbers, Bremen, Germany.
An elliptical orbit was calculated for the comet by
Friedrich Bessel, this being revised following recovery,
some months later than expected, by William Brooks
(18441921) at the next return in 1887 August. At the
most recent return, in 1956, 13P/Olbers reached peak
magnitude 5.6. The orbital period is 69.56 years.
291
Omega Centauri
Omega Centauri The nology. It has a 25-m (82-ft) telescope that can be used
brightest globular cluster in the independently or in very long baseline interferometry
sky, Omega Centauri is a (VLBI), and a 20-m (66-ft) dish for millimetre-wave
showpiece object for observers observations. The observatory also operates the SWEDISH
in the southern hemisphere. ESO SUBMILLIMETRE TELESCOPE.
Several hundred thousand
stars are packed into a volume Oort, Jan Hendrik (19001992) Dutch astronomer
only 200 l.y. across. who investigated the structure and dynamics of our
Galaxy and others, was one of the first to use radio astron-
omy to study the Galaxy, and put forward the Oort
cloud theory of the origin of comets. After studying at
Groningen under Jacobus KAPTEYN he joined the Univer-
sity of Leiden, where he spent the rest of his working life,
becoming professor of astronomy in 1935 and director of
Leiden Observatory in 1945.
In the late 1920s, building on work by Kapteyn and
Bertil LINDBLAD on the structure of the Galaxy and our
position within it, Oort showed from statistical studies of
stellar motions that the Sun is 30,000 l.y. (a better value
eruption rates, very large-volume eruptions, or a combi- than Lindblads 50,000 l.y.) from the galactic centre and
nation of the two. Surrounding the shield is a wide and takes about 225,000 years to make one revolution. From
very complex region of lobate ridged terrain which is this he calculated that the Galaxy contains around 100 bil-
termed the aureole. In places the aureole extends lion solar masses. He also introduced the OORT CON-
700 km (430 mi) from the basal scarp. STANTS to describe stellar motion.
After World War II, Oort and Hendrik van de HULST
Omega Centauri (NGC 5139) Brightest GLOBULAR recognized the potential of the newly emerging techniques
CLUSTER in the Galaxy, found in the southern of radio astronomy. In 1951 they discovered the TWENTY-
constellation of Centaurus (RA 13h 26m.8, dec. ONE CENTIMETRE LINE in the spectrum of interstellar neu-
4729). It is visible to the naked eye as a fuzzy star, and tral hydrogen (HI REGIONS) that van de Hulst had predicted
it received a stellar designation before its true nature was seven years before. Neutral hydrogen pervades the Galaxy,
realized. Omega Centauri is of mag. 3.7, and it is about and the 21-cm emission passes through interstellar dust
40 in diameter, with a broad, bright central region. Its clouds that block visible light, so Oort and his colleagues
brightest stars are 11th magnitude. At 17,000 l.y. away, it were able to map the Galaxy, revealing its spiral arms.
is one of the nearer globular clusters. It contains several In 1950 Oort proposed that comets reside in a huge
hundred thousand stars in a volume 200 l.y. across. shell-like region a light-year or so from the Sun, and that
Omega Centauri is intrinsically the brightest globular gravitational perturbations occasionally send a comet sun-
cluster in the Galaxy. It is noted for wide variations in the wards. This region is now known as the OORT CLOUD. In
heavy element (metal) content of its stars, suggesting 1956 he and Theodore Walraven (1916 ) found that
that they were formed at different times. Some 200 radiation from the Crab Nebula is highly polarized, char-
VARIABLE STARS have been found in the cluster. acteristic of SYNCHROTRON RADIATION.
292
Ophiuchus
All stars are thought to be born in clusters, most of Oort cloud An artists
which, however, are gravitationally unbound and thus impression of the spherical
rapidly disrupt and spread their contents throughout the Oort cloud of cometary nuclei,
Oort cloud general field. In still recognizable clusters all members surrounding the Solar System
may thus be considered equally old (barring the to a distance of 100,000 AU.
youngest clusters and associations, where the ages are Nuclei from this vast reservoir
comparable to the spread in star formation time, of order may be perturbed into orbits
106 years). Studies of star clusters, therefore, yield good carrying them close to the Sun.
tests for theories of STELLAR EVOLUTION. Evolution pro-
ceeds more rapidly for the more massive stars, so these
stars leave the MAIN SEQUENCE before the less massive
Sun ones. Accordingly, the position of the brightest main-
Neptune sequence stars in a colourmagnitude diagram gives an
Pluto Uranus estimate of the cluster age. For extremely young clusters,
Saturn it is the faintest main-sequence stars that yield the age, as
Jupiter no stars have yet left the main sequence and the least
massive ones have not yet got there. Such clusters are
often still embedded in their parent clouds of gas and
dust. See also EMBEDDED CLUSTER; OB ASSOCIATION;
STELLAR ASSOCIATION; T ASSOCIATION
293
Ophiuchids
Ophiuchids Minor METEOR SHOWER (zenithal hourly actually totally unconnected. Optical doubles appear
rate no higher than 5) that peaks around June 20, with close together due to a line-of-sight effect, but in reality
activity from late May until July. The radiant is just south the stars often lie at great distances from each other.
of Ophiuchi.
optical interferometer Instrument that combines the
pik, Ernst Julius (18931985) Estonian astronomer, light from two or more light paths to produce high-
an expert on stellar evolution and meteors, who made resolution images or spectra. When two or more light
contributions to almost every field of astronomy; many of beams from the same object are combined, any small
his bold predictions were later proved to be true. He differences due to the separate paths along which they
helped to found Tashkent (Uzbekistan) University during have travelled cause the beams to interfere with each
World War I, returning to Estonia to head the astronomy other. This interference gives rise to patterns of dark and
department at the University of Tartu. In 1948 he fled to light which can be measured to analyse the differences
Northern Ireland, and spent the rest of his career at producing them.
Armagh Observatory. In 1910 pik discovered that 2 The earliest example of an optical interferometer used
Eridani was a white dwarf star; two decades later (1938), in astronomy is that which enabled Albert Michelson
he showed how main-sequence stars like the Sun can (18521931) and Francis PEASE to measure the angular
evolve into red giants. From a study of the orbits and diameter of Betelgeuse as 0.047 in 1920. It consisted of
perturbations of comets, he predicted that they reside in a a 6-m beam mounted on the front of the 100-inch
cloud extending to 60,000 AU from the Sun, an idea later (2.5-m) Mount Wilson reflector. Two movable mirrors
revived by Jan Oort (see OORT CLOUD). pik studied the on the beam directed two light beams from Betelgeuse
ablation of meteoroids passing through the Earths on to the telescope, where they were combined in an
atmosphere, knowledge later used to design heat shields interferometer. By moving the mirrors, Michelson and
that protect spacecraft during re-entry. Pease determined the separation at which the fringes just
disappeared and from this they calculated Betelgeuses
Oppolzer, Theodor (Egon Ritter) von (184186) angular diameter.
Austrian mathematician and astronomer who calculated Radio astronomers routinely use the INTERFEROMETRY
the time and track of every lunar and solar eclipse from principle to construct arrays of telescopes that can resolve
1207 BC to AD 2163. This work was published detail equivalent to that attainable by a single reflector with
posthumously (1887) as the Canon der Finsternisse a diameter equal to the separation of the telescopes in the
(Canon of Eclipses). Oppolzer was professor of celestial array. The same method can be used by optical
mechanics at the University of Vienna and published over astronomers but is much more difficult to achieve. Recent
300 papers on the orbits of comets and asteroids. He developments have led to several observatories designing
devised a new theory to explain the lunar motion, which optical interferometers based on existing and new tele-
was taken into account by later researchers in this field, scopes. For example, ESOs VERY LARGE TELESCOPE
including E.W. BROWN. (VLT) will one day operate as an optical interferometer
using its four 8-m (315-in.) telescopes in conjunction with
opposition Position of a SUPERIOR PLANET when it lies an array of smaller telescopes around 1.8 m (71 in.) in
directly opposite the Sun in the sky, as viewed from diameter. Similarly, there are plans to combine the two
Earth. At this point, the three bodies are in exact 10-m (390-in.) Keck telescopes with several 2-m (79-in.)
orbital elements The alignment, with the Earth between the Sun and the telescopes to form an interferometer.
orbit of a planet around the planet. The term can also refer to the time at which this
O Sun can be defined by a
number of characteristics,
alignment occurs. When at opposition, a planets
ELONGATION is 180 and its phase is full. Opposition is
orbit Path of a celestial body in a gravitational field
generated by other bodies. There is usually a single
including the inclination (i) the best time for observing a planet since it marks its dominant primary body, and the path is basically an
relative to the reference plane closest approach to Earth although, because orbits are ELLIPSE around the primary body, which is located at
of the ecliptic, the longitude elliptical, this distance can vary between oppositions, one of the foci of the ellipse. In rare cases the orbit may
() of the ascending node particularly in the case of Mars. The term is equally be a PARABOLA or a HYPERBOLA. The size, shape and
measured in degrees from the applicable to asteroids. Inferior planets cannot come to orientation of the orbit are described by the ORBITAL
First Point of Aries, and the opposition. See also CONJUNCTION ELEMENTS. The attractions of other bodies in addition to
argument of perihelion () the primary body cause PERTURBATIONS to the orbit.
measured in degrees from the optical double DOUBLE STAR, the components of which
ascending node. appear to lie close together as seen from Earth but are orbital elements Describing the size, shape and
orientation of an ORBIT, and the position of the orbiting
body in the orbit at some EPOCH. There are six orbital
elements, and if the mass of the primary body is not
know (such as in a binary star system) then the orbital
period (or the mean motion) is also needed. In addition,
orbit plane
the epoch of the elements is usually specified. The
elements vary slowly with time as a result of perturbations
by other bodies, and the epoch is the time at which they
had the particular values specified.
mean position The various angles defining an elliptical orbit are
of planet shown in the diagram. The point P is the position of a fic-
titious object that orbits with constant angular speed with
the same period as the real object, and coincides with the
Sun M
real object at pericentre and apocentre. The orbital ele-
ments are:
perihelion
a the semimajor axis (half the length of the major
axis of the ellipse)
First Point of Aries e the eccentricity
reference i the inclination to the reference plane
plane
i M the mean anomaly
the argument of pericentre
ascending node the longitude of the ascending node
Note that M and are measured around the orbit plane,
and is measured around the reference plane. Two fur-
ther composite angles are defined, which are measured
294
Orionids
Orientale, Mare (Eastern Sea) Farside lunar lava plain Orion A wide-field view of
with rings extending on to the visible western limb of the the constellation Orion,
Moon. It is the most extensively studied multi-ring showing the three distinctive
impact BASIN on the Moon, because it is the youngest and Belt stars at centre. Orange-red
so has the best-preserved ring system. The eastern Betelgeuse is the bright star at
aspects of the rings are visible during a favourable top left, while Rigel is the
LIBRATION. Long after the impact, lunar basalts tracked brilliant white star at bottom
up underlying faults and flooded the inner region of this right. The diffuse red glow of
basin, producing Mare Orientale. Extensive scarring the Orion Nebula (M42) is
from this basins EJECTA is visible on western limb craters. prominent below the
middle star of the Belt.
origin of planets See COSMOGONY
295
Orion molecular clouds
typically around 25 meteors/hr, but slightly higher activity (16761731), 4th Earl of Cork and Orrery, in c.1712.
has been seen on occasion, as in 1993. Outstanding Many grand orreries up to 1 m (3 ft) in diameter,
displays may have occurred in AD 288 and 1651. Orionid showing the motions of the six known planets and their
meteors are swift (66 km/s or 41 mi/s) and a high satellites, with clockwork movements, were made in Eng-
proportion leave persistent trains. The shower RADIANT land during the 18th century. From about 1775, hand-
appears to have a complex structure, and it lies midway driven portable orreries came on the market, often with
between Betelgeuse and Geminorum. A further alternative fittings so that an orrery could be a planetari-
encounter between Earth and the meteor stream in May um, tellurium or lunarium, as desired.
produces the ETA AQUARIDS.
orthoscopic eyepiece Telescope EYEPIECE designed to
Orion molecular clouds Complex group of GIANT give good definition, little geometric distortion and
MOLECULAR CLOUDS in Orion. At a typical distance of comfortable EYE RELIEF. It consists of two elements a
1500 l.y., they are the nearest such clouds to us. The single eye lens that is normally plano-convex, and a
individual clouds may be up to 100,000 times the mass of cemented TRIPLET that is normally symmetrical. This
the Sun and 100 or more light-years in size. The clouds arrangement produces an apparent field of view of 40 to
are the sites of active star formation, especially in their 50, which is smaller than other popular designs such as
denser cores. These cores are only detectable from their the PLSSL. Orthoscopic eyepieces are sometimes
infrared and molecular radio emissions. One such core, preferred by planetary observers looking for good
designated OMC-1, is associated with the ORION NEBULA performance at high magnification.
and the young stars of the TRAPEZIUM. See also
BECKLINNEUGEBAUER OBJECT; KLEINMANNLOW NEBULA Oschin Schmidt Telescope Worlds first large
SCHMIDT telescope, completed in 1948, with a 1.2-m
Orion Nebula (M42, NGC1976) HII REGION that is (48-in.) corrector plate and a 1.8-m (72-in.) spherical
easily visible to the naked eye as the central object in the mirror. Formerly known as the Palomar Schmidt, and
sword of ORION (RA 05h 35m.4 dec. 0527). The main renamed after the benefactor Samuel Oschin, the tele-
part of the nebula is separated from a smaller part of the scope is sited at PALOMAR OBSERVATORY and operated by
same cloud, known as M43 or NGC1982, by a dark the CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY. It became
absorbing region called the FISHS MOUTH. The nebula famous in the 1950s for producing the PALOMAR OBSERVA-
surrounds, and is excited by, the four young stars of the TORY SKY SURVEY. Photographic plates from the survey
TRAPEZIUM (also known as 1 Ori). The nebula is about were used to identify targets for the nearby HALE TELE-
1500 l.y. away on the nearer side of the ORION SCOPE. In 1984 the Oschin Schmidt was fitted with a new
MOLECULAR CLOUDS and is little more than the inside of achromatic corrector plate in preparation for a new survey
Orion Nebula A colour an incomplete spherical hole in the side of the much of the northern sky. Today, it is used with a CCD camera
composite of infrared images larger dark nebula. The Orion Nebula is over a degree to search for NEAR-EARTH OBJECTS.
taken with the Very Large across on the sky and thus some 25 to 30 l.y. in physical
Telescope (VLT) at Cerro size. Its mass is several hundred times that of the Sun. oscillating universe Idea that if the universe is closed
Paranal, showing the central it will eventually collapse back to an infinitely small point,
region of the Orion Nebula. orrery Geared mechanical model of the Solar System. an event sometimes called the Big Crunch. It is
The four bright, young The first orrery, probably that preserved in the Adler conceivable that a new BIG BANG could follow the Big
Trapezium stars are prominent Planetarium, Chicago, was made by the English instru- Crunch and create a brand new universe. This cycle
in the middle of this view. The ment-maker George Graham (c.16731751) in about could in principle repeat itself, alternately creating, then
O Orion Nebula is a region of
ongoing star formation.
1708. The name is usually attributed to John Rowley,
who made a similar instrument for Charles Boyle
destroying and finally creating a new universe each cycle.
296
Ozma, Project
emission lines in their spectra. Those with hydrogen emis- material. When these bodies were heated by radioactivity,
sion are called Oe stars, while those with ionized helium DIFFERENTIATION occurred, and some of the volatile
and doubly ionized nitrogen are OF STARS. Emission line material escaped to the surface. This process, termed
and Of behaviour increase with increasing luminosity. outgassing, produced planetary atmospheres.
Ultraviolet (and even optical) P CYGNI LINES reveal wind
speeds of up to 4800 km/s (3000 mi/s) and mass-loss rates Overwhelmingly Large Telescope (OWL) Largest
of up to 105 solar masses per year. optical telescope yet proposed: a 100-m (330-ft) aperture
As O stars evolve, the lower masses turn into class M instrument whose reflecting surface would be formed by
helium-fusing supergiants. Above about 60 solar masses, 1600 hexagonal mirror-segments, each 2.3 m (91 in.)
however, high mass-loss rates make the stars evolutionary across. The technique of multi-conjugate ADAPTIVE
paths stall as B supergiants and luminous blue variables, OPTICS would enable OWL to provide diffraction-limited
which then become WolfRayet stars that have been images with a resolution of 0.001. This would reveal sur-
stripped of their outer hydrogen envelopes. As evolution face features on nearby stars and EMISSION NEBULAE in the
proceeds past helium fusion, O stars develop iron cores that most distant known galaxies. OWL is not yet funded, but
collapse to produce Type II supernovae, whose stellar was the subject of a concept study by the EUROPEAN
remains become neutron stars or black holes. SOUTHERN OBSERVATORY in 2000. Owl Nebula The dark
As a consequence of both low formation rates and eyes of the Owl Nebula, M97
short lifetimes, O stars are rare. Less than one of every 3 Owens Valley Radio Observatory (OVRO) Worlds in Ursa Major, are well shown
million main-sequence stars is an O star. The odds of largest university-operated radio observatory, near Bish- in this Kitt Peak 0.9 m (36 in.)
finding one nearby are small, and most are very far away. op, California, some 400 km (250 mi) north of Los Ange- telescope image. The Owl is a
Short lifetimes also mean that O stars do not move far les. Operated by the CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF planetary nebula, produced as
from their birthplaces, and they are commonly associated TECHNOLOGY, OVRO has a 40-m (130-ft) telescope, a an aged star puffed off its
with star-forming interstellar clouds of gas and dust. Since millimetre-wavelength array consisting of six 10.4-m outer layers.
their high temperatures result in hard ultraviolet radiation, (34-ft) dishes, and a solar array.
O stars can ionize their surroundings and create diffuse
nebulae; the most famous is the Orion Nebula, which is OWL Abbreviation of OVERWHELMINGLY LARGE TELE-
ionized by the Trapezium quartet. SCOPE
Because star formation takes place in the Galaxys disk,
O stars are found almost exclusively along the Milky Way, Owl Nebula (M97, NGC 3587) PLANETARY NEBULA in
the relatively nearby ones helping to create Goulds Belt. Ursa Major, located a couple of degrees south-east of ,
Most O stars are members of unbound OB ASSOCIATIONS the lower of the Pointers (RA 11h 14m.8 dec. 5501 ).
(from which they are moving away), the best known con- The Owl, at mag. 9.9, is one of the fainter objects in
centrating in Orion, Scorpius, Centaurus and Perseus. A Messiers list. Its 3 .4 circular profile contains a couple of
good fraction of O and B stars form in binary systems, dark patches, or eyes, which give it a resemblance to an
many with components of similar mass. Encounters Owls face, hence its popular name. The nebula has an
between stars in multiple systems, or between pairs of close estimated age of 6000 years, and it lies 2600 l.y. away.
binaries, can eject individuals from the associations at high The central star is of mag. 16.
velocities. Supernovae may also create such RUNAWAY
STARS. In a double star, the more massive star evolves first oxygen (symbol O) Element that is the third most
and explodes. Supernovae can explode off-centre, which abundant in the Universe (see ASTROCHEMISTRY). Its
can drive the resulting neutron star away at high speed, the properties include: atomic number 8; atomic mass of the
companion fleeing in the other direction. It is estimated that
as many as 20% of the O stars are runaways; the best
natural element 15.9994 amu; melting point 54.8 K;
boiling point 90.2 K. It was discovered in 1774 by the
O
known are Columbae and AE Aurigae, which were eject- English chemist Joseph Priestley (17331804). Oxygen
ed from the Trapezium cluster 2.5 million years ago. has eight ISOTOPES ranging from oxygen-13 to oxygen-
O stars, plus those of classes B0 to B1, produce much 20; three of these are stable and form the naturally
of the ionizing radiation that energizes the thinner inter- occurring element (oxygen-16 99.8%, oxygen-18 0.2%
stellar clouds. Their high mass-loss rates also return a and oxygen-17
0.1%).
great deal of matter to the interstellar medium (red giant Oxygen comprises 21% by volume of dry terrestrial
winds and planetary nebulae producing the bulk). Since air. Under normal terrestrial conditions, it exists as a
the stars are being stripped by winds, much of this mat- colourless, odourless gas composed of the diatomic mole-
ter has been processed by energy-generating nuclear cule O2. In this form it is essential to aerobic life. It is also
reactions to create new helium, nitrogen and carbon. essential to life as water, when it is combined with hydro-
The eventual supernovae then produce most of the gen, and as the carbohydrates, when combined with
heavy elements in the Universe, including all the iron. hydrogen and carbon. Oxygen makes up about two-thirds
Moreover, the shock waves from wind-blown O star of the human body. The allotrope of oxygen, O3, known
bubbles and from the eventual supernovae aid in the as ozone, is present in small quantities high in the atmos-
compression of the interstellar gases, and therefore help phere, where it absorbs solar ultraviolet light at wave-
form new stars. Examples of O stars include Puppis 05 lengths shorter than 320 nm. It thus protects life on the
Ia, Persei O7.5 Iab, Orionis 09 V, Orionis 09 Ib and surface from that damaging radiation. The ozone layer
Ophiuchi 09 V. though is currently being depleted to dangerous levels,
particularly over the polar regions, through the action of
outer asteroid belt See EDGEWORTHKUIPER BELT man-made fluorocarbons and other pollutants.
Oxygen is a highly reactive element and is thus an
outer planets Any of the planets with orbits that lie important constituent of the Earth and other terrestrial
beyond that of the ASTEROID BELT; the outer planets are planets in the form of oxides of silicon, calcium, iron, alu-
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. With the minium and others. It makes up 49% by mass of the
exception of Pluto, the outer planets have low densities in Earths crust. It is used in liquid form as part of the fuel
comparison to the inner, TERRESTRIAL PLANETS and for liquid-fuelled rockets.
possess ring systems and comparatively large numbers of Oxygen plays an important role in the
satellites. The differences between the two types of planet CARBONNITROGENOXYGEN CYCLE, which is the major
are thought to be caused by their respective distances from helium-producing nuclear reaction in stars more massive
the Sun during the early formation of the Solar System. than the Sun. Oxygen burning to produce silicon occurs
at temperatures over 2 109 K (see NUCLEOSYNTHESIS)
outgassing Emission of VOLATILE material from in high-mass stars.
planetary bodies. Terrestrial bodies, formed from
primeval Solar System material, contained volatile Ozma, Project See SETI
297
PA
PA See POSITION ANGLE still owned by Caltech. While the LIGHT POLLUTION from
San Diego limits the observational programmes, the Hale
palimpsest Roughly circular ALBEDO spot found on and Oschin telescopes remain effective instruments.
P
the icy surfaces of Jupiters satellites GANYMEDE and
CALLISTO, presumably marking the site of a former Palomar Observatory Sky Survey (POSS)
impact CRATER and its rim deposit. Most, if not all, of Systematic photographic SURVEY of the sky north of
the topographic structure has disappeared, but the 30 made with the 1.2-m (48-in.) Oschin Schmidt
visual distinction from adjacent areas remains. The telescope of the Palomar Observatory, jointly funded by
topographic flattening of craters on their transformation the National Geographic Society. The First Palomar
into palimpsests might be brought about by their filling Observatory Sky Survey (POSS I) consists of about 2000
by water and/or the viscous flow of ice on the satellite glass plates (1000 in each blue and red colours) observed
surface layers. between 1948 and 1957; it was completed in the 1970s
by the ESO Schmidt Telescope in Chile (for the red
Pallas Second MAIN-BELT ASTEROID to be discovered, part) and UK Schmidt Telescope in Australia (for the
and so numbered 2. It is the second-largest asteroid, after blue part). The Second Palomar Observatory Sky Survey
CERES. Pallas mean density is about 4.2 g/cm3, which is (POSS II) was carried out in the 1990s in three colours
greater than that of stony meteorites or common terrestrial (blue, red and infrared). Both surveys have been
rocks, indicating that it contains a metallic component digitized and are known as the Digitized Sky Surveys
similar to nickeliron meteorites. Despite its size, Pallas is (DSS I and DSS II).
by no means spherical in shape, measuring about 570
525 482 km (354 326 300 mi). Its mass is about Pan Innermost satellite of SATURN, discovered by Mark
3.2 1020 kg (0.43% the mass of the Moon). Pallas is also Showalter (1957 ) in 1990 amongst images obtained a
noteworthy in that its orbital plane is tilted substantially decade earlier by the VOYAGER 2 spacecraft. Pan is about
relative to the ecliptic (inclination almost 35). 20 km (12 mi) in size. It has a circular equatorial orbit
within the ENCKE DIVISION in Saturns rings. It takes
pallasite One of the two subdivisions of STONY-IRON 0.575 days to complete a circuit of the planet, at a
METEORITES, the other being the MESOSIDERITES. Pallasites distance of 133,600 km (83,000 mi) from its centre.
are an approximately equal mixture of ironnickel metal The name Pan is also applied to a large crater,
and silicates, predominantly olivine. They are presumed to c.90 km (c.60 mi) long, on AMALTHEA.
represent material from the coremantle boundary of their
parent bodies. There are currently 50 known pallasites, Pandora One of the inner satellites of SATURN,
almost all of which are Main Group (MG) pallasites. MG discovered in 1980 by S.A. Collins and others in VOYAGER
pallasites have oxygen isotope compositions similar to 1 images. It is irregular in shape, measuring about 110
those of the HOWARDITEEUCRITEDIOGENITE ASSOCIATION 85 60 km (68 53 37 mi). Pandora has a near-
achondrites. circular equatorial orbit at a distance of 141,700 km
(88,100 mi) from the planets centre, where its orbital
Palomar Observatory Formerly known as Mount Palo- period is 0.629 days. It appears to act as a SHEPHERD
mar Observatory, this world-famous astronomical facility MOON to the outer rim of the F RING. See also PROMETHEUS
is at an elevation of 1706 m (5597 ft) in the San Jacinto
Mountains 80 km (50 mi) north-east of San Diego, Cali- panspermia Theory that life on Earth did not originate
fornia. It was planned in 1928, when MOUNT WILSON here, but arrived from the depths of space. It originated
OBSERVATORYs success with the 100-inch (2.5-m) HOOK- with Svante ARRHENIUS, who in 1908 suggested that light
ER TELESCOPE was fresh in the minds of US astronomers. from stars could blow microscopic germs from a world
The Rockefeller Foundation was persuaded to fund a orbiting one star to another world orbiting another star.
P 200-inch (5-m) instrument, eventually named the HALE
TELESCOPE, to be owned by the CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF
Panspermia never met with much support, but the idea
never quite disappeared, and was rekindled in 1996 when
TECHNOLOGY (Caltech). a team of NASA scientists claimed to have found evidence
The observatory was founded in 1938, but construc- for the presence of fossilized ancient microorganisms in a
tion was delayed by World War II, and it was not until Martian meteorite (see ALLAN HILLS 84001).
1948 that the Hale Telescope began work, and another Computer models have shown that rocks launched
parhelion This colourful year before it was declared finished. Also in 1948, the from Mars by a large meteorite impact can immediately
Sun dog was produced by 1.2-m (48-in.) Palomar Schmidt telescope (now known as enter Earth-crossing orbits if they are ejected just margin-
refraction of sunlight through the OSCHIN SCHMIDT TELESCOPE) became operational. ally faster than Mars escape velocity, and that about 1 in
ice crystals in high cirrus cloud. During the 1950s and 1960s, these two instruments 10 million of Martian meteorites that reach the Earth may
A parhelion like this will most proved a formidable combination, giving the USA an have spent less than half a Martian orbital period, about
often be seen when the Sun is unassailable position in world astronomy. Several smaller one year, in space. Any microorganisms aboard such
quite low in the sky. telescopes were also built at Palomar. The observatory is meteorites might just have survived the rigours of space
travel and entry through Earths atmosphere (microorgan-
isms known as extremophiles are now known to have
extraordinary survival attributes see LIFE IN THE UNI-
VERSE). Over the lifetime of the Solar System, the inner
planets are calculated to have exchanged tens of thou-
sands of tonnes of material in this way.
Fred HOYLE and N. Chandra Wickramasinghe
(1939 ) have reformulated the idea of panspermia to
suggest that life was brought to the Earth by a comet, and
that interstellar dust grains have a bacterial component.
Their main argument is that the origin and evolution of
life involves too many steps, each in itself inherently
improbable, to have happened on Earth instead, it needs
all the resources of space. Life will be carried around,
mainly by comets, and take root wherever conditions are
suitable.
Evidence is growing that the composition of giant mol-
ecular clouds, particularly in star-forming regions, is far
richer that previously supposed (see INTERSTELLAR MOLE-
CULES). Whether or not any prebiotic molecules that are
298
Parkes Radio Telescope
parallax (symbol ) Change in apparent position of a parhelion (mock Sun, sundog) Atmospheric
celestial object, relative to its background, caused by a shift phenomenon produced by refraction of sunlight by ice
in the position of the observer. When observed six months crystals in cirrus clouds at altitudes of 1015 km
apart from opposite sides of the Earths orbit around the (69 mi), near the top of the TROPOSPHERE. A parhelion
Sun, the position of a nearby star relative to the more appears level in elevation above the horizon with the Sun,
distant background stars, will appear to have shifted by an at an angular distance of 23 from it. There may be a
angle . Half of this angle, , is the ANNUAL PARALLAX single parhelion, or two parhelia lying to either side of the
(heliocentric parallax), which is also a measure of the Sun in the sky. Sometimes parhelia are visible as brighter
angular size of the radius of the Earth as seen from that
star. If a stars parallax can be measured, then its distance
patches on a HALO around the Sun. As with the halo,
parhelia can show strong colour, with red towards the
P
can be determined. A unit of stellar distance is the PARSEC Sun, blue away from it. Parhelia commonly appear as
the distance at which a star would have a parallax of one elongated bars of light.
second of arc; it is equivalent to 3.2616 l.y. Close to full moon, the equivalent lunar phenomenon,
This is an example of TRIGONOMETRIC PARALLAX, called a parselene, may be visible.
where a baseline of known length is used to make separate
observations of a celestial object, the choice of baseline Paris Observatory Second-oldest observatory in the
depending on the distance of the object in question. For world, after COPENHAGEN OBSERVATORY. The Observa-
objects in the Solar System, the radius of the Earth is used toire de Paris was commissioned by King Louis XIV
as a baseline, producing a measure of DIURNAL PARALLAX principally for geodesy, and built in 1667. Many famous
(geocentric parallax). SOLAR PARALLAX is the Suns geo- 17th-century astronomers worked there, including Jean
centric parallax, in other words the angular size of the Picard, Ole RMER, Christiaan HUYGENS, Nicolas-Louis
Earths equatorial radius from a distance of one astronom- de LACAILLE and Urbain LE VERRIER. Four generations of
ical unit (1 AU). Another method of determining stellar the CASSINI FAMILY were observatory directors in the 17th
distances uses a stars spectral type and is known as SPEC- and 18th centuries, and such was its importance to geo-
TROSCOPIC PARALLAX. desy that the Paris meridian remained the origin of longi-
The astrometric satellite HIPPARCOS, which operated tude until 1884. The observatory helped to create the
between 1989 and 1993, extended the range of accurate metric system and instigated the CARTE DU CIEL project.
parallax distances by roughly 10 times, at the same time Today, Paris Observatory houses a collection of astro-
increasing the number of stars with good parallaxes by a nomical instruments from the 16th century to the 19th; it
much greater factor. Of the 118,218 stars in the Hippar- is also a modern research institution, operating MEUDON
cos catalogue, the distances of 22,396 are now known to OBSERVATORY and the NANAY RADIO TELESCOPE.
better than 10% accuracy. Prior to Hipparcos, this num-
ber was less than 1000. The companion Tycho database, Parkes Observatory See PARKES RADIO TELESCOPE
from another instrument on the satellite, provides lower
accuracy for 1,058,332 stars. This includes nearly all stars Parkes Radio Telescope Major Australian radio
to magnitude 10.0 and many to 11.0. See also DYNAMICAL astronomy facility 25 km (16 mi) north of Parkes in central
PARALLAX; SECULAR PARALLAX New South Wales. The 64-m (210-ft) fully steerable dish
was completed in 1961 and has undergone several
Paranal Observatory Second of the two observing sites upgrades, the most recent of which provides a unique
of the EUROPEAN SOUTHERN OBSERVATORY (ESO), inau- multi-beam facility that allows the telescope to carry out
gurated in the early 1990s. Situated about 500 km direct radio imaging. Part of the AUSTRALIA TELESCOPE
299
parsec
Physicists use nuclear accelerators to speed up particles Pathfinder See MARS PATHFINDER
such as electrons or atomic nuclei and crash them into
other atomic nuclei. The results of the collisions are pathlength Travel distance of RADIATION through an
examined to investigate the internal structure of the instrument from entry until it encounters the detector
particles themselves. Linear accelerators use magnets to (instrument or eye).
guide charged particles through tunnels, and the particles The term pathlength is also used to describe the dis-
are accelerated using radio frequency energy. These tance observed radiation travels when passing through the
particles can be accelerated to close to the speed of light. atmosphere. It is equal to one airmass in the zenith and
Other accelerators use large rings to store and accelerate two airmasses at an angle of 60 from the zenith.
particles, focusing and guiding the particles by a complex
array of magnetic and electric fields until they are moving Patroclus Second TROJAN ASTEROID to be discovered,
fast enough, and then guiding them to the targets. in 1906; number 617. It is approximately 150 km (90 mi)
Once the particles collide with the targets, the prod- in size.
ucts of the collisions are detected and studied by a com-
plex array of detectors. Some detectors are made up of patrol Systematic collection of repeated observations in
cloud chambers in which a fast particle leaves a trail of the hope of making a discovery or recording a rare or
condensation as it moves through the chamber. The unusual event. Among the most successful amateur
shape and length of the condensation trail can be used to patrols has been the UK Nova/Supernova Patrol operated
determine the speed, mass and charge of the particle. by the BRITISH ASTRONOMICAL ASSOCIATION and THE
Other detectors are made of scintillators that emit pho- ASTRONOMER. Many amateurs have now discovered
tons as a fast elementary particle collides with the scintil- supernovae in distant galaxies, taking advantage of
lating material. These photons are then detected by an computerized telescope guiding, CCD imaging, and the
array of phototubes trained on the scintillation chamber. ability to rapidly check new on-screen images for stellar
The intensity and direction of the photons can be used to interlopers relative to reference images. Several amateur
identify the particle. observers run photographic patrols in the hope of
Some of the most productive particle physics accelera- recording FIREBALLS associated with incoming meteorites.
tors are the Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLAC), the
CERN Accelerator, and the Jefferson Laboratory (for- Pauli exclusion principle Principle formulated in
merly called CEBAF) Accelerator in Virginia. Facilities 1925 by the Swiss physicist Wolfgang Pauli
like these are being used to test the standard model of par- (19001958) to explain the electron structure and the
ticles and fields. These accelerators are not powerful properties of the ELEMENTS. It requires that no two
300
Pegasus
electrons within an atom have the same set of quantum is Doppler shifted to the blue. The absorptions short-
numbers (see ATOMIC STRUCTURE). wave limit gives the winds velocity and its strength the
winds density.
Pavo See feature article
Peacock The star Pavonis, visual mag. 1.94, distance
Pavonis Mons Massive shield volcano on MARS (0.8N 183 l.y., spectral type B2 IV. It is named after its parent
113.4W), situated along the crest of the THARSIS Rise. It constellation Pavo, which represents a peacock.
has a large summit caldera surrounded by concentric
graben and radiating volcanic flows. Pease, Francis Gledheim (18811938) American
astronomer and instrument-maker who pioneered
Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia Helena (19001979) techniques of optical interferometry. He spent most of his
English astronomer who spent all of her life in America, career at MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY (190438),
mainly at Harvard, studying stellar evolution and composi- playing a major role in the design and construction of the
tion. Cecilia Payne was at Cambridge University intending observatorys most famous instruments, including its
to study botany when, in 1919, her scientific interest was STELLAR INTERFEROMETER (1920). Pease used the
dramatically switched to astronomy when she heard interferometer to make the first measurement of the
Arthur EDDINGTON announce the results of the Greenwich diameter of a star outside the Solar System, finding the
eclipse expedition that confirmed a prediction of general diameter of Betelgeuse to be 0.047.
relativity. In 1923 she left for America, Harlow SHAPLEY
having offered her a post at Harvard College Observatory. peculiar A star See AM STAR; AP STAR
Paynes Harvard thesis on stellar atmospheres was
hailed by Otto STRUVE as the most brilliant PhD thesis Peebles, (Phillip) James (Edwin) (1935 ) Canadian
ever written in astronomy. In it she showed how a stars astronomer and cosmologist who interpreted the COSMIC
spectral type was related to its surface temperature, thus MICROWAVE BACKGROUND (CMB) and has studied the
adding another dimension to the HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL LARGE-SCALE STRUCTURE of the Universe. Peebles
DIAGRAM. She also found that hydrogen and helium are obtained his PhD at Princeton, studying under Robert
the most abundant elements in stars (though there was DICKE, and has worked there ever since. In 1965, unaware
initially doubt about this result), and that, these elements of earlier work by George GAMOW and colleagues, Dicke,
apart, the relative abundances of the elements in normal Peebles and others published a paper in which they inter-
stars strongly match the composition of the Earth. preted the CMB, discovered by Arno PENZIAS and Robert
In 1934 she married Sergei Illarionovich Gaposchkin Wilson, as radiation left over from the Big Bang. Peebles
(18981984), an migr astronomer from the Ukraine also calculated the levels of deuterium and helium that
who had joined the staff of Harvard the previous year. should now be present in a Big Bang Universe, results that
Together they embarked on a huge programme of measur- agreed with the observed abundances.
ing the magnitudes of variable stars, the results appearing In the early 1970s, Peebles and Jeremiah Ostriker
in a catalogue published in 1938. A similar study of vari- (1937 ) found evidence for dark matter. They calculated
ables in the Magellanic Clouds appeared in 1971. that the visible disk of a galaxy like the Milky Way could
not remain stable for more than one galactic rotation
P Cygni Highly luminous VARIABLE STAR of apparent unless it were constrained by the gravitational effect of an
visual magnitude 5. P Cygni is a galactic B1 supergiant invisible halo of material. Peebles studies of the present-
724,000 times more luminous than our Sun, with an day distribution of galaxies and how it relates to irregulari-
effective surface temperature of 19,300 K. Its distance is ties in the early expanding Universe resulted in the classic
5900 l.y., its radius 76 solar radii and its mass 50 times text The Large-Scale Structure of the Universe (1980).
that of the Sun. P Cygni appeared as a reddish star of In 1979 Peebles and Dicke identified the so-called flat-
visual magnitude 3 in 16001606, faded to magnitude 6
in 1620, rose again in 165559 and then fluctuated
ness problem: how, in standard BIG-BANG THEORY, could
the DENSITY PARAMETER have been so close to 1 from
P
around minimum until 1715. In modern times P Cygni so early in its history? If had been just a little larger, the
appears as a relatively constant, yellowish-white star. Its Universe would long ago have collapsed in a Big
spectral signature, the P Cygni profile, is seen Crunch; a little smaller, and by now the Universe would
particularly in O, B and A supergiants showing episodes be a near-vacuum. This led Alan GUTH to develop the
of catastrophic mass loss. theory of INFLATION.
P Cygnis characteristic spectrum exhibits strong EMIS-
SION LINES accompanied by equally strong variable blue- Pegasus See feature article
shifted ABSORPTION components. These P CYGNI LINE
profiles are seen in the strongest BALMER hydrogen lines,
PEGASUS (GEN. PEGASI , ABBR . PEG )
in ionized helium, nitrogen, silicon, sodium and iron. The
episodic nature of the mass loss, witnessed in the 17th
century although not then understood, is supported by eventh-largest constellation, lying in the northern sky next to ANDROMEDA,
the detection of a radio arc interpreted as the remnant of
an earlier gas shell.
S representing the winged horse of Greek mythology born from the blood of
the Medusa after she was decapitated by Perseus. Its most famous feature is the
Calculations suggest that P Cygnis evolutionary track SQUARE OF PEGASUS marked out by four stars, one of which actually belongs to
across the HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM may be neighbouring Andromeda. Peg, known as SCHEAT, is a variable red giant,
exceptional. P Cygni lies on the border-line below which while Peg is a wide double for the smallest telescopes, mags. 2.8 and 8.4. Even
STELLAR EVOLUTION brings other massive stars into the easier is the binocular double Peg, mags. 4.3 and 5.6. M15 is one of the finest
red supergiant phase. It is classified as an S DORADUS globular clusters, easily visible in binoculars looking like an out-of-focus star of
STAR; it would have been the prototype for the class if its 6th magnitude.
characteristics had been recognized earlier and if its name
had not already been given to specific spectral features. BRIGHTEST STARS
Name RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance
h m mag. mag. type (l.y.)
P Cygni line Stellar EMISSION LINE flanked to the shorter
Enif 21 44 09 53 2.38 4.19 K2 672
wavelength (blue) side by an ABSORPTION line; it is
Scheat 23 04 28 05 2.44(v) 1.49 M2 199
indicative of a powerful wind. The emission comes from
Markab 23 05 15 12 2.49 0.67 B9.5 140
a hot circumstellar gas. Since the gas flows in all
Algenib 00 13 15 11 2.83 2.22 B2 333
directions, Doppler shifts average out, and the emission,
Matar 22 43 30 13 2.93 1.16 G8 F0 215
though broadened, is centred at the lines laboratory
Homam 22 41 10 50 3.41 0.62 B8.5 209
wavelength (ignoring the stars radial velocity). The gas
directly in front of the star, however, absorbs starlight and
301
Peiresc, Nicolas Claude Fabri
Pele An eruption of the tions. During a survey of the Milky Ways galactic halo,
volcano Pele on Jupiters moon they detected a persistent signal with a wavelength of
Io can be seen in this image 7.35 cm that originated beyond the Milky Way and corre-
captured by Voyager 1 during sponded to an excess antenna temperature of just 3 K.
its 1979 flyby. Material from the Theoretical astrophysicists, including Robert DICKE and
eruption was thrown 300 km Jim PEEBLES, and a group led by George GAMOW, had
(188 mi) above Ios surface. predicted and even searched for this CMB radiation as
early as 1948. Penzias and Wilson were awarded the 1978
Nobel Prize for Physics for their discovery of one of the
strongest pieces of observational evidence for the BIG
BANG THEORY. After discovering the CMB, they went on
to detect carbon monoxide and organic molecules in
interstellar dust clouds.
302
personal equation
peri- Prefix referring to the nearest point of an orbit to penumbra (1) Mir
the primary body, as in periastron, perihelion, perigee, cosmonauts took this
pericentre, periapse. See also APSIDES photograph of the shadow
cast by the Moon on to the
periastron Point in the orbit of a member of a double Earth during the 1999 August
or multiple star system nearest to the primary star. See 11 solar eclipse. The dark
also APSIDES central umbra, under which the
eclipse was total, is
perigee Point in the orbit of the Moon or an artificial 76-0335 surrounded by a lighter outer
satellite that is nearest to the Earth. See also APSIDES penumbra, within which a
partial eclipse was visible.
perihelion Point in the orbit of a planet, comet or
asteroid that is nearest to the Sun. See also APSIDES
Perrine, Charles Dillon (18671951) American Perseus Arm Next spiral arm of the GALAXY after the
observational astronomer who worked at LICK ORION ARM, moving away from the centre of the Galaxy.
OBSERVATORY (18931909) and later directed CRDOBA At its closest it is about 5000 l.y. from the Sun, and it
OBSERVATORY, Argentina (190936). At Lick, Perrine contains the CRAB NEBULA and ROSETTE NEBULA. It
discovered Jupiters sixth (Himalia, 1904) and seventh extends in the sky from Cassiopeia to Gemini. It may
(Elara, 1905) satellites. In Argentina, he completed the best be traced from its TWENTY-ONE CENTIMETRE radio
final volume of the CRDOBA DURCHMUSTERUNG, a
catalogue of about 600,000 stars, and made the first
emissions from hydrogen and by the presence of young
blue stars.
P
astrophysical observations of galaxies in the southern
hemisphere. Perrine modernized Crdoba Observatory personal equation Small, consistent error usually result-
by installing 30-inch (0.75-m) and 60-inch (1.5-m) ing from an observers reaction time between seeing and
reflectors. He applied spectroscopic techniques to a recording an event. The personal equation is particularly
wide variety of astronomical objects, including novae applicable to visual OCCULTATION observations, where penumbra (2) The lighter
and WolfRayet stars. there can often be a delay between the observer seeing the shading of the penumbra
disappearance or reappearance of the target star, and acti- surrounding the dark central
Perseids One of the most reliable annual METEOR vating the stopwatch used to obtain the timing. Experi- umbra is obvious in this SOHO
SHOWERS, active between July 25 and August 20. Activity enced observers who are aware of their personal equation image of a sunspot.
is substantial between about August 8 and 14, following a
slow rise in the first week of the month. Maximum
normally occurs around August 12, when observed rates
of 60 meteors per hour may be found. At peak, the
RADIANT lies close to the Sword Handle at the northern
end of Perseus. As first demonstrated in 1866 by
Giovanni SCHIAPARELLI, the shower is associated with
Comet 109P/SWIFTTUTTLE.
Observations during the 1970s suggested increasing
peak Perseid activity, further borne out by strong returns
in 1980 and 1981 when zenithal hourly rate (ZHR)
reached 120 (as opposed to the more normal 8090).
Still more significant was enhanced activity, manifesting
as an additional peak 18 hours or so ahead of the estab-
lished maximum, from 1988 onwards, associated with
109P/SwiftTuttles 1992 perihelion return. This early
peak was a narrow feature, apparently resulting from
encounter with a concentrated filament of recently
released debris close to the comet, with enhanced activity
occurring mainly in a 30-minute interval. In 1993 and
1994, the early peak was at its most intense, producing
numerous FIREBALLS and observed rates of up to 10 Per-
303
perturbation
304
Phoebe
Suns rays
day 14 new
phases of the Moon Proportion of the Moon that
appears sunlit from the viewpoint of an Earth-based full
observer. PHASE may be described as a percentage or
decimal. Specific phases occurring at significant points
during the LUNATION may be defined as new moon, first
quarter, full moon and last quarter. New moon occurs day 21
when the Moon is at the same longitude in the sky as the
Sun, such that its un-illuminated side is presented to the
observer: the Moon at this phase is completely dark. After gibbous crescent
waning phase
new, the Moon emerges into the evening sky (east of the
Sun) as a gradually growing (waxing) crescent.
Approximately seven days after new, the Moon
appears half lit and half dark; this phase is described as
first quarter, and it occurs when the Moon is at QUADRA- half (last quarter)
TURE 90 east of the Sun.
As the Moon travels still further eastwards, its phase
becomes gibbous (almond-shaped). Full moon occurs name of his wife, respectively; another crater is named phase The changing
when the Moon is directly opposite (180 from) the Sun after the French mathematician douard Roche. appearance of the Moons
in Earths sky, thus appearing completely illuminated. illuminated disk results from its
Telescopically, at full moon shadows are absent and crater Phoebe Outermost substantial satellite of SATURN, orbital motion around the
outlines are difficult to see, although surrounding ray sys- discovered in 1898 by William Pickering. It is near Earth. At new (right), the Moon
tems become prominent. spherical in shape, measuring about 230 210 km lies in line with the Sun, and the
Following full, the Moons phase begins to diminish (140 130 mi). With a RETROGRADE orbit (inclination hemisphere presented to Earth
(wane) through gibbous to last quarter (again at quadra- 175) and moderate eccentricity (0.164), it is likely to be is completely dark. At full, the
ture, this time 90 west of the Sun). Thereafter, the wan- a captured body related to the CENTAURS. It takes 550 Moon lies opposite the Sun in
ing crescent draws ever closer to the Sun in the pre-dawn days to orbit Saturn, at an average distance of 12.94 Earths sky and is completely
sky until new moon is reached and the next lunation million km (8.04 million mi). Phoebe rotates on its axis illuminated. Between these two
commences. once every 9.4 hours. Distant images obtained by the extremes, varying degrees of
305
Phoenix
towards Saturn on a retrograde path and collects only on south displacements between image pairs provide lati-
the leading face of Iapetus, the next moon inwards, tude, while east and west displacements give the time of
because it is locked in a SYNCHRONOUS ROTATION state. transit. By comparing the position of the images on the
As is also the case for Jupiter (see ANANKE), the plate with the clock times at which they are observed it is
population of known outer satellites of Saturn is possible to detect minor variations in the rate of rotation
increasing rapidly, with a dozen having been discovered of the Earth. PZTs have now been superseded by SATEL-
since 1999. LITE LASER RANGERS.
Pholus CENTAUR object discovered in 1992. It is about photometer Instrument with which astronomers can
150 km (90 mi) in diameter. It has been catalogued as measure the intensity (that is, the brightness) and various
ASTEROID number 5145, although it may well turn out to other properties of visible LIGHT, and also of infrared
have characteristics of a COMET. Pholus has perihelion radiation and ultraviolet radiation. The earliest
near 8.7 AU and aphelion at 31.9 AU, meaning that it instruments were visual equalization photometers and
crosses the orbits of Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, extinction photometers. In equalization photometers,
rendering it dynamically unstable. Like the other the intensity of a star image is steadily reduced until it is
Centaurs it is regarded as likely to have escaped from the judged to be equal in brightness to that of another star
EDGEWORTHKUIPER BELT in the astronomically recent (natural or artificial) in the same field of view. The
past (time scale of order a million years). magnitude difference of the two stars is then 2.5 times the
logarithm of the stars reduced brightness expressed as a
photoelectric cell Electronic device that converts a light fraction of its original brightness. If the magnitude
signal, or a signal in the near-infrared or ultraviolet regions difference is great, a reduction in the intensity of the
of the spectrum, into an electric current. The device uti- brighter source, by a known amount, to near equalization,
lizes the photoelectric effect, whereby electrons are liber- may be required. This can be achieved by a reduction of
ated from a photocathode when struck by photons of aperture, use of polarized filters or use of an optical
electromagnetic radiation. If the energy of the photons is wedge. The eye can detect fairly slight differences in
above a certain threshold level, the most weakly bound intensity between the astronomical source and the
electrons can escape from their atoms and are attracted to comparison source, so that reasonably accurate
a positively charged anode. This causes an electric current measurements can be made. Examples of this type of
to flow which is proportional to the intensity of the radia- instrument are: the ZLLNER PHOTOMETER, where the
tion. Photoelectric detectors are therefore useful in mea- brightness of the artificial source is changed using an
suring light intensity. optical wedge; the polarization photometer, where the
reduction is carried out using polarized filters; and
photoelectric magnitude MAGNITUDE of an object Danjons cats-eye photometer, where natural stars are
measured using an electronic detector and a combination used for comparison purposes, the brightness reduction
of filters to match a standard passband. If the Johnson being effected by using a combination of two prisms and
System is used, the filters are typically in the U a cats-eye diaphragm. The flicker photometer is a true
(ultraviolet), B (blue), V (visual), R (red) or I (near- equalization photometer, in which the equality of the
infrared) wavelengths. artificial and real light sources is assessed by the absence
of flicker between the two images, when viewed in rapid
photographic magnitude (mpg) MAGNITUDE of a star succession from the same position.
as recorded on a traditional photographic emulsion which In extinction photometers, an optical wedge or
has its peak response towards the blue end of the polarized filter, marked with a scale, is used steadily to
P spectrum and records very poorly at wavelengths longer
than 500 nm. The photographic magnitude differs
reduce the intensity of the light source until it just
becomes invisible. The position on the scale at which this
significantly from the VISUAL MAGNITUDE (mv) recorded occurs is noted, and in this way the brightness of the
by the eye. source can be determined.
Although visual photometers have been employed to
photographic zenith tube (PZT) Fixed, vertically obtain some useful results in the past, and the human eye
mounted telescope used for the determination of time has the ability to detect a wide range of light levels, it is
and latitude by the observation of the transit of FUNDA- comparatively insensitive to very small changes in bright-
MENTAL STARS as they pass near to the ZENITH. The PZT ness. In most cases, a difference in brightness of about
contains a horizontal lens that focuses stellar images on to one-tenth of a magnitude between the known brightness
a pool of mercury from which they are reflected on to a of the reference source and the unknown brightness of the
photographic plate mounted on a moveable carriage. The source under study is the best that can be achieved with a
carriage is driven during the exposure to compensate for single measurement. Greater precision may sometimes be
the Earths rotation; at each star transit, four exposures achieved by taking the average of a series of measure-
are recorded through two complete rotations of the ments. However, for the far greater accuracies now
instrument and the exact time recorded. The north and required in astronomical research, or in cases where the
intensity is constantly changing or varying very rapidly,
physical photoreceptors such as the PHOTOELECTRIC
PHOENIX (GEN. PHOENICIS , ABBR . PHE )
CELL, PHOTOMULTIPLIER tube or BOLOMETER must be
used. In all of these devices the incident electromagnetic
outhern constellation, introduced at the end of the 16th century by Keyser and radiation is converted into an electrical signal, the magni-
S de Houtman, representing the mythical bird that was reborn from its own ashes.
The most interesting object for amateur observers is Phe. Small telescopes show
tude of which can be determined very precisely.
In optical, INFRARED ASTRONOMY and ULTRAVIOLET
this to be a double with components of 4th and 8th magnitudes; the brighter of the ASTRONOMY, magnitudes are determined using photome-
two is also an ALGOL STAR, an eclipsing variable of range 3.94.4, period 1.67 days. ters over a selection of wavelength bands. Present systems
such as the internationally accepted UBV SYSTEM use a suit-
BRIGHTEST STARS able combination of a special filter and a photoelectric cell
Name RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance or photomultiplier tube (plus an electronic amplifier) to
h m mag. mag. type (l.y.)
select light or other radiation of a desired wavelength band
Ankaa 00 26 42 18 2.40 0.52 K0 77 and measure its intensity. The UBV system of stellar mag-
01 06 46 43 3.32 0.60 G8 198 nitudes is based on photoelectric photometry. The photo-
01 28 43 19 3.41 0.87 K5 234 electric magnitudes denoted by U, B and V are measured
at three broad bands, U (ultraviolet), B (blue) and V (visu-
306
Pickering, Edward Charles
al that is, yellow-green), centred on wavelengths of like properties, radiation of frequency f can be regarded
360 nm, 440 nm and 550 nm respectively. The light inten- as a stream of photons each of energy E given by E = hf,
sity can be measured for a particular wavelength band as a where h is the PLANCK CONSTANT. A photon can thus be
greatly increased (amplified) electrical signal. Magnitudes visualized as an elementary particle with zero rest-mass,
can also be measured for various infrared bands. Narrow- zero charge and spin 1, which travels at the speed of light.
er-wavelength bands are used in the UVBY system. Photo- The photon theory explains several aspects of the
electric photometry can be used to study the light output behaviour of electromagnetic radiation, including the
from an isolated star or small region of the sky. Photomulti- spectrum of BLACK BODY RADIATION, the photoelectric
pliers are available with photocathodes sensitive in the effect and the COMPTON EFFECT.
infrared, thus extending the wavelength bands investigated.
In a typical photoelectric photometer, the light from the photosphere Part of the Sun from which visible light is
telescope is fed via a pinhole and a Fabry lens to the pho- emitted; more generally, the region of any star that gives
tocathode of the photomultiplier tube (PMT). The pin- rise to its visible radiation. Most of the Suns energy
hole is located in the focal plane of the objective mirror or escapes into space from the photosphere. It is the lowest
lens of the telescope. It effectively excludes all light except level of the solar atmosphere, below the CHROMOSPHERE,
that from the object under examination. The Fabry lens TRANSITION REGION and CORONA. About 500 km
ensures that the image is correctly positioned on the (300 mi) thick, the photosphere caps the convective zone
photo-cathode. Provision must also be made between the within the SOLAR INTERIOR. The effective temperature of
pinhole and the Fabry lens for a viewing eyepiece, to the Suns photosphere is around 5780 K, varying through
ensure that the object is centred in the pinhole, and for a its depth from about 9000 K at the base to about 4500 K.
set of standard colour filters. These, together with suitable The continuum radiation of the photosphere is absorbed
circuitry for the PMT, are enclosed in a light-proof box, at certain wavelengths by slightly cooler gas just above it,
termed the photometer head, which is placed at the eye- producing the dark ABSORPTION LINES (called
piece position of the telescope. The current from the FRAUNHOFER LINES), which are observed in the solar
PMT is fed to the measuring equipment via a suitable spectrum. SUNSPOTS, FACULAE and the solar
amplifier. In older photometer systems, a simple meter or GRANULATION are observed in the photosphere. The in-
a chart-recorder was used to measure the amplified out- and-out heaving motions, or oscillations, of the
put from the PMT. Nowadays, most photometer systems photosphere are used in HELIOSEISMOLOGY to decipher
employ a microcomputer, which, with peripherals, is used the dynamics and structure of the SOLAR INTERIOR.
to receive, store, process and print the data.
A wide variety of telescopes is used for carrying out photovisual magnitude MAGNITUDE of an object
photoelectric photometry. It is vital that the telescope and measured photographically using a combination of filters
its mounting are sturdy enough to carry the photometer and photographic emulsions that mimic the spectral
head, which can weigh a couple of kilograms. It is also response of the eye.
essential that the object under study is kept in the centre of
the pinhole during each observation, which will typically Piazzi, Giuseppe (17461826) Italian priest and
last for 30 seconds or more, so the telescope mounting astronomer who in 1801 made the first discovery of an
must be accurately aligned and driven precisely at sidereal asteroid. He directed the observatory at Palermo
rate. Most astronomers use the technique of differential (17901826), and established the observatory at Naples
photometry, where the brightness of the object under (1817). On New Years Eve 1800, he found a moving
study is compared with standard stars of constant, known object and obtained three accurate positions for it. Carl
brightness. Regular procedures are carried out whereby Friedrich GAUSS used these observations and his own
the object being studied, the comparison star(s), and the method for calculating orbits to determine that Piazzis
background sky alone are observed in a sequence. The new object, later named CERES, orbited the Sun between
contribution from the background sky is then deducted
from the other readings, so that the true difference in
Mars and Jupiter where BODES LAW had predicted the
existence of a planet. Piazzi also compiled a catalogue of
P
brightness between the object and the comparison star(s) 7646 stars (180314) and discovered the large proper
may be calculated. The time taken for each observation is motion of SIXTY-ONE CYGNI (Piazzis Flying Star), which
typically a few tens of seconds, and usually a whole series encouraged Friedrich Wilhelm BESSEL to use that star to
of observations is made, and the average then taken. Of make the first measurement of stellar parallax.
course, this may not be possible in the case of very rapidly
varying sources. Where appropriate, the standard colour Pic du Midi Observatory French optical observatory
filters are used to obtain observations that can be reduced built between 1878 and 1882 on the 2890-m (9470-ft) Pic
to one of the standard photometric systems (for example, du Midi de Bigorre in the southern Pyrenees on an isolat-
UBV or UVBY), thus enabling data from one observatory ed site that enjoyed exceptional atmospheric transparency
to be accurately related to that from another. and stability. Despite its inaccessibility, the observatorys
In recent years the use of silicon solid state detectors 20th-century achievements include the mapping of plane-
(such as charge coupled devices CCDs) has increased tary surfaces, the determination of Venus rotation period,
the passbands of data regularly determined. preparation for the Apollo Moon landings, and the explo-
ration of the solar corona using the CORONAGRAPH made
photomultiplier Extremely sensitive electronic device by Bernard LYOT. Access to the observatory was greatly
used for measuring the intensity of light radiation. The improved in 1951 by the installation of a tlphrique
photomultiplier, or photomultiplier tube (PMT), consists (cable car). The largest telescope now on the site, dating
of a photocathode and a series of electrodes, known as from the 1970s, is the 2-m (79-in.) Bernard Lyot Tele-
dynodes, in a sealed evacuated glass enclosure. Photons scope, enclosed in an unusual near-spherical dome. Now
striking the photocathode, which is kept at a high negative that most French astronomers use larger overseas tele-
voltage, eject electrons as a result of the photoelectric scopes, the site has only limited scientific usage and is
effect. These electrons are accelerated towards the dyn- being redeveloped for public outreach.
odes, which are maintained at successively less negative
potentials. Additional electrons are released at each dyn- Pickering, Edward Charles (18461919) American
ode, producing a cascading effect and thus amplifying the astrophysicist, elder brother of William H. PICKERING,
signal. Photomultipliers are used in many ground-based who as director of HARVARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY
and space-borne instruments, including PHOTOMETERS, (18761918) undertook a long-term programme of
scanning SPECTROPHOTOMETERS and POLARIMETERS. stellar photometry and spectral classification. These
studies produced the Harvard Photometry, a catalogue of
photon Discrete packet or quantum of 4260 bright stars (1884), and the Harvard Revised
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION. As well as having wave- Photometry (1908) for 45,000 stars. Under Pickerings
307
Pickering, William Henry
308
planet
Piscis Austrinus See feature article outhern constellation, known since ancient times, representing a large fish at
309
planetar
310
planetary precession
the presence of other gaseous material can lead to far descriptor is a Latin or Greek generic term for the type of
more complex shapes. There are several classification feature, such as Mons for mountain or volcano and Fossa
schemes for planetary nebulae. One of the more widely for a long, narrow depression or ditch. The specific name
used ones employs six main classes labelled by Roman may be that of a famous person, a mythical or literary char-
numerals, as follows: acter or a terrestrial place name. On each body, a particular
I star-like theme is chosen for the specific names. For example, sur-
II smooth disk, subdivided into (a) brighter towards face features on the moons of Uranus take their theme
the centre, (b) uniform and (c) some ring from the name of the parent satellite, which itself was cho-
structure. sen to be a character from the plays of William Shake-
III irregular disk, subdivided into (a) very irregular speare. Thus, on Oberon, features are named after tragic
and (b) some ring structure. Shakespearean heroes, such as Macbeth and Hamlet,
IV ring while those on Titania are named after female characters,
V irregular for example the craters Elinor and Ursula.
VI anomalous When the first images of a body are obtained, an
A planetary nebula shines because of ultraviolet light appropriate theme is chosen and the most prominent fea-
emitted by the hot central star. The atoms of the nebular tures assigned names, usually chosen by those working
gas can be ionized by ultraviolet photons of sufficient closely on the project. Once more detailed work is under-
energy. Hydrogen atoms, for example, can be ionized by taken, anyone can propose a suitable name for considera-
photons with a wavelength of 91.2 nm or shorter. When tion. The names of political or military leaders are
the ion recombines with an electron it emits photons of prohibited while other guidelines ensure that names
light from a structured ladder of energy steps. Each ultra- should be simple, clear and unambiguous, that the system
violet photon input into the nebula produces a spectrum should be international in its choice of names and that,
of photons out. where possible, themes established in the past should be
Each central star has enough light output to ionize a cer- expanded on.
tain volume of planetary nebula. There may be gas beyond
the visible boundary of the nebula, but ultraviolet photons planetary precession Small component of general
do not reach far enough to make it visible. In fact within PRECESSION caused by the GRAVITATIONAL FORCE exerted
each planetary nebula numerous sub-nebulae exist, each on the Earth by other planets. Precession causes the
corresponding to the ionization of a given type of atom or Earths rotational axis slowly to describe a circle in the sky
ion. Thus pictures taken in different optical spectral lines of radius 23.5 over a period of some 25,800 years, the
from different ions show stratification the images of the effect only being noticeable over a few decades. The
planetary nebula are nested like a set of Russian dolls made
of coloured glass. The Ring Nebula (M57) is a good exam-
DESCRIPTORS FOR PLANETARY NOMENCLATURE
ple of this: the blue, green and red images are successively
larger because each is dominated by a particular spectral descriptors plural description
emission from a different atom or ion. Astrum Astra radial-patterned feature on Venus
All the planetary nebulae are expanding. This can be Catena Catenae chain of craters
determined from two techniques. The DOPPLER SHIFT of Cavus Cavi hollow, irregular, steep-sided depression
the optical spectral lines provides a measurement of the Chaos distinctive area of broken terrain
expansion velocity along the line of sight: values of Chasma Chasmata deep, elongated, steep-sided depression
20 km/s (12 mi/s) are typical. The increase in size of the Colles small hills or knobs
image of a planetary nebula on photographs taken over Corona Coronae ovoid feature
the years shows its expansion across the line of sight. The Crater Craters a circular depression
expansion in the radial and tangential directions (if Dorsum Dorsa ridge
assumed to be the same) can be combined to yield the dis-
tance of the planetary nebula. The fact that the nebulae
Facula
Farrum
Faculae
Farra
bright spot
pancake-like structure, or a row of such structures
P
are expanding as the central stars fade means that plane- Flexus Flex\-us very low curvilinear ridge with a scalloped pattern
tary nebulae are relatively transitory objects, with lifetimes Fluctus Fluct\-us flow terrain
measured in tens of thousands of years. As there are Fossa Fossae long, narrow, shallow depression
approximately 10,000 planetary nebulae in our Galaxy, Labes Lab\-es landslide
several must form each year. See also BUTTERFLY NEBULA; Labyrinthus complex of intersecting valleys
DUMBBELL NEBULA; ESKIMO NEBULA; HELIX NEBULA; OWL Lacus Lac\-us small plain on the Moon
NEBULA; SATURN NEBULA Lenticula Lenticulae small dark spot on Europa
Linea Lineae dark or bright elongate marking, may be curved or straight
planetary nomenclature Scheme used to assign Macula Maculae dark spot, may be irregular
names to surface features of planets and satellites in order Mare Maria large circular plain on the Moon
to be able to identify them uniquely. Planetary Mensa Mensae flat-topped prominence with cliff-like edges
nomenclature has been the responsibility of the Mons Montes mountain
International Astronomical Union (IAU) since 1919, Oceanus very large dark area on the Moon
when a committee was appointed to standardize the then Palus Pal\-us small plain on the Moon
chaotic lunar and Martian nomenclature. This Patera Paterae irregular crater, or a complex one with scalloped edges
nomenclature had developed since the 17th century, Planitia Planitiae low plain
when the first selenographers had each devised their own Planum Plana plateau or high plain
systems for naming lunar features, a practice continued in Promontorium Promontoria headland on the Moon
the 19th century when the first maps of Mars were made. Regio Regiones large area marked by reflectivity or colour distinctions from adjacent areas
As a result of the IAUs work, the first systematic Reticulum Reticular reticular (net-like) pattern on Venus
nomenclature for the Moon was published in 1935, and a Rima Rimae fissure
standard list of light, dark and coloured Martian features Rupes Rup\-es scarp
followed in 1958. Scopulus Scopuli lobate or irregular scarp
The procedure assumed even greater importance with Sinus Sin\-us bay
the dawning of the space age and the mapping of increas- Sulcus Sulci subparallel grooves and ridges
ing numbers of planets and their satellites by space probes Terra Terrae extensive land mass
from the 1960s onwards. In 1973 the IAU established the Tessera Tesserae tile-like, polygonal terrain
present Working Group for Planetary System Nomencla- Tholus Tholi small domed mountain or hill
ture (WGPSN). Undae dunes
The system that is used assigns a binomial name to a Vallis Valles valley
feature, comprising a descriptor and a specific name. The Vastitas Vastitates extensive plain
311
Planetary Society
major cause of precession is the combined gravitational time. The planisphere comprises two disks, one a star
pull of the Sun and the Moon on the Earth (see map and the other an overlay containing an oval window.
LUNISOLAR PRECESSION), but the other planets in the The two are connected at the centre and may be rotated
Solar System also exert a small force, albeit in the relative to one another in order to select the desired date
opposite direction. The sum of planetary and lunisolar and time, which are displayed around their outer edges.
precession is called general precession. The oval window in the overlay disk will then show those
stars that are currently above the horizon.
Planetary Society International society promoting plan-
etary exploration. Based in California, the Planetary Soci- Plaskett, John Stanley (18651941) Canadian
ety was founded in 1980 by Carl SAGAN, Bruce Murray astronomer who began his career as a mechanic at the
and Louis Friedman. It continues to fund novel research University of Toronto, eventually becoming the first
and to support public education in planetary science. director (1917) of the DOMINION ASTROPHYSICAL
OBSERVATORY (DAO). He was an expert instrument
planetesimal Solid body that orbits a young star; it is builder who won fame for a high-resolution
one of the building blocks in a PROTOPLANETARY DISK spectrograph he made for the DOMINION OBSERVATORYs
from which planets form by ACCRETION. The term is 15-inch (380-mm) refractor and for his design of
generally applied to bodies large enough for their motions DAOs 72-inch (1.8-m) reflecting telescope, the largest
to be controlled by gravitational forces rather than by the in Canada. He used the spectrographs he built to study
drag of gas in the disk; they are roughly of kilometre size stellar radial velocities, investigating spectroscopic
or larger. Planetesimals form by coagulation of grains of binary stars and hot, young O and B stars; PLASKETTS
metal and silicates (and ices in the colder outer part of the STAR is a massive spectroscopic binary system he
disk). ASTEROIDS and COMETS are remnant planetesimals discovered. His radial velocity studies helped to confirm
that avoided collisions with planets and survived, albeit the model of the Milky Way proposed by Jan OORT and
with some metamorphism and collisional processing, to Bertil LINDBLAD. His son, Harry Hemley Plaskett
the present time. See also COSMOGONY (18931980), was an accomplished solar spectroscopist
who worked mostly in England.
Planet X Name given to a hypothetical tenth major
planet, once believed to exist in the outer Solar System Plasketts Star (HD47129, V640 Mon) One of the
beyond the orbit of Pluto. most massive BINARY STARS known; it is located in the
In the late 19th century, Percival Lowell, William H. constellation MONOCEROS. In 1922 the Canadian
Pickering and others calculated orbits for a large planet astronomer John PLASKETT showed it to be a
that they believed was responsible for gravitational pertur- SPECTROSCOPIC BINARY with a period of around 14 days.
bations to the orbit of Uranus unattributable to Neptune. The system comprises two blue SUPERGIANTS of
Lowell called this unknown body Planet X. SPECTRAL CLASS O. Each component has an estimated
In 1930 Clyde Tombaugh discovered PLUTO, but mass of around 50 solar masses.
although its position was only five degrees from that pre-
dicted by Lowell and its orbit was similar, it soon became plasma Almost completely ionized gas, containing equal
obvious that the newly discovered planet was too small to numbers of free electrons and positive ions, moving
be Planet X. Despite a continued search by Tombaugh, independently of each other. Plasmas such as those
during which he surveyed the entire sky, no further candi- forming the atmospheres of stars, or regions in gas
date was found. discharge tubes, are highly electrically conducting but
Over the following years a number of different orbital electrically neutral, since they contain equal numbers of
predictions were made for a tenth planet, the gravitational positive and negative charges. The temperature of a
influence of which would explain the deflection of comets plasma is usually very high. The electrical currents
P from the outer Solar System towards the Sun. However,
apart from the discovery by Charles Kowal (1940 ) in
flowing within a plasma mean that it carries with it an
intrinsic magnetic field (see MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS).
1977 of CHIRON, which orbits between Saturn and Uranus A plasma has been described as the fourth state of
and caused some brief excitement, nothing was discov- matter, the others being solids, liquids and gases.
ered. Further searches for a solution to the discrepancies
in the orbits of Uranus and Neptune also failed to reveal plasma sheet Region of hot plasma generally observed
any new planets. in the central regions of the extended magnetotail of a
In 1989 the VOYAGER 2 spacecraft established a revised planetary MAGNETOSPHERE. The inner edge of the plasma
mass for Neptune and this, together with the discovery sheet may extend to the dayside at high altitudes, just
that the orbital anomalies of Uranus and Neptune could inside the MAGNETOPAUSE. The near-Earth plasma sheet
be the result of observational errors, removed the necessi- plays a critical role in the dissipation of stored magnetotail
ty for the existence of a tenth planet. This was reinforced energy during MAGNETOSPHERIC SUBSTORMS. The
by the discovery in 1992 of the EDGEWORTHKUIPER BELT deposition of this energy into the polar IONOSPHERE drives
objects beyond the orbit of Neptune, none of which are spectacular auroral displays in these regions. During
planet-sized. The members of the EdgeworthKuiper belt substorms, large sections of the distant plasma sheet are
are believed to be remnants of the original Solar System also sheared off. The resulting plasmoid is ejected at high
material, and some experts argue that Pluto and its satel- speeds down the tail and into the SOLAR WIND.
lite Charon really belong in this category.
On 2000 November 28, a large minor planet was dis- plasmasphere Region of cold, dense plasma that co-
covered in the EdgeworthKuiper belt at a distance of exists in approximately the same region of space as the
43 AU from the Sun. Its apparent magnitude of 20 made RADIATION BELTS within a planetary MAGNETOSPHERE. It
it the brightest-known trans-Neptunian object other than is populated by the polar wind, an upflow of plasma
Pluto. Initially known as minor planet (20000) 2000 from the upper ionosphere. In the terrestrial
WR106, the object has since been named VARUNA by the magnetosphere, the outer boundary, known as the
International Astronomical Union. Subsequent observa- plasmapause, is observed as a sharp boundary at
tions have revealed that it is dark compared to Pluto, indi- altitudes of between 3 and 5 Earth radii, depending on
cating little surface frost, and about half its diameter, the level of geomagnetic activity; the plasmasphere co-
making it also the largest as well as the brightest of the rotates with the Earth below.
trans-Neptunian population discovered so far, after Pluto.
plate-measuring machine Dedicated computer-con-
planisphere Easy-to-use, portable two-dimensional map trolled measuring machine used for accurately recording
of the CELESTIAL SPHERE, as seen from a particular lati- the positions and brightness of images on astronomical
tude, showing which stars are visible at a given date and photographic plates. A typical plate-measuring machine
312
plutino
313
Pluto
PLUTO: DATA
Globe
diameter 2300 km
density 2.0 g/cm3
mass (Earth = 1) 0.0022
sidereal period of axial rotation 6.3872 days
escape velocity 1.1 km/s
surface gravity (Earth = 1) 0.059
albedo 0.55
inclination of equator to orbit 119.6
surface temperature (average) 45 K
Orbit
semimajor axis 39.54 AU = 5914 106 km
eccentricity 0.249
inclination to ecliptic 17.1
sidereal period of revolution 248.02 years
mean orbital velocity 4.74 km/s
satellites 1
Pluto Pluto (left) and its Pluto Ninth and smallest planet in the Solar System. It is trans-Neptunian planet was essentially a matter of luck.
satellite Charon (right) are slightly smaller than Neptunes largest satellite, TRITON, The post-1992 documentation of hordes of Edge-
sufficiently similar in size to be with which it may have much in common. The realization worthKuiper belt objects orbiting between 30 and 50 AU
regarded as a double planet. that Pluto is much smaller than originally assumed, means that it is quite impossible for an undiscovered
They are locked in together with the fact that it shares many properties with major planet to be in the same region.
synchronous rotation about the EDGEWORTHKUIPER BELT objects, led to speculation that Plutos orbit is more eccentric than that of any of the
barycentre between them. it would be stripped of its planet status. However, the major planets. When Pluto is near perihelion it is closer to
INTERNATIONAL ASTRONOMICAL UNION has decided that the Sun than Neptune, as was the case between 1979 Sep-
Pluto will continue to be classified as a planet. tember 5 and 1999 February 11. Perihelion occurred on
Pluto, like Neptune, was discovered as the result of a 1989 September 5, when Pluto was only 29.66 AU from
deliberate search. Towards the close of the 19th century, it the Sun. Its distance from the Sun will now increase until it
was suggested that minor deviations in the orbits of reaches aphelion at 49.54 AU in 2114. Plutos orbital peri-
Uranus and Neptune were being caused by gravitational od is exactly 50% longer than Neptunes, so the two are in
perturbations by a large outlying planet, which became 3:2 orbital RESONANCE. Although Plutos orbit crosses Nep-
known as PLANET X. In the early years of the 20th century, tunes, the 17 inclination of Plutos orbit means that their
Percival LOWELL and others made repeated attempts to paths do not intersect. Plutos inclined orbit takes it 8 AU
locate it. Lowell died in 1916, and in 1929 Clyde north of the ecliptic at perihelion, and 13 AU south of it at
TOMBAUGH was recruited by the Lowell Observatory in aphelion. Its orbital resonance with Neptune means that the
Flagstaff, Arizona, to continue the search. Tombaugh distance between the two bodies is never less than 17 AU.
used a BLINK COMPARATOR to reveal the motion of any Like Uranus, Pluto lies on its side, having an axial incli-
planet relative to the background stars on pairs of photo- nation of nearly 120 and, therefore, RETROGRADE rota-
graphic plates taken a few nights apart. On plates taken on tion. This did not become fully apparent until after the
23 and 29 January 1930, Tombaugh found a faint (mag- discovery of Charon, which orbits in Plutos equatorial
nitude 14) object within a few degrees of the predicted plane. Imaging by modern telescopes has revealed that not
P position, which was moving by the amount expected of a
trans-Neptunian planet. The newly discovered object was
only does Charon keep the same face to Pluto (being in
SYNCHRONOUS ROTATION), but also Pluto itself always
named Pluto after the classical god of the underworld. keeps the same face towards Charon. The two bodies are
Pluto was too distant and too faint for much to be mutually tidally locked, so that Plutos rotation keeps pace
learned about it during the next half-century. Even its size with Charons orbital motion about it.
was a mystery. Before it had been found, Pluto was Pluto and Charon are probably a product of a giant
Pluto This albedo map of assumed to be about ten Earth-masses, but upon discov- impact between two EdgeworthKuiper belt objects.
Pluto was derived from ery its faintness caused its estimated mass to drop tenfold. They are the nearest thing the Solar System can boast to a
occultation observations in the The 1978 discovery of Plutos satellite, CHARON, enabled double planet. This honour was formerly thought to
late 1980s, when Charon and Plutos mass to be determined as only about 0.25% of the belong to the Earth and Moon. However, Charons
Pluto alternately passed in Earths. Thus, Pluto is not massive enough to be responsi- 19,636 km (12,202 mi) orbital radius is only about sixteen
front of one another in our line ble for the apparent deviations in the orbits of Uranus and times the radius of its planet, whereas the Moons orbital
of sight. The precise nature of Neptune, which are now known not to be real, but to have radius is about sixty times the Earths radius. Moreover,
the light and dark areas stemmed from tiny errors in 19th-century observations. Charon has 12% the mass of Pluto but the Moon has only
remains uncertain. Finding Pluto near the expected position for a massive 1.2% the mass of the Earth. Strictly speaking, no satellite
orbits around the centre of its planet, but instead about the
systems centre of mass (or barycentre). For all other
planet-satellite systems this point lies inside the planet. In
the case of PlutoCharon the barycentre lies between the
two bodies in open space, but closer to Pluto because it is
the more massive of the two. Repeated searches for small-
er satellites of Pluto have failed to find any, and if Pluto
does have any other companions, they must be less than
about 100 km (60 mi) across.
There is no direct information on the interiors of Pluto
or Charon. However, the melting that would have been
caused by a giant impact and the heating that must have
occurred while tidal forces were bringing Charon into a
near-circular synchronous orbit mean that both bodies are
very likely to have become internally differentiated (see
DIFFERENTIATION). Plutos density suggests that below its
icy mantle there is a rocky core containing about 70% of
the planets mass, with possibly an iron-rich inner core.
314
polar cap
Thanks to modern telescopic and image-processing considerable experience. For example, if there are two
techniques there is some knowledge of Plutos surface comparison stars A (magnitude 7.0) and B (7.6) and the
markings, even though it has never been visited by a variable is midway between them, its magnitude will then Moon
spacecraft. Plutos surface is bright but with a surprising be 7.3. If it is estimated as 0.1 magnitude below A and
degree of contrast between its brightest regions, where the 0.5 above B, then its magnitude will be 7.1, and so on.
albedo is as high as 0.7, and its darkest spots, where albe- The method is generally less satisfactory than either the
do drops to about 0.15. Spectroscopy has revealed that ARGELANDER STEP METHOD or the FRACTIONAL METHOD,
the surface consists of frozen nitrogen (presumably con- but may be of practical use when a comparison sequence
centrated as frost in the brightest regions), methane and has yet to be established (as in the case of a nova, for Triton
carbon dioxide. There are also traces of ethane apparently example), when a sequence has wide magnitude gaps
dissolved within the nitrogen ice. Because the dark areas between suitable comparison stars, or when a magnitude
absorb more solar heat than the bright areas, they have a must be extrapolated outside an existing sequence.
temperature about 20 K higher, and they are warmer than
anywhere on Triton (at least while Pluto is near perihe- Poincar, (Jules) Henri (18541912) French
lion). The bulk of Plutos ice is likely to be water ice, but mathematician who studied celestial mechanics, especially
Pluto
this has not been detected spectroscopically. Presumably it the three-body problem. He showed that the MANY-BODY
lies buried, even more completely than is the case on Tri- PROBLEM can never be solved exactly, and in the process
ton, beneath the more volatile ices. discovered chaotic orbits ones that lack long-term
The presence of Plutos atmosphere was confirmed stability. His major works included Les Mthodes nouvelles
Charon
when the planet passed in front of a star in 1988. Nitro- de la mcanique cleste (3 volumes, 189299) and Leons de
gen, the most volatile of the surface ices, probably makes mcanique cleste (1905).
up the bulk of the atmosphere, with methane, carbon
monoxide and ethane also present. The temperature con- Pointers Popular name for the stars and Ursae
trast between the dark and bright regions is likely to drive Majoris (Dubhe and Merak), which point towards the Pluto Shown to scale, Pluto
ferocious near-surface winds. There is perhaps a tenuous North Pole Star, Polaris. is compared here with the
low-altitude haze layer, which could be a photochemically Moon, Triton and Charon. Pluto
induced smog like those on Titan and Triton, caused by Polar One of two US contributions to the INTERNATIONAL is, indeed, slightly smaller than
such substances as hydrogen cyanide, acetylene and SOLAR TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS programme. Polar was Triton and significantly smaller
ethane. Although Plutos atmosphere is insubstantial, the launched in 1996 February, with 11 instruments to than the Moon. Some
planets feeble gravitational hold means that it is particu- provide complete coverage of the inner MAGNETOSPHERE astronomers have argued that
larly extensive. For example, an imaginary shell enclosing and to obtain global images of the AURORA. Polar also Pluto should be regarded as a
99% of Plutos atmosphere would be about 300 km measures the high-latitude entry of the solar wind, large EdgeworthKuiper belt
(200 mi) above the surface, whereas for the Earth the ionospheric plasma and the deposition of energy into the object, rather than as a planet
equivalent height is only 40 km (25 mi). upper atmosphere. Polar was designed to have on-board in its own right.
Near perihelion, Plutos atmospheric pressure was instrumentcommunications interconnectivity, using on-
comparable to that of Triton. Because of the eccentricity board computers to share data among the instruments.
of Plutos orbit, however, it receives nearly three times as
much solar warmth at perihelion than it does at aphelion. Polar Star that shows strongly variable linear and circular
As it moves farther from the Sun (and, coincidentally, one polarization and other features. Polars are binary systems.
pole moves into season-long shadow), much of Plutos In the variable star classification scheme they are known
present atmosphere is vulnerable to becoming frozen out as AM HERCULIS STARS. See also CATACLYSMIC VARIABLE;
on to the surface. DQ HERCULIS STAR; DWARF NOVA
Pluto Kuiper Express Mission planned by NASA to polar cap Accumulation of ice, snow or frost in the
be launched 2004 December on a 12-year flight to the
planet Pluto, using the final opportunity of gravity-assisted
polar region of a planet or satellite. Polar caps are found
on Earth, Mars, the Jovian satellite Ganymede and the
P
flybys en route. The craft would fly past Pluto at about Neptunian satellite Triton. Such caps may be seasonal,
15,000 km (9400 mi) and take high-resolution images of accumulating in winter and disappearing in summer, or
it and its moon, Charon. The spacecraft would also perennial, lasting for many years or even geological
explore some of the Solar Systems most distant bodies in epochs. Seasonal caps are observed on all four mentioned
the EdgeworthKuiper belt. If the craft reaches Pluto in
2016, the exploration of all the planets of the Solar System
will have been completed within a timespan of 54 years,
Pluto
since Mariner 2 and Venus in 1962 December. Pluto
Kuiper Express will study the geology, geomorphology 1930
and potential atmospheres of both Pluto and Charon. 2113
315
polar distance
pole One of the two points on a sphere that lie 90 from its
equator and that mark the extremities of its axis of rotation.
The projection of the Earths north and south poles on to
the celestial sphere marks the CELESTIAL POLES, which lie
90 north and 90 south of the celestial equator. The
ecliptic poles lie 90 from the plane of the ecliptic and the
galactic poles are 90 from the galactic plane.
populations, stellar bodies. Permanent caps are known on Earth and Mars.
Shown here is the face-on Indirect evidence has recently been found for the pole star Name given to the nearest naked-eye star to
spiral galaxy NGC 1288 in existence of ice in permanently shadowed parts of polar either of the CELESTIAL POLES, though most commonly
Fornax. The differing stellar areas of the Moon and Mercury. used to describe the north pole star, POLARIS ( Ursae
populations can be clearly Minoris). Because of the effects of PRECESSION, the
seen: young, blue stars in the polar distance Angular distance of a celestial object positions of the celestial poles are gradually drifting, and
spiral arms (Population I) and from the CELESTIAL POLE, measured along a great circle. during the last 5000 years the north celestial pole has
older, yellow stars in the Polar distance is the complement of DECLINATION, the moved from Thuban ( Draconis) to now lie within 1 of
galaxys central hub sum of an objects polar distance and its declination Polaris, which will be at its closest to the pole in AD 2100.
(Population II). always being 90. By AD 10,000 the north pole star will be Deneb and by AD
14,000 it will be Vega. The south celestial pole is currently
polarimeter Instrument used to measure the POLARIZA- marked by the fifth-magnitude star Octantis.
TION of a beam of electromagnetic radiation. The
316
Porro prism
PonsWinnecke, Comet 7P/ Short-period comet tion II stars are the youngest and form a continuum with
discovered by Jean Louis PONS on 1819 June 12. Initial the oldest Population I stars. They are concentrated in the
attempts to derive an orbit proved difficult, and the comet bulge of our Galaxy, with orbital eccentricities and inclina-
was not recovered until 1858 March 9, when it was found tions to the galactic plane lying between those of the oldest
by Friedrich Winnecke (183597). From observations at Population I and the halo Population II stars. Short-period
this return, an orbital period of 5.55 years was determined, RR LYRAE stars are disk Population II stars. Intermediate
and the comet was seen again at the next favourable return Population II stars are metal poor and are more concentrat-
on 1869. In the early 20th century, the comet orbit came ed towards the galactic plane than the metal-poor halo stars.
close to Earth, producing activity from the This group includes HIGH-VELOCITY STARS and MIRA
PONSWINNECKID meteor shower in 1916, 1921 and 1927. STARS. The oldest, most metal-poor stars are the halo Pop-
Gravitational perturbation by Jupiter has since increased ulation II stars, which include long-period RR Lyrae stars,
the perihelion distance and orbital period (currently 6.37 stars in GLOBULAR CLUSTERS and W VIRGINIS STARS.
years), and 7P/PonsWinnecke is now extremely faint. The heavy elements within Population II stars are
thought to have been produced by a generation of massive
PonsWinneckids (June Bootids) METEOR SHOWER and thus short-lived stars, which formed the hypothetical
associated with Comet 7P/PONSWINNECKE. The shower Population III. Being massive, Population III stars would
produced substantial displays in 1916 (100 meteors/hr), have exploded as supernovae, producing the heavy ele-
1921 and 1927, each close to perihelion returns of the ments observed in Population II stars. They would now
parent comet. Gravitational perturbations thereafter exist as NEUTRON STARS and BLACK HOLES.
pulled the meteor stream orbit away from Earth. The The distribution of populations in our Galaxy has been
shower was presumed to be essentially extinct until the explained in terms of the collapse of the Galaxy during its
occurrence of an unexpected outburst on 1998 June formation. The oldest population of stars was made during
2728, when observed rates of a meteor per minute were the infall, which explains why Population II stars are found
seen for over 12 hours. The meteors are slow and come in the galactic halo and central regions of the Galaxy. These
from a diffuse radiant in northern Botes near the border stars, including those in globular clusters, still remember
with Draco. It remains to be seen whether further their infalling motion and continue to have elliptical orbits
displays may occur. around the Galaxy. Stars that formed after the Galaxy had
developed its flat rotation plane and spiral arms represent
population index Observationally determined factor Population I, journeying in circular orbits. Between these
that indicates the relative abundance of METEORS in two extremes lie intermediate populations, showing pro-
adjacent whole-magnitude intervals; it is used in gressive flatter and flatter distributions, which represent
determining METEOR SHOWER zenithal hourly rates successive stages in the collapse of the Galaxy.
(ZHR). High population index (r) values indicate that a
shower has many faint meteors produced by small pore Small, short-lived dark area in the photosphere out
particles. SPORADIC METEORS have r = 3.42; typically, of which a SUNSPOT may develop. Pores are comparable
PERSEIDS have r = 2.35, and GEMINIDS have r = 2.44. in size to individual granules, at about 1000 km (600 mi).
populations, stellar Classification of types of stars, Porrima The star Virginis, visual mag. 2.74, distance
broadly based on age. There are two main categories: 39 l.y. It is a binary, with components each of mag. 3.5
Population I and Population II, with Population I stars and spectral type F, period 169 years. The two are closest
being the younger. A further Population III has been around 2005, when they are difficult to split in amateur
added to represent the oldest, very massive, stars which telescopes, but move apart thereafter. Porrima is named
have already exploded as SUPERNOVAE. after a Roman goddess.
The observational basis for the idea of stellar popula-
tions originated with Walter BAADE. Baade obtained pho-
tographs of galaxies, exposing blue- and red-sensitive
Porro prism Prism with a cross-section that is a right-
angled isosceles triangle. Porro prisms are most
P
emulsions in order to emphasize the contributions of dif- commonly encountered in pairs inside each half of a
ferent-coloured light. He discovered that the central binocular, where they are used to invert the light beam to
regions of spiral galaxies were smooth distributions of produce an image the correct way up as seen by the user.
red light, from innumerable faint stars, whereas the spi- The two prisms are placed at right-angles to one another
ral arms were patchy distributions of bright blue stars with their long sides in contact, leaving half of each side
and nebulae. Elliptical galaxies had the appearance of the exposed to allow light in and out. Light enters one prism
central regions of spirals. These two contrasting kinds of and after four reflections leaves the other inverted. The
stellar material were the original Populations I and II. distinctive shape of porro-prism binoculars is a result of
The distinction between the two populations is now the arrangement of the prisms.
explained in terms of STELLAR EVOLUTION, with the spa-
tial distribution of the different populations being
explained by galaxy formation.
Population I stars are relatively young and metal-rich;
they are the younger generation of stars. They are strong- eyepiece
ly concentrated in the plane of our Galaxy and have
roughly circular orbits about the galactic centre. They are
observed in the disks and spiral arms of other spiral galax-
ies. Population I stars are further categorized into extreme
and intermediate Population I.
Extreme Population I stars are the youngest stars and
have an uneven distribution within the spiral arms of spi-
ral galaxies. They are stars with the greatest abundance of prisms
heavy elements. Extreme Population I includes stars that
are in the process of forming, for example T TAURI STARS, Porro prism This
stars in young OPEN CLUSTERS, OB ASSOCIATIONS, SUPER- schematic cutaway illustrates
GIANTS and classical CEPHEID VARIABLES. The Sun is an the optical layout in a pair of
intermediate Population I star, along with many GIANT binoculars. Light collected by
STARS and stars in older open clusters. lens each objective passes through
Population II stars are older, with less abundance of a pair of Porro prisms. The
heavy elements. They are further categorized into disk, prisms allow portable, compact
intermediate and halo Population II stars. The disk Popula- binocular designs.
317
Porter, Russell Williams
Porter, Russell Williams (18711949) American 0.05. Sometimes the term potentially hazardous object
telescope-maker who designed the horseshoe mounting (PHO) is used, mainly because the acronym provides a
for Mount Palomar Observatorys 200-inch (5-m) HALE homophone of foe. By analogy with the terms NEAR-
TELESCOPE. Porter, together with Albert G. Ingalls EARTH ASTEROID and NEAR-EARTH OBJECT, PHOs include
(18881958), founded the amateur telescope-making COMETS as well as asteroids.
movement in America during the 1920s, greatly
expanding astronomy as an avocation. He started the PoyntingRobertson effect Non-gravitational force
Springfield Telescope Makers in 1920, which still holds produced by the action of solar radiation on small particles
its annual Stellafane exhibition of amateur-made in the Solar System; it causes the particles to spiral inwards
astronomy instruments the largest meeting of its kind. towards the Sun. When particles in orbit around the Sun
Porter conceived many ingenious designs, including the absorb energy from the Sun and re-radiate it, they lose
turret telescope, which sheltered the observer, and the kinetic energy and their orbital radius shrinks slightly. The
Springfield mounting, which moves the telescope around effect is most marked for particles of a few micrometres in
a stationary eyepiece. size. A similar effect makes particles in planetary rings and
satellite systems slowly spiral inwards. The effect is named
Portia One of the small inner satellites of URANUS, after John Poynting (18521914) who first described the
discovered in 1986 by the VOYAGER 2 imaging team. effect, and Howard Robertson (190361), who established
Portia is about 108 km (67 mi) in size. It takes 0.513 days the relativistic theory of the effect.
to circuit the planet, at a distance of 66,100 km
(41,100 mi) from its centre, in a near-circular, near- PPARC Abbreviation of PARTICLE PHYSICS AND
equatorial orbit. ASTRONOMY RESEARCH COUNCIL
Posidonius Lunar crater (32N 30E), 96 km (60 mi) in p process Method of creating heavy, proton-rich,
diameter. Posidonius is a complex crater, with central stable nuclei. In the p process, protons are added to
peaks. After its formation, lava intruded beneath the nuclei formed by the R PROCESS and S PROCESS. The p
crater, updoming its floor and fracturing it. This action process accounts for low-abundance heavy isotopes. See
produced rilles in the floor and obscured most of the also NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
side-walls. In the western region, flowing lavas produced
a SINUOUS RILLE. In the eastern region there is a large Praesepe (M44, NGC 2632) Bright open cluster in the
slumped wall region, which is nearly semicircular and constellation Cancer (RA 08h 40m.1 dec. 1959).
concentric with the outer rim. Known since ancient times, it was catalogued as a little
cloud by HIPPARCHUS in the 2nd century BC. With overall
position angle (PA) Direction in the sky of one celestial magnitude 3.1, Praesepe (also known as the Beehive) is
body with respect to another, measured from 0 to 360 readily visible to the naked eye in good conditions. Indeed
eastwards from the north point. For binary star systems, the 1st century AD Roman writer Pliny described the use
the position of the fainter component, relative to the of the Praesepe Cluster as a weather-predictor by
brighter, is given. Position angle can also indicate the Mediterranean sailors as high clouds arrive ahead of
angle at which the axis or some other line of a celestial bad weather, Praesepe disappears from view. The cluster
body is inclined to the HOUR CIRCLE passing through the has an apparent diameter of 95, and contains around 60
centre of the body. That angle is also measured eastwards stars. It lies at a distance of 525 l.y. and is estimated to be
from the north. about 700 million years old.
POSS Abbreviation of PALOMAR OBSERVATORY SKY SURVEY preceding (p) Term used to describe a celestial body, or
feature on a body, that leads another in their apparent
P post-nova Quiescent stage that follows a NOVA eruption.
There is a highly characteristic spectrum, visible even
motion. Preceding features come into view earlier than the
reference feature. For example, in a group of sunspots, the
decades after the outburst, with hydrogen and helium preceding spot is the first to appear as the Sun rotates,
emission, and various highly excited spectral lines of while the preceding limb of the Moon is the one facing
elements such as helium, carbon and nitrogen. These its direction of travel. Any feature that appears later than a
spectral features are seen in a few objects for which no reference feature is said to be FOLLOWING. The term pre-
outburst has been observed and which are assumed to be ceding can also be used to describe a star at a lower RIGHT
novae that escaped detection. It is assumed that MASS ASCENSION than another.
TRANSFER has yet to be re-established between the
secondary and the white dwarf. It is possible that some precession Gradual circular motion of the Earths axis
NOVA-LIKE VARIABLES are post-novae at a slightly later of rotation which causes the position of the celestial poles
stage of evolution when mass transfer has resumed. to describe a circle over a period of 25,800 years.
Discovered by HIPPARCHUS OF NICEA about 150 BC,
potential energy ENERGY stored by a body by virtue of precession is largely caused by the gravitational pull of the
its position, shape or state. Potential energy is stored in a Sun and Moon on the Earths equatorial bulge. Were the
body that is within a gravitational field and is higher than Earth to be a perfect sphere precession would not occur,
its equilibrium position; the energy is given by mgh, where but its spin causes its equatorial radius to exceed its polar
m is the mass, g the local gravitational acceleration, and h radius by about 0.3 per cent. The gravitational pull on the
the height above the equilibrium position. Potential bulge produces an angular momentum in a perpendicular
energy is also the energy of an electron in an excited state, direction, according to the laws of dynamics. This makes
the energy in a radioactive nucleus before it decays, and, the Earth wobble or precess like a spinning top and caus-
via E = mc2, mass. See also KINETIC ENERGY es the celestial poles to trace a circle of radius equal to the
inclination of the Earths axis (23.5).
potentially hazardous asteroid (PHA) ASTEROID Precession comprises two components: the combined
with an orbit that brings it very close to the orbit of the pull of the Sun and the Moon, known as LUNISOLAR PRE-
Earth, making a collision feasible in the near term, the CESSION, is the greater and amounts to 50.40 per year. A
object being large enough to cause significant damage in smaller component, PLANETARY PRECESSION, caused by the
such an event. The limit set for the minimum orbit gravitational effects of the other planets, amounts to 0.12
intersection distance is generally taken as being 0.05 AU. per year, but in the opposite direction. The net effect of
The minimum size is regarded as being defined by an these, called general precession, is 50.26 per year.
absolute magnitude H=22, corresponding to an Precession causes the FIRST POINT OF ARIES and the
equivalent diameter of between 110 m (360 ft), if the FIRST POINT OF LIBRA to drift westwards around the eclip-
albedo were 0.25, and 240 m (790 ft), if the albedo were tic, relative to the background stars, and is therefore some-
318
prism
times known as the precession of the equinoxes. They precession Over the
north pole
have moved about lh 45m in RIGHT ASCENSION (RA) since of the ecliptic course of a 25,800-year cycle,
precessional
Hipparchus discovered the effect, so that each point has circle to north pole star the direction in which Earths
now shifted into the adjoining constellation. axis of rotation points
Precession is also responsible for making the TROPICAL describes a 47 diameter circle
YEAR, measured with respect to the equinoxes, about 20 relative to the star background.
minutes shorter than the SIDEREAL YEAR, which is mea- One result of this is that
sured with respect to the stars. Another effect is that different stars will, over time,
13,000 years from now ORION will be a summer constella- Earths axis become Pole Star.
tion (in the northern hemisphere). Star positions pub-
lished for a particular epoch, such as 2000.0, also have to
be corrected for the effects of precession to the date of
observation. See also NUTATION equatorial
bulge
prehistoric astronomy See ARCHAEOASTRONOMY
primary Largest of a system of celestial bodies. The Sun is prism Transparent optical element with flat, polished
the primary member of the Solar System. The term is also sides used to bend or disperse a beam of light. Prisms can
used to describe the more massive component in a binary have a uniform cross-section, typically triangular as in the
or multiple star system, the primary member of such a sys- PORRO PRISM, or they can have a more complex shape,
tem being the one about which the others rotate. It can also such as the penta prism used in a single-lens reflex
be used to describe a planet with respect to its moons, for camera. Porro prisms and penta prisms are both used to
example, the primary body of the Moon is the Earth. reflect light with little or no dispersion. Light enters one
319
Procellarum Oceanus
320
Prospero
or loops, and can reach heights of about 700,000 km of their proper motions will be zero. The calculated posi-
(400,000 mi) in just an hour. Quiescent prominences can tion of the apex, and the solar velocity towards it,
develop from active prominences. depends to some extent on the number and type of stars
Quiescent prominences can become detached and used in the analysis. The average result is that relative to
disappear if disturbed by MORETON WAVES associated the nearby stars the Sun is travelling about 20 km/s
with flare activity. Such eruptive prominence events can (12 mi/s) in the direction of the constellation Hercules.
arch a million kilometres outwards before bursting apart; When the solar motion is subtracted from the observed
their disappearance is often associated with a CORONAL proper motion of a star its peculiar proper motion is
MASS EJECTION. obtained. The apparent displacement of a star arising
from the solar motion is called its parallactic motion. By
proper motion (symbol ) Apparent angular measuring the parallactic motion of a homogeneous
displacement of a star against the celestial sphere as a group of stars, the so-called SECULAR PARALLAX of the
result of its motion over a year. Proper motion is a group is obtained. This method has been applied to esti-
combination of a stars actual motion through space and mate the average distances of groups of variable stars,
its motion relative to the Solar System. such as RR LYRAE and CEPHEIDS, which are beyond the
Stars in our Galaxy move relative to each other and range of TRIGONOMETRIC PARALLAX.
relative to the Sun, but because of their great distances Another important application of proper motions is
their apparent movements in the sky are very small. In in determining the distances of moving clusters. Since
fact most stars are so distant that their proper motions are stars in a cluster have a common space motion, their
negligible. The full space motion of a star is the combina- proper motions appear to converge to a point on the
tion of its proper motion, across an observers line of celestial sphere. By combining the measurement of the
sight, and its radial velocity, along the line of sight. The convergent point for the cluster with measurements of its
latter is usually measured from the Doppler shift in the proper motion and radial speed, it is possible to calculate
stars spectrum. its distance.
Proper motion is usually denoted by the Greek letter Proper motion surveys also have an important applica-
Mu () and is measured in seconds of arc () per year. tion in investigating the distribution and luminosity of
About 300 known stars have proper motions larger than stars in the solar neighbourhood. Stars close to the Sun
one arcsecond per year, but most proper motions are tend to have larger values of proper motion than more dis-
smaller than 0.1 arcsecond per year. Barnards Star in the tant stars, so by selecting stars from proper motion sur-
constellation Ophiuchus has the largest known proper veys that are complete to some apparent magnitude, a
motion, at 10.27 per year. statistical sample of the stars within a specified volume
Proper motions are measured by comparing the accu- around the Sun is obtained. By combining this sample
rate positions of stars obtained at two or more epochs. with the known parallaxes of some of the stars, and mak-
This gives the components of the proper motion in right ing allowances for the incompleteness of the sample, one
ascension, , measured in seconds of time per year, and can arrive at a statistical estimate of the distribution and
in declination, , measured in seconds of arc per year. luminosity of the stars in the vicinity of the Sun. This
The combined proper motion, , measured in seconds of shows that most stars in the solar neighbourhood are
arc per year, is given by: intrinsically faint.
Proper motions have another important application in
= (225 2 cos2 2)1/2 the subject of galactic rotation. They provide the only
direct method of measuring the Oort constant B, which
The transverse velocity in space of a star relative to the essentially describes how the rate of change of the angular
Sun, VT (km/s), is related to its observed proper motion, velocity of rotation changes with distance from the centre
(arcseconds/year) by: of our Galaxy.
321
Proteus
Proteus Discovered by 0.7% less than that of the four hydrogen nuclei (protons)
Voyager 2 during its 1989 that go to form it. The basic (PP I) set of reactions is:
flyby, Proteus is the largest of
the inner satellites of Neptune. 1 H 11 H 11 H 12 e ve
Proteus is notably dark, with 2 H 12 H 11 He 23
an albedo of 0.07. 3 He 23 He 23 He 24 H 11 H 11
PP II
reactions 1 and 2 followed by
4 He 23 He 24 Be 47
5 Be 47 e Li 37 ve
6 Li 37 H 11 Be 48
7 Be 48 He 24 He 24
322
Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus)
the outer part, allowing most of the mass to flow inwards that it remained unchallenged until the revival of the
to form a PROTOSTAR. The remainder of the mass, HELIOCENTRIC THEORY by Nicholas Copernicus in the
perhaps a few per cent to a few tenths of the total, is left 16th century.
orbiting the star. The disk of gas and dust, which may Little is known about Ptolemys life. His dates and even
persist for millions of years before dissipating, supplies his name are uncertain Ptolemy merely indicates that
the material for formation of planets. Protoplanetary he had Greek or Greek-naturalized ancestors and lived in
disks, many of them much larger than our Solar System, Egypt, which was then ruled by the Ptolemaic dynasty. He
have been observed by the Hubble Space Telescope. is sometimes referred to as Claudius, but this probably
means simply that Ptolemys Roman citizenship goes back
protostar Young star, still accreting material, said to to the time of the emperor Claudius I. It seems likely,
exist once fragmentation of its parent molecular cloud has though, that he lived and worked at the famous library and
finished. A protostar is the earliest phase of STELLAR museum in Alexandria.
EVOLUTION. This phase may take from 105 to 107 years, Ptolemy was a prolific author, but his earliest large protoplanetary disk Seen
depending on the mass of the star. The Suns protostellar work, the Almagest, was not only his greatest, but also the here as a dark oval, about as
stage took about 0.11 million years. greatest astronomical work of antiquity. It is essentially a wide as Plutos orbit around the
On a HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM, protostars basic textbook, expecting its reader to know only the fun- Sun, this protoplanetary disk
would lie above and to the right of the MAIN SEQUENCE. damentals of Greek geometry and some familiar astro- contrasts with the background
Protostars cannot be observed in the optical because they nomical terms; the rest Ptolemy explains. glow of the Orion Nebula. This
are embedded in the cloud of material from which they The first two books form an introduction. They pre- is one of several such objects
are forming, although their presence can be detected in sent an outline of the Ptolemaic system a spherical uni- in the region, imaged by the
the infrared. Once protostars become optically visible, verse with spheres carrying the planets and give Hubble Space Telescope.
they are known as PRE-MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS. persuasive arguments that the Earth is stationary at its
centre. The basic mathematics, making use of chords (the
Proxima Centauri The closest star to the Sun, 4.22 l.y. Greeks did not develop the sines and tangents of modern
away. It is a red dwarf of visual mag. 11.0, spectral type trigonometry), is described.
M5 V, with just 0.005% of the Suns luminosity. Named Book III discusses the apparent motion of the Sun,
because of its proximity to us, Proxima is a member of the using observations mostly by Hipparchus, for whose work
ALPHA CENTAURI triple system but lies about 2 from the Ptolemy shows such reverence that of his own observa-
other two members. It is a FLARE STAR, which can bright- tions he seems to have selected only those that agreed with
en by up to a magnitude for several minutes at a time. his predecessors. A table of the Suns motion is then con-
structed. The motion of the Moon according to Hip-
Ptolemaeus Ancient lunar crater which has deeply parchus is the subject of Book IV. The theory, based on
incised walls that show eroded rims (14S 3W); it is eclipses, accounts for the Moons motion at conjunction
148 km (92 mi) in diameter. Its features are the result of (new moon) and opposition (full moon), but is inade-
impact erosion, much of which came from the ejecta of quate for intermediate positions in the orbit.
the IMBRIUM multi-ring impact basin to the north-west. In Book V, Ptolemy develops his own lunar theory.
The scars from Imbriums ejecta all trend from north- Based on EPICYCLE and DEFERENT, it is extremely inge-
west to south-east. The floor of Ptolemaeus is smooth, nious. His observations showed him that the Moon
also as a result of the ejecta from the Imbrium impact. changed in apparent size, which he accounts for by a kind
The floor contains several ghost craters and a few recent of crank mechanism operating on the centre of the
impact scars. Moons epicycle. This theory accounts for the motion of
the Moon at all positions of its orbit.
Ptolemaic system GEOCENTRIC THEORY of the Uni- Book VI explains how to calculate every detail of
verse as presented in Ptolemys ALMAGEST of AD 140. The eclipses. Books VII and VIII present tables of positions
Earth is taken to be the centre of the Universe, with the
Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter and Sat-
and brightnesses of the fixed stars, and precession is
mentioned.
P
urn revolving around it. Outside lies the sphere of the The final books, IX to XIII, are concerned with the
fixed stars. thorny problem of planetary motion. There were fewer
The orbit of a planet as described by EUDOXUS was observations for Ptolemy to use here, and very little past
such that it moves around in a small circle, called the theoretical work to help him. The epicycle and deferent
epicycle. The centre of the epicycle itself revolves about were not totally satisfactory in the planetary context,
the Earth on a larger circle called the deferent. Ptolemy because on their own they could not account for variations
added two further points, the eccentric and the equant, in the apparent retrograde motion of a planet, nor could
to each orbit. The eccentric is at the centre of a line joining they show why retrograde motion occurred at seemingly
the Earth and the equant; the deferent is centred on the irregular intervals.
eccentric point rather than on the Earth itself. The centre
of the epicycle thus moves around the deferent with a
variable velocity that makes it appear to be moving with
uniform angular velocity when viewed from the equant
point in direct conflict with the Aristotelian doctrine that Ptolemaic system Placing
the celestial motions had to be perfectly uniform. Sun Earth at the centre, with the
Saturn
The Ptolemaic system allowed the future positions of Venus Sun orbiting between Venus
the planets to be predicted with reasonable accuracy and and Mars, the Ptolemaic
remained state of the art until ousted by the COPERNI- Mercury system was a prevailing world
CAN SYSTEM. view for over a thousand years.
Earth To account for the planets
Moon
Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus) (2nd century AD) 64-2093 occasional retrograde
Egyptian astronomer and geographer. His chief astro- (westwards) motion, an ever
Mars
nomical work, the Almagest, was largely a compendium of more complex pattern of
contemporary astronomical knowledge, including a star epicycles small circles
catalogue, drawing on the work of HIPPARCHUS of Nicaea. superimposed on their orbits
It described the so-called PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM, a geocen- had to be invoked. Eventually,
tric universe with the Earth fixed at the centre, and the the Ptolemaic system was
Moon, Sun and planets revolving about it. Ptolemys Jupiter superseded by the
modification of the previous, simpler Greek theory based Copernican, which accounted
on epicycles and deferents reproduced the apparent more readily for observed
motions of the planets, including retrograde loops, so well planetary movements.
323
Puck
Typically, Ptolemy tackled the problem in a truly scien- are poor, and Pulkovo astronomers today use the optical
tific way. Using his own observations as well as those of and radio telescopes of the SPECIAL ASTROPHYSICAL
Hipparchus and the Babylonians, he discovered that each OBSERVATORY and other better-sited facilities. The obser-
planet had two irregularities or anomalies. One depend- vatory carries out research in most branches of theoretical
76-0347
ed on the planets elongation, the other on its position and observational astrophysics as well as solar physics and
along the ecliptic. Ptolemy had to explain these anomalies astronomical instrumentation.
by a theory that fitted into the framework of the Greek
geocentric universe. pulsar Rapidly spinning NEUTRON STAR, emitting two
Careful study showed him that the epicycle and deferent beams of RADIO WAVES that are seen as pulses. The beam
would account for the first anomaly. For the second he of radio waves emitted by the rotating pulsar sweeps past
introduced the ECCENTRIC. Here the centre of the planets the Earth in a manner similar to the flash of light from a
epicycle moved around a point M whose distance from the lighthouse beam. The first pulsar was discovered by
Earth was determined by the planets apparent eccentricity. Anthony HEWISH and Jocelyn BELL in 1967, and there are
It was another basic condition of Greek planetary motion now over 1000 known. A few pulsars have been detected at
that each planet should move at an unvarying rate about the wavelengths other than radio (for example visible light, X-
Puck This distant view of centre of the Universe (even though observation showed ray and even gamma-ray). The pulsar periods range from
Uranus inner satellite Puck that not one of them did). Ptolemy satisfied this condition milliseconds (see MILLISECOND PULSAR) to around 5
was taken from Voyager 2 by using another point, the EQUANT, on the opposite side of seconds, with the most common period being around
during its 1986 January flyby. the Earth to M and an equal distance away. Motion with 1 second. The pulses are not always exactly the same shape
Puck has a diameter of about respect to the equant was uniform. This was an inspired from cycle to cycle, or the same strength, and the pulse at
154 km (96 mi). solution, which, with an additional minor modification, each wavelength has a slightly different appearance, but the
explained the motions of all the planets then known. period is always the same. Some pulsars are found in
The Almagest was not Ptolemys only great text. He binary systems (see BINARY PULSAR) and there is one case
wrote the Tetrabiblos on astrology, much of it on natural of a pulsar with planets (PSR B1257+12). The
astrology the physical effects of the Sun and Moon, for distribution of pulsars is concentrated towards the plane of
instance. Then he produced Planetary Tables, which were the Galaxy, as is the concentration of supernovae, and
extracted from the Almagest, and a popular abridgement there may be as many as 100,000 pulsars in the Galaxy.
called Planetary Hypotheses, which, however, extends A pulsar is formed following a supernova explosion,
some of his theoretical ideas and in particular his mea- but only a few pulsars can be seen in their associated
surements of the distances and sizes of the Sun and SUPERNOVA REMNANT. Most pulsars are over a million
Moon. There was also his Phases of the Fixed Stars, which years old, so the supernova remnant will have long since
went into more detail about rising and setting of the stars dispersed and faded from view. Only something as small
just before dawn and just after sunset, and the Analemma, as a neutron star can spin fast enough to be a pulsar and
a book on constructing sundials. He also wrote on geogra- not break up. The beams of radio waves come out from
phy, music, mechanics, geometry and optics. both magnetic poles, and the magnetic axis need not be
the same as the rotation axis. The beam is a hollow cone,
Puck Largest of the inner satellites of URANUS, with the gas at the centre in different conditions as com-
discovered in images returned by VOYAGER 2 as it pared to the edge of the cone. In one pulsar the pulse
approached Uranus near the end of 1985. Puck is about shape is very complicated, suggesting that the rotating
154 km (96 mi) across, roughly spherical in shape, and cone is made up of several beams. The first pulsar had a
heavily cratered. It takes 0.762 days to circuit the planet, period of 1.337 s and was picked out during a survey at
at a distance of 86,000 km (53,000 mi) from its centre, in radio wavelengths for objects with signals that changed
a near-circular, near-equatorial orbit. rapidly on a very short timescale (see also SCINTAR). Soon
after the first discovery Bell and Hewish found three more
P Pulcherrima Alternative name for the star Botis. See
IZAR
pulsars, with periods of 0.253 s, 1.188 s and 1.274 s. The
CRAB PULSAR has a very short period (0.033 s); it is at the
heart of the Crab Nebula and the obvious result of a
Pulcova MAIN-BELT ASTEROID; number 792. In 2000 it supernova. It is one of the few pulsars to be detected at
was found to be accompanied by a small moon. Pulcova visible wavelengths, and it has also been detected in
pulsar This schematic is about 145 km (90 mi) in size, ten times as large as its X-rays and gamma rays. The beams of radio waves are
illustration of a pulsar shows satellite, which takes four days to orbit it at a distance of pointing almost directly at Earth, so a weak pulse from the
the two beams of radiation about 800 km (500 mi). second beam can be seen between the main pulses (called
directed from the collapsed the inter-pulse). The Hubble Space Telescope picture of
star along its magnetic poles, Pulkovo Observatory One of the oldest observatories in the Crab Pulsar suggests there may be a JET (with knots of
which need not coincide with Russia, founded in 1839 with a 15-inch (400-mm) refrac- material) coming out from one pole, and waves of gas rip-
the axis of rotation. If the tor that was then the largest refractor in the world. Mem- pling outwards along the equatorial plane. The short peri-
rotational axis is so aligned bers of the STRUVE FAMILY number among its past od of the Crab Pulsar shows that it is a young pulsar, and
that the radiation beams directors. It is located near St Petersburg (formerly it is very gradually slowing down. Almost all pulsars slow
sweep across our line of sight, Leningrad) and was completely destroyed in the siege of down because of the strong magnetic field, the except
the rapidly pulsing radio signal the city during World War II. In a symbolic gesture by the being the VELA PULSAR, which occasionally speeds up sud-
characteristic of a pulsar will Soviet government, the observatory was rebuilt between denly (an event called a glitch), producing a faster period.
be detected. 1945 and 1954. However, the observing conditions there There are around 50 pulsars, known as MILLISECOND
PULSARS, with very short periods. Most millisecond pul-
sars are thought to have a weak magnetic field, which is
axis of radiation
why they have not slowed down. For some other millisec-
ond pulsars, the short period is explained by proposing
that the pulsar was once in a binary star system. The pul-
sar slowed down, but then speeded up again when materi-
al from the companion was accreted on to the pulsar (see
beam of radiation BINARY PULSAR). One millisecond pulsar in a binary star
beam of radiation system is called the black widow pulsar because it is
thought to have consumed most of its companion star.
The pulses from the black widow pulsar disappear for 50
minutes every 9 hours, when the pulsar is eclipsed by its
companion, and the eclipses show that the companion is
very small (the mass is 2% of the solar mass although the
size is 1.5 times that of the Sun).
324
PZT
Most pulsars have incredibly accurately determined pulsar This Chandra X-ray
periods, and the rate of change of the period is precisely image shows the heart of the
known. This allows peculiarities to be identified easily. A Crab Nebula, the site of a
pulsar was the first star to be identified as having planets pulsar remnant from the
orbiting around it. PSR B1257+12 has at least three supernova explosion of 1054.
planets in orbit, and there may be a fourth with a mass A thin jet almost 20 l.y. long
around that of Saturn. One pulsar was found to have a emerges from the pulsars
slightly irregular period, caused by the fact that it was in south pole towards lower left.
a binary system and the Doppler effect influenced the
pulse period, by spreading the pulses apart slightly as the
pulsar receded and jamming them together slightly as the
pulsar approached.
325
QSO
QSO Abbreviation of QUASISTELLAR OBJECT the concept that all forms of matter possess the dual
behaviour of particles and waves. The de Broglie
quadrant Ancient hand-held navigational instrument wavelength d of a particle is given by dp = h, where p
Q
consisting of a graduated 90 arc, resembling half a school is the momentum of the particle and h is the PLANCK
protractor, and a plumb-line to mark the vertical. Obser- CONSTANT. Clinton J. Davisson (18811958) and Lester
vations were made by sighting a star along one side and Germer (18961971) experimentally confirmed the
reading the stars altitude where the plumb-line crossed wave/particle duality of particles when they showed that
the scale. It was succeeded by the SEXTANT. See also electrons exhibit interference effects. Erwin Schrdinger
MURAL QUADRANT (18871961) constructed a set of differential equations
that describe the wave structure of atomic particles, and
Quadrantids Major annual METEOR SHOWER, active the laws that govern their interactions. Later
between January 1 and 6. The sharp maximum, on developments in quantum mechanics, principally by
January 3 or 4, can produce zenithal hourly rates (ZHR) Paul Dirac (190284) and Werner Heisenberg
of up to 130 meteors/hr, but activity at other times is (190176), provided the backbone of the quantum
usually rather low. The shower is named after its theory of matter.
RADIANT in the obsolete constellation of Quadrans The quantum-mechanical approach pictures the elec-
Muralis, the stars of which are in what is now identified tron as a wave structure that resides in energy levels where
as northern Botes. the amplitude of the wave is greatest in the vicinity of the
Quadrantid meteors show a number of characteristics classical Bohr electron orbit. In the quantum-mechanical
typical of a cometary origin, but identification of the picture, there is a finite probability that the electron can be
stream parent has been rendered nigh-impossible by the anywhere in the Universe, but the probability density is
streams rapid orbital evolution. One possible candidate highest at the classical orbit or energy level. The quantiza-
is the faint short-period (5.24 years) comet 96P/Mach- tion of electron orbits emerges in a very straightforward
holz 1. Repeated close passage at aphelion of the stream manner in Schrdingers wave formulation: the orbit cor-
orbit to Jupiter has led to a considerable spread of its responds to the region where there are an integral number
component meteoroids. Computer modelling suggests of waves around the atom. This three-dimensional pattern
that the stream was active from a radiant in Aquarius can also be thought of as the probability density of a cloud
during July until the early centuries AD, before being per- of negative charge (integrating to the charge on a single
turbed away from encounter with Earth. Chinese and electron) around the atom.
other annals provide evidence for this shower. Having The nucleus of the atom, being constructed of indi-
been inactive for over a thousand years, the stream began vidual protons and neutrons, is also described by quan-
to be encountered at the descending node of its orbit tum mechanics. Its greater mass results in a more
once more from about 1700 onwards, as the modern concentrated probability distribution than for an electron.
Quadrantid shower. Projecting the computer model into Schrdingers equation can be written down for any
the future, the stream orbit is expected to be pulled away atomic system. It will include the effects of the electrosta-
from Earth around 2200. tic and magnetic interactions of all the constituent parti-
The January Quadrantids have been known since cles. The solution of this equation gives an exact
about 1835, with a more or less continuous observational description of the energy states of the system. Only in the
record since the 1860s. There is apparent variation in the simplest of atoms (hydrogen and helium) can accurate
peak activity, with some remarkably high returns, notably solutions called wave functions or eigenfunctions of
in 1977 and 1992. Although widely spread at aphelion, the Schrdinger equation be obtained.
the meteoroids are encountered by Earth close to their For complex structures (atoms containing many elec-
perihelion, where the stream is concentrated and has a trons, or the atomic lattice structure of crystals) only
narrow cross-section. Consequently, the peak activity is approximate solutions to the Schrdinger equation are, in
restricted to a comparatively brief period, less than 12 general, possible. Modern high-speed computers are
hours. At a given location, perhaps only one return in ten capable of furnishing solutions of wave equations for quite
years may prove favourable, with the maximum occurring complex systems. In the area of astrophysics, such solu-
Q during the pre-dawn hours when the radiant is highest,
and in the absence of clouds and moonlight.
tions can give, for example, the energy levels and hence
emission-line wavelengths of highly ionized species or
The Quadrantids show evidence for particle mass- complicated molecules not observable in the laboratory.
sorting, with faint meteors being proportionally more The principal structures of atomic nuclei and the
abundant in the early part of the peak, and bright events ways in which they interact are also governed by quan-
(produced by larger meteoroids) peaking later. This is tum mechanics. Some of the nuclear reactions of interest
consistent with the smaller meteoroids gradually spi- in the construction of theoretical models of stars cannot
ralling towards shorter period orbits as a result of the be measured in the laboratory because they occur at too
POYNTINGROBERTSON EFFECT. Dispersal of Quadrantid low a rate. For such reactions, calculations of rates must
stream meteoroids is also reflected in the observation be made, which involve solutions of the wave equations
that the shower radiant is relatively diffuse, except close for the two nuclei as they approach, collide and recede
to maximum activity. from one another.
Quadrantid meteors are medium-paced at 41 km/s The probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics pro-
(25 mi/s). The fainter examples are often described as vides an explanation for the ability of particles to tunnel
bluish, whereas the bright Quadrantids sometimes show a from one state to another (of equal energy) without hav-
pronounced yellow-green colour. ing to acquire the extra energy to pass over the potential
barrier that separates the two states. Such tunnelling, for
quadrature Position of the Moon or a planet when at example, allows nuclear reactions to occur at lower ener-
right angles to the Sun as seen from Earth. At this time, gies (and hence lower temperatures) than they would
its ELONGATION, the angular distance between it and the otherwise require.
Sun, is either 90 or 270. The Moon is at quadrature On a somewhat grander scale, attempts are currently
when it is at first and last quarter. See also CONJUNCTION being made to examine the properties of wave functions
that represent the entire Universe, to see if the BIG BANG
quantum theory Theory introduced by Max PLANCK could be the result of tunnelling from a different state.
and Albert EINSTEIN at the beginning of the 20th
century that showed that light really has a dual nature: it quantum theory of gravity Theory intended to possess
can interact with matter either as a particle (photon), the predictive power of GENERAL RELATIVITY and to exhibit
exchanging energy and momentum, or as a wave, quantum properties. Einsteins theory of general relativity
producing interference and diffraction phenomena. In is based on a form of mathematics called differential
1924 Louis Victor de Broglie (18921987) introduced geometry and also on the idea that SPACETIME is a
326
quasar
CONTINUUM. Continuum theories differ from QUANTUM between hadrons themselves is believed to be a remnant of
THEORY in several ways, the most basic being that there is the interquark force. The colour force is weak when quarks
some smallest size or unit in quantum theories, but not in are close together, but becomes extremely powerful as
continuum theories. Physically this means that a region of quarks move apart, preventing quarks from escaping from
spacetime can be divided into infinitely small parts and within hadrons. Almost certainly, therefore, quarks cannot
there will never be a smallest piece. exist outside hadrons as separate free particles.
The mathematical apparatus of each of these types of
theories is totally different. Theories of the strong, weak quasar Most luminous category of ACTIVE GALACTIC
and electromagnetic forces are all quantum theories and NUCLEUS. The name is formed from the acronym QSRS
they are described by wave functions and probabilities. (for quasistellar radio source) because the initial
Gravitational theory, on the other hand, is described by identification in 1963 was of several examples that had
differential equations on a continuous manifold. There are strong radio emission and appeared in the Third
no uncertainties in general relativity and no discrete quan- Cambridge Catalogue of radio sources.
tum states. Many physicists, including Einstein himself, Quasars are characterized by a very luminous core
have endeavoured to find a quantum theory of gravity that source, with a blue continuum and strong, broad emis-
would retain the predictive power of general relativity, but sion lines, strong X-ray emission, and, for quasars prop-
also exhibit quantum properties. If one were successfully er, strong radio emission, either from the core itself or
to develop such a theory, one would need to postulate the from a double radio source much like that around RADIO
existence of an exchange particle that mediates the GRAVI- GALAXIES. Any surrounding galaxy must be very faint, so
TATIONAL FORCE. This BOSON, called a GRAVITON, must that it would not appear on conventional photographs. quasar This set of quasar
be mass-less so the force is proportional to 1/r2, and it Quasars generally have redshifts (z) greater than images shows the bright
must have a spin of 2. Individual gravitons have never 30,000 km/s (20,000 mi/s) out to the largest values yet nuclear activity that lies at the
been directly detected. observed. Most quasars are variable on a variety of heart of these galaxies. Each of
Every attempt to derive a complete quantum theory timescales, which set limits to the size of the emitting these quasars is probably
of gravity and to put it in a mathematical form similar to region. These limits are a few light-days or even smaller, fuelled by material falling into a
the other three FUNDAMENTAL FORCES has failed. Prob- which is one of the reasons for the popular model in massive central black hole.
lems arise at very small distances, close to the PLANCK
SCALE, where quantized theories of gravity have charac-
teristics, described as quantum foam, that are not com-
patible with general relativity. This quantum foam
represents fluctuations in the shape and form of the
underlying spacetime and would lead to physical effects
that are not observed.
SUPERSTRING THEORY and other TOEs (see THEORY OF
EVERYTHING) are attempts to quantize gravity, and to
make it compatible with the other three fundamental
forces. Although these theories are progressing, they are
plagued by a lack of testable predictions since the interac-
tion energies involved are well beyond the energies achiev-
able in nuclear accelerators. It is quite possible that
cosmological observations might be the only way to test
string theories of elementary particles.
327
quasistellar object
quasistellar object The Quasars are very important in the study of cosmology
Very Large Telescope (VLT) and galaxy evolution, not least because they furnish
images of HE 1013-2136 show bright and distant background sources that allow detec-
the quasars intensely bright tion of cool foreground gas (in and out of galaxies) via
nucleus. The right-hand image, absorption lines. Quasars also allow the detection and
enhanced to show more of the measurement of foreground masses through GRAVITA-
quasars surroundings, reveals TIONAL LENSING.
probable tidal tails and knots in
the host galaxy. quasistellar object (QSO) General designation for an
object with the optical and X-ray properties of a QUASAR,
but without the strong radio emission. QSOs by this
which the ultimate energy source is material accreting definition outnumber radio-loud quasars by about a
into a massive BLACK HOLE. The exact origin of the factor of ten, although in loose usage quasar is often
observed radiation remains unclear in this model, partic- used to include both kinds.
ularly where the continuum radiation arises with respect
to the accretion disk. Quetelet, (Lambert) Adolphe (Jacques) (17961874)
Some information is now available on the host galaxies Flemish statistician and astronomer, from 1828 director
of quasars at moderate redshifts, thanks to data from the of the Royal Observatory, Brussels. Quetelet did
Hubble Space Telescope. Radio-quiet quasistellar objects important work on meteor showers and their radiants. In
(QSOs) may occur in spiral, elliptical or merging galaxies, 1839 he published a Catalogue des principales apparitions
while radio-loud objects occur in elliptical galaxies or dtoiles filantes, which listed 315 meteor displays, calling
strongly merging systems. There is a marked excess of attention to the recurrence of the Perseid meteors every
galaxies with very close, compact companions, showing August 12.
that not only can some kinds of interaction trigger the
QSO phenomenon, but also that it can happen in episodes quiet Sun Term applied to the Sun when it is at the
not much longer than the lifetime of such an interaction minimum level in the SOLAR CYCLE, as opposed to the
(or a statistical connection would not be seen). Quasars active Sun. The quiet Sun shows reduced levels of FLARE,
form a continuum in luminosity and spectroscopic proper- CORONAL MASS EJECTION, SUNSPOT and other activity.
ties with type 1 SEYFERT GALAXIES, so that there are some
objects that have been treated as belonging to both cate- quintessence Undetected particles proposed as a fifth
gories because of their intermediate luminosity. fundamental force. Observations of distant supernovae
Various arguments have suggested that quasars and suggest that the Universe is accelerating. This fact,
radio galaxies are related in a unified scheme. This holds coupled with the COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND
that most such objects have a core surrounded by a torus results and the fact that there is not enough observed
of obscuring material which absorbs radiation from mass to close the Universe, suggests that the
infrared to soft X-rays very effectively, so that a quasar cosmological constant in Einsteins FIELD EQUATIONS is
viewed near the plane of such a torus would appear as a non-zero. The physical manifestation of this repulsive
radio galaxy. force could come in the form of previously undetected
The population of quasars has evolved strongly with particles called quintessence. Quintessence (or fifth
cosmic time. Going out in redshift from our neighbour- force) would have negative gravity and would cause the
hood, the space density of quasars increases dramatically Universe to accelerate its expansion. There is no
to redshift z=2.2. Beyond that (at earlier times), the densi- complete theory of quintessence particles and some
ty declines again, perhaps indicating that the objects actu- particle physicists think that if they exist, they must be
ally turned on for the first time at this epoch. the size of galactic clusters.
328
radial velocity
R
radar astronomy This
Magellan orbiter radar
image shows Maat Mons on
Venus. Radar observations
have allowed planetary
astronomers to penetrate
Venus dense atmosphere and
obtain an idea of the planets
surface topography.
radar astronomy Category of research using content between the Earth and the Moon derived from an
continuous-wave or pulsed transmissions, from Earth or analysis of the longer-period fading of the lunar echoes.
from space satellites, to study Solar System bodies. In A radar measurement of the distance of Venus settled
1944, when Germany began the bombardment of the ambiguities in the value of the SOLAR PARALLAX (hith-
London by V2 rockets, Stanley HEY was asked to modify erto known only to 0.1%) and the problem of the rate of
an anti-aircraft gun-laying radar in order to give early rotation of the planet. Success was first achieved by NASA
warning of the approach of a V2. By re-directing the equipment at Goldstone on 1961 March 10 using a con-
aerial beam to an elevation of 60 radar echoes were tinuous-wave system. Pulsed radar contact was achieved at
obtained from the rockets, but many other short-lived Jodrell Bank on April 8, soon followed by other successes
radar echoes were observed that had no connection with in the United States and the Soviet Union. From these dis-
the rockets. Hey concluded that these transient echoes tance measurements a definitive value of the solar parallax
were associated with the entry of METEORS into the upper was agreed. The spin of the planet affects the spectrum of
atmosphere. The radar waves are reflected from the long, the scattered radar waves, and in 1962 and 1963 measure-
thin columns of ionization formed at altitudes of about ments in the Soviet Union and the United States first
100 km (60 mi) when a meteoroid evaporates as it established that the planet was in retrograde rotation with a
plunges into the Earths atmosphere. The meteor trails period of 243 days. In 1962 the Soviet Union achieved
allow the measurement of the wind systems in the radar contact with Mercury, followed by the Jet Propulsion
100 km region of the atmosphere. The radar technique Laboratory in the United States in 1963 May. In 1963
allowed meteors to be observed during daylight and February radar contact was established with Mars by both
through clouds, revealing that major METEOR SHOWERS
were active in summer daytime. Methods of measuring
the United States and the Soviet Union. Procedures were
developed for radar mapping of the planetary surfaces. In
R
the velocity of the entry of meteors into the atmosphere the case of Mercury and Mars, optical imaging from space
were developed and a long-standing controversy about probes soon provided superior data, but the radar map-
the origin of the SPORADIC METEORS was settled. ping of the perpetually cloud-covered surface of Venus has
In 1947 November Frank Kerr (19182001) and been of outstanding importance. Radar maps have been
Charles Shain (d.1960) of the Commonwealth Scientific obtained of the planets surface with a resolution of a few
and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) in Aus- kilometres using APERTURE SYNTHESIS. In 1979 a comput-
tralia investigated the erratic changes in the strength of the er analysis of several months of the data from the radar
radar echoes scattered from the Moon. They made use of altimeter carried in the American PIONEER VENUS Orbiter
the Australian Governments short-wave transmitter, nor- produced a topographical map of more than 90% of the
mally used for broadcasting to North America, and were surface of Venus. The Soviet VENERA 15 and 16 spacecraft
able to distinguish two types of fading of the lunar echoes: placed in orbit around Venus in 1983 carried an aperture
a rapid fading with a period of seconds was superimposed synthesis radar system that mapped the whole planetary
on a longer-period fading of about 30 minutes. They sug- surface above 30 north latitude with a resolution of 1 to
gested that the rapid fading was associated with the libra- 2 km (c.1 mi). NASAs MAGELLAN satellite, launched in
tion of the Moon and that the long-period fading might 1989, mapped 98% of Venus surface with a resolution of
have an ionospheric origin. This was confirmed by around 100 m. Other objects in the Solar System detected
JODRELL BANK, and it was discovered that the long-period by radar include a number of asteroids, the four Galilean
fading was caused by the rotation of the plane of polariza- satellites of Jupiter, and Saturns rings. Radar echoes were
tion of the radar waves as they passed through the Earths obtained from Comet IRASARAKIALCOCK by the Gold-
IONOSPHERE (Faraday rotation). Further research showed stone and Arecibo antennae when it made a close
that the radar waves were not reflected uniformly from the approach to Earth (0.031 AU) on 1983 May 11.
whole disk of the Moon, but from a region at the centre of
the visible disk that had a radius of only one-third of the radial velocity Component of velocity directed along
lunar radius. Another significant result of lunar radar work the line of sight. Radial velocities are found from the
has been the systematic measurement of the total electron Doppler effect, in which the spectrum lines from an
329
radiant
approaching body are shifted to shorter wavelengths (to each particle has an energy given by E = hf, where h is
the blue) and those from a receding body to longer the PLANCK CONSTANT.
wavelengths (to the red). At low velocities compared Of particular interest to astronomy is the relationship
with the speed of light (such that relativity theory is not between the temperature of the surface of a hot body and
required), the velocity relative to the speed of light is the way that surface emits radiation, which is affected by
directly proportional to the relative shift, and is the nature of the surface itself. It is well known that not all
considered positive for a receding body, negative for an surfaces raised to the same temperature radiate energy in
approaching one. the same way. Some reflect well, but others may be highly
absorbing. By KIRCHHOFFS LAW the efficiency of the
radiant Circular area of sky, usually taken as a matter of emission by a heated object at a particular wavelength is
observational convenience to have a diameter of 8, from proportional to the efficiency of its absorption at the same
which a METEOR SHOWER appears to emanate. Radiant wavelength. Thus an object that absorbs with 100% effi-
positions are normally expressed in terms of right ciency over the whole SPECTRUM, known as a black body,
ascension and declination. Meteor showers usually take will also be the most efficient when it comes to emitting
their name from the constellation in which the radiant lies radiation. The emission from a black body, known as
the PERSEIDS from Perseus, GEMINIDS from Gemini, and BLACK BODY RADIATION, is a good approximation to the
so on. The radiant effect, with meteors appearing emission from many astronomical objects, including stars
anywhere in the sky with divergent paths whose (SPECTRUM lines are mostly minor deviations from the
backwards projection meets in a single area, is a result of overall emission). Black body radiation follows a bell-
perspective: in reality, shower members have essentially shaped curve (see PLANCK DISTRIBUTION). The peak of
parallel trajectories in the upper atmosphere. Meteors the distribution shifts to shorter wavelengths as the tem-
close to the radiant appear foreshortened, whilst those 90 perature increases (see WIENS LAW), which leads to the
away have the greatest apparent path lengths. Meteor common experience that at moderate temperatures
shower radiants move eastwards relative to the sky objects glow a dull red, then change colour successively
background by about one degree each day thanks to through bright red, yellow, white to blue-white as the tem-
Earths orbital motion. perature is increased. The total emitted energy increases
A meteor shower radiant position may be determined rapidly with temperature, leading to the STEFANBOLTZ-
from the backwards projection of plotted or photographed MANN LAW. At wavelengths significantly longer than that
trails. The radiant can also be found from parallactic of the peak emission, the simpler RayleighJeans approxi-
observations of a single meteor recorded at geographical mation may often be used, while at wavelengths shorter
locations separated by a few tens of kilometres. than the peak, the Wien approximation can be used.
The operation of these laws leads to a simple relation-
radiation Energy transmitted in the form of ship between the colour of a star and its surface tempera-
electromagnetic waves or photons, or by subatomic ture, T. For example:
particles. Radiation provides us with almost all the
8540
information we have about the Universe. In particular, T
the study of radiant energy is fundamental to our B V + 0.865
understanding of stellar structure, because it enables us to where (B V) is the COLOUR INDEX. See also
radiant Meteors from a deduce the temperatures and luminosities of stars as well BREMSSTRAHLUNG; C ERENKOV RADIATION; ELECTROMAG-
common source, occurring as their chemical constitutions. NETIC RADIATION; FREEFREE TRANSITION; LIGHT; LIGHT,
during a shower such as the Radiation behaves in two different ways depending VELOCITY OF; SYNCHROTRON RADIATION
Perseids, enter the upon the interaction with which it may be involved. Dur-
atmosphere along parallel ing INTERFERENCE, DIFFRACTION and POLARIZATION it radiation belts Regions of a planetary MAGNETOSPHERE
trajectories, becoming behaves like a wave, while during the photoelectric effect that contain energetic ions and electrons trapped by the
luminous at altitudes around and the COMPTON EFFECT it behaves as though it were planets magnetic field. These belts are usually doughnut-
80100 km (5060 mi). If an formed of a stream of particles. This waveparticle duality shaped regions. The particles trapped in the belts spiral
observer on the ground plots is not unique to radiation; entities such as ELECTRONS and along the magnetic field lines and bounce backwards and
the apparent positions of PROTONS that are normally regarded as particles also forwards between reflection points encountered as they
meteors on a chart of the exhibit a wave nature, as for example in the operation of approach the magnetic poles. The electron motion
background stars, they will the electron microscope. produces SYNCHROTRON RADIATION, a characteristic
R appear to diverge from a
single area of sky, the radiant.
As a wave, radiation has a wavelength, , and a fre-
quency, f or v, which are related by the equation f = c,
emission from the individual planetary systems. The
particles are captured from the SOLAR WIND or are formed
The radiant effect is a result where c is the velocity of LIGHT (see ELECTROMAGNETIC by collisions between COSMIC RAYS and ions in the planets
of perspective. SPECTRUM). As a particle, called a PHOTON, or quantum, outer atmosphere. The Earth, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune are all known to possess radiation belts, while the
magnetosphere of Mercury is too small compared to the
planetary radius to support this phenomenon.
The radiation belts of Jupiter are vast in spatial scale
and are additionally supplied by accelerated particles orig-
inating from the volcanic moon IO. The resulting particle
flux is about 1000 times more intense than in the VAN
meteor layer ALLEN BELTS that surround the Earth. They present a for-
midable obstacle for spacecraft, such as GALILEO, since in
the region of the most intense radiation the probe would
receive an integrated dose of about 200,000 rads from the
electrons and 50,000 rads from the protons. This may be
compared with a dose of 500 rads, which is sufficient to
kill a man. The intense bombardment of a spacecraft can
saturate the sensitive instruments, upset the on-board
computer systems and interfere with its communications
with the Earth (see also SPACE WEATHER).
The radiation belts of Saturn were discovered by the
PIONEER 11 spacecraft in 1979. The extensive system of
rings and the satellites residing inside the magnetosphere
observer observers field of view of Saturn sweep away the charged particles, such that the
fluxes maximize just outside the rings. The radiation belt
particles around Uranus and Neptune also interact with
330
radio astronomy
the ring and satellite systems, but the fluxes are relatively which is known as its atomic number. Nuclei of the same
low, probably due to the weak interaction between the element may have different numbers of neutrons and
solar wind and the planetary magnetospheres at these dis- thus different masses; these are called ISOTOPES of the
tances from the Sun. element. Each nucleus with a particular number of
protons and neutrons is called a nuclide. The sum of the
radiation era Time before the universe became numbers of protons and neutrons is the atomic weight.
transparent to photons about 300,000 years after the BIG Some nuclides are unstable, generally because they
BANG. The period before this transition is called the contain too few or too many neutrons relative to the
radiation era since radiation dominated the thermal number of protons. These nuclides decay spontaneously
evolution of the universe up until that time. After the into more stable nuclides. This process is called
universe became transparent, matter began to dominate radioactivity or radioactive decay.
and atoms, stars and galaxies could form. A heavy nucleus with too many protons may emit an
alpha particle, consisting of two protons and two neutrons
radiation pressure Pressure exerted on a surface by (a helium nucleus). A lighter nucleus may reduce the
incident ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION. This pressure number of protons by capturing an electron or emitting a
arises because each incident photon transfers a tiny positron, thereby converting a proton to a neutron. If
quantity of momentum to the surface. For BLACK BODY there are too many neutrons, one of them may be convert-
RADIATION, the pressure is given by: ed into a proton by emitting an electron (beta particle).
4 Some of these transformations also produce gamma rays,
4T
P = which are highly energetic photons (X-rays). These
3c processes transmute an unstable nucleus of one element
where is the STEFANBOLTZMANN constant, T the into another that is stable; they are known as parent and
temperature and c the velocity of light. One well-known daughter nuclides respectively. Each kind of unstable
observed effect concerns the dust tails of COMETS, which nuclide has a characteristic rate of decay. The time taken
are affected by the Suns radiation pressure and therefore for half of the atoms of an isotope to decay is called its
always point more or less away from the Sun, so that half-life; various nuclides have half-lives ranging from
when moving outwards, after perihelion, the dust tail of a fractions of a second to billions of years.
comet precedes the nucleus. Radiation pressure also The decay rate is unaffected by the chemical state of
limits the maximum mass of a star to about 100 solar the atoms or by physical factors such as temperature and
masses. At that size, the temperature of the star will be pressure; this property makes radioactivity an excellent
sufficiently high that the radiation pressure pushing chronometer for measuring ages of geological materials.
outwards balances the inward forces of gravity. Since For example, three different isotopes of uranium decay to
both gravity and radiation follow INVERSE SQUARE LAWS, three isotopes of lead with different half-lives, the longest
once equality is reached at one point within the star, it will of which is about 4.5 billion years. Precise measurements
be equal throughout the star. Any material moving of abundances of these isotopes in minerals in the most
outwards will therefore continue to do so, and the star will primitive meteorites show that they formed (coincidental-
become unstable, shedding material until its temperature ly) about 4.56 billion years ago, which defines the age of
is lowered sufficiently for it to become stable again. our Solar System. Other useful parentdaughter systems
with long decay times include 40K40Ar (the superscript is
radiation temperature Temperature of an object found the atomic weight of the nuclide), 87Rb87Sr and three
by assuming that its emission at a particular wavelength, nuclides of SmNd. Shorter-lived nuclides produced by a
or over a small wavelength region, is that of a BLACK nearby SUPERNOVA were present in the early Solar System.
BODY. The temperature is obtained using the Planck These nuclides are now extinct, but they have left evi-
equation (see PLANCK DISTRIBUTION). It is similar to the dence in the form of their stable daughter nuclides, which
EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, except that the effective provide relative chronometers. The most important of
temperature uses the total emission at all wavelengths these is 26Al, which decays to 26Mg with half-life 700,000
from the object and hence the STEFANBOLTZMANN LAW. years. An excess 26Mg in aluminium-bearing minerals
indicates that they formed before all of the 26Al had
radiative transfer Most important process by which decayed; the amounts give relative formation times over a
heat energy is transported from a stars hot interior to its span of the first few million years of the Solar Systems
surface. In radiative transfer, high-energy photons lose
energy as they travel outwards through the hot plasma.
history. Other extinct parentstable daughter pairs include
53
Mn53Cr and 129I129Xe.
R
This loss of energy occurs as the photons are scattered, Energy released by radioactive decay is an important
mainly by free electrons. The photons can also lose source of internal heat for planetary bodies, driving con-
energy if they are absorbed by an ion, and photo- vection in Earths mantle and core. In the early Solar Sys-
ionization occurs. These processes take place in the tem radioactive nuclides were more abundant, and species
radiative zones of the stars. that are now extinct were then significant sources of ener-
gy. The abundance of 26Al was sufficient to melt planetes-
radioactive age dating Method of determining age imals a few hundred kilometres in size, and radioactive
by measuring the RADIOACTIVITY of a nuclide with a heating was the cause of thermal processing of meteorites.
known half-life. The principle behind radioactive age
dating is the fixed rate with which an unstable radioactive radio astronomy Study of a wide range of objects from
isotope (the parent) decays to a stable isotope (its the coolest, most quiescent astronomical objects (namely
daughter). The time taken for a radionuclide to decay to the neutral hydrogen gas in the Galaxy) to some of the
half its initial abundance is the half-life (T1/2) of the most energetic (such as PULSARS and QUASARS) in the radio
system. Several isotope systems with different half-lives region of the spectrum. Every type of astronomical object
are used to measure different events within Solar System has been studied at radio wavelengths, including the Sun,
history. Long-lived radionuclides, such as uranium or planets, stars, nebulae, galaxies and the cosmic microwave
rubidium, are used to date the age of formation of background. The radio wavelength region covers the range
meteorites. Short-lived radionuclides, such as plutonium, from around 10 to 20 m (30 to 15 MHz), where the radio
aluminium or manganese, date the formation interval waves are absorbed and scattered by the ionosphere, and
between stellar processing of material and its 350 m (850 GHz), where atmospheric water vapour
incorporation into meteoritic components. absorbs the radiation. The short-wavelength region from
350 m to 10 mm is now considered the domain of
radioactivity Spontaneous emission of radiation from SUBMILLIMETRE-WAVE ASTRONOMY and MILLIMETRE-WAVE
an atomic nucleus. An atom of a given chemical element ASTRONOMY, and the region between 1 mm and 30 mm
is characterized by the number of protons in its nucleus, (300 GHz and 1 GHz) is also known as the MICROWAVE
331
radio galaxy
332
radio telescope
source Virgo A, a powerful radio galaxy. A JET of gas The first radio interferometers were built in the early
8000 l.y. long can be seen, and the light is polarized, 1950s and were used to measure the sizes and positions of
showing that the synchrotron mechanism is at work, and the strong sources then known. Objects such as the pecu-
there is a strong magnetic field present. liar galaxy CYGNUS A were shown to be emitting vast
The positions of the radio galaxies must be determined quantities of radio energy from small regions. The identi-
with very high precision, using VERY LONG BASELINE fication of the strong radio source Taurus A with the CRAB
INTERFEROMETRY. This enables telescopes to image the NEBULA supernova remnant was only possible after an
faint optical counterparts. The structure of the galaxies, accurate position had been measured with the Dover
the lobes and jets can be mapped using APERTURE SYN- Heights Sea Interferometer near Sydney, Australia. This
THESIS, so that details can be investigated using telescopes instrument used only one aerial perched on the top of a
such as the VERY LARGE ARRAY. Radio astronomers have cliff overlooking the sea; the second aerial was formed by
found that the extended radio lobes are almost invariably the reflection of the first in the water.
connected to the central galaxy by jets, which seem to
originate from the galactic nucleus. High-frequency VLBI radio scintillation Irregular rapid changes in the
observations have revealed strong, point-like, active radio apparent intensity of radio sources, caused by variations
sources in the nuclei of many objects. It seems clear that in the electron density in the IONOSPHERE (mainly the F2
the basic engine that drives the explosion lies in the layer) and in the interplanetary gas. It occurs only with
galaxys nucleus, although it is unclear what the engine sources of less than 1 diameter. See also SCINTAR
might be. Whilst the collision of two galaxies may con-
tribute to the engine, INTERACTING GALAXIES are usually radio telescope Instrument used to collect and measure
weak radio sources. Radio galaxies may have more in ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION emitted by astronomical
common with QUASARS and BL LACERTAE OBJECTS, which bodies in the radio region of the spectrum. The radio
are as powerful radio emitters as radio galaxies (or slightly region extends from around 10 mm to around 1020 m.
more powerful). Radio galaxies have more emission at The short-wavelength region from 10 mm to 350 m is
lower frequencies: in the famous THIRD CAMBRIDGE CATA- now defined as the MILLIMETER-WAVE ASTRONOMY and
LOGUE (3C) about 70% of sources are found to be radio SUBMILLIMETRE-WAVE ASTRONOMY range, but much of the
galaxies, but in surveys made at higher frequency, such as equipment and many of the techniques are the same as
the Parkes 2700 MHz survey, less than 50% are believed those in the radio region. Almost all the types of object
to be radio galaxies. Radio galaxies may be old quasars or studied with optical telescopes have also been observed
failed quasars. There is still much to learn. with radio telescopes. These include the Sun, planets,
stars, gaseous nebulae and galaxies. Furthermore, RADIO
radio interferometer Two (or more) RADIO ASTRONOMY has been responsible for the discovery of
TELESCOPES separated by a distance greater than (or several new and unsuspected types of astronomical
comparable to) their diameters that are looking at the phenomena, such as QUASARS, PULSARS and the COSMIC
same astronomical object; their signals are combined MICROWAVE BACKGROUND.
electronically. Radio interferometers were developed in The first radio telescope was built by Karl JANSKY in
order to permit radio telescopes to attain much higher the early 1930s, and he recognized that the noise he was
resolution than was possible with a single telescope detecting came from the Milky Way. Following World War
(usually more than 60). Radio telescopes are used as II, there was a glut of cheap (or free) radar and communi-
interferometers to get more accurate positions for radio cations equipment. Using this equipment, experimental
sources, allowing telescopes at other wavelengths (most telescopes were built, mainly in Australia and England,
commonly optical telescopes) to identify the source of the but there was interest in many countries including USA,
radio emission, and to map sources in greater detail to Soviet Union, France and Japan. Since radio wavelengths
identify the places of most intense radio emission. are large, the paraboloid receiving dish does not have to be
When the two signals from the two separate telescopes solid (as in an optical telescope): if the radio telescope is
are combined correctly (see INTENSITY INTERFEROMETER) operating at wavelengths longer than around 20 cm, it can
they will either reinforce or cancel each other, depending use mesh instead. There are several types of radio tele-
on the amount of delay between the two signals. If the two scope in addition to the standard steerable telescope.
telescopes of the interferometer are arranged along an Occasionally, radio dishes have been built on EQUATORIAL
eastwest line on the Earth, a radio source moving across MOUNTINGS, similar to those used for most optical tele-
the sky will produce a series of maxima and minima as the
delays between the signals received by the two telescopes
scopes, but these have not proved popular. Radio tele-
scopes are normally built with ALTAZIMUTH MOUNTINGS.
R
change. It can be difficult to decide whether the delay is That is, their basic movements are up-down and around
zero or a whole number of wavelengths, but the ambigui- parallel to the horizon. The altaz mount, as it is known,
ties can often be removed by observing with the radio tele-
scopes at different separations from each other (changing
the amount of the delay). For this reason many radio secondary reflector
interferometer telescopes are mounted on railway tracks,
which permit the spacings to be changed easily.
LONG BASELINE INTERFEROMETRY and VERY LONG
BASELINE INTERFEROMETRY do not use physical connec-
tions; instead the signals from each telescope are record-
ed on high-quality video tape recorders, with very
accurate time signals (from atomic clocks or masers)
recorded on a time-track along with the sky signals. The
separate tape recorders have to be synchronized at play-
back to a very high accuracy. radio telescope Just like
In a normal radio interferometer with two telescopes, an optical reflector, a radio
the voltage levels from the signals received at each tele- telescope depends on
scope are not added together but multiplied. In this case primary reflector collection of electromagnetic
the power output of the combined signal is proportional radiation by a large aperture,
to the product of the individual voltages and the individ- parabolic reflector, often in the
ual telescope dish diameters, so a small dish can be very form of a dish. Radio waves
effective as an interferometer when working with a sec- are brought to a focus on the
ond larger dish of large collecting area. Interferometers detector. Most radio
can reach resolving powers of better than a thousandth telescopes can be steered in
of an arcsecond. altitude and azimuth.
333
radio waves
presents many engineering advantages, particularly with long wavelengths the radio waves are absorbed and
the advent of powerful computer control systems. In fact, scattered by the IONOSPHERE. See also ELECTROMAGNETIC
many new optical telescopes are being built with altaz SPECTRUM; MICROWAVES; MILLIMETRE-WAVE ASTRONOMY;
mounts. The largest steerable telescopes are the 100-m SUBMILLIMETRE-WAVE ASTRONOMY
Effelsberg Radio Telescope (near Bonn) and the 100-m
Green Bank Telescope (in Virginia), followed closely by radius vector Imaginary straight line between an
one of the oldest, the 250-ft (76.2-m) JODRELL BANK tele- orbiting celestial body and its primary, such as the line
scope. The third largest steerable telescope is the 64-m from the Sun to a planet. See also KEPLERS LAWS
(210-ft) PARKES RADIO TELESCOPE in Australia. The
300-m (1000-ft) telescope in ARECIBO, Puerto Rico, is Ramsden eyepiece Basic telescope EYEPIECE consisting
suspended over a sinkhole and does not move, although of two simple elements. While it has a wide field of view,
tracking capability is provided by the secondary mirror. the Ramsden eyepiece suffers from CHROMATIC
Even with these very large telescopes the resolving power ABERRATION and poor EYE RELIEF, so the KELLNER
is poor by optical standards (perhaps around 60100 at EYEPIECE is usually preferred. It is named after the
typical wavelengths); the problem has been overcome by English optician Jesse Ramsden (17351800).
combining several radio telescopes using APERTURE SYN-
THESIS to mimic a bigger telescope (up to the size of the Ranger First NASA space probes to investigate another
Earth). Another approach is to use two (or more) tele- Solar System body, in this case the Moon. Of the nine
scopes as a RADIO INTERFEROMETER to improve the reso- probes launched in 196165, only the last three were
lution. VERY LONG BASELINE INTERFEROMETRY using a few successful. The first success came with Ranger 7 in 1964
telescopes, very widely separated, can produce a resolving July, when 4316 television images of the surface at ever-
power of a few thousandths of an arcsecond. increasing resolutions were returned before the spacecraft
A single radio telescope does not produce a picture hit the region now known as Mare Cognitum. A MARE
directly (unlike an optical telescope); the dish must be area was selected because of its relatively level and
scanned forwards and backwards to build it up, and the uncratered surface, two essential criteria for the future
data then fed through a computer. The computer is also APOLLO PROGRAMME manned landings.
vital for controlling the telescope (which may weigh 1000 The final wide-angle frame covered an area about
tonnes), pointing it accurately at the required position in the 1.6 km (1 mi) square, showing craters down to about
sky, moving continually in two coordinates (altitude and 9 m (30 ft) in diameter. The best-resolution images
azimuth), and correcting for the inevitable deformation of a showed craters as small as 1 m (3 ft) in an area about 30
large dish. The accuracy required is often better than 10, by 49 m (100 by 160 ft).
which becomes millimetres when translated into dish move- Ranger 8 was targeted to a point in southwest Mare
ments. Most radio telescopes are not located inside build- Tranquillitatis, while Ranger 9 headed for a more scientif-
ings, so the computers have to correct for weather too, such ic target, the crater Alphonsus. The images showed that
as high winds, cold and heat. Radio telescopes can also be the lunar mare areas were free from small, deep craters
adversely influenced by ice, rain and lightning. and widespread rock fields, and that they would support
the weight of a spacecraft. The Rangers also provided
radio waves ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION with accurate values of the Moons radius and mass ratio with
wavelengths ranging from millimetres to hundreds of respect to the Earth.
kilometres. Radio waves were first generated artificially by
Heinrich Hertz (185794) in 1888. Radio astronomers RAS Abbreviation of ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY
measure radio waves in frequency units (cycles per
second, called hertz, symbol Hz) as often as in Rasalgethi The star Herculis, an irregularly variable
wavelength units, for example the TWENTY-ONE red giant with an estimated diameter about 400 times the
CENTIMETRE LINE of neutral hydrogen and the four lines Suns, distance about 400 l.y. It is of spectral type M5 Ib
of OH at 1612, 1665, 1667 and 1720 MHz. To convert or II and is so large that it pulsates in size, ranging between
from one to the other is quite straightforward: frequency about mags. 2.7 and 4.0 with no set period. It is also a
wavelength = velocity of light (f = c). binary, with a wide bluish companion of mag. 5.4, easily
visible in small telescopes, which orbits it in 3600 years or
radio window Range of wavelengths, from around a few so. The name comes from the Arabic ras al-jath, mean-
R millimetres to about 20 m, to which the terrestrial
atmosphere is transparent. The window has several
ing the kneelers head; the figure of Hercules is tradition-
ally depicted in a kneeling position.
subdivisions, which have become separate areas of
astronomy because of the techniques used for observing Rasalhague The star Ophiuchi, visual mag. 2.08,
them: the submillimetre, the millimetre and the distance 47 l.y., spectral type A5 V. Its name comes from
microwave. At short wavelengths, the radio waves are the Arabic ras al-hawwa, meaning head of the serpent-
absorbed by water vapour in Earths atmosphere, and at bearer, since Ophiuchus was traditionally depicted
holding Serpens.
Ranger Paving the way for Rayet, Georges Antoine Pons See WOLF, CHARLES
the later Apollo programme, JOSEPH TIENNE
the Ranger missions provided
early high-resolution pictures of Rayleigh scattering Scattering of light by particles
potential lunar landing sites. smaller than the wavelength of the light. It is named after
This is the first US spacecraft the British physicist Lord Rayleigh (18421919). The
image of the Moon, obtained efficiency of the scattering increases rapidly as the
by Ranger 7 on 1964 July 31, wavelength decreases, thus leading to blue skies on Earth,
showing the crater Alphonsus since the blue light from the Sun is scattered much more
at right centre. than the red by molecules in the atmosphere.
334
Reber, Grote
sumably cooler.
8
During the initial decline the normal ABSORPTION spec-
trum is rapidly replaced by a rich EMISSION SPECTRUM. All
RCB variables have an infrared excess. Variations in the 10
infrared do not occur at the same time as changes in the
visual, and changes in either may be unrelated to changes 12
in the other.
A number of models have been proposed to account 14
for the behaviour of RCB variables. In one, a gas cloud 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
time (years)
forms above the photosphere and moves outwards. As it
335
reciprocity failure
(wavelength 1.87 m), he succeeded in recording radio reddening Phenomenon exhibited by radiation as it
emission from the Milky Way. passes through the interstellar medium and is absorbed
From then until after World War II, when Stanley HEY by gas or dust and re-radiated. Most of this re-radiation is
and others began to follow up their wartime research, at a longer wavelength than the original incident
Reber was the worlds only radio astronomer. He detected radiation. As such, visible light is re-radiated at a redder
radio emission from many sources (then called radio wavelength than it originally had. Generically, radiation is
stars) that did not correspond to visible stars, such as described as reddening as it travels, and this description is
CASSIOPEIA A and CYGNUS A. He also found that the Sun even applied in the infrared.
and the Andromeda Galaxy emitted at radio wavelengths.
In 1948, with the potential of radio astronomy rapidly red dwarf Star at the lower (cool) end of the MAIN
coming to be appreciated, he tried unsuccessfully to raise SEQUENCE with spectral type K or M. Red dwarfs surface
funds for a 67-m (220-ft) US radio telescope; instead the temperatures are between 2500 and 5000 K and their
worlds first large dish was constructed at JODRELL BANK, masses are in the range 0.08 to 0.8 times that of the Sun.
UK, under the direction of Bernard LOVELL. Reber con- Red dwarfs are the most common type of star in our
tinued to map the radio sky, particularly at 12 MHz Galaxy, comprising at least 80% of the stellar population.
(150300 m) with modest equipment of his own con- Examples are BARNARDS STAR and PROXIMA CENTAURI.
struction, moving to Tasmania in 1954. Red dwarfs have a similar composition to the Sun,
with a thick outer convection zone compared to the
reciprocity failure In astrophotography, pronounced radius of the star. They exhibit many solar-type phe-
diminution in the effective sensitivity or speed of a photo- nomena, such as spots, a chromosphere, a corona and
graphic emulsion with longer than optimum exposures. flares. The rotation rate of many red dwarfs has been
In bright conditions, image brightness is inversely pro- determined from fluctuations in their light-curves due to
portional to exposure time (hence reciprocity). Thus, the presence of large, cool starspots analogous to
doubling the exposure time exactly compensates for a SUNSPOTS. The slower the rotation, the less active the
halving of image brightness. But the reciprocity fails with star. Red dwarfs with rotation rates above about 3 to
the very low image brightnesses encountered in astropho- 5 km/s (23 mi/s) often show flare activity and are
tography, and much longer exposures are necessary. One known as FLARE STARS.
way of countering this effect is to subject the film to All red dwarfs close enough to be studied in detail
HYPERSENSITIZATION. show a spectrum consistent with the existence of a chro-
mosphere. X-ray emission suggests the existence of coro-
recombination Capture of an electron by a positive ion. nae; the more active the red dwarf, the higher the X-ray
In a PLANETARY NEBULA or DIFFUSE NEBULA, hydrogen emission, suggesting hotter coronae. See also DWARF STAR
atoms (as well as other atoms and ions) are ionized (or
further ionized) by ultraviolet radiation from hot stars. red giant Star that has finished burning hydrogen in its
Protons and heavier ions then capture the free electrons, core and that is experiencing hydrogen shell burning. As
which takes the ions to their next lower ionization states a consequence, its atmosphere expands and its effective
(hydrogen becoming neutral). Recombination to an atom temperature falls to between 2000 and 4000 K, making it
or ion can take place on any energy level. As electrons appear red in colour. Red giants have SPECTRAL TYPE K
move from the levels on to which they are captured to or M and lie in the upper right hand part of the
lower levels, they radiate EMISSION LINES. HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM. They have diameters
10 to 1000 times that of the Sun. ARCTURUS and
Recta Rupes (Straight Wall) Lunar fault running from ALDEBARAN are red giants.
20S 8W to 23S 9W. This fault is radial to the Mare Red giants are often VARIABLE STARS, with slowly pul-
IMBRIUM; it was probably formed by the shock wave sating surface layers. Because of the red giants large radii,
from that impact and then covered by its EJECTA. Later, the gravitational effect falls considerably at their outer lay-
basalts flooded the region, placing stress on the fracture ers; they often lose substantial amounts of material from
until it activated as a fault. The fault has a slope angle of STELLAR WINDS, producing a PLANETARY NEBULA.
approximately 40, though in telescopes it appears The Infrared Astronomy Satellite (IRAS) discovered
much steeper. The mare ridges surrounding Recta many red giant stars embedded within extensive dust
Rupes are from the submerged walls of an ancient crater shells, which, radiating at a temperature of a few hundred
R (see GHOST CRATER). Kelvin, are detectable only in the infrared.
recurrent nova (NR) BINARY STAR system in which the Red Planet Common name for the planet MARS, owing
secondary is a late type (G, K or M) giant filling its to its striking red colour.
ROCHE LOBE and transferring material to a less massive
WHITE DWARF primary. At intervals of years to tens of redshift (z) Lengthening of the wavelengths of
years this accreted material on the surface of the white ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION caused by the expansion
dwarf explodes in a thermonuclear reaction, causing the of the Universe and curved SPACETIME. Wavelength
brightness of the star to increase by 7 to 10 magnitudes shifts are commonly ascribed to the DOPPLER EFFECT,
for about 100 days in the visible and for double that at first described by Christiaan Doppler (180353) in
other wavelengths. These stars are brighter at minimum 1842. Though the redshifts that pertain to the
than an ordinary NOVA, but not because of the cycle Universe are not caused by the Doppler effect, it must
length; the stars with longer cycles tend to show faster be examined first.
development and brighter maximum luminosity. The Doppler effect is encountered in all manner of
Recurrent novae may be regarded as ordinary novae wave motion, from water waves through sound waves to
that have had more than one outburst (of lesser amplitude light. Its most familiar aspect is the drop in the pitch of
than normal novae) or as DWARF NOVAE with very long sound from a passing automobile or aircraft. As a body
intervals between outbursts. Typical recurrent novae are: approaches, the waves seem to be shifted to shorter
T Coronae Borealis, which had outbursts in 1866 and wavelengths; if the body is receding, the wavelengths
1946 (with two smaller outbursts in 1963 and 1975); RS appear longer. The Doppler shift is readily detected in
Ophiuchi, with outbursts in 1898, 1933, 1958 and 1985; astronomical bodies by the shifts in the wavelengths of
and T Pyxidis, which flared up in 1890, 1902, 1920, 1944 spectrum lines. An approaching body has its spectrum
and 1966. At present only six confirmed recurrent novae lines shifted towards longer wavelengths, in the vernacu-
are known, with a few additional suspected systems. Apart lar of astronomy towards the blue (a blue shift, no
from RS Ophiuchi and T Pyxidis, which closely resemble matter what the lines actual colours). The lines of a
one another, the systems show considerable variations in receding object are shifted towards longer wavelengths,
their characteristics. similarly towards the red (a red shift). The greater the
336
reference stars
speed along the line of sight (the RADIAL VELOCITY), the used. Unfortunately, there is no unique simple formula,
greater the wavelength shift. Under ordinary low-veloci- because the relation depends on the structure of the Uni-
ty circumstances (such that relativity is not required), the verse. Indeed, we can use redshift and distance measure-
relative shift (change in wavelength divided by wave- ments to learn about the structure of the Universe.
length) equals the radial velocity (v) divided by the speed The redshift of a given body tells us how much the
of light (c), or Universe has expanded since the light left that body. The
(observed 0)/0 = v/c fractional change in wavelength during the flight time of a
photon is observed/emitted, where emitted is the rest wave-
where observed and 0 are respectively the observed and length 0. This ratio equals the fractional degree to which
rest (laboratory) wavelengths. the Universe has expanded, given by Robserved/Remitted,
Half the stars show blue shifts in their spectra, the other where Remitted is the distance between two galaxies at the
half red shifts. The single-word term redshift, however, is time of photon emission and Robserved is the distance at the
reserved for galaxies. The redshift (z) is simply the time it was received. The redshift z is therefore
observed relative wavelength change:
(observed 0)/0 = observed/0 1 = Robserved/Remitted 1
z = (observed 0)/0
Thus Robserved/Remitted, which could be thought of as a local
which in Doppler notation is v/c, or v = zc, which works as radius of the Universe, equals z + 1. That is, if the red-
long as the velocities and distances are by the standards shift z for a given galaxy is 0.5, the Universe has expanded
of cosmology small. by a factor of 1.5 since the light departed the galaxy on its
In 1914 Vesto M. SLIPHER, at the Lowell Observatory way to us.
in Arizona, began studying the spectra of objects then The most highly redshifted photons are those in the
called spiral nebulae, but today known to be galaxies. He COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND radiation. These pho-
found that 11 of the 15 he examined displayed redshifts, tons have been travelling towards us since matter and radi-
thereby indicating a strong preference for recessional ation decoupled from each other (that is, when the
motion. Years later, Edwin HUBBLE at the Mount Wilson Universe went from being opaque to transparent) about
Observatory in California proved these objects to be (by 300,000 years after the Big Bang. They exhibit a redshift
present standards) relatively nearby galaxies, each rather of z = 1000, meaning that their wavelengths have been
like our own Galaxy. By 1929 Hubble had succeeded in stretched a thousand-fold during their 13-billion-year
proving that the redshift of a galaxy is directly proportion- journey to Earth.
al to its distance from Earth. This discovery, today called
the HUBBLE LAW, can be written as v = H0d = zc, where d redshift survey Method of mapping the three-
is the distance to a galaxy and H0 is a term of proportion- dimensional distribution of galaxies in space, with the aim
ality called the HUBBLE CONSTANT. The value of H0, which of determining the LARGE-SCALE STRUCTURE of the
has been hotly contended, is currently set at around Universe, by measuring the REDSHIFTS of a large,
70 km/s/Mpc; that is, the recession velocity of a galaxy controlled sample of galaxies, either to a certain
increases by 70 km/s for every megaparsec away from the magnitude limit or in a specific region of the sky. A
Earth. The Hubble law tells us that the Universe is notable early achievement was the CfA Redshift Survey
expanding its galaxies (really the clusters of galaxies) are by Margaret GELLER and her team. Current redshift
getting farther apart. surveys, such as the 6dF (Six-degree Field) Galaxy
If megaparsecs and kilometres are scaled to each other, Survey or the SLOAN DIGITAL SKY SURVEY, employ
H0 has units of inverse seconds. The inverse of H0 there- bundles of optical fibres, each precisely aimed at a
fore has units of seconds, and thus gives an age for the different galaxy, to enable the spectra and hence the
Universe (discounting gravitational drag or Einsteins redshifts of several hundred galaxies to be obtained at
accelerative cosmological force) of around 13 billion one pointing of the telescope.
years. The Hubble law is also reversed to find distances to
remote galaxies simply by measuring their redshifts. If Rees, Martin John (1942 ) English cosmologist and,
v = zc = H0d, then d = zc/H0. Redshift distances are from 1995, the fifteenth ASTRONOMER ROYAL, who has
being used to map great portions of the Universe. studied quasars, galaxy formation and clustering, and the
Redshifts of the most distant galaxies are so great that cosmic microwave background radiation. His models of
they can be determined through colour alone. At maxi-
mum, z exceeds 5. The simple Doppler formula would
quasars were the first to show convincingly that they are
supermassive black holes at the centres of distant galaxies.
R
suggest that such bodies are moving away at over five In the 1960s, his studies of quasar redshifts showed that
times the speed of light, which is impossible. The expan- their distribution increased with increasing distance,
sion of the Universe is properly described by the theory of providing strong observational evidence for the Big Bang
GENERAL RELATIVITY, formulated by Albert EINSTEIN. theory, and against the steady-state model.
According to this description, space expands with time.
Galaxies are not moving through space, but are riding reference stars Stars whose positions on the celestial
along with space as it grows larger. Redshifts of galaxies sphere are known to a high degree of accuracy, allowing
caused by the expansion of space are therefore not the them to be used to measure the relative positions of other
result of the Doppler effect. When a galaxy radiates ener- celestial objects. Those whose positions are most
gy, its photons become trapped in the web of space along accurately known are classed as FUNDAMENTAL STARS,
with everything else. As the photons approach us, space their positions recorded in a FUNDAMENTAL CATALOGUE.
expands, and therefore the photons stretch and their
wavelengths lengthen and shift to the red. The farther
away the galaxy, the longer the flight time and the greater
the stretch. Distant galaxies therefore have greater red-
shifts than nearby ones. Superimposed on those redshifts
related to the expansion of the Universe are genuine
Doppler shifts caused by the local motions of galaxies
through space. Such Doppler effects can mask the effects redshift survey Combining
of expansion and have historically made the determination data from several surveys, this
of H0 quite difficult. plot shows redshifts for nearly
The Doppler formula (v = zc) gives velocities when the 14,000 galaxies. Among the
redshifts are low, much less than 1. But when the redshift large-scale structure revealed is
z approaches 1, zc no longer equals v, and a correct for- the Virgo Cluster, near the
mula, given by the theory of general relativity, must be centre of the plot.
337
reflectance spectroscopy
reflectance spectroscopy Technique that involves the light path outside the tube (sometimes along the dec-
shining light on to a geological sample so that the lination axis). This system is known as the
interaction of the light with the atoms and crystal Cassegrain/coud (see COUD FOCUS).
structure of the material produces a characteristic Very large mirrors suffer from distortion as they
pattern of absorption and reflectance bands. This expand and contract with changes in temperature, posing
technique is used by planetary geologists to determine problems for the constructors of large professional reflec-
the mineralogical properties of the surfaces of planets tors. This problem was reduced in the 1930s by making
and satellites without having actually to sample the rocks telescope mirrors from the newly developed Pyrex, which
or subject them to geochemical analysis in the has a very low coefficient of linear expansion. The recent
laboratory. See also SPECTROSCOPY introduction of quartz and ceramics means that modern
mirrors hardly expand or contract at all.
reflecting telescope (reflector) Telescope that collects Bernhard SCHMIDT and Dmitri MAKSUTOV designed
and focuses light using mirrors. After an unsuccessful and built the first corrector-plate telescopes. They were
attempt by James GREGORY in 1663 to make an all-mirror initially intended for photographic use, but can be adapt-
telescope, the first workable reflecting telescope was ed to provide portable instruments for visual observing.
demonstrated to the Royal Society, London, by Isaac All the various systems incorporate a corrector plate in
NEWTON in 1668. The lenses of the time all suffered from front of the main mirror. There are several optical designs
CHROMATIC ABERRATION, and the idea was to replace for this type of telescope, each giving a wide field at the
refracting lenses with a curved mirror. With the reflecting prime focus which enables photographs to be taken of
surface on the front face of the mirror, there was no need large areas of the sky.
for the material of which the mirror was made to be trans- The most important and delicate parts of any reflecting
parent, so materials other than glass could be used. The telescope are the reflecting surfaces, and over the years
first reflectors experimented with metal mirrors, as these many different materials have been tried in the quest for a
were easier to manufacture. An alloy made from 68 parts durable COATING that will reflect the greatest possible
copper and 32 parts tin, called speculum metal, was rou- amount of light. For many years silver was used, as a
tinely used until the late 19th century, and it was not until newly applied burnished finish will reflect 95% of visible
200 years after Newton that Jean FOUCAULT made the first light. Silvers tendency to oxidize and tarnish renders it
silver-on-glass mirror. less durable than other coats, but it can readily be
The NEWTONIAN TELESCOPE uses a parabolic mirror renewed. Aluminium was used from the 1930s. It reflects
surface to reflect the light falling upon it back to a single 87% of visible light, but its application requires the mirror
point known as the PRIME FOCUS. By introducing a small to be placed in vacuum during deposition, so ALUMINIZ-
flat secondary mirror at 45 just before this focus, the cone ING is a job for professionals.
of light is diverted through a right angle to an EYEPIECE Other metals have been tried, but their hardness
mounted on the outside of the telescope tube. requires abrasives to be used to remove them before
The magnification of the image is the FOCAL LENGTH recoating. Rhodium is least affected by chemical and
of the mirror divided by the focal length of the eyepiece. physical ageing but is very expensive and has less reflec-
With a mirror of 2000 mm focal length, for example, a tivity than either silver or aluminium. Overcoating alu-
20-mm eyepiece will magnify 100 times. The FOCAL minium-coated mirrors has been experimented with to
RATIO (focal length divided by APERTURE) of common try to reduce oxidation and has proved successful in
types of amateur reflectors is usually around f/8 or f/6. extending the life of the mirror surface. The length of
This means, for example, that a typical f/8 200-mm time between aluminizations, however, will always
(8-in.) reflector will have a tube about 1.6 m (5.2 ft) long. depend on the care taken in looking after the telescope,
In the 17th century, other mirror arrangements were the amount of use it gets and the air pollution at the tele-
devised. Some, like the GREGORIAN TELESCOPE, had such scope site. See also REFRACTING TELESCOPE; TILTED-
long focal lengths that they proved unwieldy and soon COMPONENT TELESCOPE
fell out of favour. The development in the late 17th cen-
tury of the CASSEGRAIN TELESCOPE, in which light is reflection grating DIFFRACTION GRATING in which light
reflected back from the secondary through a hole in the is dispersed into a SPECTRUM by means of a series of close-
primary mirror, allowed long focal lengths to be accom- ly spaced, equidistant parallel grooves ruled on to a metal
modated in shorter, less cumbersome tube assemblies. In surface. A typical spacing density for the grooves in an
R order not to have to perforate the primary, a small flat
mirror can be introduced into the optical system to direct
optical reflection grating for astronomy is about 1000
grooves per millimetre, and the size of the separation
(about one micrometre) is not much bigger than the
wavelength of light. Light of different wavelengths there-
fore reflects from the grating in different directions (DIF-
FRACTION) creating a high-quality spectrum. See also
SPECTROSCOPE; TRANSMISSION GRATING
338
Regiomontanus
339
regolith
regolith Loose incoherent material of any origin on the relaxation time (RT) Interval during which individual
surface of a planet or satellite. The term was first stars orbits within a star cluster will be changed
suggested for Earths materials at the end of the 19th significantly by the gravitational perturbations of other
century, but it was not widely used until the 1960s, when stars within the cluster. As a result, some stars will then
it was applied to lunar surface material formed by have orbits that take them out of the cluster, and 1% of
multiple meteorite impacts. Lunar regolith consists the stars will so escape over the relaxation time. In about
mostly of unsorted fragments (from micrometres to 40 RT, the stars of the cluster will either escape or
metres across) of local bedrock, with an admixture of collapse down to the centre to form a black hole, and
material brought ballistically from distant areas. Among this is therefore the maximum lifetime of a star cluster.
the other components of regolith are the products of For a GALACTIC CLUSTER like the PLEIADES, the
impact melting, such as pieces of glass (often containing relaxation time is around 10 million years, for a
unmelted mineral grains), and so-called regolith BRECCIA, GLOBULAR CLUSTER it is a few hundred million years,
in which small fragments of the bedrock and pieces of while for a galaxy like the Milky Way it is a few hundred
glass are cemented within a fine-grained matrix of the thousand million years.
same composition. Lunar regolith is a few metres thick in
lunar maria and thicker in lunar highlands. Regolith of Renaissance astronomy Astronomy as practised in
Mercury and asteroids seems to be rather similar to lunar Renaissance Europe, from the recovery of authentic
regolith. Regolith of Mars is thought to have been formed Greek astronomical texts in the mid-15th century, to the
not only by meteorite bombardment but also by aeolian transition from classical to Newtonian and telescopic
and, in the planets early history, fluvial erosion and astronomy in the mid-17th century. Renaissance astrono-
accumulation. Regolith of icy satellites is fragmented ice my grew out of the astronomical traditions of MEDIEVAL
with an admixture of non-icy components, such as EUROPEAN ASTRONOMY, with its underlying concern with
organic materials and possibly silicates. the calendar, tabular computation, and the cosmologies of
Ptolemy and Aristotle. Its initial point of departure was
regression of the nodes Slow retrograde (westwards) the recovery of authentic Greek astronomical texts, to
motion of the NODES of the Moons orbit on the ecliptic, as replace the corrupted Latin translations of the medieval
a result of the gravitational attraction of the Sun. A full universities, following the influx of Byzantine Greek
circuit takes 18.6 years, and it is the cause of the largest scholars and books into Italy, especially after the fall of
components of the NUTATION of the Earths axis of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
rotation, which also has a period of 18.6 years. In fact, In Rome in the 1460s, Cardinal Johannes Bessarion
regression of the nodes is a common property of all planets (13951472) encouraged astronomers such as Georg von
and satellites. For the planets it is caused by PURBACH and REGIOMONTANUS to study Ptolemy in the
PERTURBATIONS of other planets, and for satellites it is original Greek, and to undertake a programme of
caused mainly by the oblateness of the planet. The observations. Indeed, the run of solar declination
direction of motion is opposite to the direction of motion of observations made by Bernhard Walther (14301504) at
the satellite, so for retrograde satellites (for example Triton, Nuremberg with a large set of Ptolemys rulers between
and some artificial Earth satellites), the nodes move around 1475 and 1504 effectively began observatory research in
the equatorial plane of the planet in the direct sense. northern Europe. Reverential to the past as all of these
astronomers were, they were active not only in producing
Regulus The star Leonis, visual mag. 1.36, distance accurate digests of Almagest, but also in comparing the
77 l.y., spectral type B7 V. It is the faintest first-magnitude Greek and Arab observations with positional
star. Regulus has a wide companion of mag. 7.7 visible in measurements in their own day. Indeed, it was a concern
binoculars and small telescopes. The name comes from with checking the ancients that initiated original,
the Latin meaning little king. observation-based research in Renaissance Europe.
Problems with the retrograde motions of Mars, Jupiter
Reinmuth, Karl (18921979) German astronomer who and Saturn led Nicholas COPERNICUS, who had previously
worked at the Knigstuhl Observatory, Heidelberg made original planetary position observations in Bologna
(191257) on the astrometry of asteroids. Reinmuth and Rome, to devise his heliocentric system of the
discovered 270 asteroids, including many Trojan heavens in 1513, though his monumental De
asteroids, and Hermes, which in 1937 came within revolutionibus was not published until 1543. And, like a
R 800,000 km (500,000 mi) of Earth. He also discovered
two short-period comets.
good classical scientist, Copernicus searched for
heliocentric schemes amongst the ancient Greeks before
publishing his own model. De revolutionibus, however,
relativity See GENERAL RELATIVITY; SPECIAL RELATIVITY marked a decisive turning-point in astronomical history,
because of the inevitable challenge put up by the
relative sunspot number Daily index of sunspot heliocentric theory. If the Earth, against reason and
activity, R, defined as R = k (10g + f), where k is a factor common sense, both rotated on its axis and revolved
based on the estimated efficiency of observer and around the Sun, then that motion should be detectable
telescope (usually 1), g is the number of groups of through the slight seasonal discrepancies displayed by
sunspots (irrespective of the number of spots each astronomical bodies.
contains), and f is the total number of individual spots in The need to settle the question of a moving or
all the groups. The relative sunspot number has also been stationary Earth by observation gave rise to the great
called the Wolf number and the Zrich number, after the enterprise of Tycho BRAHE. Uraniborg, his observatory
pioneering sunspot records begun in 1848 by Rudolf on Hven island, Denmark, was Renaissance Europes
WOLF at the Zrich Federal Observatory. While empirical, greatest centre of scientific research, with its graduate
the formula gives a good indication of overall solar activity. students, craftsmen, laboratories, workshops and printing
press. Yet even Tychos superb instruments were unable
to detect an annual PARALLAX. What they did produce,
regolith This picture from however, was a body of observational data from which
Surveyor 5 shows the Johannes KEPLER would derive his three laws of planetary
spacecrafts footpad on the motion based on elliptical orbits, which demanded the
lunar surface following its 1967 abandonment of the ancient pre-requisite of uniform
landing. These missions helped circular motion.
to establish that the regolith of Renaissance astronomy came to its greatest fruition in
the Moon had sufficient GALILEOs revolutionary telescopic observations after
mechanical strength to support 1610. He used his observations of the lunar seas, Jupiters
later manned Apollo landers. four large satellites, sunspots and the stars of the Milky
340
retardation
341
Reticulum
342
rille
NAGLER EYEPIECE) designed to show a wide (25) field Rhea This Voyager 1 image
of view at a relatively low magnification. Such an instru- of Saturns satellite Rhea was
ment is ideal for studying starfields and hunting for obtained from a distance of
novae and comets. 128,000 km (79,500 mi) in
1980 November. Features as
Rigel The star Orionis, seventh-brightest in the sky, small as 2.5 km (1.5 mi) in
with a visual mag. of 0.18. It is a blue supergiant of diameter are visible on Rheas
spectral type B8 Ia lying 773 l.y. away, and is 40,000 heavily cratered surface.
times as luminous than the Sun. Rigel has a companion
of mag. 6.8, difficult to see in small telescopes because of
the glare from the primary. The name comes from the
Arabic rijl, meaning foot.
343
ring, planetary
Sinuous rilles are characterized as meandering chan- four narrow dusty rings between 1.65 and 2.4 radii; the
nels of relatively small width, with sloping sides; they ter- outermost contains denser regions known as RING ARCS.
minate in MARE regions. The rings of Uranus and Neptune consist of dark materi-
Arcuate rilles have flat floors between steep sided walls al, probably of carbon-rich composition; both sets of rings
(see GRABEN). They occur in parallel sets that are roughly contain bodies of metre to kilometre size.
concentric with a basin ring. Examples of arcuate rilles are Much of our knowledge of these ring systems comes
seen around Mare Serenitatis and Mare Humorum. from the VOYAGER spacecraft. Their varied configurations
Floor fractures are characterized by radial or concentric are due primarily to gravitational perturbations by satel-
fractures in crater floors. Such craters occur along mare lites in their vicinity. Saturns rings may either be primor-
boundaries, suggesting that the lava that filled the basin dial or the result of tidal disruption of a captured large
also tracked up faults beneath these craters and collected cometary body or CENTAUR. The other ring systems,
beneath their floors, fracturing them into plates. which are much less massive, are probably the result of
disruption of small satellites by cometary impacts. The
ring, planetary Band of particles orbiting a planet fine dust in these systems is constantly renewed by mete-
inside its ROCHE LIMIT, where tidal forces prevent them oroid bombardment of the larger ring particles.
from accreting into a satellite. All four of the large outer
planets are surrounded by ring systems, which have ring arcs Longitudinal structures within the outermost of
complex and varied structures. Neptunes rings over which the rings brightness varies by
JUPITER has a narrow, tenuous ring of small particles, about a factor of three. They extend for between 1 and
ring arcs Material in the probably of silicate composition, at about 1.8 planetary 10. Five such regions were discovered by the VOYAGER 2
tenuous rings around Neptune radii. It is surrounded by a halo of charged grains of spacecraft. As orbital motions of ring particles would
is distributed in clumps, rather micrometre size, which are levitated by the planets mag- quickly even out such features, they must be maintained by
than as a uniform sheet. netic field. The outer gossamer ring has a very low densi- some mechanism, most likely resonant perturbations by
Voyager 2 obtained this image ty and extends out to 2.9 radii. one or more small satellites. See also RESONANCE
of denser concentrations (ring SATURN has three broad main rings, named C, B and
arcs) in Neptunes outer Adams A, in order of distance outwards from the planet. They ring galaxy GALAXY, clearly distinct from a spiral or
ring in 1989 August. extend from 1.2 to 2.3 planetary radii. There is also a faint elliptical, in which a ring of stars surrounds the nucleus
inner D ring, which may extend down to the top of the like the rim of a wheel. Ring galaxies are thought to arise
planets atmosphere. Despite their great width, these rings as a result of a DENSITY WAVE produced when a small
are less than 100 m (330 ft) thick. They consist of parti- galaxy passes through a larger one. Ring galaxies are also
cles of sizes from about 1 cm to 10 m (0.333 ft), which distinct from ringed galaxies, in which normal stellar
are composed mostly of water ice. The main rings have dynamics (often in the presence of a bar) have channelled
radial variations in density and several gaps, such as the stars into a prominent ring about the galaxys centre.
ring galaxy NGC 4560A in CASSINI DIVISION, which are produced by satellite pertur- Collisional rings often have an off-centre nucleus, or none
Centaurus, as shown in this bations. Saturn also has a narrow F ring confined between at all. See also CARTWHEEL GALAXY
Very Large Telescope (VLT) two small satellites, PANDORA and PROMETHEUS. The ten-
image, appears to consist of a uous E and G rings consist mainly of micrometre-sized Ring Nebula (M57, NGC 6720) Bright PLANETARY
lenticular galaxy surrounded by grains; the E ring extends out to about 8 planetary radii. NEBULA located midway between and Lyrae (RA 18h
a ring of dust and stars. The URANUS has 11 narrow rings of widths 5 to 100 km 53m.6 dec. 3302). The nebula has an elliptical profile,
structure is almost certainly the (360 mi) in the region 1.45 to 2 radii. They are separated with a diameter across the major axis of 71 and a darker
result of a collision between by wide gaps containing dust and believed to be occupied central region. Although the Ring Nebula, at overall
two galaxies. by unseen small satellites. NEPTUNE has two broad and magnitude 8.8, is an easy object for small telescopes,
even large instruments struggle to reveal the magnitude
15.3 central star. The nebula is toroidal in shape and is
seen almost end-on. It was formed about 5500 years ago
and lies at a distance of 4100 l.y. The Ring Nebula was
discovered by the French astronomer Antoine Darquier
(17181802) in 1779 January.
344
rocket astronomy
345
Rmer, Ole Christensen
sources, two of which were extragalactic (the active galaxy decreased as the orbital motions of the Earth and Jupiter
M87 and the nearest quasar, 3C 273). brought them closer together, and increased as the two
Advances in infrared astronomy suffered from the diffi- planets moved farther apart. Rmer correctly deduced that
culties of developing instruments and operating them at the differences were caused by light taking a finite time to
very low temperatures. The first success was the project travel the intervening distance. The next year, he was able
HISTAR to launch a 166-mm (6 -in.) telescope cooled to announce a value for c equivalent to about 225,000 km/s
by liquid helium. Seven flights were made from White (140,000 mi/s), three-quarters of the true value.
Sands between 1972 April and December, with two more Rmer returned to his homeland in 1681, becoming
from Australia in 1974 to survey the southern sky. the Danish Astronomer Royal in Copenhagen, where he
Although the total observing time was only about 30 min- invented the transit telescope.
utes, the project generated a catalogue of more than 2000
celestial infrared sources. roof prism Optical component often used in compact
Much of the research previously undertaken with binoculars to produce an image that is the right way up
sounding rockets has since been taken over by orbiting and the right way round as seen by the user. The
observatories, but sounding rockets are still widely used in OBJECTIVES and EYEPIECES in a pair of binoculars would
the United States, Europe, Japan, India and Brazil. NASA produce inverted images if used alone, so another
currently uses 13 different suborbital launchers and con- component such as a roof prism must be placed between
ducts about 25 launches annually from sites at White them to cancel out this inversion. Unlike the PORRO PRISMS
Sands, Wallops Island and Poker Flat in Alaska, although that they are beginning to replace where size is important,
many of these are devoted to microgravity experiments roof prisms permit the objectives and eyepieces to be in
rather than astronomy. line, leading to a more compact shape.
Their rapid launch capability and recovery time (a typ-
ical flight lasts no more than half an hour) and relatively Roque de los Muchachos Observatory (Observato-
low cost also ensure that suborbital rockets still have an rio del Roque de los Muchachos, ORM) Major optical
important role to play. Their quick response capability astronomy facility on the island of La Palma in the Canary
was demonstrated by the launch of six NASA rockets Islands at an elevation of 2400 m (7870 ft). It occupies
from Australia in 198788 to monitor SUPERNOVA 1987A. some 2 sq km (0.8 sq mi) on the highest peak of the
Sounding rockets also serve as low-cost test-beds for Caldera de Taburiente and is named after the Rock of the
new techniques, instrumentation and technology intended Companions at the very highest point. The observatory
for future satellite missions. For example, the payloads belongs to the INSTITUTO DE ASTROFSICA DE CANARIAS
flown to study Supernova 1987A included the first pho- (IAC), and was developed jointly by Spain, the United
ton-counting CCD X-ray camera ever flown. NASA mis- Kingdom, Denmark and Sweden. The site was estab-
sions that have benefited from precursor flights include lished as an observatory in 1979 and inaugurated in 1985.
the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, the Solar and Its clear skies, atmospheric stability and freedom from
Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) and the Transition light pollution make it one of the northern hemispheres
Region And Coronal Explorer (TRACE). best locations for optical astronomy.
Current research areas for rocket astronomy include The ORMs facilities include the 4.2-m (165-in.),
observations of the ionosphere, the aurora and processes 2.54-m (100-in.) and 1.0-m (39-in.) telescopes of the
in the magnetosphere, together with X-ray studies of the ISAAC NEWTON GROUP, the 3.5-m (138-in.) GALILEO
Sun and supernova remnants. These frequently take place NATIONAL TELESCOPE and the 2.6-m (102-in.) NORDIC
as part of coordinated observational programmes involv- OPTICAL TELESCOPE. Other instruments include the Carls-
ing ground-based instruments and satellite overpasses, for berg Automatic Meridian Circle for positional astronomy,
example during total solar eclipses. the HEGRA gamma-ray facility and a solar tower operat-
ed by Sweden. In 2001 the 1.2-m (48-in.) Mercator Tele-
Rmer, Ole Christensen (16441710) Danish scope of the Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium, was
astronomer, the first to obtain a reasonable approximation completed, and the 2.0-m (79-in.) LIVERPOOL TELESCOPE
for the value of the speed of light (c). In 1671 Rmer, then went into operation the following year. When it is com-
professor of astronomy at the University of Copenhagen, pleted in 2003, the largest conventional telescope on the
was offered a post at PARIS OBSERVATORY by Jean Picard site will be the 10.4-m (34-ft) GRAN TELESCOPIO
(162082), who was impressed with the accuracy of the CANARIAS, although a 17-m (56-ft) Cherenkov radiation
R Danes measurements. At Paris, the director Giovanni
Domenico CASSINI had instigated a broad programme of
telescope is also under construction.
observations with the object of drawing up tables that Rosalind One of the small inner satellites of URANUS,
Rosat This all-sky map of could be used by navigators to find longitude at sea. It had discovered in 1986 by the VOYAGER 2 imaging team.
diffuse X-ray emission was been suggested that the periodic eclipses by Jupiter of the Rosalind is about 58 km (36 mi) in size. It takes 0.558
obtained from Rosat. The Galilean satellites would provide a suitable standard. days to circuit the planet, at a distance of 69,900 km
brightest sources are In 1675 Rmer, checking eclipse times based on predic- (43,400 mi) from its centre, in a near-circular, near-
supernova remnants and the tions by Cassini, found that they did not match the equatorial orbit.
central region of the Galaxy. observed times: intervals between successive eclipses
Rosat (Roentgen Satellite) Joint German/UK/US
mission launched in 1990; it produced the first high-
resolution, all-sky astronomical surveys at X-ray and
extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) wavelengths. It detected about
150,000 X-ray sources and 600 EUV sources, and
obtained more than 9000 observations of objects such as
quasars, galaxy clusters, black holes, supernova remnants
and protostars. Discoveries included X-ray emissions
from comets. The mission ended on 1999 February 12.
346
Rowland, Henry Augustus
Rossi, Bruno Benedetto (190593) Italian-American Rowland, Henry Augustus (18481901) American
physicist regarded as the founder of high-energy physicist who devised a method of ruling DIFFRACTION
347
Royal Astronomical Society
GRATINGS more finely than previously, achieving nearly Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope Originally a
1700 lines per millimetre (43,000 lines per inch). Using southern-hemisphere outstation of the GREENWICH
his own gratings, Rowland also made a detailed map of OBSERVATORY, the observatory was proposed in 1821 and
the solar spectrum that was named after him. completed in 1828 near Cape Town, South Africa. Dur-
ing the 19th century, it generated most of the accurate star
Royal Astronomical Society (RAS) Britains main positions measured in the southern skies. Under David
organization for professional astronomers (though GILL the observatorys work was expanded to include the
amateurs are admitted), founded in 1820 and receiving compilation of star catalogues from photographic surveys
its Royal Charter in 1831. The Societys aims are the (see CAPE PHOTOGRAPHIC DURCHMUSTERUNG). At the
encouragement and promotion of astronomy and beginning of 1972 the observatory broke its 140-year-
geophysics, which it achieves by publishing the results of long association with the ROYAL GREENWICH OBSERVATORY
scientific research and holding regular meetings. Its main and became the SOUTH AFRICAN ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVA-
publications are Monthly Notices and Geophysical Journal TORY. The original observatory buildings serve as the new
International, both of which have international organizations headquarters.
reputations. The RAS headquarters are at Burlington
House, Piccadilly, London. Royal Observatory, Edinburgh (ROE) Scotlands
national observatory from 1822 until the formation of the
Royal Astronomical Society of Canada (RASC) UK ASTRONOMICAL TECHNOLOGY CENTRE (ATC) in
Principal astronomical body in Canada, with a 1998. It began its life at Calton Hill, Edinburgh, where it
membership of around 4500 amateur and professional rose to prominence under the direction of Charles Piazzi
astronomers. Originally established in the mid-19th SMYTH, Astronomer Royal for Scotland 18461888. A
century, the organization was granted its Royal Charter move in 1896 to its present site at Blackford Hill, 3 km
in 1903. The Royal Astronomical Society of Canada (2 mi) south of the city centre, allowed the observatory to
(RASC) is based in Toronto, with 25 regional centres escape the pollution of Edinburgh, and in 1928 a new
across the country. A bi-monthly Journal publishes 0.91-m (36-in.) reflector was installed. The ROEs outsta-
observational reports and analyses, and the annual tion at Monte Porzio Catone, Italy, was opened in 1967,
RASC Observers Handbook is a useful guide to followed by the UNITED KINGDOM SCHMIDT TELESCOPE in
astronomical phenomena. 1973 and the UNITED KINGDOM INFRARED TELESCOPE in
1979. Growing expertise in astronomical technology even-
Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand tually led to ROE being selected as the UKs ATC in 1998.
(RASNZ) New Zealands main organization for amateur With the transfer of its remaining astronomy support func-
and professional astronomers, who work in close tions to the INSTITUTE FOR ASTRONOMY, UNIVERSITY OF
collaboration principally on variable star observations and EDINBURGH (with which the observatory had always had
their analysis. Founded in 1920, the RASNZ received its close ties), ROE formally ceased to exist. However, the
Royal Charter in 1967 and is based in Wellington. It has name is retained for the site and the Visitor Centre.
around 200 members drawn from the islands.
Observational work is coordinated by special interest r process Method of creating heavy stable nuclei within
groups and sections, with reports published in a quarterly the interiors of stars by successive capture of neutrons. In
journal Southern Stars. the r process, neutrons are added rapidly before the nuclei
has time to decay, a process that occurs in SUPERNOVAE.
Royal Greenwich Observatory (RGO) Britains for- See also NUCLEOSYNTHESIS; P PROCESS; S PROCESS
mer national astronomy institution, so named after its
move from GREENWICH OBSERVATORY in 1948. The new RR Lyrae variable (RR) Type of pulsating VARIABLE
location at Herstmonceux Castle, near Eastbourne, Sus- STAR. RR Lyrae stars are radially pulsating GIANTS of
sex, offered much-improved observing conditions, and spectral classes AF, with periods that are generally
by 1958 the move was complete. A comprehensive suite fractions of a day. At visible wavelengths their
of telescopes at the new site included the 0.91-m (36-in.) amplitudes are 0.22 mag. These stars are often called
Yapp Reflector (which was formerly at Greenwich), the short-period Cepheids or cluster variables. The latter
largest instrument at Herstmonceux until the 2.5-m name originated when Solon BAILEY, in 1895,
(98-in.) ISAAC NEWTON TELESCOPE was completed in discovered numerous examples in GLOBULAR CLUSTERS.
R 1967. In the 1970s, the RGO played a major role in
developing the ROQUE DE LOS MUCHACHOS
It was soon found that some of the brightest globular
clusters contained many of these stars, and within a few
RR Lyrae variable This is OBSERVATORY, eventually the home of the ISAAC NEWTON years hundreds had been found.
the light-curve of a typical RR GROUP OF TELESCOPES. With the shift in emphasis to These rapidly pulsating stars have light-curves that dif-
Lyrae star. Like Cepheids, overseas observing, there was no need for telescopes on fer from classical CEPHEID VARIABLES. Most rise very
these stars show a rapid rise to British soil, and the RGO underwent a controversial and quickly to maximum in only a tenth or less of their total
peak light followed by a slower protracted move to Cambridge in 1990. Further contro- period. Their minima are comparatively prolonged, so
decline. Commonly found in versy over the location of a UK ASTRONOMICAL TECH- that for a few hours their light remains constant. Their
globular clusters, RR Lyrae NOLOGY CENTRE led to the closure of the RGO in 1998 periods range from 1.2 to 0.2 days. In 1900 the first short-
stars have much shorter October, bringing to an end 323 years of distinguished period Cepheid was found outside a globular cluster; it
periods than Cepheids. astronomical achievement. was discovered by Williamina Fleming, at Harvard, and
was RR Lyrae, the type star of these variables. At first it
was thought that this star must have escaped from a glob-
ular cluster, but as more and more such stars were discov-
ered away from globular clusters the idea was dropped.
7.0
There are now more than 6000 of these stars known
7.2
(including subtypes), and roughly half are found in clus-
apparent magnitude
348
Rutherfurd, Lewis Morris
the stars surface layers almost coincides with maximum runaway star O and B
light: in this respect they resemble the classical Cepheids. stars ejected by supernova
Some stars show two simultaneous operating pulsating explosions from star-forming
modes the fundamental and the first overtone; such stars regions show high proper
are placed in a subtype of RR Lyrae variables designated motions and may produce a
RRB. Another subtype (RRAB) has stars with asymmet- bow shock in the interstellar
ric light-curves, with steep rises and periods from 0.3 to medium ahead of their
1.2 days. Their amplitudes range from 0.5 to 2 mags. The direction of travel. Shown here
type star, RR Lyrae, belongs to the RRAB subtype. Stars is HD 77581, companion to the
of another subtype (RRC) have nearly symmetrical (sinu- supernova remnant Vela X-1.
soidal) light-curves with periods of 0.2 to 0.5 days and
amplitudes that do not exceed 0.8 mag. The absolute
magnitude of RR Lyrae variables is about 0.5. They are
too faint to be seen in any but the nearest external galax-
ies, such as the dwarf system in Sculptor. Those found in
the Magellanic Clouds are at about the observable limit.
RR Lyrae variables may be used as distance indicators
out to about 650,000 l.y. The method used depends on
the stars motion in space. It is assumed that all the stars in
a globular cluster are at about the same distance and
therefore have the same velocities in space. The RADIAL
VELOCITY is one-third of the total space velocity. With
these assumptions, the approximate distance to a globular Russell, Henry Norris (18771957) American
cluster is found and this, in turn, gives its absolute magni- astronomer, famous for first publishing what is now called
tude. From the absolute magnitudes of clusters the size of the HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM (HR diagram).
the Galaxy may be calculated, because the globular clus- After graduating from Princeton University, he received
ters form a halo around it. It is then possible to extend his PhD there (1899) for a new way of determining binary
these measurements to the nearest external galaxies. star orbits. From 1902 he worked with Arthur Robert
Hinks (18731945) at Cambridge University, determin-
RS Canum Venaticorum star (RS) Type star for a ing stellar distances (and hence absolute magnitudes, M)
distinctive set of binary stars in which one star interacts by parallactic measurements on photographic plates. Rus-
with the other to produce giant starspots, resulting in sell returned to Princeton, where he became professor of
quasi-periodic variations in light with amplitudes of up to astronomy (191127) and observatory director
0.2 mag. RS Canum Venaticorum stars are X-ray sources (191247), and a major figure in US astrophysics.
and generate radio emission from flares. Back at Princeton, he built on his work at Cambridge
and discovered a correlation between M and the spectral
R star Warm CARBON STAR. Class R stars, recognized by types that were being assigned by Annie CANNON at Har-
bands of C2, CN and CH, describe spectra that track vard. In 1913 he produced what was initially known as
oxygen-rich stars from class G4 to M1 (5000 to 3600 K). the Russell diagram, on which he plotted M against
The class along with the cooler N STARS has been Harvard spectral type for over 300 stars. Immediately
subsumed into C, with subclasses R0R9 becoming apparent were the MAIN SEQUENCE running from top left
roughly C0C5. The classical carbon stars are on the to bottom right, and giant stars across the top.
second-ascent asymptotic giant branch of the (Unknown to Russell, Ejnar HERTZSPRUNG had done the
HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM. The warmer R stars same some years previously, but had published his
may be helium-burning red giants. results in an obscure journal and in a form less easy to
interpret.) The HertzsprungRussell diagram is the
Rubin, Vera Cooper (1928 ) American astronomer starting-point for all modern theories of stellar evolution,
who discovered the first persuasive observational evidence though Russell first thought, erroneously, that a star
for the existence of dark matter in galaxies. Working at the began its life as a giant and evolved down the main
Carnegie Institution from 1965, Rubin specialized in sequence to become a red dwarf.
galaxy dynamics and clustering. In 1978 she and her
colleagues observed that giant gas clouds in galaxies
Russell continued to study binaries throughout his life,
developing a method for estimating the sizes and orbits of
R
showed high rotational velocities that were consistent with eclipsing binaries. He also studied the solar spectrum, using
a dark matter model first proposed five years earlier by the SAHA EQUATION, and in 192829 was able to confirm
Jeremiah Ostriker (1937 ) and Jim PEEBLES. She realized Cecilia PAYNE-GAPOSCHKINs earlier finding that hydrogen
that only haloes of dark matter beyond the visible is the major constituent of the Sun and other stars.
boundaries of these galaxies could keep the gas clouds
orbiting. Rubin also discovered (1951) peculiar velocities RussellVogt theorem See VOGTRUSSELL THEOREM
of galaxies as they move through intergalactic space,
suggesting that the Universes LARGE-SCALE STRUCTURE is Russian Aviation and Space Agency Organization
less uniform than previously thought. controlling Russias activities in space. The Agencys
major goals are formally linked to the solution of social
runaway star Star moving with very high space veloci- and economic problems at home as well as the implemen-
ty, typically hundreds of kilometres per second. They are tation of Russias international interests as the first space-
usually of spectral class O or B. Some are thought to have faring power. They include the provision of
been ejected from a CLOSE BINARY system when its com- communications and broadcast facilities across Russia
panion exploded as a supernova. Some of the youngest and CIS territories, environmental monitoring, funda-
are likely to have escaped from their birthplaces through mental research including planetary science and astro-
the slingshot interactions of single and binary stars, and physics, and manned spaceflight.
several can be traced to particular star-forming regions.
For example, the massive stars Columbae, AE Aurigae Rutherfurd, Lewis Morris (181692) Pioneer
and the binary Orionis all seem to have left the Orion American astrophotographer who subsequently turned to
Nebula about 2.5 million years ago. They may indeed spectroscopy, using improved diffraction gratings of his
have originally been members of two close binaries that own design and making. Beginning in 1858, he used an
underwent a close encounter, flinging two stars away in 11.5-inch (290-mm) refractor by Henry Fitz (180863)
opposite directions and leaving the other two in a very to take some of the earliest photographs of the Sun,
eccentric mutual orbit. See also HIGH-VELOCITY STAR Moon and planets, and of stars as faint as 5th magnitude.
349
RV Tauri star
350
Sagittarius Arm
S
made by the VERY LARGE ARRAY, show remarkable struc-
tures, loops, arcs and a series of narrow parallel filaments
at right angles to the plane of the Milky Way, which radi-
ate by the SYNCHROTRON mechanism. The filaments may
indicate the presence of a strong magnetic field, but they
could also be created by winds. Within 3 l.y. of the centre
is a theta-shaped pattern. The ring of the theta is made of
gas that has probably piled up there as a result of some
outflow from the centre; alternatively it may be the tat- Sagittarius A The bright
tered remnant of one or more nebulae that were shredded point at the centre of this
by moving in the gravitational pull of the central stars. The image of Sagittarius A is an
bar of the theta, also gaseous, is surprisingly hot and X-ray flare from the area near
apparently has a different origin. There is a thin streamer the black hole at the centre of
of gas that may link the shell of material around the puta- the Milky Way. It brightened
tive black hole with the nearest gas cloud. Sgr A remains a dramatically in a few minutes
very mysterious object. and then declined over a
period of three hours.
Sagittarius Arm Next spiral arm of our GALAXY after
the ORION ARM, moving in towards the centre of the
Safronov, Viktor Sergeyevich (191799) Russian Galaxy. At its closest it is about 5000 l.y. from the Sun,
planetary astronomer, the foremost theorist of and it contains the LAGOON, EAGLE and ETA CARINAE
COSMOGONY in the 20th century. His detailed, NEBULAE. It extends in the sky from Serpens to
comprehensive and mathematically rigorous theory of the Centaurus, and may also continue into Carina to form
formation of planets from a circumstellar disk of gas and
dust underlies present-day research. He recognized that
SAGITTA (GEN. SAGITTAE , ABBR . SGE )
the rate of collisions among planetesimals, which led to
growth by ACCRETION, was controlled by their relative
velocities; the velocities were governed by mutual hird-smallest constellation but a distinctive one, representing an arrow,
gravitational perturbations, which were in turn controlled
by the mass distribution. He also examined the formation
T between Vulpecula and Aquila. Its brightest star, Sge, is mag. 3.5. Sge is
a triple system with bluish-white and bluish components, mags. 5.6 and 9.0,
of PLANETESIMALS by gravitational instability of a dust separation 8.3; the former has a very close companion, mag. 6.0. WZ SAGITTAE
layer in the protoplanetary nebula. is a recurrent nova; FG SAGITTAE is an unusual variable which slowly brightened
from about mag. 13.6 in 1890 to mag. 9.4 in 1967. The brightest deep-sky
Sagan, Carl Edward (193496) American astronomer object is M71 (NGC 6838), an 8th-magnitude globular cluster.
known for his Solar System studies, especially of planetary
atmospheres and surfaces, and investigations into life and
its origin on Earth. After working at the Smithsonian SAGITTARIUS (GEN. SAGITTARII , ABBR . SGR )
Astrophysical Observatory he moved to Cornell in 1968,
becoming director of its Laboratory for Planetary Studies
and professor of astronomy and space science. In the early arge, conspicuous southern zodiacal constellation, the Archer, usually
1960s he showed that, since a greenhouse effect should be
operating on VENUS, its surface temperature could be as
L depicted as a centaur aiming an arrow at the heart of neighbouring Scor-
pius. It lies between Ophiuchus and Capricornus, in a region rich in star clouds
high as 800 K. In 1963 Sagan and colleagues at NASA of the Milky Way, in the direction of the centre of the Galaxy. The brightest
repeated the MillerUrey experiment (see Harold UREY) stars are Sgr (Kaus Australis), mag. 1.8, and Sgr (NUNKI), mag. 2.1. Sgr
using a different set-up and mixture of gases, and showed (Arkab) is a wide, naked-eye double with bluish-white and pale yellow compo-
that not only amino acids but also sugars and ATP the nents, mags. 4.0 and 4.3; the former has a white companion, mag. 7.2, separa-
chemical used by cells to store energy could have formed tion 28.5. RY Sgr is an R CORONAE BOREALIS STAR which is usually around 6th
in the primordial atmosphere of the Earth. magnitude but from time to time drops unpredictably to 14th magnitude. Eight
Sagans interest in the possibility of LIFE IN THE UNI- of the constellations brighter stars form an asterism known as the TEAPOT.
The brightest part of the Milky Way, just to the north of Sgr (Alnasl), is
VERSE involved him in SETI studies and led to his co-
authorship of Iosif SHKLOVSKIIs Intelligent Life in the known as the Great Sagittarius Star Cloud, while another bright part, to the north S
Universe (1966). He also helped to compose messages of Sgr, is sometimes called the Small Sagittarius Star Cloud. Bright star clusters
carried on board the VOYAGER and some of the PIONEER and nebulae in Sagittarius include: the open clusters M25 (IC 4725), M21 (NGC
probes that could convey information about humans and 6531) and M23 (NGC 6494); the 5th-magnitude globular cluster M22 (NGC
the Earth to any intelligent entity that might eventually 6656), the third brightest in the sky; and the LAGOON NEBULA (M8, NGC 6523),
find them. From the 1970s, Sagan was a successful popu- the OMEGA NEBULA (M17, NGC 6618) and the TRIFID NEBULA (M20, NGC
larizer of astronomy, with books on planetary science and 6514), all 6th-magnitude emission nebulae. Also in Sagittarius is the SAGITTARIUS
other areas, including evolution, as well as the TV series DWARF GALAXY, a dwarf spheroidal galaxy in the Local Group, about 80,000 l.y.
Cosmos. In 1997, the year after his death, the MARS away, and the radio source SAGITTARIUS A.
PATHFINDER lander was named the Carl Sagan Memorial
BRIGHTEST STARS
Station in his honour.
Name RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance
h m mag. mag. type (l.y.)
Sagitta See feature article
Kaus Australis 18 24 34 23 1.79 1.4 B9.5 145
Nunki 18 55 26 18 2.05 2.1 B2.5 224
Sagittarius See feature article
Ascella 19 03 29 53 2.60 0.4 A3 89
Kaus Media 18 21 29 50 2.72 2.1 K3 306
Sagittarius A (Sgr A) Complex centre of our Galaxy,
Kaus Borealis 18 28 25 25 2.82 0.9 K1 77
and the most intense part of the Milky Ways radio
19 10 21 01 2.88 2.8 F2 440
emission. The actual centre is marked by a smaller radio
Alnasl 18 06 30 25 2.98 0.6 K0 96
source, Sgr A*, less than 4 AU across, pin-pointed using
18 18 36 46 3.10 0.2 M2 149
the Very Long Baseline Array of radio telescopes. Sgr A*
18 46 26 59 3.17 1.1 B8.5 231
may mark the presence of a massive BLACK HOLE. Very
19 07 27 40 3.32 0.5 K1/K2 120
close to Sgr A* is an intense infrared source (IRS 16),
which is a large cluster of newly formed hot B stars. In
351
Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy
the CARINA ARM. It may best be traced from its TWENTY- of the Universe and a low value of the HUBBLE CONSTANT.
ONE CENTIMETRE radio emissions from hydrogen and by Since 1952 Sandage has worked at the Mount Wilson and
the presence of young blue stars. Palomar Observatories, initially as assistant to Edwin
Hubble. In 1960 he and Thomas Arnold Matthews
Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy Disrupted companion to our (1927 ) used Palomars 200-inch (5-m) HALE TELESCOPE
GALAXY, discovered by detailed star counts and distance to identify a faint, star-like object in the same position as
estimates. It is the closest known galaxy to the centre of our the radio source 3C 48 listed in the THIRD CAMBRIDGE CAT-
Galaxy, lying mostly behind the central bulge from our ALOGUE; three years later, Maarten SCHMIDT found the
point of view so that its sparse stars are lost in the myriad immense redshift in the spectrum of the object, which
foreground objects. It probably contains the globular clus- turned out to be a quasar. In 1965 Sandage found the first
ter M54. The elongated shape revealed by the distribution radio-quiet quasar.
of stars belonging to the Sagittarius Dwarf suggests that it Sandage also worked on the COSMOLOGICAL DISTANCE
is being tidally disintegrated by our Galaxys gravity in the SCALE, calibrating the various standard candles in order
kind of event that may have happened many times during to establish the distances of galaxies. With Martin
our Galaxys formation and growth. SCHWARZSCHILD, he studied the evolution of globular
clusters in order to determine their ages. The ages of their
Saha, Meghnad (18941956) Indian nuclear physicist oldest stars were not compatible with a relatively young,
and astrophysicist who derived the formula (SAHAS EQUA- small Universe, as favoured by Gerard DE VAUCOULEURS.
TION) linking the degree of ionization in a gas to tempera- In 1976 Sandage and Gustav Andreas Tammann
ture and electron pressure that is vital to the interpretation (1932 ) gave a value for the Hubble constant of
of stellar spectra. He confirmed his theory of thermal ion- H0 = 50 km/s/Mpc, half that given by De Vaucouleurs. In
ization (1920) by studying the solar chromosphere and 1979 Sandage proposed that one of the main tasks of the
spectra of stars, especially novae. Hubble Space Telescope (HST) should be to strive
towards fixing the value of H0. Since its launch, Sandage
Saha equation Equation, formulated by the Indian and others have used the HST to examine CEPHEID VARI-
physicist Meghnad Saha (18931956), that determines ABLES and supernovae in distant galaxies, deriving in the
how the relative number densities of the various levels of late 1990s a value of H0 = 60 km/s/Mpc.
ionization (including the neutral atom) of an element
change with temperature. It takes the form: Saiph The star k Orionis, visual mag. 2.07, distance
3/2 722 l.y., spectral type B0.5 Ia. The name comes from the
NI+1 2UI+1 2 mekT
= e xI /kT Arabic saif, meaning sword, but is wrongly applied as
NI UI h2 this star actually marks the right leg of Orion.
where the subscript I or I1 denotes the level of
ionization, N is the number density, U is an atomic Salpeter, Edwin Ernest (1924 ) Austrian-American
constant called the partition function, me is the electron astrophysicist, who emigrated first to Australia, then to
mass, k is BOLTZMANNS CONSTANT, T is the temperature, England and the USA, and specialized in stellar evolution.
h is PLANCKS CONSTANT and I is the energy required to He spent most of his career at Cornell University, where
ionize the Ith ion to the (I1)th ion. he worked with Hans BETHE applying relativity theory to
atomic physics. He was the first to explain how highly
St Andrews University Observatory Teaching and evolved stars convert hydrogen to helium to carbon by the
research facility of the University of St Andrews School triple- reaction (known also as the Salpeter reaction). By
of Physics and Astronomy, 50 km (30 mi) north-east of relating the observed abundances of stars of various lumi-
Edinburgh. It is notable for its early work on large nosities to his models of stellar evolution, Salpeter was
SCHMIDTCASSEGRAIN TELESCOPES and the construction able to derive the initial mass function (known also as the
of the Universitys 0.94-m (37-in.) James Gregory Tele- Salpeter function), which predicts the rate at which these
scope, one of the largest optical telescopes in Britain. stars will form in the Milky Way based upon their masses.
Sakigake Space probe launched to Comet HALLEY in SALT Abbreviation of SOUTHERN AFRICAN LARGE TELE-
1985 January by Japans Institute of Space and SCOPE
Astronautical Science (ISAS). Japans first deep-space
mission, it investigated the interaction between the SOLAR Salyut space stations Name given to seven Soviet
WIND and the comet. Sakigake flew past the comets SPACE STATIONS. Two different design bureaux were
Sandage, Allan Rex (1926 ) American astronomer S Andromedae First extragalactic SUPERNOVA to be
who made the first optical identification of a quasar and detected. Discovered near the centre of the ANDROMEDA
for many years has worked to establish the distance scale GALAXY (M31) in 1885, the star attained an apparent
352
Saturn
magnitude of 6.5. Supernovae were then not TIDAL FRICTION has caused the rotation period of most
recognized as a distinct class of objects. The assumption satellites to become synchronous with their orbital period,
that the star was an ordinary NOVA led to a distance so that like our own Moon they always keep the same face
estimate for M31 of about 8000 l.y., well within our own towards their planet (see SYNCHRONOUS ROTATION). Slow-
Galaxy. Later it was realized that M31 was a galaxy ing down of a large, originally rapidly spinning satellite in
similar to our own and that S Andromedae, shining this way could cause considerable internal TIDAL HEATING,
temporarily with a sixth of the total light of the galaxy, which would have allowed internal DIFFERENTIATION to
was vastly more brilliant than a typical nova. take place, with the formation of a rocky CORE (and possi-
bly an iron-rich inner core) beneath an icy MANTLE. Tides
SAO Abbreviation of SMITHSONIAN ASTROPHYSICAL are also important in causing satellite orbital ECCENTRICI-
OBSERVATORY and of SPECIAL ASTROPHYSICAL TY to decrease until, in the absence of other perturbations,
OBSERVATORY the orbit would become circular. However, the large satel-
lites of Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus are massive enough to
SARA Abbreviation of SOCIETY OF AMATEUR RADIO have a significant gravitational influence on one another.
ASTRONOMERS The orbits of adjacent satellites have often evolved into a
state of orbital RESONANCE, meaning for example that one
satellite Smaller body orbiting a larger one. At the most satellite has twice the orbital period of the next.
massive end of the scale, this can be taken to refer to When in a state of orbital resonance, the influence of
small galaxies orbiting a larger primary as, for example, other satellites prevents an orbit from becoming exactly
M32 and NGC 205 in relation to the Andromeda circular. At times the varying forces on the TIDAL BULGES
Galaxy. Likewise, in this sense, planets are satellites of raised on a large satellite by its planet may then be suffi-
their star, though they are rarely spoken of in this way. cient to act as a significant source of tidal heating, leading
Instead, the term is most commonly applied to a body in to volcanism and/or fracturing of the surface. This activity
orbit about a planet. Every planet in the Solar System, occurs at the present time within Jupiters satellites IO and
except Mercury and Venus, has at least one natural EUROPA, and it clearly affected several other large satellites
satellite (as opposed to ARTIFICIAL SATELLITE) in orbit in the past. Without tidal heating, satellites would simply
about it. The discovery of planetary satellites was have ancient surfaces heavily scarred by a 4-billion-year
important because measurement of the period and history of impact cratering. One of the greatest revelations
dimensions of a satellites orbit enables the mass of its of the VOYAGER missions, which were the first to explore
planet (or, strictly, the combined mass of planet and the satellites of the outer planets in any detail, was the
satellite) to be determined. amazing variety of landscapes they possess.
Written without a capital M, the term moon is syn- Some asteroids are now known to have their own tiny
onymous with natural satellite, whereas the Moon is the satellites. The first, named DACTYL, was discovered on
name of the Earths only such satellite. The MOON and the images of the asteroid IDA sent back by the GALILEO space-
Earth have been companions since the final stages of the craft in 1993. The second, an object 18 km (11 mi)
Earths formation, 4.5 billion years ago, and the Moon is across, was discovered telescopically in orbit around the
believed to have formed from the debris of a giant colli- asteroid EUGENIA (diameter 215 km/134 mi) in 1998.
sion (see GIANT IMPACTOR THEORY). A similar process
could account for the origin of Plutos only known satel- satellite laser ranger (SLR) Specialized telescope that
lite, CHARON, which is the most massive satellite relative to uses time-of-flight measurements of short pulses of laser
its planet. In contrast Mars has two small irregularly light to determine the distances to satellites in Earth orbit.
shaped satellites, PHOBOS and DEIMOS, which are asteroids The principle is the same as that of radar, except that light,
captured by Mars probably within the past billion years. rather than radio waves, is used. Pulses of laser light are
Each of the four GIANT PLANETS has an extensive beamed from the telescope at dedicated satellites covered in
satellite system. At the outer fringes of the planetary retro-reflectors. These work like cats eyes and reflect the
RING system are small, bright, icy moonlets in circular light back in the direction from which it came. By timing
orbits; they may be fragments of larger satellites how long it takes the light to travel to and from the satellite,
destroyed by collisions or tidal forces. Slightly nearer the the distance can be computed to an accuracy of a few cen-
planet come several satellites, such as Jupiters GALILEAN timetres. Because the satellites are in very stable and well-
SATELLITES, that are large enough (greater than about known orbits, the results provide information about the
400 km/250 mi in diameter) for their own gravity to pull rotation of the Earth, the geometry and deformation of its
them into a spheroidal shape. These too are in virtually surface, and variations in its gravitational field.
circular orbits and are believed to have grown by ACCRE-
TION within circumplanetary disks while the planets were
SLR stations are located all over the globe and the
results from each one make it possible to measure very S
forming. This far from the Sun, the SOLAR NEBULA was accurately the distance between points on the Earths sur-
cold enough to allow the direct condensation of ice, so face, making it a good technique for studying plate tecton-
the large satellites are mostly icy bodies with deeply ics. Satellite laser rangers have replaced the
buried rocky interiors. At Jupiter, the ice is composed PHOTOGRAPHIC ZENITH TUBE (PZT) as the primary
just of water, but with increasing distance from the Sun means of measuring variations in the Earths rotation.
more volatile species are present, such as methane,
ammonia and nitrogen. Saturn Sixth planet in the Solar System and the second
Neptune, exceptionally, has only one large satellite, largest; it was the most distant planet known to man
TRITON. It is in a RETROGRADE orbit and is presumed to be before the development of the telescope. The telescopic
a captured EDGEWORTHKUIPER BELT object. Any family appearance of the planet is dominated by the majestic sys-
of large satellites previously possessed by Neptune is likely tem of rings, which were probably first seen by Galileo in
to have been lost during the capture process. 1610, even though he did not recognize their nature (he
Two of Saturns large satellites, TETHYS and DIONE, are believed Saturn to be a triple planet). The rings lie in the
accompanied in their orbits by small (less than plane of the planets equator and are tilted by 27 with
30 km/20 mi in diameter) irregularly shaped satellites that respect to its orbit. Consequently, the faces of the rings
occupy stable LAGRANGIAN POINTS and bear the same will be alternately inclined towards the Sun and then the
geometric and dynamic relation to them as do the TROJAN Earth by up to 27. At intervals of approximately 15 years,
ASTEROIDS to Jupiter. Beyond their large satellites, the the rings become edge on to the Earth and are virtually
giant planets have numerous smaller satellites, mostly in invisible to the observer. This situation occurred in
inclined, eccentric, and in some cases retrograde, orbits. 199596. The rings are extremely reflective, so that they
These satellites are dark irregular objects, possibly coated can add significantly to the total brightness of the planet.
by carbonaceous material, and are probably captured The distance from one edge of the rings to the other is
asteroids or comet nuclei. more than 275,000 km (171,000 mi), which is nearly
353
Saturn
354
Saturn
planet. The first detection of the Saturnian magnetic field is a torus of ionized hydrogen and oxygen atoms; the plas-
was made from the PIONEER 11 spacecraft in 1979. At the mas ions and electrons spiral up and down the magnetic
cloud tops the equatorial field has a strength of 0.21 G, field lines, contributing to the local field. Beyond the inner
compared with the Earths value of 0.31 G. The magnetic torus, there is a region of plasma, extending out to 1 mil-
axis is within 1 of the axis of rotation; it is therefore the lion km (600,000 mi), produced by material coming part-
least tilted field in the Solar System. ly from Saturns outer atmosphere and partly from Titan.
The MAGNETOSPHERE of Saturn is intermediate The magnetotail has a diameter of about 80 RS (Saturnian
between those of the Earth and Jupiter in terms of both radii). There is a strong interaction between the charged
extent and population of the trapped charged particles. particle environment and the embedded satellites and
The average distance of the BOW SHOCK is 1.8 million km rings that surround Saturn. All these bodies absorb the
(1.1 million mi), while the MAGNETOPAUSE itself lies much charged particles and have the effect of sweeping a clear
closer to the planet, at 500,000 km (300,000 mi). These path through the region where they are located. There is
distances are, of course, extremely variable, since their also auroral activity in the polar regions, where the
precise positions will depend on the temporal behaviour of charged particles cascade into the upper atmosphere. The
the SOLAR WIND. The largest satellite, TITAN, is situated Saturnian aurorae are about two to five times brighter
near the magnetopause boundary and regularly crosses than the equivalent terrestrial phenomena.
this division. The magnetosphere is divided into several Saturn is a powerful radio source, emitting broad band
definite regions. At about 400,000 km (250,000 mi) there emissions in the ran ge from about 20 KHz to about
355
Saturn Nebula
Saturn Nebula (NGC 7009) PLANETARY NEBULA in Scheiner, Christoph(er) (15751650) German Jesuit
western Aquarius (RA 21h 04m.2 dec. 1122). At an scholar and astronomer who, independently of GALILEO,
estimated distance of 160 l.y., it is one of the closest to discovered sunspots (1611). He initially tried to explain
our Solar System. Discovered by William HERSCHEL in these spots, not as features on the Suns surface, which
1782, the Saturn Nebula takes its popular name given would imply that the Sun was imperfect, but as the shad-
by Lord Rosse in the 1850s from the extensions, or ows of small intra-Mercurian planets. Galileo, who
ansae, seen to either side, which give it a resemblance to claimed that his own sunspot observations predated those
Saturn when its rings are presented close to edge-on. The of Scheiner, countered by showing that sunspots are fea-
nebula has overall magnitude 8.0 and covers an area of tures of the solar disk and do not move independently of
0.4 1.6. The central star is of magnitude 11.5. it. Scheiner was the first to make systematic observations
of sunspots (161125). Now acknowledging that
Saturn rocket Rocket developed by NASA in the early sunspots move across the solar disk, he demonstrated
1960s for manned spaceflight. The Saturn V, the largest, from plots of their paths that the Suns axis of rotation is
most powerful rocket ever built, was used for the APOLLO inclined by 7 30 to the ecliptic. He invented the first spe-
missions to the Moon. Its thirteenth and last flight was to cialized solar telescope, which he called a heliotropii telio-
insert the SKYLAB space station into Earth orbit in 1973. scopici, or helioscope. This telescope was significant for
356
SchmidtCassegrain telescope
two reasons: it was the first to have an equatorial mount- a Doppler effect, the quasar had to be a billion light-years
ing, and the first to project the image of the solar disk on away. Subsequently, all quasars were found to have highly
to a plane surface beyond the eyepiece. redshifted spectra.
By the late 1960s, enough quasars had been found for
Schiaparelli, Giovanni Virginio (18351910) Italian Schmidt to use them as a cosmological test for the then
astronomer whose mapping of Mars gave rise to the idea rival BIG BANG and STEADY-STATE THEORIES. According to
of Martian canals, and who discovered the relations the latter, the large-scale structure of the Universe should
between comets and meteor showers. Schiaparelli joined be the same at all places and all times. However, the num-
Brera Observatory in 1860, becoming director two years ber of quasars was found to increase with distance, sup-
later and remained there for the rest of his working life. porting the Big Bang theory.
His studies of cometary tails in the 1860s, and his
researches into previously observed comets, persuaded Schmidt camera Type of reflecting TELESCOPE incorpo-
him that the particles that cause meteors are shed from rating a spherical primary mirror and a specially shaped
cometary tails and follow elliptical or parabolic orbits glass correcting plate to achieve a wide field of view com-
around the Sun, identical with the orbits of comets. Schia- bined with fast focal ratio.
parelli originated the convention of naming showers after The conventional paraboloidal primary mirrors of
the constellation containing their radiant. reflecting telescopes only form a perfect point image as
In 1877 Brera acquired new equipment in time for the long as the incoming parallel light is exactly aligned with
opposition of Mars that year. Schiaparelli prepared a map the axis. Departure from this causes steadily increasing
of the surface of Mars, introducing a nomenclature for the degradation of the images due to coma, which is notice-
various features that remained standard until the planet able at off-axis angles as small as a few arcminutes.
was mapped by space probes. His adoption of Angelo The Schmidt camera, which was invented by Bernhard
SECCHIs term canali (see CANALS, MARTIAN), to describe Schmidt in 1930, overcomes this problem by the use of a
vague linear markings was the cause of much subsequent spherical rather than a paraboloidal, primary mirror. This
controversy; his reporting two years later of the apparent eliminates the problem of coma but introduces SPHERICAL
doubling of some canals (he called it gemination) further ABBERATION. To correct this, a thin glass plate, known as a
fuelled the debate over their origin. Schmidt corrector and with a very shallow profile
Schiaparelli prepared maps of Venus and Mercury, worked into one or both of its surfaces, is placed at the
believing mistakenly that they had SYNCHRONOUS centre of curvature. The profile is complex in shape and
ROTATION. He also made important studies of double has to be precisely computed to match and counteract the
stars, and discovered the asteroid (69) Hesperia. spherical aberration of the mirror, thus producing perfect
images over a wide field of view. Because the image is
Schickard Very much degraded lunar crater (44S formed on a curved surface, the photographic film or
54W), 202 km (125 mi) in diameter, with rim plate must be deformed by clamping it in a suitably
components reaching 2800 m (9500 ft) above the floor. shaped holder.
Because of foreshortening, this crater appears oblong, Schmidt cameras are used photographically to record
though its actual shape is more nearly circular. Long after detailed images of very large areas of sky. This makes
its formation, Schickard was flooded by lunar basalts, them ideal for observing extensive objects such as comets
giving the floor a dark patchy appearance. or certain nebul, or for recording large numbers of more
compact sources, such as stars or distant galaxies, for sta-
Schlesinger, Frank (18711943) American astronomer tistical studies. Perhaps their most important role is as sur-
who directed Allegheny Observatory, Pittsburgh vey telescopes used for identifying unusual or specific
(190520) and Yale University Observatory (192041). kinds of object, which can then be investigated in more
He used astrophotography to determine stellar parallaxes, detail with larger, conventional (narrow-field) instru-
supplanting the old visual methods. Schlesinger compiled ments. Hybrid designs incorporating secondary mirrors
several extensive zone catalogues of precise positions and (SchmidtCassegrains) or additional correctors
other data for more than 150,000 stars, and the first edi- (BAKERSCHMIDTS) have also been developed. See also
tion of the BRIGHT STAR CATALOGUE. RITCHEYCHRTIEN TELESCOPE
357
SchnbergChandrasekhar limit
plate, but light is reflected back down the tube by a convex His two-volume Selenographische Fragmente (1791, 1802)
secondary mirror mounted behind the plate and through a contained descriptions, drawings and height measurements
hole in the primary to a Cassegrain focus. This makes for for hundreds of lunar craters and mountains. His 1785
a highly compact and portable telescope that has become October observations of small, dark spots on Jupiter that
very popular with amateur astronomers. soon vanished may have been the earliest record of a comet
impacting that planet, predating the SHOEMAKERLEVY 9
SchnbergChandrasekhar limit Upper limit on impacts by over two centuries. In 1787 he discovered the
the mass of the helium core of a MAIN-SEQUENCE star. A solar GRANULATION and also the light bridge features of
star evolves off the main sequence when it has finished sunspot umbrae. See also CELESTIAL POLICE
burning hydrogen in its core. This occurs when the star
has used about 10% of its total mass in hydrogen burning. Schrter effect See PHASE ANOMALY
The limit can be larger if electron degeneracy becomes
important within the core; this can occur in lower-mass Schrteri Vallis (Schrters Valley) Enormous lunar
stars where the core has a higher density. The limit is valley in the ARISTARCHUS uplift. It appears to be a vast
named after Mario Schnberg (1916 ) and lava flow structure, which emptied out into Mare
Subrahmanyan CHANDRASEKHAR. IMBRIUM. Embedded within the rille is another much
smaller SINUOUS RILLE. The valley begins in an elongated
Schramm, David Norman (194597) American theo- depression called the Cobra Head, which was probably
retical astrophysicist who pursued links between particle the source vent for the basalts.
physics, astrophysics and cosmology. In 1977 he was part
of a team that constructed a model using the cosmic Schwabe, (Samuel) Heinrich (17891875) German
abundances of light elements to show that there could be pharmacist and amateur astronomer who discovered
no more than four families of elementary particles, a pre- (1843) the approximately 11-year solar cycle. In 1825 he
diction confirmed in the late 1980s by particle accelerator began to search for an intra-Mercurian planet. He realized
experiments. Calculations he made suggested that the that he needed to keep a careful record of sunspots, as any
matter observable by telescopes accounts for only a small planet crossing the solar disk would closely resemble one
fraction of the Universes total substance the rest must of these features. Acquiring a Fraunhofer refractor, he
be some form of dark matter. Schramm developed cos- continued recording sunspots, and 17 years later he
mological models that incorporated quarks to explain the noticed a periodicity in their number. Schwabes 11-year
Universes LARGE-SCALE STRUCTURE. cycle was later confirmed by the discovery (1852) that the
Suns magnetic field also varies over the same period.
Schrter, Johann Hieronymus (17451816) German Schwabe made one of the earliest drawings of Jupiters
amateur astronomer and chief magistrate of Lilienthal, near GREAT RED SPOT (1831).
Bremen, where he erected his observatory. Schrters 19-
inch (480-mm) Newtonian reflector was for a time the Schwarzschild, Karl (18731916) German
largest in continental Europe. He made detailed observa- astronomer remembered chiefly for his theoretical work,
tions of the topographic features of the Moon and planets. especially for finding the first solution to the equations of
Einsteins general theory of relativity. In the five years
leading up to World War I, Schwarzschild directed both
SCORPIUS (GEN. SCORPII , ABBR . SCO )
Gttingen and Potsdam Observatories; in 1914 he
volunteered for military service, and died two years later
triking southern zodiacal constellation between Ophiuchus and Ara, and one of of a skin disease contracted on the Eastern Front.
S the few that even remotely resembles the object after which it was named the
mythological scorpion that killed the hunter Orion. Its brightest star, ANTARES
Schwarzschild designed and improved a number of
instruments and techniques for use in spectroscopy and
(which marks the heart of the scorpion), is a red giant irregular variable (range astrophotography. He pioneered photometric methods
0.91.2) and close binary; its bluish-white companion, mag. 5.4, separation 2.9, for measuring stellar magnitudes, demonstrating that
appears pale green in comparison to its primary. Next brightest at mag. 1.6 is there is a difference (the COLOUR INDEX) between a stars
Sco (SHAULA). 1 Sco (known as Acrab or Graffias) is a double star with bluish- magnitude measured from a photographic plate and the
white components, mags. 2.6 and 4.9, separation 13.9, while Sco consists of two visually estimated value.
bluish-white stars, mags. 4.1 and 6.8, separation 41, each of which has a fainter, He was one of the first, in the mid-1900s, to examine
close companion. U Sco is a recurrent nova which is usually around 18th magni- RADIATIVE TRANSFER in stars, showing that radiation and
tude but which flared up to 9th magnitude in 1863, 1906, 1936 and 1979. Bright gravitation are in equilibrium. His most famous work was
S star clusters and nebulae in Scorpius include the naked-eye open clusters NGC
6231, M7 (NGC 6475) and the BUTTERFLY CLUSTER (M6, NGC 6405); the glob-
done in the final year of his life. As early as 1900, he had
suggested that the geometry of space could be non-
ular clusters M4 (NGC 6121), 6th magnitude, and M80 (NGC 6093), 7th mag- Euclidean. In 1916, shortly after the theory of general
nitude; and the Bug Nebula (NGC 6302), a 10th-magnitude planetary nebula. relativity was published, Schwarzschild worked out the
Also in Scorpius is SCORPIUS X-, the brightest X-ray source in the sky. first exact solution of Einsteins field equations, from
which he developed the concepts of what are now called
BRIGHTEST STARS
the SCHWARZSCHILD RADIUS and the BLACK HOLE. His
Name RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance son, Martin SCHWARZSCHILD, became an astrophysicist.
h m mag. mag. type (l.y.)
Antares 16 29 26 26 0.91.2 5.45.1 K0 604 Schwarzschild, Martin (191297) German-American
Shaula 17 34 37 06 1.62 5.0 B1.5 703 astrophysicist, the son of Karl SCHWARZSCHILD, who
Girtab 17 37 43 00 1.86 2.7 F1 272 made major contributions to stellar structure and evolu-
Dschubba 16 00 22 37 2.29 3.2 B0.2 402 tion. After taking his doctoral degree at Gttingen Univer-
16 50 34 18 2.29 0.8 K2 65 sity (1935), he emigrated to the USA, joining Princeton in
17 42 39 02 2.39 3.4 B1.5 464 1951 and remaining there for the rest of his life. He made
1 Acrab 16 05 19 48 2.56 3.5 B0.5 530 detailed studies of the structure of the Sun and other near-
17 31 37 18 2.70 3.3 B2 519 by stars, comparing their masses, temperatures and other
16 36 28 13 2.82 2.8 B0 430 properties. Schwarzschilds research placed upper and
15 59 26 07 2.89 2.9 B1 459 lower limits on the masses of the stars, demonstrating that
16 21 25 36 2.90 3.9 B1 735 objects smaller than 10 Jupiter masses lack sufficient mass
1 17 48 40 08 2.99 5.7 F3 1792 to initiate hydrogen fusion, while stars of more than 65
2 16 52 38 03 2.93.2 4.13.8 B1.5 822 solar masses are rare. He calculated ZHe, the total mass
G 17 50 37 03 3.19 0.2 K0/K1 127 density of elements heavier than helium, showing that this
17 12 43 14 3.32 1.6 F3 72 quantity varies with the age of a particular star. His work
on stellar evolution mainly concerned pulsation theory,
358
S Doradus star
Schwarzschild radius Radius that a body must exceed nconspicuous southern constellation between Cetus and Phoenix. It was named
if light from its surface is to reach an outside observer. If
an object collapses below this radius, its escape velocity
I Apparatus Sculptoris (the Sculptors Workshop) by Lacaille in the 18th centu-
ry. Its brightest star, Scl, is mag. 4.3; Scl is a binary with pale yellow and yel-
rises to above the speed of light and the object becomes a low components, mags. 5.4 and 8.8, separation 4.9, period about 1200 years.
BLACK HOLE. For a black hole, the Schwarzschild radius is Deep-sky objects include NGC 288, an 8th-magnitude globular cluster; NGC
equal to the radius of the EVENT HORIZON. 253 and NGC 55, 8th-magnitude edge-on spiral galaxies; the Sculptor Dwarf
The Schwarzschild radius is proportional to the mass Galaxy, a dwarf spheroidal galaxy in the LOCAL GROUP, about 280,000 l.y. away;
of a body. For a non-rotating body of mass M and no and the CARTWHEEL GALAXY.
charge, the Schwarzschild radius, Rs, equals 2GM/c2,
where G is the gravitational constant and c is the speed of
light. For a body the size of the Sun, the Schwarzschild BANG universe when observational evidence showed that
radius is around 3 km (2 mi); for the Earth it is about the former theory was seriously flawed.
9 mm (0.4 in.).
Scorpius See feature article
SchwassmannWachmann 1, Comet 29P/ One of
three periodic comets discovered by Arnold Scorpius Centaurus association Group of about 45
Schwassmann (18701964) and Arno Wachmann O and B-type stars that are all about 500 l.y. away from
(190290) at Hamburg Observatory. Comet us. The stars are found across the two constellations; they
SchwassmannWachmann 1 was found photographically form the nearest OB ASSOCIATION to the Solar System.
on 1927 November 15. The comet has a more or less
circular orbit, just beyond that of Jupiter, at a distance of Scorpius X-1 First cosmic X-ray source to be
6 AU from the Sun. It can be observed for much of the discovered (in 1962), and the brightest known apart from
year. Normally around magnitude 17 to 18, it is certain X-RAY TRANSIENTS. It is a low-mass X-RAY BINARY
prone to unexplained, irregular outbursts, on occasion with an orbital period of 19.2 hours. One member is a
reaching magnitude 10. NEUTRON STAR and the other member is unknown,
except that it has an ULTRAVIOLET EXCESS and optical
scintar Source that shows the effects of interplanetary flaring, and it supplies material to the ACCRETION DISK
RADIO SCINTILLATION and is therefore point-like rather around the neutron star.
than extended. This property allows QUASARS and radio
stars to be distinguished from RADIO GALAXIES and Scotch mount Simple camera mount, based in two
nebulae. Stars and planets can be distinguished from boards joined by a hinge, that can be driven by hand or a
each other because Earths atmospheric variations cause small motor to follow the stars sidereal motion, allowing
the point-like stars to twinkle and the planets (that have moderate-length wide-angle exposures without trailing.
a visible disk) to remain steady; a similar twinkling The hinge is aligned to the celestial pole. By turning a
occurs with radio sources but from a different cause. screw of known pitch at a defined rate, the upper board
Radio waves are refracted by the plasma clouds that to which the camera is attached can be turned on the
move outwards from the Sun through the Solar System. hinge away from the lower to mimic the westwards track-
The point-like radio sources are affected by the clouds, ing of an EQUATORIAL MOUNTING. For exposures up to
and so scintillate. This means the sources are either about 20 minutes, this gives satisfactory non-trailed star
intrinsically very small, or very distant (and so appear images. The mount takes its name from the Scottish roots
small). The scintillation method was used to discover of George Youngson Haig (1928 ) who designed and
quasars, with the 4.5-acre radio telescope in Cambridge. popularized it in the early 1970s; it is also sometimes
To see the twinkling it was necessary to make the radio known as the Haig mount, while American amateurs
receiver respond very quickly to changes in radio know it as the barn-door mount.
intensity. This made it possible for Jocelyn BELL to
discover PULSARS during the course of the scintillation SCT Abbreviation of SCHMIDTCASSEGRAIN TELESCOPE
measurements.
Sculptor See feature article
scintillation Twinkling of stars and, to a lesser extent, of
planets as a result of the uneven refraction of light in
areas of different density in the Earths atmosphere. To
Scutum See feature article
S
the naked eye, scintillation appears as a change in S Doradus star (SDOR, HubbleSandage variable,
brightness and colour, while in the telescope it may also luminous blue variable) Hot, extremely luminous
make the star appear to make rapid slight movements. It ERUPTIVE VARIABLE. S Doradus stars are SUPERGIANTS of
is greatest at low altitudes, when the objects light shines spectral class OpFp, with masses that exceed 30 solar
through a greater amount of the atmosphere. Most of the masses and luminosities generally at least one million
effect is caused below 9000 m (30,000 ft). times that of the Sun. They are among the brightest stars
The planets twinkle less than stars because they present in their parent galaxies. Their variations have magnitudes
small disks rather than points of light and the whole disk is of between 1 and 7, although greater ranges have been
unlikely to be affected simultaneously. In a telescope, noted, and the variations occur over periods of tens of
however, the disk will appear blurred; this effect is usually years. Although often irregular, some stars show cyclic
referred to as bad SEEING. Scintillation depends on the activity. Many are associated with expanding envelopes.
weather, and is usually greatest at about noon. Modern
observatories are sited where the effect occurs least. See
SCUTUM (GEN. SCUTI , ABBR . SCT )
also RADIO SCINTILLATION; SCINTAR
Sciama, Dennis William (192699) English cosmolo- mall, inconspicuous southern constellation to the south-west of Aquila. It was
gist who applied general relativity to problems as far-rang-
ing as black hole thermodynamics and Machs principle,
S named Scutum Sobiescianum (Sobieskis Shield) by Johannes Hevelius in
1684, to honour King Jan Sobieski III of Poland. Its brightest star, Sct, is mag.
which holds that the appearance and structure of the 3.9. R Sct is an RV Tauri star, varying between 4.2 and 8.6 with a period of
local or nearby Universe is affected by matter located at about 147 days; Sct, a pulsating variable (range 4.64.8, period 0.19 day), is
cosmological distances. Originally a proponent of the the prototype DELTA SCUTI STAR. The brightest deep-sky object is the WILD DUCK
STEADY-STATE THEORY of cosmology, Sciama re-focused CLUSTER (M11, NGC 6705).
his research towards Einsteinde Sitter models of a BIG
359
SDSS
The mass-loss rate changes with time and the The beginning and end of each season is defined by
corresponding changes in the envelope contribute to the the position of the Sun with respect to the ecliptic. At the
observed visual brightness changes. The ejection of time of the VERNAL EQUINOX, on March 21, it is said to be
matter is probably connected with the rapid evolution of a the first day of spring in the northern hemisphere. Spring
star whose luminosity is near the upper limit for stable lasts until the SUMMER SOLSTICE on June 21, which,
stars. ETA CARINAE is generally included in this class, as is although marking the longest day, is deemed to be the first
P CYGNI. See also GAMMA CASSIOPEIAE STAR day of summer. The end of summer and the start of
autumn is marked by the AUTUMNAL EQUINOX on Sep-
SDSS Abbreviation of SLOAN DIGITAL SKY SURVEY tember 23, with the WINTER SOLSTICE on 22 December,
the shortest day, defining the end of autumn and the
Sea Launch US-led international company that beginning of winter. These seasons are reversed for the
markets launches to equatorial geostationary transfer southern hemisphere.
orbit (GTO) from an offshore platform positioned on the Mars, the rotational axis of which is inclined at 2511,
equator in the mid-Pacific Ocean. It uses a modified also displays seasonal variations, particularly to its POLAR
Ukrainian ZENIT 2 booster with a Russian upper stage. A CAPS. On Neptunes moon Triton, the polar cap migrates
launch from the equator saves energy, which can be from pole to pole during the course of the planets 165-
converted into added payload weight. Launches to GTO year orbital period.
from higher or lower latitudes require more propellant for
dog-leg manoeuvres to reach an equatorial orbit, so Secchi, (Pietro) Angelo (181878) Italian Jesuit
payload capability is lost. The Sea Launch Zenit 3SL flies astronomer, director of the Collegio Romano Observatory
from the Odyssey platform, a converted semi- (184978) and a pioneer of solar physics and stellar spec-
submersible oil rig positioned close to a launch control troscopy. Although forced to take refuge at Georgetown
ship, Sea Commander. The vessels are based at San (Washington, D.C.) Observatory in 1847, when the Jesuits
Diego, California. Sea Launch offers flights of payloads were driven into exile, Secchi spent most of his career at
weighing 6 tonnes to GTO. Sea Launch has flown five the Collegio Romano. His observations of 10th-magnitude
times, four times successfully. stars shining through the tail of Bielas Comet (1852) led
him to conclude that cometary tails were gaseous, not
Seares, Frederick Hanley (18731964) American solid. Secchi was one of the first (1859) to compile a com-
astronomer who standardized the stellar magnitude sys- plete photographic lunar atlas. He organized several expe-
tem and successfully mapped the Milky Ways structure. ditions to view solar eclipses and another, to Maddapur,
After directing the Laws Observatory of the University of India, to observe the 1874 transit of Venus.
Missouri (190109), he joined the staff of Mount Wilson Secchi proved that PROMINENCES, which he classified
Observatory, where he spent the remainder of his career as quiescent or eruptive, were a physical part of the Sun,
(190945). In 1922, the IAU adopted his NORTH POLAR and he was the first to describe SPICULES. Simultaneously
SEQUENCE of fundamental stellar magnitudes as the basis with William HUGGINS, Secchi was the first astronomer to
of its photographic and photovisual systems of stellar pho- make systematic observations of stellar spectra. From his
tometry. Collaborating with Frank E. ROSS, Seares com- analysis of the characteristics of the spectra of over 4000
piled an extremely accurate catalogue of 2271 northern stars, Secchi devised the first spectral classification
circumpolar stars brighter than 9th magnitude. In his scheme, which formed the basis of the system developed
many research projects, he often collaborated with his by Edward C. PICKERING and his staff at Harvard.
wife, Mary (Cross) Joyner Seares.
secondary (mirror) Small mirror in a REFLECTING TELE-
season Part of a cyclical variation in the climatic SCOPE that diverts the converging beam of light from the
conditions on the surface of a planetary body over the PRIMARY towards the EYEPIECE.
course of a single revolution around the Sun, brought
about by the inclination of the bodys axis of rotation to secondary body Any of the smaller members of a
the plane of its orbit. system of celestial bodies that orbit around the largest, the
The Earths axis of rotation is inclined at 2327 so primary body. The planets are secondary bodies in their
that, during the course of a year, the northern and south- orbits around the Sun, but each planet is the primary
season Because the ern hemispheres alternately receive longer or shorter peri- body when considering its own satellite system, in which
Earths axis is inclined relative ods of daylight. When the northern hemisphere is tilted the satellites are the secondary bodies.
to its plane of orbit, the Earth towards the Sun it experiences summer, while the south-
S experiences seasons. The
side that is tilted towards the
ern hemisphere experiences winter. Six months later,
when the Earth is on the other side of its orbit around the
secondary crater CRATER formed by the impact of
pieces of EJECTA from a primary impact crater. Secondary
Sun gets more light and has Sun, the situation is reversed; the southern hemisphere craters are typically shallower than primary ones. They
longer days and so enjoying summer whilst it is winter in the north. Between are abundant on bodies that lack an atmosphere. In rare
experiences summer. the two extremes lie spring and autumn. cases, however, secondary craters have been observed
even on Venus, the very dense atmosphere of which
N
usually brakes the ejecta flight. Secondary craters are
northern spring typically between one and two orders of magnitude
Arctic Circle
smaller than the primary. They form radial and
concentric chains and clusters around the primary crater.
southern autumn
S second contact Moment during a SOLAR ECLIPSE
when the leading (easterly) limb of the Moon appears to
N N touch the easterly limb of the Sun. During a TOTAL
northern summer northern winter
ECLIPSE, this marks the arrival of TOTALITY. Second
Sun
64-2108 contact in a LUNAR ECLIPSE defines the moment when the
Moons trailing (westerly) limb enters Earths UMBRA; in a
southern winter southern summer
S S total lunar eclipse, this is the time when totality begins.
360
Selene
361
semidetached binary
ather inconspicuous constellation, representing a huge snake coiled around the Serenitatis, Mare (Sea of Serenity) Lunar lava plain,
R body of Ophiuchus, the serpent-bearer. The constellation is unique in consist-
ing of two separate parts: Serpens Caput (the Serpents Head), between Botes
roughly 700 km (430 mi) in diameter, located in the
north-east quadrant of the Moon. This area was struck
and Hercules, and Serpens Cauda (the Serpents Tail), between Ophiuchus and by an enormous object, producing a multi-ring impact
Scutum. The brightest star in Serpens, Unukalhai, is mag. 2.6. Alya ( Ser) is a basin, the inner region of which was later flooded by lava.
wide double with white components, mags. 4.6 and 5.0, separation 22; Ser is a The inner ring is marked by a series of circular mare
close binary, also with white components, mags. 4.2 and 5.3, separation 4.0. (wrinkle) ridges. Apollo 17 landed in the TaurusLittrow
Deep-sky objects include M5 (NGC 5904), a 6th-magnitude globular cluster, and Valley, in the outer ring of Serenitatis, to sample a dark-
the EAGLE NEBULA (IC 4703), an emission nebula containing M16 (NGC 6611), mantling deposit.
an open cluster of more than 60 stars fainter than 8th magnitude.
Serpens See feature article
BRIGHTEST STARS
Name RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance Service Module See APOLLO PROGRAMME
h m mag. mag. type (l.y.)
Unukalhai 15 44 06 26 2.63 0.9 K2 73
Setebos One of the several small outer satellites of
18 21 02 54 3.23 1.8 K0 62
URANUS; it was discovered in 1999 by J.J. Kavelaars and
others. Setebos is about 20 km (12 mi) in size. It takes
2273 days to circuit the planet, at an average distance of
elliptical orbit into a circular polar orbit of 100 km 17.88 million km (11.11 million mi). It has a
(60 mi). During the transition, the data relay satellite will RETROGRADE orbit (inclination near 158) with a
be deployed. It will relay the Doppler ranging signal substantial eccentricity (0.551). See also CALIBAN
between the orbiter and ground station to measure the
far-side gravitational field. The orbiter will map the Moon SETI Acronym for Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence,
for a year, after which the propulsion module will the umbrella term for all endeavours, especially those
separate and will be deorbited. It will make a landing and using radio telescopes, to find signs of intelligent life else-
send radio signals from the landing site for differential where in the Universe. SETI assumes that life exists on
VERY LARGE BASELINE INTERFEROMETRY observation. some EXTRASOLAR PLANETS; a small percentage of that life
is sufficiently advanced to have developed civilizations and
semidetached binary BINARY STAR system in which technological capabilities; such civilizations are either
only one star fills its ROCHE LOBE. Material from the lobe- unintentionally emitting or deliberately transmitting sig-
filling star escapes through the inner LAGRANGIAN POINT nals that are detectable across intervening space; and such
and accretes on to the companion, usually via an signals if received will be identifiably of artificial origin.
ACCRETION DISK. See also CLOSE BINARY; DETACHED BINARY Almost 50 years of SETI research has produced no evi-
dence for extraterrestrial intelligence (ETI).
semimajor axis (symbol a) Half of the longest axis of A vast number of stars must first be checked for the
an ELLIPSE. For an object in an elliptical orbit, it is the presence of suitable planetary systems, very few of which
mean distance from the primary body (that is half way will contain planets potentially suitable for complex life,
between the nearest distance and the farthest distance). It and very few of those may be expected to host technologi-
is one of the ORBITAL ELEMENTS, and is related to the cally advanced civilizations. Natural cosmic radio sources
mean motion n (the average rate of angular motion produce noise spread across a wide frequency range.
around the primary) by the relation n2a3 = G(M m), Radio SETI experiments look for narrowband signals,
where G is the GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT, and M and m with a frequency spread of just a few hertz, characteristic
are the masses of the primary and the object. of a purpose-built transmitter these are the easiest sig-
nals to detect as their energy is concentrated in a small
semiregular variable (SR) Pulsating giant or region of the radio spectrum.
supergiant VARIABLE STAR, generally of late spectral type The earliest serious attempt to detect ETI signals was
(M, C, S or Me, Ce, Se), with period 20 to 2000 days or Project Ozma (the name is from Frank Baums The
more, and amplitude from a few hundredths to several Wizard of Oz). In 1960 Frank DRAKE and others used a
magnitudes. There are various subtypes. Some 26-m (85-ft) antenna at Green Bank to search at the 21-
S (designated SRA) differ little from MIRA STARS except in
having amplitudes less than 2.5 mag., but the shapes of
cm hydrogen line. Ozma was unsuccessful and was aban-
doned after a few months. Since then a number of other
their light-curves vary. Other stars (subtype SRB) show a projects, mostly privately funded, have scanned the heav-
definite periodicity, interrupted at times by irregularities, ens in various regions of the radio spectrum.
or intervals of constant light. A small subtype (SRC) Project Phoenix targets 1000 carefully selected stars
comprises supergiants of late spectral type with within 200 l.y. of the Sun. A 28 million channel receiver
amplitudes of no more than 1 magnitude and periods provides high sensitivity to weak signals. Observations
from 30 to several thousand days. MU CEPHEI is an began at Parkes, NSW, Australia in 1995 February, and at
interesting example of this subtype. There are also stars Green Bank in 1996 September; observations are also
classified as semiregulars but with earlier spectral types made for two 3-week sessions each year at Arecibo. By mid-
(F, G and K), sometimes with emission lines. These have 1999, Phoenix had examined about half its targeted stars.
been assigned to subtype SRD. See also RV TAURI STAR
362
shadow bands
363
Shakerley, Jeremy
from small-scale changes in the refractive index of the air and clusters. In 1938 Shapley discovered the Fornax and
along the eclipse track, with the brighter bands being Sculptor dwarf galaxies.
images of the tiny remaining visible sliver of the solar disk
exposed within a few moments of totality. Observers who Shaula The star Scorpii, visual mag. 1.62, distance
witnessed a strong display of shadow bands at the 1998 703 l.y., spectral type B1.5 IV. It lies in the tail of the scor-
February total solar eclipse in the Caribbean likened the pion, and its name is the Arabic word for stinger.
effect to the play of sunlight on the bottom of a water-
filled swimming pool. Shedir The star Cassiopeiae, visual mag. 2.24, distance
229 l.y., spectral type K0 III. Small telescopes show a
Shakerley, Jeremy (1626c.1655) English astronomer. wide, unrelated companion of mag. 8.9. Its name, which
By 1649 he had discovered the writings of the recently is also spelled Schedar or Schedar, comes from the Arabic
deceased Jeremiah HORROCKS, William GASCOIGNE and sadr, meaning breast.
William CRABTREE, and was a fervent supporter of the
Copernican system. Between 1649 and 1653 he published Sheliak Name of the star BETA LYRAE.
three books attacking astrology. He clearly considered
Horrocks his scientific role model, and his Anatomy of shell burning Nuclear burning of elements in thin
Urania Practica (1649) was the first occasion that Hor- spherical shells in the atmosphere of stars. Shell burning
rocks work was acknowledged in print. Shakerley was occurs when nuclear FUSION has been exhausted in the
making telescopic observations of comets and eclipses core, whereupon the core collapses producing thermal
after 1650, and of the 1651 transit of Mercury. energy, which raises the temperature of the material
surrounding the core sufficiently for nuclear fusion to
Shapley, Harlow (18851972) American astronomer occur there. The shell burning gradually moves outwards,
who first defined the nature and extent of the Milky Way causing the star to expand, until all the nuclear fuel has
galaxy. His early years were spent at Mount Wilson been exhausted in the envelope.
Observatory (191421), where he became the first Hydrogen shell burning occurs in stars as they evolve off
(1918) accurately to measure the distances to globular the MAIN SEQUENCE to become RED GIANTS. More massive
clusters, by calibrating Henrietta LEAVITTs periodlumi- stars will burn other elements in their cores and have other
nosity law for Cepheid and RR Lyrae variable stars in episodes of shell burning. See also STELLAR EVOLUTION
the clusters. The globular clusters are concentrated near
the central bulge of the Milky Way, so these studies shell galaxy ELLIPTICAL GALAXY that shows faint, thin
enabled Shapley to identify a region in Sagittarius at shells of stars on either side of the nucleus. Attention was
galactic longitude 325 as the galactic centre. He calcu- first called to these galaxies in 1979, when the
lated its distance as 50,000 l.y., which, though about 60% photographic image-enhancement techniques of David
greater than the distance obtained if the effects of inter- Malin (1941 ) showed these subtle features. They
stellar reddening are taken into account, still implied that appear to result when a DISK GALAXY merges with an
the Galaxy was much larger than previously thought. elliptical, and the coherent stellar motions from the disk
Shapley defended his idea of a large metagalaxy in the lead to its stars wrapping across the centre of the
famous 1920 GREAT DEBATE with Heber Curtis. elliptical, producing narrow shells where they reverse
From 1921 to 1951 Shapley directed HARVARD COL- direction. As many as 28 concentric shells have been seen
LEGE OBSERVATORY, modernizing the facilities and equip- in a single galaxy. Related shell-like features have also
ment and establishing the BOYDEN OBSERVATORY in been found in S0 and a few Sa galaxies, and their
South Africa. Shapley catalogued many thousands of occurrence has been used as evidence of advanced
galaxies beyond the Milky Way, publishing, with Ade- mergers or galactic CANNIBALISM.
laide Ames (19001932), the first comprehensive cata-
logue of these objects A Survey of the External Galaxies shell star MAIN-SEQUENCE star that is surrounded by a
Brighter Than the Thirteenth Magnitude (1932). He was shell of gas, generally of spectral type Be. Examples are
one of the first to recognize that galaxies are not distrib- Cassiopeiae, BU Tauri and 48 Librae.
uted uniformly in the Universe, but arranged in groups The spectrum of a shell star typically shows a rapidly
rotating underlying B star, with broad absorption lines
superposed with emission lines and additional sharp
absorption features. The star is rotating rapidly, losing
mass to an expanding shell that is pulled into a disk
S around the equator. The sharp absorption features are
caused by the disk. Be-shell stars are believed to be the
same as classical BE STARS viewed along the equator.
Other Be stars are in CLOSE BINARY systems, with the
material surrounding them being accreted from their
companion stars. Herbig Be objects are believed to be a
more massive version of T TAURI stars.
364
ShoemakerLevy 9, Comet
365
shooting star
366
Sirius
EQUINOX, on or about March 21, when the Sun lies in the of spacetime are all predicted to be infinite. It is likely
direction of the First Point of Aries. that radical changes to the laws of physics or new laws
will be required to deal correctly with singularities. This
sidereal year Time taken for the Earth to complete a may however not be necessary if the idea of cosmic
single revolution of the Sun, measured relative to the censorship holds. Cosmic censorship requires that all
fixed stars; it is equivalent to 365.25636 mean solar days. singularities be hidden from the rest of the Universe by
Because of the effects of PRECESSION, a sidereal year is 20 EVENT HORIZONS. If correct, then the difficulties
minutes longer than a TROPICAL YEAR. See also presented by a singularity will never have to be dealt with
ANOMALISTIC YEAR in the real world (see also NAKED SINGULARITY). It is
possible that the Universe as a whole originated in a
siderite Obsolete name for IRON METEORITE singularity at the start of the BIG BANG.
siderolite Obsolete name for STONY-IRON METEORITE Sinope One of JUPITERs outer moons, discovered in
1914 by Seth Nicholson (18911963). It is about 36 km
siderostat Flat, altazimuth-mounted mirror driven to (22 mi) in size. Sinope takes 758 days to orbit Jupiter, at
counteract the rotation of the Earth and continuously to an average distance of 23.94 million km (14.88 million
direct the light from the Sun on to a fixed, focusing mirror. mi), in an orbit of eccentricity 0.250. It has a path
From here it can be directed towards instruments such as a (inclination 158) in common with other members of its
SPECTROHELIOSCOPE. Unlike the similar HELIOSTAT, which group. See also ANANKE
is equatorially mounted, the mirror of the siderostat has to
be driven about two axes simultaneously in order to follow sinuous rille Winding channel that typically emanates
the Sun across the sky. The benefit of this arrangement is from distinct, circular or elongated regions of collapse.
that the beam is directed horizontally, rather than in a direc- Sinuous rilles are known on the the Moon, Mars and
tion parallel to the Earths rotation axis, allowing greater Venus. They are usually a few hundred metres to 1 km
flexibility in the positioning of the fixed mirror. As in the deep, 1 to 3 km (0.62 mi) wide and up to 100 km
heliostat, the final image slowly rotates. See also COELOSTAT (60 mi) long. Their morphology and association with
volcanic plains and constructs suggests that they
Siding Spring Observatory Australias major optical originated from thermal erosion by flowing lava. APOLLO
observatory, 20 km (12 mi) west of Coonabarabran in 15 landed close to Hadley Rille, one of the largest
New South Wales. The observatory is at an elevation of sinuous rilles of the Moon. Astronauts took detailed
1150 m (3770 ft) on Siding Spring Mountain, one of the photographs of the rilles inner slopes and collected
higher ridges of the Warrumbungle Range. It was devel- samples of BASALTS from its edge.
oped in the early 1960s as an outstation of MOUNT
STROMLO OBSERVATORY and remains the property of the Sirius The star Canis Majoris, the brightest star in the
Australian National University (ANU). The first group of sky, at visual mag. 1.44. At a distance of only 8.6 l.y., it
telescopes had apertures of 0.41, 0.61 and 1.02 m (16, 24 is also one of the closest stars to us. Sirius is popularly
and 40 in.). In 1984 the ANU added a 2.3-m (90-in.) known as the Dog Star, since it lies in the constellation of
telescope of advanced design known as the Advanced the greater dog. It is a main-sequence star of spectral type
Technology Telescope (ATT), which for the first time A0 with a luminosity 22 times that of the Sun. The
incorporated in a single instrument a thin mirror, an altaz- HIPPARCOS satellite detected signs of variability, but the
imuth mounting and a rotating building. The ANU also range and cause are unknown. Sirius has a spectrum that
operates the 0.5-m (20-in.) Uppsala Schmidt Telescope shows enhanced absorption lines due to heavy metals,
on behalf of NASA for near-Earth object searches. and is classified as a metallic-line A star, or AM STAR.
Siding Spring also hosts facilities belonging to other Accompanying it is a white dwarf known as Sirius B,
organisations, including the two telescopes of the ANGLO- discovered in 1862 by the American astronomer Alvan G.
AUSTRALIAN OBSERVATORY (the ANGLO-AUSTRALIAN CLARK. Sirius B is of visual mag. 8.44 and has just
TELESCOPE and the UNITED KINGDOM SCHMIDT 0.005% of the Suns luminosity. It orbits Sirius every 50
TELESCOPE, respectively the largest of their kind in years but is too close to be seen separately with small
Australia), the Automated Patrol Telescope of the telescopes. Sirius B was originally the more massive of the
University of New South Wales and the southern two stars and evolved more quickly, transferring some of
FAULKES TELESCOPE. Siding Springs modest elevation its gas to Sirius A and hence giving rise to the unusual
and easterly location do not provide the best atmospheric spectrum. The name Sirius comes from the Greek word
stability, but it does enjoy particularly dark skies and it
remains Australias premier site for optical astronomy.
seirios, meaning scorching.
S
Sigma Octantis Closest naked-eye star to the south
celestial pole, visual mag. 5.45, distance 270 l.y., spectral
type F0 III. Currently it lies about 1 from the pole, and
the distance is increasing due to precession.
signal-to-noise ratio Measure of signal clarity. All mea- Sirius Shown here are Sirius
surements (M) are the sum of the signal (S) and noise A and B viewed at X-ray
(N), so when the signal-to-noise ratio (R) is calculated the wavelengths. Although Sirius A
noise must be removed from the measurement first (to outshines it in visible light,
give the actual signal) before dividing by the noise: Sirius B is far brighter at these
R = S/N = (M N)/N. If the background noise is very low-energy wavelengths. This
high, the signal is overwhelmed by it, and the signal-to- is because it is far hotter its
noise ratio is very low (much less than 1). Technology surface temperature is some
continually strives to lower the noise in the detector in 25,000 K. The spike pattern is
order to raise the signal-to-noise ratio. an optical effect of the detector.
Sirius A is not in fact hot
Simms, William See COOKE, TROUGHTON & SIMMS enough to be seen at X-ray
wavelengths and it is thought
singularity Point in space or spacetime at which the that some ultraviolet radiation
current laws of physics make non-real predictions for the from it leaked on to the
values of some quantities. Thus at the centre of a BLACK detector to give the fainter
HOLE, the density, the force of gravity and the curvature component.
367
Sirrah
Sirrah Alternative name for the star Andromedae. See almost 30,000 exposures. Nearly 10,000 images of the
ALPHERATZ Earth were also obtained.
On July 28, a second crew, comprising Alan Bean
SIRTF See SPACE INFRARED TELESCOPE FACILITY (1932 ), Owen Garriott (1930 ) and Jack Lousma
(1936 ), was launched to the space station. The astro-
Sisyphus APOLLO ASTEROID discovered in 1972; nauts installed a new and more efficient sunshield and also
number 1866. It is the largest known Apollo, being about installed a micrometeorite detector on the telescope
10 km (6 mi) in size. See table at NEAR-EARTH ASTEROID mount truss. During the mission they took 25,000 pho-
tographs of the Sun and studied in detail more than 100
Sitterly, Charlotte (Emma) Moore (18981990) FLARES, including a major disturbance on August 21. The
American astronomer, an expert on the solar spectrum crew also returned with 16,800 pictures for use in crop
and standard spectral identifications. Working with Henry surveys, land-use planning and searches for natural
Norris RUSSELL at Princeton University, she studied bina- resources. They returned to Earth on September 25 after
ry star systems and the masses of their components. At 59.5 days in space, then a record.
Mount Wilson Observatory she made a detailed study of Gerald Carr (1932 ), Edward Gibson (1936 ) and
the solar spectrum. Later (194590), at the National William Pogue (1930 ) entered Skylab on November 16.
Bureau of Standards and Naval Research Laboratory, Sit- They spent much of their time repairing and replacing
terly did much to standardize the nomenclature of solar failed equipment. Nevertheless, they spent nearly two and
spectral lines and general spectral line multiplets, includ- a half times longer than planned observing the Sun and
ing data for the near-ultraviolet obtained by rocket- Comet KOHOUTEK, and more than three times the allotted
launched UV instruments. time on materials-processing experiments. They returned
to Earth after a record 84 days on 1974 February 4.
Sixty-one Cygni (61 Cygni) First star to have its paral- During the three missions over 120,000 photographs
lax measured, by the German astronomer Friedrich Wil- of the Sun were taken and 72 km (45 mi) of magnetic tape
helm BESSEL in 1838. It also has the greatest annual were used to record data from on-board experiments. Five
proper motion of any naked-eye star: 5.2. 61 Cygni is a years later, Skylab re-entered the atmosphere over the
binary star, consisting of two orange dwarfs divisible in Indian Ocean, scattering some debris over Australia. For-
small telescopes or even binoculars, mags. 5.20 and 6.05 tunately no one was injured.
(4.79 combined), spectral types K5 V and K7 V, with an
orbital period of 659 years. The stars are so widely spaced Slipher, Earl Carl (18831964) American planetary
that they have measurably different distances from Earth astronomer (younger brother of Vesto SLIPHER) who spent
11.36 and 11.43 l.y. respectively. virtually his entire career at LOWELL OBSERVATORY
(190664). Slipher was noted for the huge number of
Skalnat Pleso Observatory Observatory of the high-quality photographs, especially of Mars, that he took
Astronomical Institute of the Slovak Academy of Sci- over a 50-year period. He confirmed (1937) the blue
ences, located at an elevation of 1780 m (5850 ft) at clearing phenomenon, when the Martian atmosphere,
Tatranska Lomnica in the eastern Tatras Mountains. The normally opaque to blue and violet light, suddenly
main instrument is a modern 0.6-m (24-in.) reflector with becomes transparent at those wavelengths, allowing sur-
equipment for photoelectric stellar photometry. The face features to be seen clearly. In 1954 Slipher discovered
observatory was founded by Antonin Becvr. Mars W-clouds, which formed over the Tharsis region.
Slipher was among the last of the leading planetary
SkjellerupMaristany, Comet (C/1927 X1) Bright astronomers to hold to the belief that the CANALS of Mars
long-period comet discovered by John Francis Skjellerup were real physical features.
(18751952) at Melbourne, Australia, on 1927
December 3, and independently by Maristany, at La Slipher, Vesto Melvin (18751969) American
Plata, Argentina, on December 6. At perihelion astronomer (elder brother of Earl SLIPHER) who discov-
(0.18 AU) on December 18, the comet was visible in ered the recession of the galaxies. He spent his entire
daylight only 5 from the Sun; peak brightness was career at LOWELL OBSERVATORY, which he directed from
estimated at magnitude 6. At the end of 1927 1916 to 1952, and where he supervised Percival Lowells
December, the comet was visible in dark skies, with a tail search for Pluto, discovered by Clyde TOMBAUGH in 1930.
approaching 40 in length. The orbit is elliptical with a He used a large Brashear spectrograph attached to Low-
period of 36,500 years. ells 24-inch (0.61-m) Clark refractor accurately to mea-
S Skylab First US SPACE STATION. Skylab was developed
sure the rotation periods of Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn
and Uranus. His spectrograms of Jupiter showed bands of
from the third stage of the SATURN V rocket. The 75-tonne methane and ammonia that were later confirmed by
station was launched into a near circular orbit 433 km Rupert WILDT and others.
(270 mi) above the Earths surface on 1973 May 14. Slipher became the first (1912) to recognize the red-
Skylab consisted of four sections, the largest being the shifts of lines in the spectrum of the Andromeda Galaxy
orbital workshop, 14.7 m (48 ft) long and 6.6 m (22 ft) in (M31) and 36 other galaxies, a discovery later used by
diameter. This section also contained the living quarters. Edwin HUBBLE to determine the scale of the Universe.
An airlock module contained equipment for the control of Obtaining radial velocities for galaxies required very long
the station and also the hatch for space walks. A multiple exposures with the Lowell spectrograph as long as 60
docking facility contained an Apollo docking port at one hours and meticulous calibration of the equipment. He
end and a second, rescue port. Six telescopes for monitor- announced a radial velocity of 300 km/s for M31, a result
ing the Sun were powered by a windmill-shaped array of that was initially met with disbelief, as it implied that this
four solar panels. was an island universe far beyond the Milky Way (see
Just after launch, the stations micrometeorite shield GREAT DEBATE). Slipher discovered that other spiral galax-
deployed prematurely and broke away, destroying one ies were receding at high speeds and that they rotated, too;
solar panel and damaging the other. After being briefed in 1916 he announced a rotation rate for M31 and later
on the damage, the first crew was launched on May 25 determined similar rates for other galaxies.
and, after some difficulties, managed to erect a sunshield He also investigated the nature of the interstellar medi-
and cut free the jammed solar panel. The astronauts um, being the first to confirm the existence of interstellar
Charles Conrad (193099), Joseph Kerwin (1932 ) calcium and sodium atoms. Slipher discovered reflection
and Paul Weitz (1932 ) returned to Earth on June 22, nebulae, explaining their luminescence. Expecting that the
after a record stay of just over 28 days. In spite of the bluish nebulosity around Merope and other stars of the
early technical problems, the Apollo Telescope Mount Pleiades would show a spectrum similar to the Orion Neb-
was operated for 88% of the planned time, making ula and other bright diffuse nebulae, Slipher instead found
368
Smyth, Charles Piazzi
that the Pleiades nebulosity had spectra corresponding to ties with the HARVARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY were cement-
the hot, young stars in the cluster, and correctly surmised ed by the creation of the HARVARDSMITHSONIAN CENTER
that the Merope Nebula must shine by reflected starlight. FOR ASTROPHYSICS (CfA), and the SAO became part of one
of the largest and most diverse astrophysical institutions in
Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) Large-scale SURVEY, the world. Today, in collaboration with CfA and a number
the first to be made with purely electronic detectors, thus of other institutions, the SAO runs several major facilities
giving unprecedented photometric quality in five colours. including the FRED L. WHIPPLE OBSERVATORY, the MMT
It began in 1998, aimed at covering one-quarter of the OBSERVATORY and the SUBMILLIMETER ARRAY. The SAO
sky. Redshifts are also being measured, and it is hoped retains its headquarters in Cambridge, Mass.
that the resulting REDSHIFT SURVEY will plot the
distribution of galaxies in a volume of space over 30 times Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory Star
as large as in any previous survey. The SDSS has a Catalog (SAO) Catalogue giving the positions and
dedicated 2.5-m (100-in.) reflector at APACHE POINT proper motions for 258,997 stars to 9th magnitude,
OBSERVATORY. It is named after Alfred Pritchard Sloan, Jr published in 1966. It was the first large synthetic
(18751966), whose foundation financed the project. catalogue, created on a computer by combining data
from several large astrometric catalogues.
slow motions Manual controls that allow movement of a
telescope around the axes of its mounting and allow a Smoot, George Fitzgerald III (1945 ) American
celestial target to be followed. Adjustments are normally observational cosmologist who led the COSMIC BACK-
effected by turning a hand-wheel or fine screw. For a tele- GROUND EXPLORER (COBE) team that in 1992 discov-
scope on an EQUATORIAL MOUNTING, only the right ascen- ered minute variations in the cosmic microwave
sion axis requires a slow motion control. An instrument background radiation. Working at Lawrence Berkeley
on an ALTAZIMUTH MOUNTING will require controls for National Laboratory since 1970, Smoot has designed and
both altitude and azimuth. led several missions to map the afterglow of the Big Bang,
using instruments known as Differential Microwave
slow nova (NB) NOVA that takes at least 150 days to Radiometers (DMRs) designed to measure minute fluc-
decline 3 magnitudes below maximum light. Such a tuations in the cosmic microwave background. Three
decline excludes any dip and recovery such as that ultra-sensitive DMRs launched on COBE detected tem-
exhibited by the slow nova DQ Herculis. perature variations of just 30 millionths of a degree.
These findings, announced by Smoots team on 1992
SLR See SATELLITE LASER RANGER April 23, also supported the theories of INFLATION and
COLD DARK MATTER.
Small Astronomy Satellites (SAS) Name given to
three NASA spacecraft launched in the 1970s for X-ray Smyth, Charles Piazzi (18191900) Scottish
and gamma-ray observations. SAS-1 was also known as astronomer, the second Astronomer Royal for Scotland
UHURU. SAS-2, launched in 1972, carried a gamma-ray (184688), whose 1856 expedition to Tenerife, in the
telescope. This was followed in 1975 by SAS-3, which Canary Islands, proved the value of high-altitude observa-
discovered a type of X-ray star known as a rapid burster. tories. He was born in Naples, Italy, the son of noted Skylab Three American
See also GAMMA-RAY ASTRONOMY British amateur astronomer William Henry SMYTH, and crews spent a total of more
his middle name honours his fathers friend Giuseppe than 170 days in Skylab
Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC, Nubecula Minor) PIAZZI. Because the Scottish observatory at Calton Hill during 1973 and 1974.
Small GALAXY that is the second nearest external galaxy was so poorly funded, he did much of his research abroad. Despite technical setbacks,
to us. It is about 190,000 l.y. away and has about 2% of His 1856 voyage to Tenerife was undertaken to com- the science achieved
the mass of our GALAXY. It extends over about 3 of the pare observations of the planets and stars made at sea level exceeded expectations.
sky within the constellation of Tucana (RA 01h 05m dec.
72), where it is easily visible to the naked eye,
appearing like a detached portion of the MILKY WAY. The
SMC, along with the LARGE MAGELLANIC CLOUD
(LMC), is named after Ferdinand Magellan, who
observed them during his voyage around the world in
1519, but they were known before that date. It is an
irregular galaxy with a HUBBLE CLASSIFICATION of Irr I.
The SMCs physical width is about 15,000 l.y., but it is
highly elongated with the long axis along the line of sight. S
Its depth is therefore some 60,000 l.y. The curious, long,
twisted structure that has been found for the galaxy (and
that may in fact divide the cloud into two distinct
portions) suggests that strong tidal forces have distorted
the SMC. This may have occurred during a close passage
some 200 million years ago between the SMC and our
Galaxy. This same close passage may have produced the
Magellanic Stream, one of the largest HIGH-VELOCITY
CLOUDS known. Although the SMC contains less gas and
dust than the LMC, like the latter it also contains many
HII and star-forming regions. The SMC orbits our
Galaxy roughly at right angles to the plane of the Milky
Way, and it may at some time in the future be disrupted
and captured by our Galaxy.
369
Smyth, William Henry
SOHO, Comets The Solar coordinate what is probably the least practised aspect of
and Heliospheric Observatorys amateur astronomy radio observations of Solar System
LASCO camera 3 saw these and cosmic radio sources. SARA encourages the
two comets approaching the continual surveillance of wide areas of the sky in search
Sun in 1998. Shortly after they of new or unusual radio emissions. It publishes a
were occulted by the disc used monthly Journal; the membership also includes
to block out the Suns professional radio astronomers.
photosphere, two coronal
mass ejections occurred, SOFIA Abbreviation of STRATOSPHERIC OBSERVATORY
leading to the conclusion that FOR INFRARED ASTRONOMY
they had both impacted on the
Sun. (The bar across the lower software, astronomical Modern professional astrono-
comet is an optical effect.) my relies extensively on software the programmed
sequences of instructions that control modern digital
computers. Astronomers use computers networked
through the Internet and World Wide Web to plan obser-
vations. Some observatories use intelligent scheduling
programs to determine when observations will be made.
During an observation, a telescope is controlled by pro-
grams that correct for telescope deformation and keep the
telescope tracking the target object (see ACTIVE OPTICS,
ADAPTIVE OPTICS). The instrumentation generates elec-
from England with similar observations made from a tem- tronic data (perhaps passing it first through a processing
porary observatory located near the summit of a volcano, sequence that removes any instrument-specific effects) in
at 3718 m (12,200 ft). From this altitude, bad weather a standard format that can be handled by one of the stan-
was less of a problem than at sea level; and the thinner air dard astronomical data reduction systems. If the observa-
resulted in better seeing, which enabled him to detect fine tion forms part of a large-scale survey, the data may be
detail on the Moon and planets and to resolve very close automatically processed to determine basic characteristics
double stars. This expedition also marked the beginnings such as object type and redshift, and stored in an Internet-
of infrared astronomy, as Smyth was able to make delicate accessible DATABASE.
measurements of the Moons heat radiation that would The astronomer may wish to examine the data in detail,
normally have been absorbed by the lower levels of Earths displaying it in different ways, experimenting with IMAGE
atmosphere, which are opaque to the infrared. PROCESSING techniques, probing for the secrets it contains.
The Flexible Image Transport System (FITS), developed
Smyth, William Henry (17881865) English naval offi- by astronomers to encode definitions of image data and the
cer, hydrographer and amateur astronomer, famous for data themselves, is a platform-independent system now
his Cycle of Celestial Objects (1844). Inspired by his work widely used for interchanging data between observatories
assisting Giuseppe Piazzi in preparing a star catalogue, that has also become widely used outside astronomy.
Smyth built a well-equipped private observatory at Bed- Astronomical data reduction is a specialist process
ford, near London, in 1830. Its main instrument was a requiring specialist software, usually written by program-
5.6-inch (142-mm) TulleyDollond refractor equipped mers employed at observatories or other astronomical
with the first weighted clock drive designed by Richard institutions such as universities. Telescope and instru-
Sheepshanks (17941855). Smyth published a decade of ment control software is generally even more specialized,
observations as the Cycle, which included as its second since each instrument has its own particular characteris-
volume The Bedford Catalogue, a listing of 850 double tics, so the software is usually written by those building
stars, star clusters and nebulae. This work, aimed princi- the instrument or telescope. The software required for a
pally at amateur astronomers, was the first comprehen- new instrument now often represents a significant frac-
sive guidebook to observing celestial objects beyond the tion of the total cost.
Solar System. The main astronomical data reduction systems are
NOAOs Image Reduction and Analysis Facility (IRAF)
Smythii, Mare (Smyths Sea) Lunar lava plain located in and ESOs Munich Image Data Analysis System
the far eastern limb of the Moon. It formed from a multi- (MIDAS) in the optical region, and NRAOs Astronom-
S ring impact basin, the centre of which was later flooded
with lava. Quite irregular in shape, Mare Smythii is best
ical Image Processing System (AIPS, and its successor,
AIPS++) in the radio region. These can be seen as soft-
observed during a favourable LIBRATION. ware component frameworks, with a structure that
allows new components to be added easily and provides
SNC meteorite See MARTIAN METEORITE most of the basic services (for example data file access,
user interaction) that the new component needs. Data
Snow Telescope Horizontal solar telescope of MOUNT acquisition systems can be structured in the same way,
WILSON OBSERVATORY, and the oldest telescope there. It although, being real-time systems, they are significantly
was moved to Mount Wilson in 1904 on loan from more complex. Most major observatories have devel-
YERKES OBSERVATORY, to which it never returned. Named oped their own data acquisition frameworks, but there
after its benefactor, Helen Snow, it consists of a COELO- are only a few such systems, notably the ROYAL GREEN-
STAT feeding a concave mirror of 0.61 m (24 in.) aperture WICH OBSERVATORYs ADAM (Astronomical Data
and 18 m (59 ft) focal length. By 1910 the Snow Tele- Acquisition Monitor) and its descendant, DRAMA,
scope had been superseded by the 60-ft (18-m) and developed at the Anglo-Australian Observatory and first
150-ft (45-m) Solar Towers, which are still used for solar used on the Two-degree Field (2dF) project (see ANGLO-
research. The Snow Telescope itself is now used for edu- AUSTRALIAN TELESCOPE).
cational programmes. Astronomical software is not restricted to large research
institutions. Commercial packages are available for ama-
SNR See SUPERNOVA REMNANT teur telescope control (see DRIVE; GO TO TELESCOPE).
Image-processing techniques previously used only by pro-
SOAR Abbreviation of SOUTHERN ASTROPHYSICAL fessionals are now available to amateur observers wishing
RESEARCH TELESCOPE to use their personal computers to enhance images
obtained with CCD cameras or to eliminate the effects of
Society of Amateur Radio Astronomers (SARA) LIGHT POLLUTION. Virtual planetarium programs can
Organization that was formed in the early 1980s to bring the Universe to ones home.
370
solar day
SOHO Abbreviation of SOLAR AND HELIOSPHERIC constant rises and falls in step with the SOLAR CYCLE,
OBSERVATORY but with a total change of just 0.1% from 1978 to 1998.
During the two cycle minima of this period, the mean
SOHO, Comets Numerous comets, making close value was 1365.6 watts/m2. SUNSPOTS crossing the
perihelion approaches to the Sun, discovered by the visible solar disk briefly decrease the solar constant by a
LASCO C2 and C3 coronagraphs aboard the SOHO few tenths of one percent for a few days: such decreases
spacecraft. As of late 2001, almost 380 had been found, are outweighed by the brightness increase due to
most of them very small objects on KREUTZ SUNGRAZER FACULAE and PLAGES at times of high solar activity.
orbits. Nearly all of these comets were tiny, with nuclei Observations of sunlike stars suggest that larger-scale
perhaps only a few tens of metres in diameter. Very few variations can occur. A 0.25% reduction in the value of
SOHO comets have been observed to survive perihelion the solar constant is capable of explaining the estimated
passage. One notable exception was C/1998 J1 (SOHO), drop of about 0.5 K in global mean temperature during
discovered on 1998 May 3 as a magnitude 0 object in the the MAUNDER MINIMUM.
coronagraphs field of view. The comet, which was not a
Kreutz sungrazer, faded rapidly after perihelion, but was solar cycle Cyclical variation in solar activity with a
reasonably well seen in small telescopes from southern period of about 11 years between maxima (or minima).
hemisphere locations. The solar cycle is characterized by waxing and waning of
C/1996 B2 HYAKUTAKE was visible in the SOHO various forms of solar activity, such as ACTIVE REGIONS,
coronagraph field at its 1996 May 1 perihelion, and CORONAL MASS EJECTIONS, FLARES, the SOLAR CONSTANT
2P/ENCKE has also been observed close to the Sun using and SUNSPOTS. The rise to maximum activity is usually
this spacecraft. The SOHO comet discoveries follow on much more rapid than the subsequent decline.
from several made using the SOLWIND coronagraph Over the course of an approximate 11-year cycle,
aboard the US military P78-1 satellite in the late 1970s sunspots vary both in number and latitude. The conven-
and early 1980s. tional onset for the start of a solar cycle is the time when
the smoothed number of sunspots (the 12-month mov-
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) Part ing average) has decreased to its minimum value. At the
of the European Space Agencys INTERNATIONAL SOLAR commencement of a new cycle sunspots erupt around
TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS programme, together with the latitudes of 40 degrees north and south. Sunspots and
CLUSTER programmes, contributing to an international their associated active regions are found in belts or zones
effort involving many spacecraft from Europe, the USA, at both sides of the equator with latitudes that move clos-
Japan and other countries. The Solar and Heliospheric er to the equator over the course of the cycle, finishing at
Observatory is a 1.8-tonne spacecraft; it was launched by around 5 degrees north and south. This pattern can be
an Atlas booster in 1995 December. Its mission is to demonstrated graphically as a BUTTERFLY DIAGRAM and
make continuous observations of the solar photosphere, is known as SPRERS LAW. The magnetic polarity of
corona and solar wind to investigate the processes that sunspots varies over a 22-year cycle, described by Hales
form and heat the CORONA, maintain it and give rise to law. The leading (westernmost) spots of sunspot groups
the expanding SOLAR WIND. It is also investigating the in the northern hemisphere generally share the same
internal structure of the Sun. It carries 11 instruments, polarity, while the following (easternmost) spots have the
including a range of spectrometers and particle analysers. opposite polarity. In the southern hemisphere, the lead-
SOHO is situated at the L1 Lagrangian point between the ing and following spots also exhibit opposite polarities,
Sun and the Earth (1.5 million km/0.9 million mi from but their magnetic configuration is the reverse of that in
the Earth), where it points to the Sun continuously, with the northern hemisphere. All of the spots magnetic
the Earth behind the spacecraft. polarities reverse each roughly 11-year solar activity
cycle, so the complete cycle of the solar magnetic field is
Solar Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle around 22 years. Reversal of field polarity can occasion-
Explorer (SAMPEX) NASA satellite launched in 1992 ally happen earlier for one hemisphere than the other,
July to observe the activity of the Sun and to investigate meaning that there may be intervals of up to a year when
the origin and transport of galactic cosmic rays. northern and southern sunspots actually have the same
SAMPEX studies the changes in the effect of different magnetic configuration.
geomagnetic influences on the spacecraft, allowing The solar cycle may be maintained by a DYNAMO
studies to be made of the ionization and composition of EFFECT, driven by differential rotation and convection.
irregular, or anomalous, components of cosmic rays Longer-term variations, with periods of the order of a
having the same properties irrespective of the direction
from which they come. The craft also observes
thousand years may also occur, and there have also been
episodes such as the MAUNDER MINIMUM when the normal
solar cycle The number of
sunspots observed peaks S
precipitating magnetospheric electrons that interact with workings of the cycle appear to have been suspended. roughly every 11 years,
the atmosphere and investigates the isotropic composition Observations of chromospheric activity in other stars sug- although the peak intensity can
of particles originating in solar flares. gests that similar activity cycles are typical of stars with vary widely. During the second
convective zones. half of the 17th century there
Solar B Japanese-led international spacecraft, involving were very few spots and this
the USA and the UK, to be launched in 2005 to make solar day Mean time interval between two successive period is known as the
detailed observations of the Sun. It will study the way in noons. See also DAY; EQUATION OF TIME; MEAN SUN Maunder Minimum.
which magnetic fields emerge through different layers of
the Suns atmosphere, creating the violent disturbances
that affect the Earth. Solar B will be placed into a Sun-
200
synchronous polar orbit around the Earth, in which the
crafts optical telescope, X-ray telescope and ultraviolet 160
imaging spectrometer will remain in continuous sunlight
for nine months each year.
120
371
solar eclipse
occurs when the Moon appears larger than the Sun and
the shadow cone reaches the Earth. When the Moon is at
its largest (at perigee) and the Sun at its smallest (Earth at
aphelion) a long total eclipse occurs; the maximum dura-
tion is 7 minutes 31 seconds, and this can happen only if
the shadow cone reaches the Earth near the equator
around local noon.
An ANNULAR ECLIPSE results in the opposite situation,
when the shadow cone fails to reach the Earth. A ring of
Sun will surround the Moon at mid-eclipse. An annular-
total eclipse occurs if the apparent size of Sun and Moon
are the same; it will be annular along most of the path, but
in the middle of the eclipse path the shadow cone will just
reach the Earth and in this location a very short totality is
seen. A PARTIAL ECLIPSE results if only part of the Sun is
occulted by the Moon. A partial eclipse is seen over a wide
area on Earth where the Moons penumbra reaches the
Earths surface. A total eclipse can be seen only on the
narrow path caused by the shadow-cone sweeping over
the Earths surface from west to east with a velocity of
some 3200 km/hr (2000 mph), the maximum width of
this path is 270 km (170 mi). An observer situated outside
this path will see a partial eclipse.
Various phenomena can be seen at a total eclipse. The
mystery of a total eclipse is enhanced because the uniniti-
ated have no warning of the impending spectacle, since
the Moon cannot be seen approaching the Sun: the partial
phase passes unnoticed unless the observer knows to look
for it. It is dangerous to look at the Sun at any time, espe-
solar eclipse The solar solar eclipse Eclipse of the Sun. It occurs when the cially with optical aids. The only safe way to observe the
corona varies in intensity during Moons shadow falls on Earth; for this to happen the partial phase is to project the image of the Sun on to a
the course of the solar cycle Moon must be in line between Sun and Earth. In fact, it white surface. Only during totality is it perfectly safe to
and this can be seen most is an OCCULTATION of the Sun by the Moon and the look directly at the occulted Sun and the CORONA.
easily during total solar purist will call it an eclipse of the Earth, since an eclipse is The eclipse begins when the east limb of the Moon
eclipses. The eclipse of 1981 by definition the passage of a celestial body through the appears in the same line of sight as the opposite limb of
July 11 revealed a particularly shadow of another. the Sun and seems to encroach upon the Sun. This is the
beautiful and complex corona. A solar eclipse can occur only at new moon (when the FIRST CONTACT. This moment goes by quite unnoticed.
Moon is in conjunction with the Sun), but not at every The projected image of the Sun will show a small notch
new moon because of the 5.15 inclination of the Moons some 10 seconds after first contact, this increasing in size
orbit to the plane of the ecliptic. An eclipse will result only as the Moon travels across the face of the Sun during the
when the new moon roughly coincides with a NODE (the next hour or so. The light reduction is imperceptible at
intersection between the orbit of the Moon and the first and the temperature drops very little until the last five
Earth). This coincidence need not be exact, an eclipse can minutes of the partial phase. Then the real drama begins:
occur up to 18.75 days before or after the alignment, thus the sky becomes darker, often with an eerie greenish tinge,
creating the eclipse season. Two eclipses can occur in quite unlike the darkening caused by clouds. Far on the
every eclipse season because the synodic month (29.5
days) is less than the eclipse season (37.5 days).
The nodes shift gradually westwards along the ecliptic,
so the Moon reaches the opposite node less than six
months later and realignment with the original node takes
Sun
place after 346.62 days, representing the ECLIPSE YEAR.
Four solar eclipses can occur in one year, but since the
S calendar year is greater than the eclipse year a fifth eclipse
is possible in one calendar year on rare occasions, and
then only in January or December. The maximum of five
solar eclipses will next happen again in 2206. At least two
solar eclipses of some kind must occur every year. A
LUNAR ECLIPSE precedes or follows a solar eclipse by about
two weeks because the same conditions prevail for the
Moon before or after that interval.
It has been known since Babylonian times that the
nodes regain their original positions after 18 years 10.3
days, the SAROS period. It lasts 223 synodic months
(29.5306 223 = 6585.32 days). This cycle closely cor- Moon
responds with 19 eclipse years (346.62 19 = 6585.78
days), hence eclipses recur after such cycles and form
series. The added 0.32 of a day of the Saros is responsible
Earth
solar eclipse In a total for the westwards shift of subsequent eclipses by one-third
solar eclipse (left) the Suns of the Earths circumference (120 longitude). They also
umbra
photosphere is completely shift 2 to 3 north or south due to the 0.46 day difference
obscured by the Moons disk in between 19 eclipse years and the saros. This eventually
penumbra
the area covered by the cone causes the series to end by passing one or the other pole.
of shadow. In an annular Each series comprises some 70 eclipses over a period of
eclipse (right) the Moon is about 1262 years.
slightly farther away and so the The apparent sizes of Sun and Moon as seen from
total solar eclipse annular solar eclipse
cone of shadow does not Earth are very similar, but subject to variation due to the
reach the Earth. elliptical orbits of the Earth and Moon. A total eclipse
372
solar interior
western horizon an ominous cloud-like darkening appears solar interior Not only
to be increasing in size; this is the approaching shadow of does the Sun rotate faster at
the Moon. At the same time curious moving ripples of the equator than at the poles
dark and light bands appear on any white smooth surface but also belts of plasma have
a strange atmospheric phenomenon known as SHADOW been observed moving at
BANDS. During the last few seconds of the partial phase different speeds. These belts
light fails rapidly, it becomes noticeably cooler, birds settle drift down towards the equator
down to roost, some flower petals close, and the wind during the solar cycle and, as
tends to drop. As the last rays of sunlight fade, a dramatic sunspots appear to form on
change of the scene occurs: darkness descends on the the boundaries, may be a
countryside. The last sliver of the Sun is broken up by the major factor in the changes in
Moons irregular limb, forming BAILYS BEADS, and as the the Suns magnetic field. There
last bead disappears SECOND CONTACT has occurred: are also deeper currents within
totality has begun. The observing site on the path of total- the convective zone, which
ity is engulfed in darkness, illuminated only by the beauti- travel from the equator
ful pearly white corona surrounding the pitch black towards the pole.
Moon. The resulting brightness on the Earths surface
varies from eclipse to eclipse; it is comparable to that of
the full moon. In contrast to the slow progress of the par-
tial phase, events around second contact progress with
incredible rapidity.
A few seconds after the disappearance of the last
Bailys bead the pink CHROMOSPHERE (shining in the light Timing the four contacts is still important today. The
of HYDROGEN-ALPHA emission) becomes visible on the results may show a slight discrepancy between observed
eastern edge of the Moons dark disk, only to be covered and predicted times, due principally to perturbations of
quickly as the Moon advances. PROMINENCES of various the lunar orbit and irregularities of Earths rotation.
shapes and sizes are seen during totality as pink flame-like The FLASH SPECTRUM can be photographed at second
projections. Large prominences remain visible throughout and third contacts, when the dark absorption bands of the
totality, while smaller ones appear and disappear as the photosphere change to the bright EMISSION LINES of the
advancing Moon uncovers or covers them; initially, those lower chromosphere, thus giving information on the
on the eastern limb are best seen, while towards the end of intensities of the various spectral lines. The shadow bands
totality, prominences on the western limb become uncov- occur as a result of effects in Earths atmosphere, and have
ered. The corona is the most striking feature of the total been successfully recorded using video equipment.
eclipse. The bright inner corona contains elegantly shaped Einsteins theory of GENERAL RELATIVITY was first test-
arches, loops and helmet-like structures tapering off into ed during the total solar eclipse of 1919 May 29. Starlight
the fainter streamers of the outer corona for a distance of was proved to be deflected by the Suns gravitational field.
several solar diameters. These various forms are created Ionospheric studies found that the ultraviolet radiation
by the solar magnetic field. The shape of the corona varies cut-off during totality resulted in an alteration of the elec-
with the 11-year solar cycle. At solar minimum, the coro- trical conductivity of the upper atmosphere.
na is drawn out into long equatorial streamers, extending
to enormous distances east and west, whilst the poles are solar interior Suns internal structure. It comprises
studded with shorter plume-like jets. At solar maximum, three principal regions: a central CORE, above which is
the corona surrounds the Sun more evenly, the whole cir- found the radiative zone, and finally the convective
cumference of the Sun being surrounded by medium- zone, from which material rises to the visible surface of
sized streamers of intricate structure. the PHOTOSPHERE.
It pays to take the eye off the features surrounding the All of the Suns energy is produced by NUCLEAR REAC-
Moon and look at the sky, where planets and bright stars TIONS fusing hydrogen into helium in the dense high tem-
can be seen with the now dark-adapted eyes. The sur- perature core, which extends for about one quarter of the
rounding landscape shows a 360 orange glow similar to solar radius (174,000 km/108,000 mi) from the centre.
sunset bordering the shadow of the Moon. The core accounts for only 1.6% of the Suns volume, but
Brightening at the Moons western limb heralds the about half its mass. At its centre, the core has a tempera-
end of totality. As THIRD CONTACT occurs, the first rays of ture of 15.6 million K and a density of 148,000 kg/m3.
sunlight from the brilliant photosphere, shining through a
lunar valley, gives rise to the famous DIAMOND-RING
The radiative zone surrounds the core out to 71.3% of
the Suns radius, 496,000 km (308,000 mi) from the solar S
EFFECT. The corona and the brightest planets may be dis- centre. Core radiation, initially in the form of gamma rays,
cernible to the still dark-adapted eyes for some 1020 sec- is continuously absorbed and re-emitted at lower tempera-
onds, but the main spectacle is almost over. Events now tures (and longer wavelengths) as it travels out through
happen in reverse: as the sky brightens one can see the the radiative zone. Recent computations indicate that it
shadow of the Moon receding towards the eastern hori- takes about 170,000 years, on average, for the radiation to
zon, and shadow bands reappear; the temperature gradu- work its way out from the Suns core through the radiative
ally rises, cocks crow as in the early morning, and zone to the convective zone.
day-time activity resumes again after the short interrup- At the bottom of the convective zone, the temperature
tion. The projected image of the Sun shows the gradual has become cool enough, at about one million K, to allow
uncovering of the solar disk by the advancing Moon. The some heavy nuclei to capture electrons. Their light-
partial phase lasts another hour or so until the last notch absorbing ability (opacity) obstructs the outflowing radia-
on the solar disk dwindles and finally disappears: the tion and causes the PLASMA to become hotter than it
Moon has parted from the Sun: fourth contact has would otherwise be. Because of its low density, the hot
occurred and the eclipse is over. plasma rises, carrying energy through the convective zone
Much information can be gained at a total eclipse. The from bottom to top in about 10 days. On reaching the vis-
corona, the outer atmosphere of the Sun, can be studied ible solar disk, the hot material cools by radiating sunlight
both visually and spectroscopically only during a total or into space and then sinks back down to become reheated
annular eclipse. However, Bernard LYOTs CORONAGRAPH and rise again. These churning convection cells create a
creates an artificial eclipse and allows limited study of the GRANULATION pattern in white-light images of the PHOTO-
inner corona from Earth. Spacecraft-borne coronagraphs SPHERE, which marks the top of the convective zone.
have proven particularly useful. Prominences, also first Turbulent motions in the convective zone excite sound
seen during an eclipse, can now be studied in more detail waves that echo and resonate through the Sun. When
with the spectroscope or the interference filter. these sound waves strike and rebound from the photos-
373
solar mass
phere, they cause the gas there to rise and fall with a peri- Material in the Suns interior flows in ways other than
od of about five minutes. Observations of these oscilla- rotation. Broad zonal bands sweep around the equatorial
tions with instruments on the SOLAR AND HELIOSPHERIC regions at different speeds. The velocity of the faster zonal
OBSERVATORY (SOHO), and from the GLOBAL OSCILLATION flows is about 5 m/s (16 ft/s) higher than gases to either
NETWORK GROUP (GONG), have been used to examine side, but this difference is about 400 times slower than the
sound waves with different paths inside the Sun, deter- mean velocity of rotation. A single zonal band is more than
mining its internal structure and dynamics with the tech- 65,000 km (40,000 mi) wide and 20,000 km (12,000 mi)
niques of HELIOSEISMOLOGY. deep. These zonal bands gradually drift from high latitudes
The dominant factor affecting each sound is its speed, towards the equator during the 11-year SOLAR CYCLE,
which in turn depends on the temperature and composi- moving in step with a similar motion of sunspots.
tion of the solar regions through which it passes. The Both the sunspots and the zonal bands are moving
sound waves move faster through higher-temperature against another steady flow from the equator to the poles,
gas. Helioseismologists determine the difference between which has a speed of about 20 m/s (66 ft/s). This flow
the observed sound speed and that calculated from the penetrates to a depth of at least 25,000 km (15,500 mi).
STANDARD MODEL of solar structure. Relatively small dif- Researchers suspect that a return flow towards the equa-
ferences between the theoretical calculations and the tor exists at deeper levels, but detailed motions have not
observed sound speed are used to fine-tune the model yet been observed at this depth.
and establish the Suns radial variation in temperature,
density and composition. solar mass (symbol Mo.) Mass of the Sun, used as a
A small but definite change in sound speed has been benchmark against which the masses of other stars are
detected at the lower boundary of the convective zone, pin- compared. One solar mass is equivalent to 1.99 1030 kg
pointing its radius. After suitable refinements to the Stan- and accounts for over 99% of the total mass of the Solar
dard Solar Model, the measured and predicted sound System. Other stellar masses range from less than 0.2 Mo.
velocities do not differ from each other by more than 0.2%, up to 100 Mo. or more.
from 0.95 solar radii down to 0.05 radii from the centre.
This places the central temperature of the Sun very close Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) NASA satellite
to the 15.6 million K of the model, confirming predictions launched in 1980 February to study the Sun during a
of the expected amounts of SOLAR NEUTRINOS. period of maximum activity at the peak of the SOLAR
Measurements of sound wave frequencies to infer CYCLE. It failed after nine months, but repairs were
rotational and other motions inside the Sun have shown successfully done by a Space Shuttle crew in 1984. The
that the DIFFERENTIAL ROTATION, discovered by observa- Solar Maximum Mission satellite re-entered Earths
tions of SUNSPOTS, persists to just below the convective atmosphere in 1989. One of its important results was the
zone. The equatorial regions in this zone spin rapidly, discovery of the variability of the SOLAR CONSTANT.
while the regions near the poles rotate with slower speed.
solar particles Charged At deeper levels the rotation rate remains independent of solar nebula PROTOPLANETARY DISK that surrounded
particles from a solar flare were latitude, becoming uniform from pole to equator to pole. the early Sun and produced the planets of our Solar
detected by SOHOs LASCO The Suns magnetism is probably generated at the inter- System. It had the same composition as the Sun, mostly
camera just 3 minutes after the face between the deep interior, which rotates at one hydrogen and helium, with about 1% of heavier
flare erupted from the Suns speed, and the overlying gas, which spins faster in the elements. In order to contain enough heavy elements to
surface. The resulting full-halo equatorial middle. Relative motions between neighbour- produce the planets, the total mass of the solar nebula
coronal mass ejection can be ing layers of electrified gas at this deep level probably must have been at least a few per cent of the Suns mass;
seen spreading out from the help to amplify and generate the Suns magnetic field by it may have exceeded a tenth of a solar mass if planetary
cameras occulting disc. the DYNAMO EFFECT. formation was inefficient. Most of that mass, in the form
of gas and dust, dissipated after the planets had formed.
See also COSMOGONY
374
solar wind
375
Solis Lacus
attraction of the Sun, allowing coronal plasma to expand attributed to ALFVN WAVES, far above the Suns poles;
supersonically into interplanetary space. Parker also they may block COSMIC RAYS.
demonstrated how the Suns magnetic fields would be The solar wind plays an important role in shaping
pulled into interplanetary space, acquiring a spiral shape Earths MAGNETOSPHERE and the magnetospheres of the
as a result of the combined effects of radial solar wind flow other planets. Particles and magnetic fields carried by the
and the Suns rotation. solar wind drive MAGNETIC STORMS.
Spacecraft have been making in situ measurements of
the solar wind since 1959. The average solar wind densi- Solis Lacus See SOLIS PLANUM
ty near the Earth was shown in 196263 by Mariner 2 to
be 5 106 particles per cubic metre. Such a low density Solis Planum (formerly Solis Lacus) Dark oval feature
close to Earths orbit is a natural consequence of the on MARS (25.5S 86.5W). Set against the bright
winds expansion into an ever-greater volume. The neighbouring Syria and Thaumasia deserts, Solis Planum
Mariner 2 data also indicated that the solar wind has a is nicknamed the Eye of Mars. It is highly variable in
slow and a fast component. The slow component travels albedo and extent because of the frequent incidence of
at a mean speed of about 400 km/s (250 mi/s) and dust storms, which excavate and redistribute the lighter
emanates from coronal streamers close to the solar equa- dusty surface deposits.
tor; the fast component travels at a mean speed of about
7500 km/s (4700 mi/s) and originates from the coronal solstice Time when the Sun is at its greatest
holes. Subsequent spacecraft showed that the interplane- declination, 23.5N or 23.5S, marking the northern and
tary magnetic field has a strength of approximately southern limits of its annual path along the ECLIPTIC. In
0.00006 Gauss (6 109 Tesla) at Earths orbit distance the northern hemisphere the SUMMER SOLSTICE occurs
from the Sun. around June 21, when the Sun reaches its highest
When fast solar wind streams interact with slow altitude in the sky and is overhead at the TROPIC OF
streams, they produce Co-rotating Interaction Regions CANCER. This marks the longest day of the year, the
(CIRs), in which forward and reverse shocks are generat- period of maximum daylight. The WINTER SOLSTICE
ed. Intense magnetic fields are also produced, and solar occurs around December 22, when the Sun reaches its
particles can be accelerated to high energies by CIRs. In lowest altitude, being overhead at the TROPIC OF
199495, near a minimum in the SOLAR CYCLE, the CAPRICORN. This is the point of the shortest day, when
ULYSSES spacecraft made measurements of the solar wind daylight hours are at a minimum. The solstices are
over the full range of heliographic latitudes and at a dis- reversed in the southern hemisphere.
tance comparable to that of the Earth. Ulysses velocity
data conclusively prove that a uniform, fast, low-density solstitial colure GREAT CIRCLE, or HOUR ANGLE, on the
wind pours out at high latitudes near the solar poles, and CELESTIAL SPHERE that passes through both the north and
that a gusty, higher-density, slow wind emanates from the south celestial poles, and intersects the celestial equator at
Suns equatorial regions at solar minimum. the RIGHT ASCENSION of the summer and winter
Simultaneous observations with SOHO and YOHKOH SOLSTICES. See also EQUINOCTIAL COLURE
pinpointed the sources of the solar wind on the Sun. The
slow wind is associated with the narrow stalks of coronal Sombrero Galaxy (M104, NGC 4594) Spiral galaxy in
streamers, at least during minimum in the solar activity the constellation Virgo (RA 12h 40m.0 dec. 1137), seen
cycle. Much of the high-speed wind escapes from polar almost edge-on. It has a prominent lane of dark material,
coronal holes. Instruments on these spacecraft also obscuring part of the nuclear bulge. The galaxy was
showed that the high-speed wind is accelerated very discovered by Pierre MCHAIN in 1781. The Sombrero
close to the Sun (within just a few solar radii), and that Galaxy is a member of the VirgoComa supercluster, at a
the slow component attains full speed about ten times distance of 65 million l.y. It has apparent dimensions of
farther away. 7.1 4.4, and magnitude 8.0. The actual diameter is
Sombrero Galaxy Seen The SOHO observations also indicated that the fast probably in excess of 135,000 l.y.
almost edge-on, just enough of wind in polar coronal holes emanates from the boundaries
of the disk of M104 (NGC of the magnetic network seen in the CHROMOSPHERE, and SORCE See SOLAR RADIATION AND CLIMATE EXPLORER
4594) is visible to see that it that heavier particles move faster than light particles in
does have a spiral structure. polar coronal holes. Magnetic waves might provide this source count Number of sources, such as stars or
The central bulge is unusually preferential acceleration. For example, oxygen ions have galaxies, per unit area and/or per unit flux/brightness
large and surrounded by the agitation speeds 60 times greater than those of protons in interval. The source count is often used to determine the
S glow of old, yellow stars. coronal holes. Ulysses has detected magnetic fluctuations, rate of change. It can demonstrate, for example, that
there is a dark cloud obscuring faint stars like the
Coalsack Nebula or the Horsehead Nebula, or that there
are more galaxies at large distances than nearby.
376
space probe
to lower altitudes at this point above the South Atlantic. Soyuz TM In addition to
Within this region, energetic particles, and COSMIC RAYS ferrying crews to and from Mir
in general, have the greatest chance of precipitating into and the International Space
the atmosphere or adversely affecting low-Earth-orbiting Station, Soyuz modules have
satellites. A major fraction of particle loss from the inner been used to transport
radiation belt to the atmosphere occurs within the South equipment and satellites. The
Atlantic anomaly. unmanned version is called
Progress and it was one of
Southern African Large Telescope (SALT) Major these that collided with Mir.
optical telescope under construction at the SOUTH
AFRICAN ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY at Sutherland,
South Africa, expected to become operational in 2004.
The telescope is being built in partnership with Poland,
New Zealand, and universities in Germany and the Unit-
ed States. It is a close copy of the HOBBYEBERLY TELE-
SCOPE (HET), with a similar 11-m (36-ft) hexagonally
segmented mirror fixed in a tilted ARECIBO configuration.
However, SALT will use an improved version of the
HETs Spherical Aberration Corrector to allow more of
the mirrors surface to be used at any one time, giving it a
slightly larger effective aperture than the HETs 9.2 m
(30 ft). Like the HET, it will have both imaging and spec-
troscopic capabilities. SALT will be the largest single-mir- Soyuz TM Russian-crewed spacecraft that is used as a
ror telescope in the southern hemisphere. ferry to and from SPACE STATIONS. It is based on the
original Soyuz craft, which was first flown on a manned
Southern Astrophysical Research Telescope spaceflight in 1967, upgrades to which have been made
(SOAR) Optical telescope of 4.2-m (165-in.) aperture during the crafts distinguished career. The Soyuz TM
located at Cerro Pachn, close to the southern telescope first flew in 1986 and there were 37 manned launches of
of the GEMINI OBSERVATORY and on the same ridge system the original Soyuz, 14 of the Soyuz T and, to the end of
as the CERRO TOLOLO INTER-AMERICAN OBSERVATORY. 2001, 33 of the Soyuz TM. The spacecraft, which
The telescope was built by the Southern Observatory for weighs approximately 7 tonnes, is launched on a booster
Astrophysical Research (SOAR), a consortium consist- of the same name. It carries a maximum of three crew,
ing of Brazil, the US NATIONAL OPTICAL ASTRONOMY who are housed in the flight cabindescent module in
OBSERVATORY and two US universities. It became opera- the centre of the spacecraft. It has at its rear a service
tional in 2002. module with an in-orbit manoeuvring engine and two
solar panels, and at the front it has an orbital module
Southern Cross Popular name for the constellation with a docking system at the forward end. Although
CRUX. earlier Soyuz modules flew independent flights, the
TMs remained docked to the MIR space station for
southern lights (aurora australis) See AURORA months, providing immediate availability for a return to
Earth. A Soyuz TM is always docked to the
South, James (17851867) English surgeon, amateur INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION (ISS) to provide
astronomer and observer of double stars, remembered emergency evacuation for the early three-person crews.
for his telescope war with the telescope-maker Edward Later, the ISS may have two Soyuz TMs available at all
Troughton (see COOKE, TROUGHTON & SIMMS). With times for the six crew.
John HERSCHEL he co-authored a standard catalogue of
380 double stars, later discovering another 160 pairs. Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) Last of
Realizing that further discoveries required a grander tele- the NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
scope, in 1829 South bought an 11 -inch (300-mm) (NASA) Great Observatory series spacecraft, after the
objective lens then the worlds largest by the French HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE (1990), the COMPTON GAMMA
optician Robert Cauchoix (17761845). To build an RAY OBSERVATORY (1991) and the CHANDRA X-RAY
equatorial mount he contracted with his then-friend OBSERVATORY (1999). To be launched in 2002, it is
Troughton. But Troughton, who by 1832 was ageing and
had never built such a large mount, did not complete the
expected to be named after a notable infrared
astronomer. SIRTF is much smaller than originally S
job to Souths satisfaction, as the mount suffered from planned and will be placed into an Earth-trailing solar
excessive vibration. South refused to pay Troughton, and orbit, providing excellent sky visibility and a benign
years of costly litigation followed. When South was thermal environment. It will continue the work conducted
ordered to pay for the work he destroyed the mount and by the INFRARED ASTRONOMICAL SATELLITE, COSMIC
sold it as scrap metal. BACKGROUND EXPLORER and the INFRARED SPACE
OBSERVATORY. Its liquid-helium-cooled telescope is
South PoleAitken Basin Lunar basin (55S 180W). expected to operate for about three years before the
It is the largest (2500 km/1600 mi diameter) and cryogenic coolant is depleted.
deepest (12 km/7 mi) impact structure on the Moon.
Most of this basin is on the farside of the Moon, but the Spacelab Manned laboratory developed by the
outer ring does come across the south pole region on to EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY to fly scientists and experiments
the nearside. The South PoleAitken Basin formed into space in the cargo bay of the SPACE SHUTTLE. There
when an enormous object struck the Moon. This basin were two basic elements: a pressurized laboratory, where
is from the oldest period of the Moon, and so is deeply scientists worked in a shirt-sleeve environment; and one
degraded. Scattered mare regions of limited area occur or more external pallets, which carried instruments that
inside the basin. were directly exposed to space. Various combinations of
these elements were possible. Several astronomy missions
South Tropical Disturbance Major feature on were flown during the 22 Spacelab flights between 1983
JUPITER.It was in the same latitude as the GREAT RED and 1998.
SPOT, which it periodically passed. Its mean rotation
period was 9h 55m 27s.6. Seen from 1901 to 1940, it has space probe Space vehicle launched to investigate the
not subsequently been observed and has presumably Moon, the planets and their satellites, comets and
disappeared permanently. asteroids, or to study interplanetary space.
377
Space Shuttle
Space Shuttle Probably the most famous space vehicle launch pad and fully loaded for lift-off weighs
today. The USAs Space Shuttle had flown over 100 2,041,186 kg, of which the orbiter accounts for about
missions by the end of 2001, 20 years since its maiden 113,399 kg. The SRBs are 45.46 m (149.15 ft) and
flight. The Shuttle has made space travel almost look 3.70 m (12.14 ft) in diameter. The ET is 47 m (154 ft)
routine, albeit not quite as regular an occurrence as was long and 8.38 m (27.5 ft) wide. The total length of the
hoped when the programme began life in 1972 with whole stack from the tip of the ET to the tail of the SRBs
President Richard Nixons signature. At the time 50 is 56.14 m (184.2 ft).
missions a year were envisaged, rather than the seven to Most flights of the Space Shuttle carry the Remote
eight actually flown. Manipulator System (RMS), which is a sophisticated
The Space Shuttle comprises three main elements. robot arm controlled from the flight deck by specialist
The orbiter is equipped with three main engines called the RMS operator astronauts, who use a hand controller, a
SSMEs, which are fuelled by liquid oxygen and liquid computer, TV cameras on the RMS and the view out of
hydrogen fed from a large brown external tank attached to the rear window of the flight deck. The RMS is used to
the belly of the orbiter. The external tank (ET) is the only deploy and retrieve payloads and as a mobile carrier for
part of the Shuttle that is expendable, being abandoned to space-walking astronauts who stand on a foot restraint at
re-enter the Earths atmosphere when the orbiter has the end of the arm. The 15.24-m (50-ft) long RMS is
reached initial orbit. Attached to either side of the ET are fitted with a shoulder, elbow, wrist and hand, to
two solid rocket boosters (SRBs), which supplement the enable it to be moved into all kinds of positions. The
SSMEs during the first 2 minutes of flight and which are RMS has proved invaluable to the Shuttle programme
recovered from the sea after each flight. Most parts of the and its technology is being utilized for the INTERNATION-
SRBs are used again on future Shuttle flights. The Shut- AL SPACE STATION.
tles payloads are carried primarily in the payload bay, At the end of a mission, after the retrofire, the Shuttle
which is 18.3 m (60 ft) long and 4.6 m (15 ft) wide. Addi- begins its transition from a spaceship to a glider as it starts
tional cargo and experiments, as well as equipment and re-entry at about 121,920 m (400,000 ft), approximately
consumables for the crew, are located in the mid-deck, 8000 km (5000 mi) from the landing site at a speed of
which is under the flight deck. The mid-deck also acts as about Mach 25. There are six types of thermal material to
the wardroom, kitchen and temporary gym and is protect parts of the orbiter that experience varied heat lev-
equipped with a toilet. The maximum payload capability els, the wing leading edges and underside bearing the
of 24,947 kg has not yet been carried on any Shuttle mis- brunt of the re-entry heating (1530 K), while the upper
sion. The payload capability depends on the orbital incli- part of the fuselage is less exposed to heat. The approach
nation taken by a mission. Each degree higher than 28 to the landing site, usually at the Kennedy Space Center,
takes 226 kg off the payload weight. Missions from the is made at an angle seven times steeper and a speed 20
Kennedy Space Center can fly up the eastern seaboard of times faster than an airliner, and at touchdown the speed
the USA into a 57 orbit on one reconnaissance satellite is over 320 km/h (200 mph).
deployment mission, this was extended to 62.
Six Shuttle orbiters have been built, starting with the space station Large orbiting structure with substantial
Enterprise in 1977. This was not a spaceworthy craft and living and working accommodation which is designed to
was used for atmospheric glide tests before the space mis- be permanently or intermittently manned.
sions could be attempted. The first orbiter to make an Space stations have many potential roles. These include
orbital spaceflight was Columbia in 1981 and the second, experimental and observational work in the pure sciences
Challenger, in 1983. This was followed by Discovery in (astronomy, physics, life sciences); environmental moni-
1984 and Atlantis in 1985. After Challenger was lost in toring; research and development work in applied sciences;
1986, a replacement orbiter, Endeavour, was built , which industrial activity utilizing the space environment (virtual
flew for the first time in 1992. The orbiter is 37.24 m zero gravity, ultra-high vacuum) for materials processing;
(122.2 ft) long with a wingspan of 23.79 m (78.06 ft) and providing a servicing base for satellites and free-flying
is 17.27 m (56.67 ft) high from the undercarriage to the structures; and providing a base for further constructional
top of the vertical stabilizer. The Space Shuttle on the work in space. There are also various potential military
applications, such as surveillance, servicing of satellites and
anti-missile activity. Space stations may eventually provide
a base for the launching and return of interplanetary
exploration missions, manned or unmanned.
The first space station to be placed in orbit was the
S Soviet SALYUT 1 in 1971. The lone US competition came
in 1973 with the launch of SKYLAB. A major advance came
with the introduction of the second generation of Soviet
space stations and the assembly of separate units in orbit.
The first demonstration of this technique was the linking
of the COSMOS 1267 module to Salyut 6 in 1981. Howev-
er, the real breakthrough came in 1986 February, when
the Soviet Union launched the core module of its MIR
(Peace) station. Mir was equipped with four radial dock-
ing ports in addition to the usual access at the front and
rear. Five additional modules and a US-made docking
unit were attached to the station in 198796.
Even before Mir re-entered the atmosphere in 2001
March, construction of an INTERNATIONAL SPACE STA-
TION had begun. Under the leadership of the USA, 16
nations came together to contribute to the largest space
structure ever placed in orbit. Assembly is scheduled to
be completed by 2006.
378
speckle interferometry
to the astronomical community, it is also concerned with sures, such as powering down susceptible systems, to be
the further development of the HST, and the pursuit of implemented before damage occurs.
new space- and ground-based initiatives.
spallation NUCLEAR REACTION wherein a nucleus is
spacetime Four-dimensional CONTINUUM made up of struck by a particle whose energy is greater than 50 MeV.
three spatial dimensions and one time dimension. The Usually this is a COSMIC RAY impact with the nucleus of
laws of physics proposed by Isaac Newton in the late 17th an atom in the interstellar medium. It leads to
century were based on the supposition that three- fragmentation of the nucleus and the production of light
dimensional space was fundamentally different from elements (see ASTROCHEMISTRY and NUCLEOSYNTHESIS).
time. In fact, time played a role of only increasing at a Spallation is also the ejection of debris from the back of
constant rate everywhere in the Universe. In SPECIAL a surface, or around the point of impact, for an object hit
RELATIVITY, time lost its special role and became another at high speed by a macroscopic particle, such as micro-
dimension, not quite equivalent to the other three, but meteoroid impacts on spacecraft.
could not be assumed to tick off at the same rate for every
observer. Thus, relativity transformed our picture of the Special Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) Research
Universe from three spatial dimensions to a four- institution of the Russian Academy of Sciences, estab-
dimensional spacetime continuum. GENERAL RELATIVITY lished in 1966, and the only Russian centre for ground-
attributes gravity to the warping or bending of spacetime based astronomy. The observatory is located near the
due to the presence of mass and energy. town of Zelenchukskaya in the North Caucasus. Its two
facilities are the BTA (Bolshoi Teleskop Azimutalny, or
space velocity True speed and direction of a star Large Altazimuth Telescope), completed in 1976, and
through space, relative to the Sun. From observations of a 20 km (12 mi) to the south-east the RATAN-600 (for
stars position it is possible to measure its PROPER MOTION 600-m Radio Telescope Antenna), opened in 1977. The
its movement across our line of sight and from that to BTA is at an elevation of 2100 m (6890 ft) and, with its
calculate its TANGENTIAL VELOCITY. Observations of the 6.05-m (238-in.) mirror, was for 15 years the largest opti-
Doppler shift in its spectrum reveal how fast it is cal telescope in the world. The RATAN-600 is similarly
travelling away from us, in other words its RADIAL generously proportioned, with a 0.6-km (0.4-mi) diame-
VELOCITY. Because the two lie at right angles to one ter multi-element ring antenna that can be pointed by tilt-
another, simple trigonometry can be used to calculate ing the individual panels of the ring. The SAO carries out
their resultant, which gives a measure of the stars actual research over the full range of modern astrophysics, and
speed and direction through space. has branches in St Petersburg and Moscow.
Spacewatch ASTEROID and COMET search programme special relativity Theory of mechanics proposed by
based at the University of Arizona, USA, employing Albert EINSTEIN in 1905 that correctly describes the
telescopes at Kitt Peak. Spacewatch, founded by Tom motions of objects moving near the speed of light.
Gehrels (1925 ), was the first NEAR-EARTH OBJECT Einstein proposed a version of mechanics based on the
project to make use of charge-coupled devices. Many LORENTZ TRANSFORMATIONS. Einsteins theory returns
comets discovered in this project have been given the results identical to Newtons laws for small velocities
name Spacewatch. relative to the speed of light, but predicts substantial
differences for objects moving close to the speed of light.
space weather Responses of Earths local space A primary postulate for special relativity is that we live in
environment to variations on the Sun, such as CORONAL a four-dimensional SPACETIME continuum, and that time
MASS EJECTIONS, FLARES, solar particle events and is relative to the reference frame of the observer. A
associated interplanetary shocks. Monitoring and second postulate is that observers always measure the
predicting these variations is becoming more widespread speed of light at the same value: lightspeed is an invariant
because many modern technological systems are quantity in relativity.
increasingly susceptible to these effects. For example, Lorentz transformations predict that time runs slower
these severe solar disturbances propagate out to the Earth in the reference frame of the object as it moves relative to a
and drive GEOMAGNETIC STORMS in the MAGNETOSPHERE. stationary observer: time slows down with increasing
These in turn cause dramatic increases in the particle velocity. These propositions also show that in the refer-
populations in the VAN ALLEN BELTS and in the electrical ence frame of a stationary observer, the object in motion is
currents flowing in the magnetosphere and IONOSPHERE. physically smaller in the direction of motion, being smaller
Navigation, communication and weather satellites
orbiting the Earth may be damaged or destroyed if they
when closer to the speed of light.
Finally, special relativity predicts that mass increases S
pass through these enhanced radiation environments. with velocity. These important considerations led to the
Hazardous radiation levels may also be experienced by famous equation E = mc2, spelling out the equivalence of
astronauts, and in extreme cases by passengers in aircraft mass and energy. The mass (m) multiplied by the speed of
flying high over the poles of the Earth. light (c) squared yields a tremendous amount of energy
Communication between spacecraft and the ground (E), since the speed of light is huge (roughly 300,000 km/s
may be affected by disturbances in the ionosphere. The or 186,000 mi/s). This discovery allowed astronomers to
ionospheric drag on low-Earth-orbit satellites may explain energy generation in the Sun as caused by
increase, thus reducing the satellites operational lifetime. NUCLEAR REACTIONS converting hydrogen to helium.
Ionospheric currents generate magnetic fields on the Every aspect of special relativity has been confirmed to a
ground, which may disrupt the operations of large power- high degree of accuracy numerous times.
distribution grids. For example, such magnetic fields were
the cause of a 9-hour blackout affecting 9 million people speckle interferometry Technique for improving the
in Quebec, Canada, in 1989 March. These fields can also resolution of astronomical images by removing the blur-
introduce significant errors in geomagnetic surveys used ring caused by turbulence in the Earths atmosphere.
in the commercial exploration of natural resources, such When the light from a star passes through the atmosphere,
as drilling for oil. it is refracted in random directions over periods of tens of
Space weather effects are particularly prevalent during milliseconds by constantly moving pockets of air of vary-
the maximum of the SOLAR CYCLE, although they may ing density and temperature. This refraction produces
occur at any time. Various agencies around the world are multiple images of the star that appear to dance around
engaged in routine monitoring of the Sun, the solar wind (twinkle) many times a second and be blurred. The effect
and the terrestrial magnetosphere and attempt to predict is known as SEEING.
which events will have major impact on the Earth environ- The light refracted from the individual atmospheric
ment. Such predictions allow appropriate protective mea- cells reaches different parts of the telescopes optics at dif-
379
spectral classification
ferent times and from different directions, resulting in belonged to Secchis Type I, EL to Type II, M to Type
either constructive INTERFERENCE (peaks of separate III, carbon-line N to Type IV, and OQ to Type V.
waves coincide) or destructive interference (peaks and With improved observations, several letters were
troughs coincide). This produces a series of bright and dropped as unnecessary, while the work of Maury and
dark regions, giving a highly contrasted mottled or grainy Cannon showed better continuity of all the lines if B were
appearance. The bright regions are known as speckles, to come before A and O before B. The final result was the
several hundred of which may be seen, and the speckle classic spectral sequence OBAFGKM. Cannon then
pattern represents the random distribution of atmospheric added for each class simple numerical subtypes from 0 to
irregularities. Because the atmosphere is turbulent, this 9, such that B0 to B9 is followed by A0 to A9 and so on
pattern changes quite rapidly with time so that images of (the modern system beginning at O3). Cannons classifi-
stars taken with exposures of about a second or more cation of about 225,000 stars was published between
become smeared into what is known as the seeing disk. 1918 and 1924 in the HENRY DRAPER CATALOGUE. (A later
For short time-exposures, however, the atmospheric extension increased the count to 359,082.)
motion is frozen and the full speckle pattern is revealed. Based in part on the presence of emission lines, M was
Speckle interferometry involves the use of a detector originally subdivided into Ma to Md and O from Oa to
such as a CCD to take a sequence of short-exposure (1015 Oe, but these were eventually made numeric as well (e
milliseconds) snapshots of an object, freezing its apparent and f are now descriptive terms for emission lines). R
motion. Each snapshot produces an instantaneously dis- STARS, which are the warmer versions of class N CARBON
torted image and the sequence can then be combined by STARS, were added in 1908. S STARS, which are intermedi-
computer image-processing, electronically removing the ate carbon stars with bands of zirconium oxide, were
atmospheric effects, to produce a distortion-free image. added in 1924.
The technique is not limited to stellar observations. In The system was quickly seen to correlate with colour
recent years, speckle interferometry has been successfully that progressed from blue to red, and thus with tempera-
applied to various solar phenomena and has also been ture, class O to M ranging from 50,000 to 2000 K. The
used to map surface features on Saturns moon Titan. development of physical theory demonstrated that the
spectral sequence O to M represents an ionization and
spectral classification System of classifying the excitation sequence, not one of chemical composition. R,
spectra of stars (see SPECTRUM). In the mid-19th century, N and S, however, are different, containing various
when astronomers began to observe the brighter stars enhancements of carbon. Though some carbon stars are
with SPECTROSCOPES, they discovered a rich variety of DWARF STARS (with their own classification schemes), all
spectra that required some system of classification. Of the R, N and S stars are GIANT STARS. Temperatures in
several original schemes, that by Father Angelo SECCHI the classes R and N (now combined into class C) charac-
was the most widely adopted. His system contained five terize the track on the HertzsprungRussell diagram of
types that were based on both the stars colours and the ordinary stars evolving from mid-G to late M, whereas
details within their spectra: Type I contained blue-white class S temperatures track only class M.
stars with strong hydrogen ABSORPTION LINES (for Improved infrared technology in the last decade of the
example, Sirius and Vega); Type II referred to yellow and 20th century began to turn up stars that were not classi-
orange stars with numerous metallic spectrum lines (the fiable on the original scheme. In 1999 class L (see L
Sun, Capella, Arcturus); Type III contained orange-red STARS) was added to account for deep-red (really
stars with metallic lines and bands, now known to be infrared) stars in which the strong TiO bands of class M
caused by titanium oxide (TiO), that shaded to the blue (see M STARS) were replaced by powerful absorptions of
(Betelgeuse, Antares); Type IV included deep-red stars hydrides and the alkali metals, the temperatures falling
that had dark carbon bands shaded to the red; Type V from 2000 to 1500 K. T STARS, at the end, near 1000 K,
was reserved for stars with bright EMISSION LINES. are defined by methane bands. Class L is a mixture of
As spectroscopes improved and photography became RED DWARFS and BROWN DWARFS, while T is reserved for
available, better spectroscopic detail required a more com- low-mass brown dwarfs.
prehensive description. A system devised between 1890 Various comments are commonly added to the basic
and 1901 by Harvards E.C. PICKERING and his assistants spectral types to describe details. Dwarfs and giants were
(Williamina FLEMING, Antonia MAURY and Annie J. CAN- originally prefixed by d and g (the Sun, for example, is
NON) originally used letters from A to Q based primarily a dG2 star, Arcturus is gK1). A separate classification by
on the strengths of the hydrogen lines such that AD Maury used a, b and c to describe line widths. Sharp-lined
stars, class c, were later seen to be SUPERGIANTS. The
S GENERAL SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS
descriptive is still in use: Lc stars, for example, are irregu-
lar supergiant variables. Also, e, m, p, wk, respective-
Class Colour Temp.1 ly, stand for emission, metallic, peculiar and
O blue-white 32,00050,000 ionized helium; neutral helium and weak hydrogen lines are also visible weak-line (Sirius is an A1m star).
B blue-white 10,00030,000 neutral helium, hydrogen lines strengthening toward the later subtypes The HARVARD SYSTEM was not adequate to deal with
A white 72009500 very strong hydrogen decreasing towards later subtypes as ionized the differences between dwarfs, giants and supergiants,
calcium increases that is, stars of different luminosities at a given tempera-
F yellow-white 60007000 ionized calcium continuing to increase in strength and hydrogen ture. In 1943 William MORGAN, Philip Childs Keenan
weakening; lines of neutral elements strengthen (19082000) and Edith Marie Kellman (1911 ) rede-
G yellow 53005900 ionized calcium very strong, hydrogen weaker; neutral metal lines, fined the spectral types and introduced a two-dimensional
particularly of iron and calcium prominent classification system. The MORGANKEENAN CLASSIFICA-
K orange 40005200 strong neutral metallic lines; molecular bands of CH and CN TION (MK or MKK) scheme retained the decimally sub-
become prominent divided OBAFGKM temperature sequence. To each of
M orange-red 20003900 strong absorption bands of titanium oxide and large numbers the classes is added a Roman numeral that describes the
of metallic lines luminosity of the star, I to V standing for supergiant to
L2 red-infrared 15002000 metallic hydrides and alkali metals prominent dwarf, the Sun (a G2 dwarf) is thus classified as G2 V.
T2 infrared 1000 methane bands prominent Keenan later added Arabic 0 to define super-supergiants
S3 red 20003600 intermediate carbon content; zirconium oxide bands replace (hypergiants). The MK system gives precise details of
titanium oxide which ratios of spectrum line strengths are to be used to
R3 orange-red 36005000 warm carbon stars with prominent C2, CN and CH determine the spectral types, and it provides photographic
N3 deep red 20003500 cool carbon stars with strong C2, CN and CH examples of bright stars that act as classification stan-
C3 20005000 combined classes R and N dards. Summaries of both Harvard and MK classes are
1
Dwarf temperature scale except for R, N, S and C given in the accompanying tables.
2
Added in 1999; no MK standards exist For accurate work, finer subdivisions are necessary,
3 Giants only
such as Iab (intermediate between Ia and Ib) and IIa or
380
spectroheliograph
381
spectrohelioscope
entire solar disk with the entrance slit. Increasingly fine spectrum that the spectrophotometer produces is a graph
detail can be resolved as the slit widths are reduced, but of how intensity varies with wavelength. This measure of
this lessens the final image brightness so that the speed of the amount of radiation of a particular wavelength that has
the scan has to be reduced proportionately. been absorbed or emitted by a celestial object is an indica-
The spectroheliograph was invented in the 1890s inde- tion of the relative concentration of chemical elements
pendently by George HALE and Henri DESLANDRES. As present within the object. The spectrophotometer can be
with the spectrohelioscope, the apparatus is usually so used for the study of spectra at ultraviolet and infrared as
bulky that it is mounted with its entrance slit at the focus well as visible wavelengths.
of a fixed telescope served by a HELIOSTAT or COELOSTAT
and second mirror. spectroscope Instrument that splits electromagnetic
radiation into its constituent wavelengths, producing a
spectrohelioscope High-dispersion SPECTROSCOPE characteristic SPECTRUM. The spectrum can be observed
that provides a visual image of the Sun in monochromatic visually or recorded in some form, in which case the
light. The spectrohelioscope is the visual equivalent of the instrument is known as a SPECTROGRAPH. Since all astro-
SPECTROHELIOGRAPH, in that an image of the solar disk is nomical data is now recorded for future analysis, the term
projected from a telescope into a narrow entrance slit. A spectrograph is almost universally used to describe this
DIFFRACTION GRATING disperses the light into a SPEC- sort of instrument.
TRUM, and the exact wavelength to be observed is set
using a second slit. The observer can thus select the ele- spectroscopic binary BINARY STAR that is too close
ment within the Sun and the depth in the solar atmos- for its components to be resolved optically; its orbital
phere that they wish to view. By rapidly scanning the solar motion is deduced from periodic shifts in its spectral
disk and its prominences with a repetition rate exceeding lines, indicating variable radial velocity. A spectroscopic
ten per second, by persistence of vision the observer sees a binary is likely to be a CLOSE BINARY with a short orbital
stationary monochromatic image. Scanning is commonly period and relatively high radial velocity. Binaries cannot
achieved by vibrating the two slits synchronously at high be detected spectroscopically if their orbit is
frequency, but some instruments have fixed slits that are perpendicular to the Earth.
scanned optically. If the components have similar brightness, both sets of
This apparatus is usually so bulky that it is mounted SPECTRAL LINES are observed, and the system is called a
with its entrance slit at the focus of a fixed telescope double-lined spectroscopic binary. A composite spectrum
served by a HELIOSTAT or COELOSTAT and second mirror. binary has a spectrum that consists of two sets of lines
The focal ratio of the spectrohelioscope must be the same from stars of dissimilar spectral type. Systems with only
as the fixed telescope so that, although the optics are one set of spectral lines observable are known as single-
invariably folded to put the entrance and exit slits adjacent lined spectroscopic binaries.
to each other, the complete system is longer than twice the The RADIAL VELOCITY of the star (or stars) is deter-
focal length of the fixed telescope. mined by measuring the DOPPLER SHIFT of the spectral
The wide range of possible settings and its suitability lines. In double-lined spectroscopic binaries, the relative
for the measurement of radial velocity of violent solar dis- velocities (v) of the two components can be determined
turbances make the spectrohelioscope a more versatile and hence the relative masses (M), using:
monochromatic instrument than optical filters. The detail
v2 M1
seen increases as the slit width is reduced, but this necessi- =
tates a high scanning rate to ensure adequate image v1 M2
brightness. Wider slit widths show limb prominences only The individual masses can be determined if the inclination
but disk detail is not visible. of the orbit is known, for example when the system is also
an ECLIPSING BINARY.
spectrometer Instrument used for observing and mea-
suring features of a SPECTRUM, such as the spectral lines, spectroscopic parallax Method of obtaining the
spectroscopic binary by direct observation. The spectrometer incorporates a distances of stars from their SPECTRAL TYPES (see
Redshift is used to ascertain SPECTROSCOPE, to split light from a celestial object into its SPECTRAL CLASSIFICATION) and apparent magnitudes.
the relative motions of stars in component wavelengths, producing a spectrum, together Analysis of the SPECTRUM reveals the full spectral class in
close binary pairs. When a star with a device such as a FABRYPEROT INTERFEROMETER, to the MORGANKEENAN CLASSIFICATION system. These
is moving away, its spectrum is measure accurately the positions and intensities of the classes have all been calibrated in terms of absolute visual
shifted to the red, whereas the emission and absorption lines within the spectrum. See magnitude through the measurement of the distances of
S spectrum of a star moving
towards us will be blueshifted.
also SPECTROSCOPY stars by TRIGONOMETRIC PARALLAX and by main-
sequence cluster fitting. The spectral class of any star thus
When both stars are moving at spectrophotometer Instrument used for measuring the gives its absolute visual magnitude. Comparison with the
right angles to our line of sight relative intensities of ABSORPTION and EMISSION LINES in apparent visual magnitude gives the distance modulus
their spectra are not displaced. different parts of a SPECTRUM. The line profile of the and therefore, through the magnitude equation, the
distance itself.
The method is dependent on an assessment of the
two stars orbiting their centre of mass degree of interstellar EXTINCTION to the star. This can be
found from the degree of REDDENING through comparison
of the actual colour with that inferred from the spectral
A B class. The chief unknown is the ratio of total to selective
extinction (that is, the relation between reddening and total
absorption), which can vary from place to place depending
A B B A
on the nature of the absorbing dust grains.
red
382
spicules
383
spider
the CORONA. They have a spiky appearance. Spicules are Spitzer, Lyman Jr (191497) American astrophysicist
seen in spectrograms or SPECTROHELIOGRAMS, especially who studied stellar dynamics and interstellar matter, and
those taken in the red wing of the HYDROGEN-ALPHA LINE. originated the concept of a telescope in Earth orbit. After
Spicules change rapidly, having a lifetime of five to fifteen helping to develop sonar during World War II, he suc-
minutes and velocities of about 25 km/s (16 mi/s). ceeded Henry Norris RUSSELL as head of the astronomy
Typically, spicules are about one kilometre thick, and department and observatory director at Princeton Univer-
thousands of kilometres long. They are not distributed sity, where he spent the rest of his working life.
uniformly on the Sun, being concentrated along the cell From the late 1930s, Spitzer investigated interstellar
boundaries of the SUPERGRANULATION pattern. matter (ISM), establishing it as a major research field.
Observing that elliptical galaxies contained old stars and
spider Thin, usually wire or metal support holding the lacked ISM, whereas spirals contained younger stars and
SECONDARY mirror in the tube of a REFLECTING TELE- were rich in ISM, he concluded that stars formed from
SCOPE. The support may commonly have three or four condensing clouds of interstellar gas and dust. He studied
legs, DIFFRACTION effects from which give rise to the the effect of heating and cooling and of interstellar mag-
cross patterns often seen in astronomical images. netic fields on the ISM.
This interest in magnetic fields led Spitzer to another
spin casting Technique for manufacturing large para- line of enquiry, the possibility of power generation by
bolic telescope mirrors by spinning molten glass in a nuclear fusion, and the founding, with Hannes ALFVN
rotating furnace and allowing centrifugal forces to pro- and others, of the study of plasma physics. The plasma of
duce the required curvature in the surface. Astronomical which stars are made is held together by the stars gravita-
mirrors are traditionally cast flat, and large quantities of tion, but to contain plasma in terrestrial laboratories
glass are then ground out and discarded to create the would require powerful magnetic fields. A figure-of-eight
correct shape, in a time-consuming and costly process. chamber constructed for this purpose at Princetons Plas-
Spin casting involves heating blocks of borosilicate glass ma Physics Laboratory was the forerunner of todays
in a honeycomb mirror mould to around 1453 K. As the experimental fusion reactors.
furnace rotates, the surface of the molten glass assumes a In 1990 Spitzer witnessed the launch of the Hubble
paraboloidal shape. It is then allowed to cool and solidify Space Telescope. He had proposed an orbiting telescope
whilst still spinning. as early as 1946, since when he had fostered the idea with
continual political encouragement and technical advice.
spiral galaxy GALAXY that has a thin disk of stars, gas He also directed the development of the COPERNICUS
and dust, in which a more or less continuous spiral orbiting observatory.
pattern appears. Most spiral galaxies also contain a
central spherical bulge of old stars. The spiral pattern spokes Features discovered in Saturns B RING by
may be maintained as a DENSITY WAVE moving through VOYAGER. They take the form of radial shadows that are
the disk, or by differential rotation shearing star-forming visible projected on the rings when viewed at low angles.
regions into locally tilted segments. Thus spirals range They are thought to be the shadows of particles held
from grand design patterns, with between two and four above the plane of the rings by electrostatic forces. Since
arms traceable through complete turns around the the discovery of the spokes, a reanalysis of drawings has
galaxy, to flocculent galaxies, in which only small, shown that shadings have been recorded for over three
spiral galaxy Spiral discontinuous pieces of the spiral pattern exist. Most centuries when conditions have been favourable; these are
galaxies vary in shape and spiral galaxies have at least a weak bar, an elongation of thought, in part, to represent observations of the spokes.
structure, but all have a the nuclear bulge, in the plane of the disk. Spirals are
nucleus containing older stars classified into various subtypes in the HUBBLE sporadic meteor Completely random METEOR that
surrounded by a disk where CLASSIFICATION. Most maintain active star formation does not belong to any recognized METEOR SHOWER,
star formation is occurring in and have a significant reservoir of interstellar gas to fuel being produced instead by the atmospheric entry of
spiral arms. additional generations of stars. debris from the general dust-cloud filling the inner Solar
System. Most sporadics originate from long-defunct
meteor streams, which have been dispersed by
gravitational perturbations and solar radiation effects.
Sporadic activity varies over the course of the year, being
highest in the autumn months. Rates also show a diurnal
variation, and are highest just before dawn. Depending
S on the time of night and time of year, between three and
12 sporadic meteors may be seen per hour.
384
standard model
the spots appear at decreasing latitudes until some occur SS433 The unusual binary
within 5 north or south of the equator at solar pair SS433 is thought to consist
minimum. Before minimum has been reached, high- of a neutron star and a red
latitude spots of the new cycle can appear, causing an jet giant. Material from the red giant
overlap of the cycles. is being accreted by the neutron
star and some of it is being
spring equinox Alternative name for VERNAL EQUINOX expelled in twin jets. The jets are
observed to precess in a 164-
spring tides High-level high TIDES that occur when the stream of material day period probably because of
Sun and Moon lie in the same or opposite directions (that gravitational interactions
is at new moon or full moon). between the two stars.
SS Cygni star See U GEMINORUM STAR Stadius Lunar GHOST CRATER (11N 14W), 70 km S
(44 mi) in diameter. It originally appeared as a complex
SS433 Very unusual BINARY STAR system that lies at the crater. After its formation, however, lunar basalts flooded
centre of the supernova remnant W50 in AQUILA. SS433 the region to a depth greater than the height of Stadius
was discovered in 1976 by the Ariel 5 X-ray satellite. It rim. Only a few of the highest rim peaks are visible above
has strong EMISSION LINES from hydrogen and helium, the lava. Numerous secondary craters from the EJECTA of
and it was classified as object 433 in a catalogue of COPERNICUS cover the region.
emission-line stars published (1977) by Bruce
Stephenson and Nicholas Sanduleak (193390) of Case standard epoch Particular date and time chosen as a
Western Reserve University. The emission lines have reference point against which to measure astronomical
broad and narrow components; the broad lines vary data in order to remove the effects of PRECESSION, PROPER
slightly with a period of 13.1 days, while the narrow lines MOTION and gravitational PERTURBATION. The standard
vary significantly in wavelength over a period of 164 days. epoch currently in use is called 2000.0 and all celestial
It is generally accepted that SS433 is a binary system coordinates published in star catalogues are quoted as
composed of a hot, massive star (of 10 to 20 solar masses) being correct on 2000 January 1. It is customary to
and a NEUTRON STAR (about 1.5 to 3 solar masses), which change the standard epoch every 50 years.
orbit each other every 13.1 days. The neutron star is prob-
ably the stellar remnant from the SUPERNOVA that pro- standard model (1) Mathematical description of the
duced W50. A stellar wind from the hot star produces the SOLAR INTERIOR, based on a spherical Sun; it specifies
stationary emission features. Matter is transferred from the current variation with radius of density, temperature,
the massive star to the neutron star via an ACCRETION luminosity and pressure. The Sun is presumed, for this
DISK. Not all the material reaches the surface of the neu- purpose, to have condensed from a cloud of primordial
tron star, however, and some is ejected at high speed, gas composed primarily of hydrogen and helium.
probably by RADIATION PRESSURE, via two finely collimat- Theoretical models use appropriate equations
385
standard model
describing nuclear energy generation by hydrogen lifetime of the Sun. A standard model is arrived at that
burning (see PROTONPROTON REACTION) in the central best describes the Suns observed luminosity, size and
core of the Sun, hydrostatic equilibrium that balances mass. Theoretical fluxes of SOLAR NEUTRINOS are also
the outward force of gas pressure and the inward force calculated from the model. The standard model is
of gravity (that is, the Sun is in a steady state and perfect consistent with HELIOSEISMOLOGY measurements of the
gas laws can be used), energy transport by radiative Suns internal temperatures.
diffusion and convection, and an opacity determined
from atomic physical calculations. Computers are used standard model (2) Reigning model of ELEMENTARY
to integrate these models over the 4.6-billion year PARTICLE physics; it successfully combines the weak and
strong forces into a consistent quantized theory. The
standard model utilizes quarks to build protons, neutrons
NEAREST STARS
and other subatomic particles.
Star RA dec. Visual mag. Spectral type Absolute mag. Distance
h m l.y. standard time Legal time kept in any community. This
Sun 26.78 G2 V 4.82 is likely to be based on its local TIME ZONE, but it may
Proxima Centauri 14 30 62 41 11.01v M5 V 15.45 4.22 differ slightly for reasons of convenience. Many countries
Centauri A 14 40 60 50 0.01 G2 V 4.34 4.39 also observe daylight saving time, advancing their clocks
Centauri B 1.35 K1 V 5.70 4.39 by one hour during the summer months. The standard
Barnards Star 17 58 04 41 9.54 M4 V 13.24 5.94 time in the UK is UNIVERSAL TIME (UT), popularly
Wolf 359 10 56 07 01 13.46v M6.5 Ve 16.57 7.8 known as GREENWICH MEAN TIME (GMT). In summer,
Lalande 21185 11 03 35 58 7.49 M2 V 10.46 8.31 the standard time is UT +1h (British Summer Time).
Sirius A 06 45 16 43 1.44 A0 V 1.45 8.60
Sirius B 8.44 DA2 11.34 8.60 star Gaseous body that emits radiation generated within
UV Ceti A 01 39 17 56 12.56v M5.5 Ve 15.42 8.7 itself by nuclear FUSION. Mainly composed of hydrogen
UV Ceti B 12.96v M5.5 Ve 15.81 8.7 and helium, a star is a fine balancing act between the
Ross 154 18 50 23 50 10.37 M3.5 Ve 13.00 9.69 force produced within itself and the gravitational force.
Ross 248 23 42 44 09 12.27 M5.5 Ve 14.77 10.3 Many stars belong to binary or multiple systems.
Eridani 03 33 09 27 3.72 K2 V 6.18 10.50 A star begins its life when the temperature and pres-
HD 217987 23 06 35 51 7.35 M2 V 9.76 10.73 sure within a collapsing cloud of interstellar material cause
Ross 128 11 48 00 48 11.12v M4.5 V 13.50 10.89 nuclear reactions to start. Below about 0.08 solar mass,
L7896 22 39 15 17 12.32 M5 V 14.63 11.2 conditions do not reach the point where nuclear fusion
61 Cygni A 21 07 38 45 5.20v K5 V 7.49 11.36 can occur (see BROWN DWARF). Above about 150 solar
Procyon A 07 39 05 13 0.40 F5 IVV 2.68 11.41 masses, a star becomes unstable. The mass of a star has a
Procyon B 10.7 DF 13.00 11.41 great influence on its evolution (see STELLAR MASS). A
61 Cygni B 21 07 38 45 6.05v K7 V 8.33 11.42 stars evolution is dictated throughout its life by the bal-
HD 173740 18 43 59 38 9.70 K5 V 11.97 11.47 ancing act between gravitation and the energy produced
HD 173739 18 43 59 38 8.94 K5 V 11.18 11.64 by the nuclear reactions within the star. As a star evolves,
GX Andromedae A 00 18 44 01 8.09v M1 V 10.33 11.64 its chemical composition changes. Stars belonging to
GX Andromedae B 11.10 M4 V 13.35 11.64 CLOSE BINARY systems often have their evolution altered
G5115 08 30 26 48 14.81 M6.5 Ve 17.01 11.8 by interactions with their companion.
Indi 22 03 56 47 4.69 K5 Ve 6.89 11.83 The composition of stars is initially mainly hydrogen
Ceti 01 44 15 56 3.49 G8 V 5.68 11.90 and helium, with a proportion of heavier elements,
L37258 03 36 44 30 13.03 M4.5 V 15.21 11.9 depending on the material from which it is forming. Stars
produce energy within their core by nuclear fusion (see
STELLAR INTERIORS). The energy released has to force its
BRIGHTEST STARS
way out through opaque gas, and at every point within the
Star RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance star the gravitational pull of the parts within exactly bal-
h m mag. mag. type (l.y.) ances the outward thrust and the star is in hydrostatic
Sirius Canis Marjoris 06 45 16 43 1.44 1.45 A0m 8.6 equilibrium (see STELLAR ATMOSPHERE).
Canopus Carinae 06 24 52 41 0.62 5.53 F0 313 The internal structure of a star cannot be observed
Rigil Kent Centauri 14 40 60 50 0.28 4.07 G2 K1 4.4 directly. The equations of stellar structure, on which com-
Arcturus Botes 14 16 19 11 0.05 0.3 K2 37 puter models of the conditions within stars depend, are
Lyrae 38
S Vega
Capella
Rigel
Aurigae
Orionis
18
05
05
37
17
15
46
08
47
00
12
0.03
0.08
0.18
0.6
0.5
6.69
A0
G2 G6
B8
25
42
773
based on known laws of physics. Physical data such as
mass, luminosity, radius, chemical composition and
EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE can be measured for some stars,
Procyon Canis Minoris 07 39 05 14 0.40 2.68 F5 11.4 and the observed stellar conditions are satisfactorily pre-
Achernar Eridani 01 38 57 14 0.45 2.8 B3 144
dicted by the equations of stellar structure.
Betelgeuse Orionis 05 55 07 24 0.45(v) 5.14 M2 427 Stars can be broadly classified by their mass and stage of
Hadar Centauri 14 04 60 23 0.61 5.42 B1 525 evolution and also by their effective temperature. A stars
Altair Aquilae 19 51 08 52 0.76 2.2 A7 17 SPECTRAL TYPE is an indication of its temperature, but it
Acrux Crucis 12 27 63 06 0.77 4.19 B0.5 B1 321 also gives information about its chemical composition.
Aldebaran Tauri 04 36 16 31 0.87 0.6 K5 65 Stars are also classified by the percentage of heavy elements
Antares Scorpii 16 29 26 26 0.91.2 5.45.1 K0 604 in their composition (see POPULATIONS, STELLAR). The per-
Spica Virginis 13 25 11 10 0.98 3.5 B1 262 centage of heavy elements affects a stars evolution.
Pollux Geminorum 07 45 28 02 1.16 1.1 K0 34 Many stars are observed to fluctuate in brightness (see
Fomalhaut Piscis Austrini 22 58 29 37 1.16 2.0 A3 V 25 VARIABLE STARS). These fluctuations can be due to a star
Deneb Cygni 20 41 45 17 1.25 8.73 A2 3230 belonging to an ECLIPSING BINARY system or a close binary
Becrux Crucis 12 48 59 41 1.25 3.92 B0.5 353 system, or they may be a result of instabilities caused by its
Regulus Leonis 10 08 11 58 1.36 0.5 B7 77 evolutionary phase (see T TAURI STARS, MIRA STARS).
Adhara Canis Marjoris 06 59 28 58 1.50 4.10 B2 431
Castor Geminorum 07 35 31 53 1.58 0.6 A1 A2 52 starburst galaxy GALAXY that is undergoing a strong,
Gacrux Crucis 12 31 57 07 1.59 0.56 M4 88 temporary increase in its rate of star formation. Such
Shaula Scorpii 17 34 37 06 1.62 5.0 B1.5 703 activity may span the whole galaxy, but is often confined
Bellatrix Orionis 05 25 06 21 1.64 2.72 B2 243 to the nucleus. Starbursts may appear as ultraviolet-
Alnath Tauri 05 26 28 36 1.65 1.4 B7 131 bright galaxies or may be identified by strong optical
Miaplacidus Carinae 09 13 69 42 1.67 0.99 A1 111 emission lines or excess radio emission, but the largest
Alnilam Orionis 05 36 01 12 1.69 6.38 B0 1300 number to date have been found from far-infrared
386
star trailing
precise nature of the Star of Bethlehem has been of great starburst galaxy The
interest to Christians and astronomers alike. Many books bright pink areas in this irregular
and articles have been written on the subject, some galaxy are areas of starbirth
authors regarding it as a mythical or miraculous event and and the blue areas are newly
others supposing that it was a real astronomical phenome- emerged young stars. Many
non that ordinary mortals could have seen. starburst galaxies are triggered
The first problem encountered when trying to relate by gravitational interactions
the star to a real astronomical event is that the precise year between galaxies.
of the nativity is uncertain, though it is believed to have
been between 7 BC and 1 BC. A census of allegiance to
Augustus Caesar, which may have been the census men-
tioned in the Bible, took place in 3 BC. Numerous astro-
nomical events such as planetary conjunctions and
conjunctions of planets with stars occurred during those
years; several comets and a nova were also recorded.
Although there is no general agreement on the precise
events that guided the Magi on their path to Bethlehem,
one theory is that successive conjunctions of Jupiter and
Venus in 3 BC August and 2 BC June were the stars that
led them westwards. Around 2 BC December 25, the plan-
et Jupiter seemed to stand still among the stars because of
its change from (apparent) retrograde to prograde
motion. Seen from Jerusalem, it would have appeared to
be above Bethlehem.
emission (as by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite). This
is because many starbursts are quite dusty, and when the star streaming Grouping of the motions of individual
dust absorbs the ultraviolet and visible light from the stars, relative to their neighbours, around two opposite
massive stars, it radiates in the far-infrared (typically at preferred directions in space. The effect was discovered
0.030.1 mm). Starbursts can be triggered by tidal by Jacobus KAPTEYN, who made statistical studies
interactions and mergers between galaxies, and the showing that, in general, the peculiar motions of stars
energy output of the massive stars and supernovae can (that is relative to the average motion of neighbouring
be strong enough to drive a wind sweeping gas stars) appear to be in one of two directions in space,
completely out of the galaxy (and terminating the rather than moving in random directions. The
starburst). Starburst galaxies are useful guides for the phenomenon is caused by the rotation of the Galaxy and
conditions expected in genuinely young galaxies in the many later studies of distances and spatial arrangements
early Universe, when star formation was more intense of the stars in the Milky Way arose from this discovery. star trailing Because of the
than is usually found in present-day galaxies. Earths rotation, the light from
star trailing Extension of the images of stars into arcs stars will form trails on
star clouds Parts of the MILKY WAY, especially in caused by the rotation of the Earth, and hence the move- unguided astronomical
Sagittarius and its surrounding constellations, where the ment of stars across the sky, on a photograph taken with a images. This image is of star
light from millions of faint stars combines to give the stationary camera or telescope. Images of stars near either trails around the southern
appearance of irregular faintly glowing clouds. The star celestial pole form tight arcs, while at the equator star trails celestial pole.
distribution is actually fairly uniform and the irregularities
result from the stars obscuration in some regions by DARK
NEBULAE such as the COALSACK and the PIPE NEBULA.
387
stationary point
are straight lines. Lengthening the exposure time pro- molecules and sometimes dust grains. The inner
duces longer trails. Trailing is avoided by driving the cam- boundary of a stellar atmosphere is with the stellar
era to track the stars (see TELESCOPE DRIVE). interior, about which no direct information is available,
while the outer boundary is taken to be where it merges
stationary point Point at which the motion of a with the interstellar medium.
SUPERIOR PLANET, as observed from Earth, appears to Although the atmosphere of a star can extend a long
change direction relative to the background stars due to way out into space, the majority of radiation emitted from
the Earth catching it up in its orbit and overtaking it. See it comes from a relatively thin layer called the PHOTOS-
also RETROGRADE MOTION PHERE. Generally, a stellar photosphere is about one thou-
sandth of the stars radius, although hotter stars have
steady-state theory Theory, originated by Hermann relatively thicker photospheres. The photosphere is the
BONDI, Thomas GOLD, Fred HOYLE, Jayant NARLIKAR and innermost part of a stellar atmosphere.
others, designed to satisfy the PERFECT COSMOLOGICAL The outer layer of a stellar atmosphere is the STELLAR
PRINCIPLE, which states that the local properties of the WIND, a region where the outflow velocities are compara-
Universe when averaged over some suitable distance ble to or larger than the local speed of sound. In a few
are the same from whatever point in space and time they stars there is a further, more remote layer: some very
are determined. This principle is consistent with the young stars may still be enveloped by the material from
model derived by Willem DE SITTER from Einsteins field which they formed.
equations. The steady-state universe is expanding, but a The structure of the atmosphere above the photos-
constant density of matter is maintained by invoking phere differs markedly between cool and hot stars. Cool
CONTINUOUS CREATION of matter at all places and all stars, defined as stars with an EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE of
times by a so-called C-field. It avoids the problem, less than about 7500 K, have been observed to have a
associated with the BIG BANG THEORY, of an initial CHROMOSPHERE and CORONA similar to that of the Sun.
SINGULARITY a fixed starting point and, apparently, The atmospheres of cool stars are very complex and are
some instrument of creation. characterized by increasing temperature with altitude in
For nearly two decades, steady state and Big Bang their outer layers. The mechanism causing this tempera-
were rival theories. There were two main reasons for the ture increase is not fully understood, but heat conduction
demise of the steady-state theory: the discovery of the becomes an important process in regions of low density
COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND in 1965, and the such as in stellar coronae. Energy may also be transported
realization that galaxies have evolved over time, neither of by MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC or acoustic waves, which are
which it could readily explain. Its lasting importance was responsible for heating the corona non-radiatively. These
the stimulus it provided to astrophysics and cosmology, waves are generated by strong, geometrically complex
leading, for example, to the first detailed work on magnetic fields, which in turn are created by a dynamo
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS. Ironically, the steady-state universe effect in the convection zone beneath the photosphere.
strongly resembles some versions of INFLATION, the Coronal heating is believed to be the source of the X-rays
model proposed to account for the initial rapid expansion detected from these stars.
that followed the Big Bang. The high coronal temperature in cool MAIN-SEQUENCE
stars results in a large gas pressure, which induces a weak
Stebbins, Joel (18781966) American astronomer pressure-driven stellar wind. Fast, but very tenuous, this
who pioneered photoelectric photometry. Stebbins spent wind is so optically thin throughout that it cannot be
most of his career (191848) at the University of Wis- detected spectroscopically; it is often not included in the
consins Washburn Observatory. In 1910 he attached a atmosphere of such stars. In evolved cool stars, however, a
primitive photocell to a telescope and discovered the sec- much denser wind is observed. These stars have low sur-
ondary minimum in the light curve of the eclipsing bina- face gravity so the mass-loss rate of a coronal wind is larg-
ry star Algol. Stebbins devised methods for reducing the er. In addition, other mechanisms, such as RADIATION
huge amounts of data generated by his photoelectric PRESSURE on dust grains formed in the outer layers or
instruments, which he used to study regular stars, vari- acceleration in pulsating layers, become efficient drivers of
ous types of variable stars, the solar corona, globular the stellar wind.
clusters and galaxies. With Albert Edward Whitford Strong, fast winds typify the atmospheres of early-type
(1905?1983) he developed increasingly sensitive photo- main-sequence stars (O and early B-type) and O, B and
electric cells that eventually supplanted photography as a A-type SUPERGIANTS. These fast, supersonic winds are dri-
means of measuring star magnitudes. The superiority of ven by radiation pressure generated by absorption of pho-
S the photoelectric method (photographic emulsions are
usually overly sensitive to either blue or red light)
tons. The X-ray emission detected in O and early B-type
stars is attributed to shock-heated material in the wind and
allowed Stebbins and his colleagues to quantify the red- not to the corona. The winds of red supergiants are slow.
dening effects of interstellar matter and to adjust stellar
magnitudes accordingly. stellar diameters Stars range in size from having
diameters of a few tens of kilometres (NEUTRON STARS) to
StefanBoltzmann constant (symbol ) Constant several hundreds of millions of kilometres
relating the energy emitted by a BLACK BODY to its (SUPERGIANTS). Generally the sizes of stars are expressed
temperature (see STEFANBOLTZMANN LAW). It has the in terms of the solar radius (Ro. ).
value 5.6697 108 W m2 K4. The diameter or radius of a star, along with its mass,
LUMINOSITY and EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, helps to deter-
StefanBoltzmann law Law giving the total radiant mine its position on the HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM.
energy (flux) emitted by a BLACK BODY (see also When a stars radius is very large or very small, its effect
RADIATION). It was formulated by the Austrian physicist on the luminosity can dominate over the effect due to
Joseph Stefan (185393) and by Ludwig BOLTZMANN. It temperature. A stars diameter can be measured directly if
takes the form F = 2T4, where F is the flux, is the its angular diameter and distance from Earth can be mea-
STEFANBOLTZMANN CONSTANT, is the refractive index sured. Measuring the angular diameters of stars directly,
of the medium and T is the temperature. however, is difficult because of the large distances
involved. The diameters of some stars can been measured
stellar association See ASSOCIATION, STELLAR when they are occulted by the Moon.
Optical INTERFEROMETRY can also be used, and as the
stellar atmosphere Atmosphere of a STAR; it consists resolution of interferometers improves, the diameters of
of the layers from which radiation is directly observed. smaller stars can be measured. Another technique used is
Stellar atmospheres comprise plasmas composed of many SPECKLE INTERFEROMETRY. The diameters of some stars
types of particles, including atoms, ions, free electrons, can be obtained indirectly, for example if they are mem-
388
stellar interior
bers of ECLIPSING BINARY systems. If the effective temper- case of the most massive stars, a red SUPERGIANT. The
ature (Teff) can be measured from its spectrum, and a speed of evolution to the red giant phase depends on the
value of its luminosity (L) determined from its apparent mass. A low-mass star changes gradually to become a red
brightness and distance, then a value of the stars radius giant as the hydrogen exhaustion spreads outward from its
(R) can be inferred from L = 4R2T2eff, where is the centre. A high-mass star evolves quickly to become a red
STEFANBOLTZMANN CONSTANT. giant because its whole convective core runs out of hydro-
Some stellar diameters have been obtained when a star gen at the same time. Giant stars are sufficiently cool to
is involved in MICROLENSING events. have a spectral type of K or M.
While it is a red giant, the stars central temperature
stellar evolution Development of a STAR over its will reach 100 million K, and the fusion of helium to car-
lifetime. The theory of stellar evolution revolves around bon will commence in the core. In the case of low-mass
mathematical models of stellar interiors and current laws stars, the onset of helium fusion is sudden (the HELIUM
of physics. It gives a fairly detailed account of the FLASH), and the star reduces its radius to become a bluer
evolution of any particular star, and it can be checked by but fainter HORIZONTAL BRANCH STAR as observed in
observation of stars at each of the predicted phases. The GLOBULAR CLUSTERS; it may subsequently return to being
evolutionary stages of stars are represented on the a red giant. In high-mass stars, the onset of helium fusion
HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM (HR diagram). occurs more gradually, and the star remains a red giant.
Timescales for evolution lie between hundreds of The evolution of a star beyond the helium fusion phase
thousands, and thousands of millions of years; hence the is more difficult to calculate with certainty. When the heli-
evolution of a particular star cannot be directly observed, um fuel in the core has been converted into carbon, the
although very occasionally changes in a star over the core of the star will again collapse and heat up. In the case
course of a human lifetime can be observed as it passes of a low-mass star, the central temperature will not rise
through a rapid phase, as with FG SAGITTAE. The high enough to initiate carbon fusion, and the outer layers
evolution of a star in a close binary system can be affected of the star will contract, then gradually cool down, so that
when mass transfer occurs from its companion, because the star becomes a WHITE DWARF. It is likely that before a
changing the stars mass alters conditions in its interior. white dwarf cools appreciably, it throws off its outer layers
Stars form from a dense interstellar cloud known as a in the form of a PLANETARY NEBULA. White dwarf stars are
GIANT MOLECULAR CLOUD. A large cloud is able to col- plentiful, but they are difficult to observe because of their
lapse under its own gravity and will subsequently frag- faintness. It is believed that white dwarfs cool forever,
ment into several hundred smaller clouds, each of which becoming BLACK DWARFS mere cinders of stars.
contracts further and heats up to become a PROTOSTAR. In the case of a high-mass star, the contraction of the
Protostars are very red and can be observed at infrared carbon core will lead to further episodes of nuclear fusion,
wavelengths; they are found in regions of our Galaxy during which the star will remain very bright. Many of
where there is an abundance of gas and dust. The these stars fluctuate in brightness as MIRA STARS. At this
progress of a PRE-MAIN-SEQUENCE STAR on the HR dia- stage the internal chemistry can change, or gas of a differ-
gram is represented by the HAYASHI and HENYEY tracks. ent chemical mix deep within can rise to the surface by
A protostar will continue to collapse under gravity until convection. These stars may then appear as CARBON
its centre is hot enough (about 15 million degrees K) for STARS (C stars). Most of these objects are extremely red
nuclear FUSION reactions to commence. As it collapses, its and thus rather faint.
outer layers fall in to take up a normal star-like form and it Once a star reaches the point where no more nuclear
becomes bluer in colour. T TAURI STARS are low-mass stars fusion can occur, it will collapse to become a white dwarf,
in this final phase. unless the core exceeds the CHANDRASEKHAR LIMIT of 1.4
Once nuclear fusion has commenced in the core of a solar masses, in which case further contraction occurs,
star, the star adopts a stable structure, with its gravity producing a NEUTRON STAR. When the core is composed
being balanced by the heat from its centre (the photons of elements close to iron in the periodic table, no further
created in the nuclear fusion reactions diffuse outwards, fusion is possible. At this point, it is most likely that the
exerting RADIATION PRESSURE). The controlled nuclear core will collapse explosively, and the star will throw off its
fusion reaction is the fusion of hydrogen atom nuclei (pro- outer layers in a SUPERNOVA explosion, becoming for a few
tons) to form helium nuclei. This period is known as the weeks bright enough to outshine the galaxy in which it is
MAIN-SEQUENCE phase of a stars life; it is the longest situated. The dead core of the massive star will remain as a
phase in the life of a star, and consequently at any particu- neutron star or, if the core is massive enough, it will col-
lar moment most stars are in the main-sequence period of lapse further to become a stellar BLACK HOLE.
their existence. The Sun has a main-sequence lifetime of
some ten thousand million years, of which only a half has stellar interferometer OPTICAL INTERFEROMETER used S
expired. Less massive stars are redder and fainter than the to measure the angular diameter of stars or the angular
Sun and stay on the main sequence longer; more massive separation of the components of double stars. An interfer-
stars are bluer and brighter and have a shorter lifetime. As ometer operates by splitting and re-combining a beam of
a star ages, the composition of its core changes from light using mirrors in order to examine the INTERFERENCE
mainly hydrogen to mainly helium, causing it to become fringes produced by the re-combined beam. Because a
very slightly brighter and bluer; on the main sequence its star image is a disk, not a point source, it is possible to
position moves slightly upwards and to the right of its adjust the separation of the two mirrors, d, until the
zero-age position (see ZERO-AGE MAIN SEQUENCE). fringes disappear, bright fringes from one side of the stel-
The internal structure of a main-sequence star lar disk coinciding with dark fringes from the other. At this
depends on its mass. Massive stars have a convective core point, d = 1.22 /, where is the wavelength of light and
and a radiative mantle (see CONVECTION and RADIATIVE the angle subtended by the stellar disk.
TRANSFER). Low-mass stars, including the Sun, have a
radiative core and a convective mantle. The stirring that stellar interior Internal structure of a STAR. Knowledge
occurs in the core of a massive star causes it to have a uni- of stellar interiors is gained by observing external
form composition within that core, which affects the properties and formulating a stellar model using known
details of the next phase of evolution. laws of physics to explain the properties observed. The
Eventually, the hydrogen supply in the core of the star equations that are used to construct models of stellar
runs out. With the central energy source removed, the interiors are known as the equations of stellar structure.
core will collapse under gravity, and heat itself up further, The determination of the density, temperature, com-
until hydrogen fusion is able to take place in a spherical position and luminosity at any point within a star requires
shell surrounding the core (hydrogen SHELL BURNING). As the solutions to the conservation laws of energy, mass and
this change occurs, the outer layers of the star expand momentum at that point. Different conditions exist in
considerably, and the star becomes a RED GIANT, or in the stars of different mass and at different stages of evolution,
389
stellar mass
the main differences being the form of energy transport lifespans because the higher temperatures at their cores
and the composition. enable them to burn their fuel quicker and thus evolve
CONVECTION and RADIATIVE TRANSFER are the principal faster. See also INITIAL MASS FUNCTION; MASSLUMINOSI-
means of energy transport in stellar interiors. For MAIN- TY RELATION; STELLAR EVOLUTION
SEQUENCE stars below about 1.5 solar masses, the tempera-
ture gradient within the core is too low for convection to stellar nomenclature System for assigning
occur. Energy transfer within these stars is primarily by designations to stars. The brightest stars have proper
radiative transfer, with convection occurring in shallow names originally given to them by Greek, Roman or Arab
regions near the surface known as convective shells. More astronomers, for example Sirius, Capella and Aldebaran.
massive main-sequence stars have convective cores. In addition to any proper name, stars down to around 5th
Most stars at a stable point in their evolution are magnitude within each constellation are identified by a
assumed to be in hydrostatic equilibrium, whereby the letter or number followed by the name of the constellation
forces at any point within a star balance and the internal in the genitive (possessive) form (see constellations table,
pressures counteract the gravitational pull. For main- pages 9495). The brightest stars are indicated by Greek
sequence stars the internal pressure is a combination of letters, as in (Alpha) Lyrae or (Epsilon) Eridani.
gas and radiation pressure. For evolved stars like WHITE These letters are known as Bayer letters because they
DWARFS and NEUTRON STARS the internal pressure is pro- were assigned by Johann BAYER in his star atlas
duced by the DEGENERATE MATTER in their cores. Uranometria of 1603, usually in order of brightness. Stars
that lack Bayer letters are prefixed by a number, as in
stellar mass The mass of a STAR is a very important 61 Cygni. These are known as Flamsteed numbers
factor in its evolution and determines its basic structure because they were assigned to stars charted in John
and lifetime. Stellar masses are generally expressed in FLAMSTEEDs Historia coelestis britannica, in order of right
terms of the Suns mass (Mo. ). ascension (RA). Capital and lower-case roman letters are
Stellar masses range from 0.08 solar mass to about 150 also used, particularly for stars in the southern
solar masses. Below 0.08 solar mass, temperatures at the hemisphere. VARIABLE STARS have their own system of
core do not become sufficiently high for nuclear FUSION to nomenclature.
begin. Stellar-like objects with mass less than 0.08 solar Fainter stars (and deep-sky objects) are identified
mass are called BROWN DWARFS. according to their listing in any of a number of other cata-
Upper theoretical limitations suggest that stars with logues, by the catalogues abbreviation followed by its des-
masses above about 150 solar masses are unstable because ignation in the catalogue. The designation scheme can be
of the effect of RADIATION PRESSURE. The most massive a single sequence of numbers (often in order of RA), as in
MAIN-SEQUENCE stars observed are within the R136 clus- HD 74156 or NGC 6543, or the numbering can be based
ter in the 30 Doradus Nebula of the LARGE MAGELLANIC on zones, as in BD 31 643. Modern designations tend
CLOUD. These stars are around 155 solar masses; they to use truncated coordinates: for example, PSR 053121
stellar wind The Bubble show signs of high mass loss similar to that observed in is the designation of a pulsar having its 1950.0 coordinates
Nebula is caused by the WOLFRAYET STARS. Stellar masses can be determined RA 05h 31m, dec. 21; while in PSR J05342200, the J
strong stellar wind from the directly from BINARY SYSTEMS. They can also be deter- indicates truncated 2000.0 coordinates. A list of the vari-
star at the bottom of the mined indirectly, using stellar models, if a stars LUMINOSI- ous designation letters is in a Dictionary of Nomenclature of
image. When young stars TY, EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE and distance are known. Celestial Objects maintained under the auspices of the
undergo a phase called the T- According to the VOGTRUSSELL THEOREM, a stars International Astronomical Union (IAU).
Tauri phase their extremely properties and evolution are determined by its initial mass There are commercial organizations from which star
strong stellar winds blow away and chemical composition. Since the composition of stars names can be bought. Although this is not illegal, and
much of the nebula in which varies relatively little, it is the initial mass that dictates basic individuals might like to name a star after a loved one,
they were formed. structure and evolution. Higher-mass stars have shorter such star names have absolutely no status and are not rec-
ognized by the IAU.
390
strewnfield
only 3.5 across. Four of the galaxies lie at a distance of 270 Stephans Quintet The
million l.y., and two NGC 7318 A and B are interacting gravitational interactions
with each other. The fifth galaxy, NGC 7320, is very much between the member galaxies
closer; it is not a true member of the group but simply a rel- of Stephans Quintet have
atively nearby galaxy in the line of sight. spawned massive star
formation. The stars in the
step method See ARGELANDER STEP METHOD; POGSON bright regions are between 2
STEP METHOD million and 1 billion years old.
391
Strmgren, Bengt George Daniel
from which the meteorite came. Following atmospheric collected results were published in Stellarum duplicium et
disruption, larger meteorites are slowed down by multiplicium Mensurae Micrometricae per magnum Fraun-
frictional heating less than smaller ones, and so are hoferi tubum in Specula Dorpatensi (1837).
carried further distances; smaller meteorites are deposited Between 1835 and 1838 Struve made careful measure-
at the incoming direction of the strewnfield, larger ones at ments of Vega, seeking to detect a parallax. He completed
the far end. his analysis shortly before Friedrich Wilhelm BESSEL had
done the same for the star 61 Cygni, but Bessel was the
Strmgren, Bengt George Daniel (190887) Danish first to publish his result. Struve obtained a parallax for
astrophysicist, born in Sweden, who explained the nature Vega of 0.262, equivalent to a distance of 12.5 l.y., half
of ionized hydrogen (HII) gas clouds that surround hot the present-day value. His other achievements included
stars. He succeeded his father, Svante Elis Strmgren the finding, in 1846, that starlight is absorbed in the galac-
(18701947), as director of Copenhagen Observatory tic plane, which he correctly attributed to the presence of
(1940), and later worked at Yerkes and McDonald Obser- interstellar matter.
vatories and Princeton Universitys Institute for Advanced
Study. Strmgren became particularly interested in the Struve, Otto Ludwig (18971963) Russian-American
astrophysics of the Orion Nebula and Milky Ways other astrophysicist, great-grandson of Wilhelm Struve, who
HII regions. He developed theoretical models of what applied spectroscopy to the study of binary and variable
were later called STRMGREN SPHERES, which he used to stars, stellar rotation and interstellar matter. Born in Rus-
estimate the size and density of a hydrogen cloud by mea- sia, his work at Kharkov Observatory, where his father,
suring the luminosity of its exciting star. These models Ludwig Struve, was director, was halted by the turmoil
allowed Strmgren and others, especially William W. following World War I, and in 1921 he moved to Yerkes
MORGAN, to map the spiral structure of the Milky Way. Observatory, becoming a naturalized American in 1927.
He was director of the observatory and professor of astro-
Strmgren sphere Volume of ionized gas around a hot physics at the University of Chicago (193247), and later
star (see also HII REGION). The region will only be became the first director of McDonald Observatory
spherical when the interstellar gas in which it forms is of (193950) and of the National Radio Astronomy Obser-
uniform density. A Strmgren sphere has a definite size vatory (196062). Struves most important contribution
that is reached when the number of ultraviolet photons (1929) was to show, with Boris Petrovich Gerasimovich
emitted by the star exactly balances the number of (18891937), that interstellar matter pervades the whole
ionizations occurring in the gas. The radii of Strmgren Galaxy, and is not localized as had been thought. In 1937
spheres were first calculated by Bengt STRMGREN; they he detected interstellar hydrogen.
range from 1 to 100 l.y. for O5 stars (within high and low
density HI REGIONS respectively), and from 0.1 to 15 l.y. STS Abbreviation of Space Transportation System the
for B0 stars. SPACE SHUTTLE
Struve family GermanRussian family that produced STScI Abbreviation of SPACE TELESCOPE SCIENCE
astronomers of note across four generations. As a youth, INSTITUTE
(Friedrich Georg) Wilhelm von STRUVE (17931864) left
Germany for Latvia, later moving to Russia to establish Subaru Telescope Major optical/infrared telescope with
PULKOVO OBSERVATORY. One of his sons was Otto (Wil- an aperture of 8.2 m (323 in.) operated by the NATIONAL
helm) Struve (18191905), known to historians as ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY OF JAPAN at MAUNA KEA
Otto I Struve. Like his father, whom he succeeded as OBSERVATORY, Hawaii. The telescopes name is Japanese
director at Pulkovo in 1862, Otto studied double stars, for Pleiades. Construction began in 1991, and the tele-
discovering around 500 of them. He determined an accu- scope became operational in 2000 with a sea-level base
rate value for the rate of precession, taking into account facility in nearby Hilo. The Subaru is notable for its
the motion of the Sun with respect to nearby stars, which ACTIVE OPTICS, sophisticated drive systems and cylindrical
he measured. (Karl) Hermann Struve (18541920), dome, which helps to suppress local atmospheric turbu-
who became director of Berlin Observatory (1904), and lence. It also has four foci and an auto-exchanger system
(Gustav Wilhelm) Ludwig Struve (18581920), direc- for instruments at its prime focus, giving it a reputation as
tor of Kharkhov Observatory from 1894, were sons of the Rolls-Royce of 810-metre telescopes.
Otto, while Georg Struve (18861933) was a son of
Hermann; they all studied the Solar System. Otto Ludwig subdwarf DWARF STAR of class F, G or K with low
S STRUVE (18971963), a son of Ludwig, emigrated to the
USA in 1921 and became a naturalized American. He is
metal abundance; it appears below the normal MAIN
SEQUENCE in the HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM or
known to historians as Otto II Struve. colourmagnitude diagram. The term is misleading
because subdwarfs are not below the standard main
Struve, (Friedrich Georg) Wilhelm von (17931864) sequence but to the left of it. The low metal content
German astronomer, the first major observer and cata- yields spectra that make subdwarfs look too early for
loguer of double stars, and one of the first to measure a their temperatures; it decreases the atmospheric
stellar parallax. He founded the most distinguished of opacities to make them seem too hot and blue for their
astronomical dynasties the STRUVE FAMILY. In 1808 he masses. Subdwarfs tend towards high velocities and are
left his homeland to escape conscription into the occupy- considered to be Population II halo stars.
ing Napoleonic army, settling in Dorpat (modern Tartu,
in Estonia), becoming director of Dorpat Observatory in subdwarf (sd) Any member of a group of stars that are
1817. From 1835 he helped to establish PULKOVO OBSER- less luminous by one to two magnitudes than MAIN-
VATORY, which he directed until his retirement in 1862. SEQUENCE stars of the same SPECTRAL TYPE; subdwarfs
In 1824 Struve commenced an extensive survey of are of luminosity class VI. Mainly of spectral type F, G
double and multiple stars with the 9 -inch (240-mm) f/18 and K, subdwarfs are generally old halo Population II
Dorpat Refractor, made by Joseph FRAUNHOFER and stars with low metal content. They lie below the main
equipped with a clock drive and a filar micrometer the sequence on the HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM. See
largest and best telescope of its day. His measurements of also POPULATIONS, STELLAR
position angles and separations, comparable with modern
ones in their precision, were published in a catalogue subgiant Star that has the same SPECTRAL TYPE as
(1827) and two later supplements, which between them GIANT STARS, mainly G and K, but lower luminosity;
listed 3112 doubles, of which 2343 were discovered by subgiants are of luminosity class IV. They are stars
Struve himself. The designations from these catalogues, evolving off the MAIN SEQUENCE in the process of
prefixed by (the Greek capital S) are still in use. The becoming giant stars.
392
Sun
limetre can be used to map cold dust and molecules in the Sun The Sun is a typical
direction of the centre of our Galaxy. main-sequence dwarf star.
Although it is at a stable part of
subsolar point Point on the surface of a body in the its life cycle, it is not
Solar System, particularly the Earth, at which the Sun unchanging and undergoes a
would be at the ZENITH at any given moment. Similar roughly 11-year cycle, during
points are also defined for other pairs of bodies. which its magnetic field winds
up and then declines.
substellar object Body with mass above that of about Sunspots are the most obvious
ten Jupiter masses but below that of a BROWN DWARF. The result of these changes.
more massive a substellar object, the more closely its
characteristics resemble those of a brown dwarf. See also
EXTRASOLAR PLANETS
Submillimeter Array (SMA) Joint project by the SMITH- Summer Triangle Popular name for the large and promi-
SONIAN ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY and the Academia nent triangle formed by the first-magnitude stars ALTAIR
Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics (Taiwan) (in Aquila), DENEB (in Cygnus) and VEGA (in Lyra). It is
to build an array of eight 6-m (20-ft) submillimetre tele- overhead on summer nights in northern temperate lati-
scopes at MAUNA KEA OBSERVATORY, Hawaii. It became tudes, but remains visible well into the northern autumn.
operational in 2002.
Sun MAIN-SEQUENCE star of spectral type G2; it is the cen-
Submillimeter Telescope Observatory (SMTO) See tral body of the SOLAR SYSTEM around which all the planets,
HEINRICH HERTZ TELESCOPE asteroids, comets and meteoroids revolve in their orbits.
The Suns light and heat are essential for life on Earth.
submillimetre-wave astronomy Study of The Suns energy source is the nuclear FUSION of
extraterrestrial objects that emit in the region of the hydrogen into helium, taking place in the CORE, which
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM between 350 m and occupies about 25% of the solar radius. SOLAR NEUTRINOS
1 mm. It was originally regarded as part of the radio produced by these NUCLEAR REACTIONS are detected at
region or the infrared region part of the radio region Earth. The structure and dynamics of the SOLAR INTERIOR
because it was the shortest non-optical wavelength that are studied by HELIOSEISMOLOGY. A radiative zone sur-
could be observed from the ground. Alternatively, it can rounds the core, and a convective zone occupies the outer
be regarded as very far-infrared because the instruments 28.7% of the solar radius. The visible disk of the Sun is
used to detect submillimetre radiation are very similar to
those used for INFRARED ASTRONOMY. The instruments
called the PHOTOSPHERE. ACTIVE REGIONS may manifest as
PORES, SUNSPOTS and FACULAE in the photosphere. These S
must be cooled with liquid helium, and the telescopes
must be at high, very dry sites because atmospheric water
vapour easily absorbs submillimetre radiation. SOLAR: DATA
Submillimetre-wave astronomy focuses on molecular Globe
clouds, star-forming regions, cold dust and molecules. Mean distance, AU 1.4959787 108 km
Molecules and cold dust are seen in planetary nebulae Light travel time Sun to Earth 499.004782 seconds
and galaxies, and many other types of astronomical Solar parallax 8.194148
object. A far-infrared and submillimetre satellite (the Radius Ro 6.955 105 km (= 109 Earth radii)
HERSCHEL SPACE OBSERVATORY) will be launched in 2007. Volume 1.412 1024 km3 (1.3 million Earths)
There are several submillimetre observatories, but the Mass Mo 1.989 1030 kg (332,946 Earth masses)
JAMES CLERK MAXWELL TELESCOPE (JCMT) on Hawaii Escape velocity at photosphere 6178 km/s
has made a significant impact in the area of submillimetre Mean density 109 kg/m3
astronomy, particularly with the array instrument Solar constant fo 1366 W/m2
SCUBA. High-redshift galaxies in the HUBBLE DEEP FIELD Luminosity Lo 2.854 1026 W
have been found to emit strongly in the submillimetre. Apparent magnitude mv 26.74
Cold dust disks around young and main-sequence stars Absolute magnitude Mv 4.83
(such as Vega and Eridani) have been resolved by Principal chemical constituents
JCMT. Spectral emission lines from higher energy levels (by number atoms) (by mass of fraction)
of molecules can be detected in the submillimetre (and Hydrogen 92.1% 70.68 %
compared with those in the millimetre wave region), so Helium 7.8% 27.43%
that the warmer and denser regions of star-forming clouds All others 0.1% 1.89%
can be observed, probing for the initial stages of the col- Age 4.566 billion years
lapse, both for high-mass and low-mass stars. The submil- Density (centre) 151,300 kg/m3
393
sundial
regions are associated with strong MAGNETIC FIELDS from sundog Popular name for a PARHELION
2000 to 4000 Gauss. The white-light photosphere shows
fine-scale mottling known as GRANULATION, and a larger- sungrazer COMET that at perihelion passes very close to
scale SUPER GRANULATION; both are caused by convection. the Sun. See also KREUTZ SUNGRAZER
DIFFERENTIAL ROTATION is seen in the photosphere, which
has an effective temperature of 5780 K. sunspot Dark, temporary concentration of strong
The inner solar atmosphere consists of the thin CHRO- magnetic fields detected in the white light of the Suns
MOSPHERE, lying just above the photosphere. SPECTROHE- PHOTOSPHERE. Sunspots are the most visible
LIOGRAMS or SPECTROGRAMS of the chromosphere reveal manifestations of ACTIVE REGIONS, which also include
structures known as PROMINENCES, SPICULES, FIBRILS, features such as FACULAE and PLAGES. The central
PLAGES and FLOCCULI. The Suns outer atmosphere forms magnetic field of a sunspot is vertical, and typically has a
the million-degree CORONA. Observed at X-ray wave- strength of 2000 to 4000 Gauss. Most sunspots have a
lengths, the corona shows features such as CORONAL central dark umbra and a lighter, grey surrounding region,
HOLES and coronal loops. called the penumbra, although either feature can exist
All forms of activity vary in a roughly 11-year SOLAR without the other. A sunspot is cooler than the
CYCLE, including CORONAL MASS EJECTIONS, FLARES and surrounding material and therefore appears darker. The
the occurrence of active regions and their associated effective temperature of the sunspot umbra is about
sunspots. The total flux of solar radiation incident on the 4000 K, compared with 5780 K in the neighbouring
Earth (the SOLAR CONSTANT) also varies in step with this photosphere. The penumbra consists of linear bright and
cycle; longer-term changes in the solar constant may dark elements known as filaments, which extend radially
underpin episodes of climatic change, such as the MAUN- from the umbra if the spot is more or less circular; the
DER MINIMUM. Solar activity may vary on millennial penumbra in complex spot groups may be more irregular.
timescales. Intense X-ray radiation from flares affects Sunspots vary in size from PORES about 1000 km
Earths IONOSPHERE, whilst energetic particles released (600 mi) in diameter to about 1 million km (600,000 mi).
from them may be a hazard to astronauts and artificial The largest spots become visible to the protected naked
satellites. Coronal mass ejections influence SPACE WEATH- eye (under no circumstances should an observer look
ER and can lead to magnetic storms, accompanied by directly at the Sun without using an approved, safe filter).
intensified displays of the AURORA. The duration of sunspots varies from a few hours to a few
weeks, or months for the very biggest. The number and
sundial Simple instrument of great antiquity for deter- location of sunspots vary over the SOLAR CYCLE. The
mining the time of day from a shadow cast by the sun. It number of sunspots is described by the RELATIVE
usually consists of a flat plate graduated in hours and min- SUNSPOT NUMBER, and their locations change over the
utes, and a style or gnomon which casts the shadow. Many cycle in accordance with SPRERS LAW, shown graphically
sunspot The magnetic field variations of this simple pattern exist. Without correction, as the BUTTERFLY DIAGRAM. Heliographic latitudes and
around the region of a sunspot the dial shows the apparent solar time. However, an accu- longitudes are measured relative to a standard reference
prevents the normal flow of rate sundial may be constructed for a particular location. frame defined by the CARRINGTON ROTATIONS. Sunspots
plasma. The spot is cooler than A simple date-dependent correction for the non-circulari- usually occur in pairs or groups of opposite magnetic
the surrounding regions and so ty of the Earths orbit can be applied to obtain the time polarity that move in unison across the face of the Sun as
appears dark. correct to about a minute. it rotates. See also EVERSHED EFFECT; WILSON EFFECT
394
supernova
395
supernova remnant
396
survey, astronomical
nested rings that have subsequently been observed may be supernova remnant In a
related to the fact that the system was a binary system, but supernova explosion, the outer
this remains unclear. atmosphere of a star is flung off
and continues to expand away
superstring theory Theory of ELEMENTARY PARTICLES from the progenitor star. The
that asserts that the most fundamental forms of matter Cygnus Loop is the remnant of
and energy are not particles but minute vibrating strings. an explosion 30,000 years ago.
The shape, topology and frequency of vibrations of these
strings determine the physical properties of the particles.
The scale of these strings is very small, of the order of
1033 cm. This in itself is a problem since they are the
smallest possible quanta and thus can never be observed.
However, if one assumes these strings do exist, and they
do make up elementary particles and fields, then one can
construct a model that could possibly describe everything
in the universe a THEORY OF EVERYTHING (TOE).
397
Surveyor
Surveyor The Surveyor and ONSALA SPACE OBSERVATORY, which is responsible for
lunar probes provided useful receivers and computer software. Hardware and mechani-
information for the cal components are maintained by ESO.
development of the Apollo
programme. This image is of Swedish Extremely Large Telescope (SELT) Pro-
Surveyor 1s shadow on the posal for a 50-m (164-ft) optical telescope made by
lunar surface. astronomers at LUND OBSERVATORY and elsewhere during
the late 1990s. The telescope would require multi-conju-
gate ADAPTIVE OPTICS to achieve its potential resolution,
and would use the segmented-mirror technology pio-
neered at the W.M. KECK OBSERVATORY. An alternative is to
spin-cast the mirror as a monolithic structure at the
observing site. By 2002 it seems likely that the SELT pro-
posal would be subsumed into the OVERWHELMINGLY
LARGE TELESCOPE project.
398
syzygy
meteor shower, which showed enhanced activity around symbiotic star This peculiar
the time of its 1992 perihelion. structure is thought to be the
result of at least three
Sword Handle See DOUBLE CLUSTER successive nova explosions on
a red giant/white dwarf pair. The
SX Phoenicis Pulsating VARIABLE STAR, 6.5 west of hourglass structure in the centre
Phoenicis; it exhibits periods of 79 and 62 minutes, results from the most recent
with a beat period of 278 minutes. The visual range is explosion, while the insect-like
from mag. 7.1 to 7.5. Its distance is about 140 l.y. Its structure is the remnant of the
behaviour closely resembles that of a DELTA SCUTI STAR, previous episode.
and it has been taken as the prototype (designated
SXPHE) for subdwarf stars that belong to globular
clusters and the older regions of the Galaxy and have
multiple periods.
symbiotic star (variable) BINARY STAR that exhibits the synchrotron radiation ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
spectral characteristics of two grossly different emitted by charged particles (usually electrons) moving in
temperature regimes. Typically there are absorption magnetic fields at large fractions of the speed of light.
bands such as those found in giants and supergiants of The charged particles follow helical paths along magnetic
late spectral classes around 3000 K, together with lines of force and emit radiation because of the
emission from a hot star of about 20,000 K. In addition, accelerations to which they are subjected. The process is
emission from hot, surrounding nebulosity is often closely related to FREEFREE RADIATION. The wavelength
detectable. Symbiotic stars exhibit a wide range of of the emitted radiation decreases as the energy of the
characteristics. They may all be classed as CATACLYSMIC electrons increases, and is strongly polarized.
VARIABLES, in which gas from the cool star is accreted by Synchrotron radiation produces much of the emission
the smaller companion, giving rise to outbursts. Z from the CRAB NEBULA, PULSARS and RADIO GALAXIES.
ANDROMEDAE STARS resemble DWARF NOVAE, but with a
giant (rather than main-sequence) secondary. In certain synodic Strictly, a term that means pertaining to two
systems, such as RR Telescopii, there is a high rate of successive conjunctions of celestial bodies; it is more
MASS TRANSFER, producing systems with extremely commonly used to describe a single cycle of any phase of
extended outbursts. Such systems were formerly known a celestial body viewed from a given point. For example,
as very slow novae but are now more commonly called a synodic month is the period between successive new or
symbiotic novae. Some systems most notably R full moons.
Aquarii appear to consist of a pulsating MIRA STAR
transferring mass to an ACCRETION DISK and thence to a synodic month (lunar month) Period between successive
condensed object that is ejecting material in a pair of new or full moons. This is the same duration as one
luminous jets. This is very similar to the configuration LUNATION and is equivalent to 29.53059 days of MEAN
found in the strange object SS 433, where the condensed SOLAR TIME. See also ANOMALISTC MONTH; DRACONIC
component appears to be a neutron star, with an MONTH; MONTH; SIDEREAL MONTH; TROPICAL MONTH
accretion disk and exceptionally strong polar jets.
synodic period Interval between successive
synchronous orbit Orbit in which a satellites period of OPPOSITIONS, or CONJUNCTIONS, of a planetary body. It is
REVOLUTION is the same as the planets period of axial a measure of that bodys orbital period as observed from
ROTATION. For Earth, the radius of the orbit is 42,164 km the Earth, as opposed to its SIDEREAL PERIOD, which
(26,200 mi). The satellite appears to hover over one point
on the equator, neither rising nor setting. The main
provides a true measure.
S
significance for natural satellites is that the direction of Syrtis Major Planitia Most conspicuous feature on
TIDAL EVOLUTION is inwards or outwards according to MARS; it is centred near 9.5N 290.5W. It is dark, wedge-
whether the satellite is below or above the synchronous shaped and an easy telescopic object. Formerly known as
orbit. Many artificial satellites of the Earth have been the Syrtis Major, it was first drawn by Christiaan HUYGENS
placed in such orbits, but the only natural example as long ago as 1659. It is now known to be a plateau rather
among the planets is Plutos satellite, CHARON. It is an than a vegetation-filled depression, as was once thought.
ultimate state resulting from tidal evolution; it requires
that the secondary is a substantial fraction of the mass of Systems I and II Grouping by rotation period of the
the primary, in order that it can absorb the spin angular clouds of JUPITER, which do not rotate uniformly. The
momentum of the primary. Eventually the Moon will groups are: System I, 9h 50m 30s, found in equatorial
reach this state. The Earths rotation is slowing as the regions; and System II, 9h 55m 41s, found above latitude
Moon recedes from the Earth (see also SECULAR 10N or S. A third, System III, defined by radio
ACCELERATION), and this will continue until the day has emissions, has a rotation period of 9h 55m 29s.37.
lengthened to be the same as the month (but this will take
about 10 billion years). syzygy Approximate alignment of the Sun, Earth and
Moon, or the Sun, Earth and another planet. Syzygy thus
synchronous rotation Coincidence of the rotational occurs when the Moon is either new or full or, for a planet,
period of a celestial body with its orbital period. This has at CONJUNCTION and OPPOSITION. The term is also used to
the effect of causing a planetary moon, for example, describe the alignment of any three celestial bodies.
399
tachyon
tachyon Hypothetical elementary particle that has a tangential velocity (transverse velocity) Velocity of a
velocity greater than the speed of light. According to star measured across the line of sight of the observer.
relativity, the tachyon, if it exists, would be travelling Observations of a stars gradual change in position over
T
backwards in time. No such particle has ever been a long period of time give a measure of its annual
detected, but some elementary particle theories allow for PROPER MOTION; if its distance in PARSECS is also known,
their existence. its tangential velocity can then be calculated.
Measurements of the Doppler shift in its spectrum
Taeduk Radio Astronomy Observatory (TRAO) provide its RADIAL VELOCITY (velocity along the line of
Radio observatory founded in 1986 in the science town of sight) and from the two, the stars true velocity (SPACE
Taeduk, Taejon City, Korea. The facility is part of the VELOCITY) can be computed.
Korea Astronomy Observatory, and operates a 14-m
(46-ft) millimetre-wave telescope enclosed in a radome. Tarantula Nebula (NGC 2070, 30 Doradus) Emission
The telescope was equipped with new high-performance nebula in the LARGE MAGELLANIC CLOUD (RA 05h 39m
receivers in 1995. dec. 6957); it is illuminated by an embedded cluster
of recently formed hot O and B stars. The Tarantula
TAI See INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC TIME Nebula, also known as the Loop Nebula, takes its name
from spidery extensions of nebulosity on its outer edge.
tail Extended structure that is directed anti-sunwards Its apparent angular size of 30 corresponds to a true
from the NUCLEUS of an active COMET. Bright comets diameter of about 900 l.y.
usually show two tails a dust tail driven away by the
pressure of solar radiation, and an ion tail dragged Tarazed The star Aquilae, visual mag. 2.72, distance
downwind by the interplanetary magnetic field in the 460 l.y., spectral type K3 II. With Alshain ( Aquilae),
SOLAR WIND. Comets tails are very tenuous, and mag. 3.71, it forms the wings either side of the eagle
background stars are usually readily visible through star, Altair. The names Alshain and Tarazed come from a
them. See also ANTITAIL Persian expression referring to a beam or balance.
Taiwan Oscillation Network (TON) Ground-based T association Region of recent and active star
network to measure solar intensity oscillations to study the formation in which the dominant visible population
Tarantula Nebula This internal structure of the Sun. Solar images in the light of comprises low-mass, roughly solar, stars. These stars, in
emission nebula in the Large the calcium K line are taken at the rate of one per minute their pre-MAIN-SEQUENCE phase of life, are styled T
Magellanic C loud is glowing with identical telescopes in Tenerife, Huairou (near Bei- TAURI STARS. They are named after the prototype in the
with the radiation from hot stars jing), BIG BEAR SOLAR OBSERVATORY and Uzbekistan. The TAURUS DARK CLOUDS complex, which, at a distance of
buried within it. Its pinkish network has been gathering data since 1994, and two 500 light-years, is one of the nearest stellar nurseries to
colour is caused by ionized extra observing stations are planned in order to improve the Sun.
hydrogen (HII). longitude coverage. Low-mass stars form throughout the dark clouds of T
associations, and EMBEDDED CLUSTERS can be observed at
infrared wavelengths. Occasionally, high-mass young stars
are also found in T associations, but only within the dark-
est, densest cores of clouds.
The importance of T associations is that their mem-
bers afford a series of snapshots of our young Sun
through its infancy. If we could order these different stars
correctly, we would have constructed an evolutionary
sequence for our Sun. It might also be clear how and
when the planets formed, and over what period.
The T Tauri stars themselves are irregular optical vari-
ables. In the nearby TaurusAuriga T association the stars
are of the 11th to 19th visual magnitude. Infrared bright-
ness characterizes T association stars, because they are
still surrounded by dusty obscuring circumstellar material,
which will eventually be accreted by the central star. Of
topical interest is the manner in which the already formed
stars of a T association interact with their parent gas
clouds. Vigorous winds terminate the protostellar ACCRE-
TION phase of T Tauri stars (perhaps after only a million
400
tektite
Taylor column Relatively stagnant column that forms onspicuous northern zodiacal constellation, between Aries and Orion,
over an obstacle immersed in a rotating fluid. Such
columns were first studied in the laboratory by the British
C representing the bull disguise assumed by Zeus when he carried away
Princess Europa in Greek mythology. Its brightest star, ALDEBARAN (which
physicist Geoffrey Taylor (18861975). In the 1960s a marks the bulls right eye), is a red giant irregular variable (range 0.750.95) that
Taylor column was suggested as the explanation of Jupiters lies to the top-left of a V-shaped cluster of stars, the HYADES. ALNATH (or Elnath),
GREAT RED SPOT. This theory has since been discounted. the constellations second-brightest star, used to be designated Aurigae. ALCY-
ONE, mag. 2.9, is the brightest member of another naked-eye cluster, the
Taylor, Joseph See HULSE, RUSSELL ALAN PLEIADES.
2 and
1 Tau form a wide naked-eye double, mags. 3.4 and 3.8, sepa-
ration over 5, the former being the brightest star in the Hyades. Two interesting
T corona Thermal emission from dust near the Sun, variables are the irregular variable T Tau (range 9.313.5 see T TAURI STAR),
detected at INFRARED wavelengths. The dust producing which is embedded in and illuminates Hinds Variable Nebula (NGC 1555), a
the T corona also scatters sunlight to produce the F small reflection nebula that shows changes in both brightness and extent; and the
CORONA. See also CORONA highly luminous pulsating variable RV Tau (range 9.813.3, period about 79
days, superimposed on a cycle of about 1224 days see RV TAURI STAR). Taurus
T Coronae Borealis See BLAZE STAR also contains the CRAB NEBULA (M1, NGC 1952), at 8th magnitude, the bright-
est supernova remnant in the sky, whose centre is marked by the CRAB PULSAR
TCT Abbreviation of TILTED-COMPONENT TELESCOPE (known at radio and X-ray wavelengths as Taurus A and Taurus X-1). The Tau-
rid meteor shower radiates from Taurus.
Teapot (of Sagittarius) Distinctive shape formed by eight
BRIGHTEST STARS
stars in Sagittarius: , and Sagittarii form the spout of
the teapot, Sagittarii is the tip of its lid, while , , and Name RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance
h m mag. mag. type (l.y.)
Sagittarii outline its handle.
Aldebaran 04 36
16 31 0.87 0.6 K5 65
Tebbutt, Comet (C/1861 J1) Long-period comet Alnath 05 26
28 36 1.65 1.4 B7 131
discovered on 1861 May 13 by the Australian astronomer Alcyone 03 47
24 06 2.85 2.4 B7 368
John Tebbutt (18341916). The comet reached 05 38
21 09 2.97 2.6 B4 417
perihelion 0.82 AU from the Sun on June 12, and
2 04 29
15 52 3.40 0.1 A7 149
became a bright, magnitude 0 object as it moved into
northern hemisphere skies. Earth passed through the
comets tail on June 30 at the time of closest approach lithosphere. Head-on collisions at thrust faults cause
(0.13 AU), the first recorded instance of such an compression and uplift, producing mountain ranges,
encounter. The tail reached a maximum extent of about such as the Himalayas at the conjunction of the Indian
100. Comet Tebbutt has an orbital period of 409 years. and Asiatic plates. Stretching of continental plates
produces normal faults and linear depressed features
technetium star Star, generally a GIANT STAR on the (GRABENS). Oceanic crust is subducted into the MANTLE
asymptotic giant branch of the HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL at trenches; it is renewed by lava rising at mid-ocean
DIAGRAM, that shows technetium in its spectra. ridges where plates are pulling apart.
Technetium is an unstable radioactive element. It does Plate tectonics is responsible for continental drift; over
not occur naturally on Earth but was the first element to Earths history the continents have been rearranged like
be created artificially. As it has a HALF-LIFE of pieces of a gigantic puzzle. Other planets have different
2.1 105 years, shorter than the life of the stars in which styles of tectonics. Mercurys numerous scarps or ridges
it is observed, it must be created in the star. It is believed appear to be the result of compression; they apparently
to be created during SHELL BURNING. were produced by global shrinkage of the planet as its core
cooled and solidified. Venus large circular features (coro-
tectonics Deformation of the LITHOSPHERE of a nae) may have been produced by upward or downward
planetary body. On Earth, the dominant mechanism for motions of magma below the lithosphere. Mars has
producing large-scale topographic features is plate numerous grabens associated with its large volcanoes; the
tectonics. Large sections of the lithosphere, thousands of huge canyon VALLES MARINERIS may be a rift valley,
kilometres in extent, are shifted by convective motions in although there is little evidence for plate tectonics. Jupiters
the underlying MANTLE. Differential motions of these satellites Europa and Ganymede show evidence of
plates, moving at a few centimetres per year, result in motions of sections of their icy crusts.
distortions. Plates sliding past each other are bounded by
strike-slip faults; these faults are sources of earthquakes,
when accumulated stress causes rupture of the
tektite Object of natural glass found scattered across
four main areas, known as STREWNFIELDS, of the Earths T
401
tele-compressor
mall, inconspicuous southern constellation, representing a telescope, between tele-compressor Converging lens inserted into the light
S Ara and Indus. It was introduced by Lacaille in the 18th century. Its brightest
star, Tel, is mag. 3.5. RR Tel is a NOVA-LIKE VARIABLE, and the only such star to
path of a telescope to reduce the focal length; it produces a
wider field of view and a faster focal ratio for photograph-
have been recognized as variable before it began its slow (1600-day), unprecedent- ic purposes.
ed rise to 7th magnitude in 1944.
tele-extender Extension tube containing an optical
device and used in conjunction with an EYEPIECE to
surface. The Australasian strewnfield stretches from increase the effective focal length of a telescope.
Tasmania, across Australia to Sumatra and the Philippines
and to the Southeast Asian mainland. Australian tektites, telescope Device that augments the ability of the eye to
known as australites, are 830,000 years old, compared observe distant or faint objects, particularly celestial
with 690,000 years old for the remainder of the objects. The Egyptians were making glass around
strewnfield, thus two groups may be represented. The 3000 BC, and the Greeks had a good understanding of the
parent crater for this strewnfield is unknown. The Ivory refraction and reflection of light by glass lenses in 300 BC,
Coast tektites are 1.3 million years old. They are related to but it was nearly two thousand years before the telescope
the impact crater of similar age at Lake Bosumtwi, made its appearance. In 1608 the Dutch spectacle-maker
Ghana. Moldavites are tektites found in the Czech Hans LIPPERSHEY applied for a patent for his instrument
Republic. Their age, of 14.7 million years, links them with for seeing at a distance, the first REFRACTING TELESCOPE.
the Ries impact structure in south Germany. The North While Lippershey is generally acknowledged to be the
American tektites, found in Texas and Georgia (and one inventor of the telescope, there were enough competing
only from Marthas Vineyard, Massachusetts), are 34 claims that his patent application was denied. There is also
million years old. They are now linked to the Chesapeake some evidence that devices resembling the telescope were
Bay impact structure. Micrometeorites related to the around in the previous century (see DIGGES).
Australasian, Ivory Coast and North American tektites It was in May 1609 that Galileo first heard about the
occur in marine sediments. telescope while travelling in Venice. He proceeded to build
Tektites are unrelated to volcanism. Their usual one within 24 hours of returning home. His design, the
shapes, such as teardrop, disc or dumbbell, suggest that GALILEAN TELESCOPE, enabled him to observe four moons
they were once fluid, but they may be corroded. The of Jupiter, mountains and valleys on the Moon, sunspots
Southeast Asian tektites are the largest, with masses of up and the phases of Venus. However, it suffered from severe
to 15 kg; the Muong-Nong type have laminar flow struc- CHROMATIC ABERRATION and SPHERICAL ABERRATION.
tures. Many of the south-east Australian tektites have fea- Around 1616, Niccol Zucchi (15861670), a profes-
tures indicative of high-velocity atmospheric flight, such sor of mathematics from Rome, proposed a solution to
as a button shape, atmospheric ablation having melted these problems by replacing the objective lens with a mir-
the front part of an original sphere, causing melt to flow ror, creating the first REFLECTING TELESCOPE, but got
terminator Because backwards to form a flange. poor results from the example he constructed and aban-
features near the daynight Ivory Coast and Australasian tektites are opaque, doned the effort. Johannes KEPLER, Ren Descartes
boundary on the Moon are lit unless very thin. Moldavites are green and North Amer- (15961650), Marin Mersenne (15881648), James GRE-
obliquely, more details can be ican tektites brown. All are silica-rich, containing inclu- GORY and Robert HOOKE all developed alternative designs,
observed than at other times. sions of lechatelierite (pure silica glass) and other but the technologies of the day were unable to produce
This Galileo orbiter image of the residual minerals. A lunar origin was suggested for tek- workable instruments from their specifications.
Moon reveals central peaks tites, but the return of lunar samples reinforced the ter- By the late 1650s, the only solution to the aberrations
within craters close to the restrial chemical and isotopic signatures. Tektites are that plagued the refractors of the day was to increase the
terminator, while little structure terrestrial material that has been subjected to extraterres- FOCAL LENGTH. Chromatic and spherical aberration are
is seen in other areas. trial impact. Following the impact, molten or vaporized both reduced when the focal length is increased, and so
the telescopes grew. By 1670 almost unusable f/300 mon-
sters stretching 67 m (220 ft) from objective to eyepiece
were being built.
In 1671 Isaac Newton began to experiment with the
possibility of an achromatic refractor. Due to a flaw in his
experimental procedure, Newton concluded that an
achromatic refractor was not possible, and began to
research Zucchis reflecting designs. The result was the
T NEWTONIAN TELESCOPE, although it would be almost 300
years before the design gained the popularity it enjoys
today. Appearing at about the same time was the
CASSEGRAIN TELESCOPE, which would eventually become
the most popular design for large professional instru-
ments, despite Newtons intense criticism of the design.
See also DALLKIRKHAM TELESCOPE; DOBSONIAN TELE-
SCOPE; HERSCHELIAN TELESCOPE; MAKSUTOV TELESCOPE;
RITCHEYCHRTIEN TELESCOPE; SCHMIDTCASSEGRAIN
TELESCOPE; TILTED-COMPONENT TELESCOPE.
402
Tethys
telluric absorptions from oxygen (O2), while Fraunhofer Tethys Ithaca Chasma can
a (716.5 nm) is from water. Telluric carbon dioxide and be seen to the right in this
water absorptions block much of the infrared; telluric image of Saturns satellite
ozone blocks the ultraviolet. Telluric absorption lines Tethys. Younger craters are
strengthen as the body sets, allowing them to be superimposed on the giant
identified. Telluric lines can in part be avoided by trough, indicating that it is an
Doppler shifts caused by the relative motion of the Earth ancient feature.
and the body being observed. Telluric auroral emission
lines also contaminate astronomical spectra.
Tempel-1, Comet 9P/ Short-period comet discovered 100 K, while the kinetic temperature of the electrons with-
on 1867 April 3 by Wilhelm Tempel. It is always faint in it is about 1,000,000 K.
and was lost from 1879 until 1967. The orbit was
modified by passages close to Jupiter in 1881, 1941 and temperature scale Graduated scale of degrees for
1953. Currently, the perihelion distance is 1.49 AU, and measuring TEMPERATURE. The principal temperature
the period is 5.51 years. scales are the ABSOLUTE (or Kelvin) scale and the CELSIUS
(or Centigrade) scale. The unit of temperature on the
TempelTuttle, Comet 55P/ Short-period comet absolute scale, the kelvin (K), is equal in magnitude to
discovered on 1865 December 19 by Wilhelm Tempel, one degree on the Celsius scale (C). The zero points of
Marseilles, France, and independently on 1866 January the two scales differ however, with 0C equal to
5 by Horace Tuttle (18371923), Harvard, USA. The 273.15 K. To convert from one scale to the other, 273.15
comet currently has a period of 33.22 years, and the has to be added to the temperature on the Celsius scale or
orbit is retrograde, being inclined to the ecliptic by subtracted from the temperature on the absolute scale. All
162.5. During its discovery apparition, the comet physical formulae require the temperature to be
reached peak magnitude 3, and showed a short tail. expressed on the absolute scale.
Although the orbit was established at this return, Comet
55P/TempelTuttle was not observed again until 1965. Tempe Terra Region of MARS east of ACIDALIA PLANITIA
At one of its past returns, in 1366, it made the third- (40.0N 71.0W). It is associated with the long ditch
closest approach (0.0229 AU) of a comet to Earth in Tempe Fossa.
historical times. The most recent return, with perihelion
on 1998 February 28, was quite favourable, with the terminator Boundary between the illuminated and non-
comet reaching peak magnitude 6.5. Comet illuminated hemispheres of a planet or satellite; in other
55P/TempelTuttle is the parent of the LEONIDS, which words, the dividing line between day and night. From the
have produced meteor storms close to several of the Earth, the terminator is only visible on those bodies that
comets past returns (most recently in 1966, 1999 and exhibit PHASES, that is Mercury, Venus, Mars and the
2001); they show substantially enhanced activity for Moon. Because of its relative proximity, it is possible to
about five years to either side of perihelion. see that the mountainous surface of the Moon causes its
terminator to appear jagged and irregular, rather than as a
Tempel-2, Comet 10P/ Short-period comet smooth line.
discovered on 1873 July 3 by Wilhelm Tempel. Its current
period is 5.47 years. IRAS observations in 1983 showed terracing Formation of terraces relatively flat,
10P/Tempel-2 to have an associated dust trail more than horizontal or gently inclined surfaces, bounded by a
0.67 AU (100,000,000 km or 62,000,000 mi) long. steeper ascending slope on one side and by a steeper
403
Thalassa
ahead of it and 60 behind it, respectively. Tethys is with gravity in some type of all-encompassing theory. The
similar in size to Dione and is heavily cratered. In one SUPERSTRING THEORY is one such theory that attempts to
region the plains between large ancient craters have been understand all four forces and all of the known
flooded by CRYOVOLCANISM up to the crater rims. This ELEMENTARY PARTICLES in one grand theory of
happened a long time ago, because there has been time everything. See also QUANTUM THEORY OF GRAVITY
for many younger (and smaller) craters to have formed
on the plains. Tethys is remarkable in having one thermal equilibrium State in which all parts of a system
enormous crater, named ODYSSEUS, the diameter have the same TEMPERATURE and there is no flow of heat
(440 km/270 mi) of which is 40% of the diameter of the energy from one part of the system to another or to or
satellite itself. The impact that created this crater was from the surroundings.
almost violent enough to break Tethys into fragments.
A giant trough up to 100 km (60 mi) wide and 3 km thermal radiation RADIATION that arises as a
(2 mi) deep, named Ithaca Chasma, encircles the globe consequence of the thermal energy in a body. For
90 away from Odysseus. The trough may be a fracture astronomical sources it is usually either BLACK BODY
formed in response to the impact that created the crater. RADIATION or FREEFREE RADIATION. Non-thermal
The only other substantial satellite to have a crater of this radiation sources include SYNCHROTRON RADIATION and
magnitude with respect to the size of the whole body is MASER emission. If these latter sources are mistakenly
MIMAS. However, whereas the giant crater on Mimas has interpreted as thermal radiation, then the inferred
retained its pristine shape, the topography of Odysseus temperature may be many orders of magnitude too high.
has become subdued, probably because the LITHOSPHERE
of Tethys was too weak to support it. See data at SATURN thermosphere Outermost layer of the Earths
ATMOSPHERE. It lies above the mesopause, at a height of
Thalassa Small inner satellite of NEPTUNE, discovered in 86100 km (5362 mi), which is the upper boundary of
1989 by the VOYAGER 2 imaging team. Thalassa is about the MESOSPHERE. Within the thermosphere, the
80 km (50 mi) in size. It takes 0.312 days to circuit the temperature rises with height as the Suns far-ultraviolet
planet, at a distance of 50,100 km (31,100 mi) from its and X-ray radiation is absorbed by the oxygen and
centre, in a near-circular, near-equatorial orbit. nitrogen of the thin air. This process produces ionized
atoms and molecules and is responsible for the formation
Thales of Miletus (c.625c.547 BC) Greek polymath, of the layers in the IONOSPHERE, at altitudes of between 60
born in what is now modern Turkey, famous for his teach- and 500 km (40 and 310 mi). AURORAE and METEORS
ing that everything in the Universe sprang from a primor- also occur in the thermosphere. The temperature climbs
dial mass of water. According to Herodotus to about 780 K at 150 km (90 mi) and 1600 K at 500 km
(c.484425 BC), Thales predicted the total eclipse of the (310 mi). However, the atmospheric density is extremely
Sun that occurred in 585 BC, though this may be apoc- low, decreasing from seven-millionths of its sea-level
ryphal. Thales travelled to Egypt and Babylon, bringing value at the mesopause to only about one-million-
back to Greece the astronomical knowledge of those civi- millionth (1012) at 500 km (310 mi) altitude. This
lizations. He defined the constellation Ursa Minor, which, density varies with solar activity, increasing when the Sun
because of its inclusion of the North Pole Star, he used for is active, when the additional heating of the uppermost
navigational purposes. layers causes the atmosphere to expand. The region
above 500 km (310 mi) is often known as the EXOSPHERE.
Tharsis Montes (Tharsis Ridge) Main volcanic region
of MARS. Tharsis is a complex area with two rises. In the Third Cambridge Catalogue (3C) Third in a series of
northern part stands the volcano ALBA PATERA. On the four catalogues of radio sources compiled from surveys
main Tharsis Ridge, in the southern half of Tharsis, carried out from the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge,
stand three aligned volcanoes, ARSIA MONS, PAVONIS MONS during the 1950s and 1960s by a team that included
and ASCRAEUS MONS, each separated from the next by Antony HEWISH, Martin RYLE and Francis GRAHAM-
about 700 km (430 mi). SMITH. The Third Cambridge Catalogue Survey was
completed in 1959, using collectors of greater area and
The Astronomer (TA) Monthly UK publication provid- higher sensitivity than its two predecessors; it became the
ing rapid dissemination of raw reports from observers definitive listing of radio sources. Sources in this catalogue
around the world, established as The Casual Astronomer in are still known by their 3C designations, for example
1964. TA also performs a relatively informal co-ordinating 3C 273, the first object to be identified as a quasar.
role for various PATROLS, notably for novae and super-
novae, alongside the BRITISH ASTRONOMICAL ASSOCIATION. third contact During a SOLAR ECLIPSE, the moment
when the Moons trailing (westerly) limb appears to
T Thebe One of the inner moons of JUPITER, discovered in
197980 by Stephen Synnott in images obtained by the
touch the Suns more westerly limb. In a TOTAL ECLIPSE,
this marks the end of TOTALITY and is usually quickly
VOYAGER project. Thebe is irregular in shape, measuring followed by the appearance of the DIAMOND RING EFFECT
about 110 90 km (70 60 mi). It orbits Jupiter at an and BAILYS BEADS, as the Suns westerly edge is once
average distance of 221,900 km (137,900 mi), giving it a more revealed.
period of 0.675 days. Its orbit is of low eccentricity At a LUNAR ECLIPSE, third contact is the time when the
(0.018) and is inclined to the Jovian equator by only 1.1. Moons leading, easterly limb arrives at the eastern edge of
Earths UMBRA, re-emerging into sunlight at totalitys end.
Theophilus Lunar crater (12S 26E), 101 km (63 mi)
in diameter. It is a complex crater, with terraced side- Thomson, William See KELVIN, LORD (WILLIAM THOM-
walls and central peaks. Theophilus is just old enough for SON)
most of the bright rays to have been eroded away, though
a few are still visible. Its continuous and discontinuous three-body problem Fundamental problem in
EJECTA are easily observed at low Sun angles. Theophilius CELESTIAL MECHANICS, to determine the motions of three
overlies part of the older crater CYRILLUS. bodies under the influence of their mutual gravitational
attractions. There is no exact general solution, only
theory of everything (TOE) Theory that is an attempt solutions for some special cases, such as the LAGRANGIAN
to unify gravity with the other three known FUNDAMENTAL POINTS. It is the formulation that is used as the basis for
FORCES. The GRAND UNIFIED THEORY (GUT) unifies the most theoretical and perturbational studies in celestial
strong, weak and electromagnetic forces into a consistent mechanics. There has been a vast amount of work to
quantized theory, but does not allow for the quantization investigate the types of motion that occur close to a
of gravity. A TOE would also unify all three GUT forces COMMENSURABILITY, and all of this takes the three-body
404
tidal heating
problem as the basis, usually with various simplifications a satellite and its planet is asymmetrical, with the force
in order to isolate the crux of the problem. For example, having a component at right angles to the line between the
when analysing the motion of an asteroid close to a bodies; this force exerts a torque. In the case of a satellite
commensurability with Jupiter, one might use the plane orbiting slower than the planet is rotating (that is, it is
circular restricted three-body problem. This considers above the SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT), the nearer bulge exerts a
Jupiter to be in a circular orbit, unperturbed by other larger torque than the farther bulge, and so there is a net
planets, and the asteroid to be of zero mass and to move torque acting in the direction of motion of the satellite,
in the plane of Jupiters orbit. and an equal and opposite torque acting on the rotation of
The task of determining analytically the PERTURBA- the planet. This causes the satellite to spiral outwards, and
TIONS of the orbit of a planet or satellite caused by other slows the rotation of the planet. A satellite below the
bodies is invariably reduced to a series of three-body synchronous orbit would spiral inwards, and the planet
problems. For example, what is referred to as the main would rotate faster.
problem of lunar theory is to determine the orbit of the Tidal evolution has had many effects on the Solar Sys-
Moon around the Earth perturbed by the Sun, with all tem. Tides raised by the Sun on planets can despin the
three bodies regarded as point masses. Perturbations by planets; this is a probable explanation for the present slow
other planets, and effects of the oblateness of the Earth rotation rates of Mercury and Venus. Tides raised by
and the Moon are added later. Even so, it is a substantial satellites on planets have had numerous effects: causing
problem. The lunar theory constructed by Ernest BROWN the Moon to recede and the Earths rotation to slow down;
occupied him for most of his life; it contains about 1020 causing Phobos to spiral into Mars; and causing satellites
periodic terms from the main problem, with a further of Jupiter and Saturn to spiral outwards and become
580 terms from planetary perturbations. See also MANY- trapped in COMMENSURABILITIES. Tides raised by planets
BODY PROBLEM on satellites have resulted in most satellites being in SYN-
CHRONOUS ROTATION with their planet; they have caused
3C Abbreviation of THIRD CAMBRIDGE CATALOGUE intense heating within some satellites, notably IO.
3C 273 (1226+023) First-identified and optically tidal friction Dissipation of a small fraction of the
brightest quasar, at z = 0.158 in the direction of Virgo. energy contained in a TIDAL BULGE as it rises and falls. In
The optical object was originally identified by timing the the case of the Earth the main dissipation of tidal energy
disappearance of the radio emission during a lunar arises from friction at the bottom of shallow seas as the
occultation, as observed with the Parkes radio telescope. tides sweep through. In bodies without oceans the
This object has by far the brightest optical and X-ray jet dissipation mechanisms are not so obvious, and estimates
among quasars. of the rate of dissipation are very uncertain. In a few cases
the dissipation of tidal energy within a body can cause
3 kiloparsec arm Spiral arm lying about 3.5 kpc from significant heating of the body, such as for Jupiters
the centre of our GALAXY; it is visible as 21 cm neutral satellite IO. More often the most significant effect of the
hydrogen radio emission (see TWENTY-ONE CENTIMETRE tidal friction is to cause a slight delay in the rise and fall of
LINE). The emission lies within about 20 longitude from the tidal bulge, with the result that it does not quite lie
the galactic centre; it is expanding outwards at about along the line between the two bodies. This slight
50 km/s (30 mi/s). asymmetry causes a torque between the two bodies,
which can cause TIDAL EVOLUTION.
Thuban The star Draconis, visual mag. 3.67, distance
309 l.y., spectral type A0 III. It was the North Pole Star tidal heating Heat produced by the tidal force exerted
around 2800 BC. The name is from the Arabic thuba n, on a satellite by its primary; this force can distort the
meaning serpent. satellite. The tidal force varies with distance, and if the
satellites orbit is eccentric the satellite will change shape
tidal bulge Deformation of a celestial body in orbit slightly during each revolution. The work done by this
around another as a result of the higher gravitational
attraction on the nearside and lower attraction on the
farside of the body, compared with the attraction at the
centre of the body. The resulting distortion lies along the
line joining the two bodies, with bulges both towards and
away from the attracting body (see diagram at TIDES). The
effect on a fluid ocean is easily understood, but even solid
bodies are not completely rigid and will deform because
of tidal forces. The Sun raises tidal bulges on the planets,
and planets raise tidal bulges on the satellites orbiting
them. Satellites also raise tidal bulges on their planets. In T
the case of the Earth and Moon, the tides raised on the
Earth are large, because the Moon is a fairly large fraction
(1/81) of the mass of the Earth. However even a tiny
satellite such as Phobos raises tides on its planet, Mars.
These tides are small, and have no significant effect on
Mars, but the attraction of this bulge acting back on
Phobos causes very significant TIDAL EVOLUTION of the
orbit of Phobos.
405
Tidbinbilla Tracking Station
flexing is dissipated as heat; the energy is derived from its transfer of angular momentum from the Moons rotation
orbital energy. Tidal heating drives VOLCANISM on to its orbit has resulted in the present state of SYNCHRO-
Jupiters satellite IO. It probably maintains a liquid layer NOUS ROTATION, with the same face of the Moon always
beneath the icy crust of EUROPA. towards the Earth. Similarly most of the satellites of the
major planets are in synchronous rotation with their pri-
Tidbinbilla Tracking Station See DEEP SPACE NETWORK mary. For the Jovian satellite IO the tidal effect is very
large, due to its relative closeness and the large mass of
tides Distortions induced in a celestial body by the Jupiter. Also Io has a fairly large orbital eccentricity
gravitational attraction of one or more others. The force a (0.0043), and this causes the tidal bulge on Io to rise and
body experiences is greatest on the side nearest the fall and oscillate around a mean position as the distance
attracting body, and least on the side farthest away, and direction of Jupiter vary in each orbital revolution.
causing it to elongate slightly towards and away from the There is a dynamical process that would normally react
attracting body, acquiring a TIDAL BULGE on each side. on the orbit and reduce the eccentricity to eliminate this
On the Earth tides are raised by the Moon and by the effect, but it cannot operate for Io, as its eccentricity is
Sun, the effect of the Moon being about three times that of actually caused by its 2:1 COMMENSURABILITY with
the Sun. As the Earth rotates, different parts of the surface Europa. The result is that the continued dissipation of
move into the tidal bulge region, causing two high tides tidal energy has caused internal heating and is responsible
and two low tides in just over a day. The tides most obvi- for the violent volcanic activity on Io.
ously affect the fluid ocean, but even the solid crust, which
is supported by a fluid mantle, is able to flex, experiencing tilted-component telescope (TCT) REFLECTING
tides of up to 25-cm (c.10-in.) amplitude. When the Sun TELESCOPE that avoids obstructing the optical path by tilt-
and the Moon are exerting a pull in the same direction (as ing or warping some or all of the optical elements. The
at new moon or full moon) their effects are additive and first attempt at a tilted-element telescope was the brachyt,
the high tides are higher (spring tides). When the pull of developed around 1900. This was essentially a
the Sun is at right angles to that of the Moon (as at first or CASSEGRAIN TELESCOPE cut in half, and it had off-axis
last quarter) the high tides are lower (neap tides). mirrors that were virtually impossible to grind. An
TIDAL FRICTION caused by the tidal ebb and flow of improvement was the neo-brachyt in 1953; it had normal
water over the ocean floor causes a slight delay in the mirrors but required a warping harness to distort the sec-
response of the oceans to the tidal attracting forces, with ondary into the proper curve. The schiefspiegler, invent-
the result that the tidal bulge does not lie precisely along ed in 1940 by Anton Kutter (190385), was much easier
the line to the attracting body. This asymmetry causes a to make, having a convex and concave mirror of the same
torque between the Earth and the Moon (see also TIDAL curvature, so that the secondary could be made from the
EVOLUTION), which transfers angular momentum and tool that ground the primary. The schiefspiegler was limit-
energy from the Earths rotation to the orbit of the Moon. ed to long focal ratios in the f/20 to f/30 range. Kutter later
This results in a slowing of the Earths rotation and thus refined this design into the tri-shiefspielgler in 1965. In
an increase in the length of the day (see also LEAP 1957 Arthur S. Leonard invented the Yolo, a re-interpre-
SECOND), and in the SECULAR ACCELERATION of the tation of the neo-Brachyt design with better performance,
Moon, causing it to recede from the Earth at about but still requiring the warping harness. Leonards later
3.8 cm/yr (1.5 in./yr). A similar mechanism is probably design, the Solano in 1971, added a third mirror and
responsible for evolution of the orbits of many of the nat- eliminated the harness. (Both designs are named after
ural satellites of the Solar System. Californian counties.)
The tidal forces between the Earth and the Moon also The culmination of TCT designs is the StevickPaul.
cause a tidal bulge on the Moon. A similar effect of the Invented in 1993 by amateur David Stevick (1944 ) and
based on the design for a corrector assembly by French
optician Maurice Paul from 1935, the StevickPaul has a
tilted focal plane but negligible other distortions and can
be built to reasonably fast (low) focal ratios.
406
timescale
desic tracks through a spacetime that has been distorted clocks were perfected that were accurate enough to be
from Euclidean geometry by the presence of masses. used at sea to help determine longitude and also for scien-
The measurement of time is the subject of ordinary tific purposes. But even with these man-made methods of
observation and experience and is based upon sequences accounting for time, the basic way of measuring its pass-
of events occurring at regular intervals. Annual and diur- ing was still the rotation of the Earth, and clocks were
nal changes led in pre-history to the concept of the year adjusted accordingly to keep in step with it.
and the day. Less clearly, lunar cycles may have led to the Until 1955 the scientific standard of time, the second,
month. The development of clocks of increasing accuracy was based on the Earths period of rotation and was
and reliability began with the sundial and nocturne, and defined as 1/86,400 of the mean solar day. The current
proceeded through the development of the water clock, standard, the SI second, was defined in 1967 as being
pendulum, balance wheel, quartz crystal to the atomic the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation
clock of today. corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine
The current unit of time is the second, which has been levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom (see
defined since 1967 as the duration of 9,192,631,770 peri- ATOMIC TIME). The internationally adopted timescale
ods of the radiation corresponding to the transition INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC TIME (TAI) is formed by inter-
between the two hyperfine levels of the fundamental state comparing the results from many different atomic clocks
of the atom caesium 133. Within the limits of measure- around the world.
ment, this definition was identical to the one in use previ- In the UK, atomic clocks at the National Physical Lab-
ously, which was based upon the Earths orbital motion. oratory (NPL) at Teddington keep the countrys time
This ephemeris second was defined as accurate to within one second in three million years.
1/31,556,925.9747 of the TROPICAL YEAR for 1900 Janu- These clocks are used to disseminate time in a variety of
ary 0d 12h. INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC TIME (TAI) is now ways, including via the MSF time signal, which is broad-
used as the starting point for all other types of time scale. cast from the Rugby Radio Station, and the familiar six
The time scale used for civil purposes is UNIVERSAL pips. For civil time-keeping purposes a uniform
TIME (UT), otherwise known as GREENWICH MEAN TIME TIMESCALE is used; it is formed by atomic clocks, but kept
(GMT). It is defined as the HOUR ANGLE of the MEAN SUN in step with the rotation of the Earth through the periodic
plus 12 hours (so that the start of the civil day is midnight, introduction of LEAP SECONDS. For convenience, we also
not midday). UT is based upon the Earths rotation, not advance our clocks in summer by one hour in order to
its orbital motion, and it is therefore affected by changes in make better use of the increased daylight hours.
the rotation of the Earth. The UT corrected for the CHAN- Our need for, and use of, accurate time is expanding.
DLER WOBBLE is called UT1, and is the basis of civil time- For everyday life, todays watches and clocks are suffi-
keeping. It is kept to within 0.9 seconds of TAI by the cient, but for other applications, more accurate methods
occasional insertion or removal of a LEAP SECOND. The are needed. Telecommunications systems rely on being
difference between the time given by a sundial (solar time) able to measure precisely small intervals of time in order
and UT is called the EQUATION OF TIME. to ensure that data transmitted down telephone lines is
The SOLAR DAY is 86,400 atomic seconds long. The sent at the correct rate. This has become ever more imper-
Earths actual rotation period is given by the SIDEREAL ative with the all-pervasive Internet and the increasing use
DAY, and this is 86,164.1 atomic seconds (23h 56m 4s.1) of electronic means of communication such as e-mails.
long. See also CALENDAR; JULIAN DATE; TIME ZONES. Navigation systems, used aboard shipping and aircraft
(and even becoming widely available for road vehicles),
time dilation effect Effect whereby a clock on a moving use the Global Positioning System (GPS) of satellites
object runs slower than a similar clock stationary with which have atomic clocks on board. These satellites
respect to the observer (see SPECIAL RELATIVITY). The broadcast timing signals that enable ground positions to
dilation is by a factor of: be established to within a few tens of metres.
The quest for ever-more accurate methods of time-
1-
v2
keeping goes on. Research is currently underway into the
c 2
development of clocks using ion traps, in which ions held
where v is the objects velocity and c the velocity of light. in an electromagnetic field are cooled by laser beam
Thus an astronaut visiting a planet 25 l.y. away at a almost to absolute zero, keeping them stationary. It is
constant speed of 0.999c (ignoring acceleration and anticipated that clocks using this technology will be
deceleration times) would age by one year, while 25 years around 1000 times more accurate than the current gener-
would elapse on Earth. GENERAL RELATIVITY predicts ation of atomic clocks. That means that they would lose
gravitational time dilation, whereby clocks run slowly in no more than a single second over the entire lifetime of the
strong gravitational fields. Both kinds of time dilation Universe. See also GREENWICH MEAN TIME (GMT)
have been confirmed experimentally.
407
time zone
1
4
lose one lose one
calendar calendar
day 3 day
1
5
10
12 ALASKAN
7 11 12
9 0
1 2
ay y
TIME 9
ay y
nd da
nd da
Anchorage 0 5
Su on
Su on
4
M
M
MOUNTAIN
ATLANTIC Copenhagen Moscow 8
10 7 CENTRAL
10
PACIFIC 4 TIME 0 1 Berlin 4
Vancouver 8
CENTRAL London EUROPEAN 10 11
EASTERN 3:30 Frankfurt
5
Montreal Paris TIME 6
TIME 6 2 11
Denver Madrid 9
TIME TIME New York 2 4 5 Beijing
San Francisco TIME
1 Lisbon Athens Tokyo
Damascus Tehran
8 Seoul 9
Los Angeles Dallas
Atlanta
4 Tel Aviv 3 3:30 4:30
11 Kuwait Delhi 5:45 11
0 1 Cairo
5
Bahrain
Miami 2 3 Kolkata
6
Taipei 10
10 Dubai Karachi (Calcutta)
Honolulu 5 San Juan Jeddah 4 5:30 6:30 Hong Kong
Mexico City
6 0 Mumbai
4 (Bombay) 7 10
12
11 Panama
1 Dakar 3 Bangkok
8
Manila
11 City Caracas 3
3 3:30 5:30 5:30
Lagos Addis
3 Colombo
Kuala
7 10 11 12
Bogota Abidjan 1 Ababa Lumpur 8
5 Singapore
14 5
12 2
Nairobi 7 8 10
11:30
12
13 5 4 5 9 13
Prime Meridian
Kinshasa 8
9:30 4 0 Jakarta
11 3
Lima 7
9 3 6:30 11
Tahiti
12 10 0 12
2 3 11
13
2 Mauritius
Rio de Janeiro 4 8 13
12 Johannesburg 9:30 10 10:30 11:30
Santiago Sydney
Perth
3 Buenos Aires Cape Town
Auckland
Auckland 4
Wellington
12:45 10 12:45
12
add one 5 add one
calendar calendar
day 4 2 day
180 150W 120W 90W 60W 30W 0 30E 60E 90E 120E 150E 180
24 00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00 24 00
time zone 1958 January 1, and it is used as a standard against which history determines its colour and other properties. At Yale
Hours slow or fast of UT other clocks can be measured. University (19751981) she extended this research, com-
10 or Coordinated Universal Time In calculations of the predicted positions of celestial paring UBV colours of normal galaxies with those of
bodies, which involve gravitational equations of motion, a peculiar galaxies disturbed by collisions, concluding that
Zones using UT (GMT)
timescale called DYNAMICAL TIME, which is also based on normal spirals have lower star-formation rates and older
Zones slow of UT (GMT) the SI second, is used. In 1984 this replaced EPHEMERIS average stellar ages.
TIME, which was previously used for such calculations and
International boundaries was based on the Earths orbital motion around the Sun. Titan By far the largest SATELLITE of SATURN; it was
For practical, everyday use we require a civil timescale found in 1655 by Christiaan HUYGENS. Titan was the first
Zones fast of UT (GMT) that is both accurate and uniform but that is also linked to planetary satellite to be discovered since Jupiters
the rotation of the Earth. COORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME GALILEAN SATELLITES in 1610. It is also the only satellite
Half-hour zones (UTC) fulfils this purpose, being derived from atomic to have a substantial atmosphere, which was discovered in
clocks but kept in step with the rotation of the Earth 1944 by Gerard KUIPER.
Time zone boundaries
through the periodic introduction of LEAP SECONDS. Titan is the first outer planet satellite to have been tar-
International Date Line
Because of this, TAI and UTC run at the same uniform geted by a landing probe: the HUYGENS lander is due to
rate but differ by an integral number of seconds. detach from the CASSINI Saturn orbiter for a parachute
Actual Solar Time when time The International Bureau of Weights and Measures descent to Titans surface in 2004 November. Cassini will
at Greenwich is 12:00 (noon) (BIPM) in Paris co-ordinates international timescales. In map Titans surface by imaging radar. Huygens carries
the United Kingdom, responsibility for providing a optical imagers for use during descent as well as a variety
national time service lies with the National Physical Lab- of analytical experiments to examine the nature of the
oratory (NPL) at Teddington. atmosphere and surface.
VOYAGER images of Titan obtained in 1980 and 1981
408
topocentric
receiving less warmth from its planet. Saturns other satel- Titov, Gherman Stepanovich (1935 ) Soviet cosmo-
lites are much smaller, so their gravity is insufficient for naut who piloted the Vostok 2 spacecraft in 1961 August,
them to have clung on to any gas. so becoming the second man to orbit the Earth (and the
Titans atmosphere shields its surface from radiation, first to suffer from space sickness). He completed 17
so water-ice does not get broken down or liberated as a orbits in a flight lasting more than 24 hours.
vapour, and the surface temperature of 90 K is far too
cold for ice to evaporate naturally. Titans atmosphere is, TNG Abbreviation of Telescopio Nazionale Galileo. See
therefore, both dry and free of oxygen. As a result, it con- GALILEO NATIONAL TELESCOPE
tains compounds now extremely rare in the atmospheres
of the TERRESTRIAL PLANETS, but which may have been TNO Abbreviation of TRANS-NEPTUNIAN OBJECT
abundant there originally. Compounds detected spectro-
scopically include hydrocarbons, such as ethane (C2H6), TOE Abbreviation of THEORY OF EVERYTHING
ethene (C2H4), ethyne (C2H2) and propane (C3H8), and
nitrogen compounds, such as hydrogen cyanide (HCN), Tokyo Astronomical Observatory See NATIONAL
cyanogen (C2N2) and cyanoacetylene (HC3N). Many of ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY OF JAPAN
these gases condense in Titans atmosphere, contributing
to the smog that obscures the surface. The atmospheres Toliman Alternative name for the star ALPHA CENTAURI
orange colour is probably caused by these simple hydro- Titan The Hubble Space
carbon molecules linking into longer chains by means of Tombaugh, Clyde William (190697) American Telescope observed Titan in
reactions triggered by solar ultraviolet radiation. astronomer who discovered Pluto in 1930. Tombaugh the near-infrared in order to
Ethane could play a fascinating role in Titans meteo- was hired by LOWELL OBSERVATORY in 1929 to penetrate the atmospheric
rology, because condensed droplets of ethane should fall photograph the sky with the 330-mm (13-in.) haze. Titan always keeps one
to the surface and collect there as liquid. If so, Titans cold astrographic telescope and to scan the photographs with hemisphere facing its parent
and dark nature is made even more miserable by a contin- a BLINK COMPARATOR to search for a trans-Neptunian planet, Saturn, much as the
ual ethane drizzle. Winds blow at 100 m/s (330 ft/s) in planet. On 1930 February 18, he found a 17th- same side of the Moon always
Titans upper atmosphere, but there is currently no magnitude object near the star Geminorum that faces Earth.
knowledge of the near-surface wind pattern. appeared to have moved when two photographic plates
The strength of reflections from ground-based radar taken six nights apart were compared; Percival LOWELL
shows that Titan is not covered by a global ocean of announced the discovery of Pluto on 1930 March 13.
ethane as was once believed. However, there could be Tombaugh continued his photographic survey for
widespread seas and lakes from which ethane could evap- another 15 years, examining millions of star images over
orate back into the atmosphere in a cycle analogous to 65% of the sky, discovering a comet, numerous
Earths water cycle. If it does rain ethane on Titan, there asteroids, a nova (TV Corvi) and several star clusters.
may be rivers as well as seas and lakes. Add to this an intri- After World War II, he designed and built telescopic
cate weathering cycle, involving hydrocarbons mixed with cameras for tracking rockets launched from White
or coating the surface ice, and the possibility of transport Sands, New Mexico.
and reworking of surface material by the wind, and it
becomes clear that Titans landforms could turn out to be TOMS Abbreviation of TOTAL OZONE MAPPING
strikingly Earth-like. See data at SATURN SPECTROMETER
Titan IV Major US military satellite launcher. It began topocentric Pertaining to observations made, or
life as the Titan II Intercontinental Ballistic Missile, coordinates measured, from a point on the surface of
which still provides the core stage of the vehicle. The
Titan IV is the latest and final upgrade of the Titan
launch family. It comprises a Titan II core stage with
new upper stages and two powerful strap-on solid rocket
boosters. It is based on the design of the Titan 3C. The
Titan IV first flew in 1989 and is available in six models
of Titan IVA and IVB, without an upper stage or with
IUS (Inertial Upper Stage) or Centaur upper stages.
They are capable of placing 22 tonnes into low Earth
orbit and up to 5.8 tonnes directly into geostationary
orbit. The vehicle carries military optical and radar
reconnaissance, missile early warning and
communications satellites. By the end of 2001 Titan IV
had made 26 successful and five failed launches. It will
be retired from service in about 20032004, to be T
replaced by the heavier version of the DELTA IV.
409
T Orionis variable
410
trans-Neptunian object
meridian and the exact time is recorded. When related to transit The 1992 November
a fundamental reference frame, this time provides the 15 transit of Mercury across
stars RIGHT ASCENSION or CELESTIAL LONGITUDE. Its the limb of the Sun. The tiny
ALTITUDE can be measured directly at the telescope from planet was dwarfed by many of
precisely graduated circles mounted on the horizontal the sunspots visible.
axis and used to determine the stars DECLINATION or
CELESTIAL LATITUDE.
An example of a modern transit instrument is the
Carlsberg Meridian Circle at the ROQUE DE LOS MUCHA-
CHOS OBSERVATORY on La Palma in the Canary Islands.
This fully automated instrument is equipped with a CCD
camera and is capable of accurately measuring the posi-
tions of between 100,000 and 200,000 stars a night down
to magnitude 17. Observations from it over a number of
years have enabled the positions, PROPER MOTIONS and
MAGNITUDES of some 180,000 stars down to magnitude
15 to be precisely determined. In addition, it has made
25,000 measurements of the positions and magnitudes of
180 Solar System objects including the planet Pluto and
many asteroids. It was from these observations that a
more precise orbit for Pluto was determined, thereby
removing speculation about the existence of a PLANET X.
See also ASTROMETRY
411
Trapezium
limit attainable with ground-based telescopes, rather than Triana NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE
a real absence of smaller TNOs: sky sampling with the ADMINISTRATION (NASA) satellite to be stationed in an
Hubble Space Telescope has indicated that TNOs in the orbit between the Earth and the Sun; it will return a
size range 110 km (0.66 mi) certainly exist. continuous stream of real-time images of the full disk of
Formally classed as ASTEROIDS (minor planets), the the Earth to be viewed live via the Internet, giving people
TNOs are probably more similar to COMETS in nature a daily view of their home planet in space. The concept
than to main-belt asteroids, being composed largely of has been expanded to include additional science relevant
ices rather than rock and metal. to monitoring the Earths environment. Triana may be
Many of the TNOs occupy orbits with periods that launched in 20032004.
are precise multiples of that of Neptune. This relationship
Trifid Nebula The dark leads to stability, as in the case of the orbital periods of Triangulum See feature article
lanes in this emission nebula Uranus, Neptune and Pluto, which are in the ratio 6:3:2.
are in fact dust, which The PLUTINOS are TNOs residing in the 3:2 resonance Triangulum Australe See feature article
obscures the nebula behind. with Neptune, as does Pluto. Some astronomers regard
This HII region is pinkish rather the plutinos as being a separate population to the rest of Triangulum Galaxy (M33, NGC 598) See PINWHEEL
than red because of the light of the TNOs, in the same way as the Hilda asteroids are not GALAXY
the hot blue stars within it. considered to be part of the main belt.
Triesnecker Lunar crater (4N 4E), 23 km (14 mi) in
diameter. It is a complex crater, having side-wall terracing
and central peaks. Triesnecker is a relatively recent crater,
with a bright ray system best seen at high Sun
T illumination. From the north-east to the south-east of this
crater is an extensive set of RILLES; these are likely to have
been caused by subsurface stresses, and so are TECTONIC
in origin.
412
Triton
413
Trojan asteroid
Trojan asteroid The Trojan asteroid ASTEROID that has an orbital period
asteroids known as the Trojans very close to that of Jupiter and is positioned in one of
orbit at the Lagrangian points two groups surrounding the LAGRANGIAN POINTS located
in front of or behind Jupiter. 60 in front of (L4) and behind (L5) the planet. After
They oscillate around these Jupiter numbering, these objects are generally given names
points over a period of associated with the heroes of Homers Iliad, the leading
150200 years. set being the Greek warriors and the followers being the
defenders of Troy. By 2001 more than a thousand such
Trojan asteroid Trojan asteroid Trojan asteroids had been discovered, 62% of them at L4
and 38% at L5.
Unlike most other planet-crossing objects, the Trojan
asteroids are dynamically stable, being protected from
close approaches to Jupiter by their resonant orbits. It is
Sun believed that most of them have occupied their present
locations since they formed from the SOLAR NEBULA at
the same time as the rest of the solid bodies in the Solar
System. Trojan asteroids associated with Saturns orbit
have not been found, presumably because Jupiters
gravitational perturbations render unstable the
corresponding Lagrangian points for Saturn. There are,
however, several MARS-TROJAN ASTEROIDS known.
The first Trojan asteroid to be recognized was
ACHILLES, in 1906; it was closely followed by PATROCLUS
object, and was later, perhaps about a billion years ago, and HEKTOR. It has recently been realised that a Trojan
captured into orbit around Neptune. While Triton was asteroid re-discovered as 1999 RM11 had been
being captured and its orbit made circular, any previous previously observed in 1904.
large satellites of Neptune would have been destroyed by
mutual collisions or ejected from the Neptune system. It is tropical month Time taken for the Moon to complete
possible that NEREID and PROTEUS are collisional remnants a single revolution around the Earth, measured relative
dating from this time. to the FIRST POINT OF ARIES; it is equivalent to 27.32158
Triton must have suffered greatly in the aftermath of days of MEAN SOLAR TIME. See also ANOMALISTIC
capture. Even if not involved in any collisions, there must MONTH; DRACONIC MONTH; MONTH; SIDEREAL MONTH,
have been much TIDAL HEATING during the circularization SYNODIC MONTH
of its orbit and while TIDAL FRICTION was slowing its rota-
tion until it became SYNCHRONOUS with its orbital period. tropical year Time taken for the Earth to complete one
Tritons surface is remarkably varied, as revealed on revolution of the Sun, measured relative to the vernal
close-up images sent back by VOYAGER 2 in 1989. There equinox; it is equivalent to 365.24219 mean solar days.
are few impact craters, attesting to the young age of the Because of the effects of PRECESSION, which cause the
surface. There are many signs of CRYOVOLCANISM, FIRST POINT OF ARIES to drift westwards along the ecliptic
including long ridges, where viscous melts have oozed (in the opposite direction to the Sun), a tropical year is 20
out, and a large tract, named cantaloupe terrain, that is minutes shorter than a SIDEREAL YEAR. A tropical year is
pockmarked by 30-km-diameter (20 mi) dimples. The also sometimes known as a solar year. See also
surface temperature of 38 K makes Triton the coldest ANOMALISTIC YEAR
body yet visited by a space probe. Spectroscopic obser-
vations have demonstrated the presence on the surface of Tropic of Cancer Line of LATITUDE on the Earth at
ices formed from methane, carbon dioxide, carbon 23.5N; it marks the most northerly DECLINATION
monoxide and nitrogen. Ammonia, which is almost reached by the Sun during its annual path along the
impossible to detect, is probably present too. The scale ECLIPTIC. This occurs around June 21, the time of the
of the topographic features demonstrates strength con- SUMMER SOLSTICE in the northern hemisphere. At this
sistent with water ice, and presumably this lies beneath a point the Sun reaches its highest altitude in the sky,
thin veneer of the more exotic ices. Tritons density sug- being directly overhead at the Tropic of Cancer; it also
gests that a large rocky core occupies about two-thirds of marks the longest day of the year, the period of
its radius, and there may be a smaller iron-rich core in maximum daylight in the northern hemisphere. See also
the middle. TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
Triton has a complex 688-year-long cycle of seasons,
T resulting from a combination of Neptunes 164-year orbit
and Tritons orbital inclination, which precesses (see PRE-
Tropic of Capricorn Line of LATITUDE on the Earth at
23.5S; it marks the most southerly DECLINATION reached
CESSION) about Neptunes axis of rotation. At the time of by the Sun during its annual path along the ECLIPTIC.
the Voyager 2 flyby it was high summer in Tritons south- This occurs around 22 December, the time of the
ern hemisphere. There was a large and apparently shrink- WINTER SOLSTICE in the northern hemisphere. At this
ing south polar cap of nitrogen ice, but the north polar point the Sun reaches its lowest altitude in the sky, being
region was in darkness. Triton has an extremely tenuous directly overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn; it also
atmosphere composed mostly of nitrogen. Its surface pres- marks the shortest day of the year, the period of
sure doubled between 1989 and 1997, when it reached minimum daylight in the northern hemisphere. See also
about 30 millionths of the Earths atmospheric pressure. TROPIC OF CANCER
Tritons atmosphere is probably derived from the polar
caps, and it must vary with the seasons as the sunlit polar tropopause Name for the temperature minimum that
cap shrinks by sublimation and the opposite cap grows by marks the boundary between the TROPOSPHERE and the
condensation. Voyager 2 saw several jets of gas bursting overlying STRATOSPHERE. It is defined as the height at
through the south polar cap and flinging columns of sooty which the lapse rate (the decline in temperature with
particles to heights of about 8 km (5 mi), where they were height) becomes 2 K per kilometre or less. The altitude
deflected sideways by high altitude winds. These jets are of the tropopause varies from 58 km (35 mi) at the
probably solar-powered geysers rather than true cryovol- poles, where it is indistinct in winter, to 1418 km
canic features powered by heat from within. However, Tri- (911 mi) at the equator. Although considerable
ton ranks with Io as one of the only two satellites on which fluctuations occur, the temperature is generally about
present-day geological processes have been observed in 218 K at the polar tropopause and 193 K at the
action. See data at NEPTUNE equatorial tropopause.
414
T Tauri star
troposphere Lowest layer in the Earths ATMOSPHERE; such as liquid propellants and multi-stage launch vehicles.
it extends from the surface to the tropopause. The Many of his ideas were collected in Investigations of Outer
troposphere contains three-quarters of the atmosphere by Space (1911) and Aims of Astronautics (1914).
mass and has the majority of clouds and weather systems.
It is heated by infrared radiation and convection from the Tsiolkovsky Lunar crater (29S 129E). It is
ground. Within the troposphere, the temperature conspicuously dark as the only large (180 km/113 mi
generally falls with increasing height, reaching the first diameter) lava-filled crater on the lunar farside.
atmospheric minimum at the TROPOPAUSE, where the
atmospheric density decreases to approximately one- T star New spectral class formally added to the cool end
quarter of its sea-level value. of the SPECTRAL CLASSIFICATION system (as were L
STARS) in 1999, making the sequence OBAFGKMLT.
Troughton, Edward See COOKE, TROUGHTON & SIMMS The class was needed because new infrared technologies
were able to find stars that radiate almost entirely in the
true anomaly See ANOMALY infrared. T stars, at the extreme cool end of the modern
spectral sequence, are characterized principally by
Trumpler, Robert Julius (18861956) Swiss-American methane (CH4) in their spectra. Absorptions by water
observational astronomer who spent the main part of his and alkali metals, specifically neutral caesium, are also
career at Lick Observatory (191838) making detailed present. The first T star found, Gliese 229 B (companion
studies of star clusters and pioneer investigations of the to the class M1 red dwarf Gliese 229 A), has a
interstellar medium. In 1930 he showed that the Milky temperature of only 1000 K and a mass estimated to be
Ways globular clusters were reddened and dimmed, by between 0.03 and 0.055 solar mass, making it also the
0.2 magnitudes for every 1000 l.y., by interstellar dust. He first-known BROWN DWARF. Indeed, all the T stars are
called this effect interstellar extinction. Trumpler carefully brown dwarfs (and are sometimes called methane brown
computed the sizes of, distances to and distribution of dwarfs). Dwarfs that fuse hydrogen on the full
many clusters, discovering that their member stars belong protonproton chain have higher masses and thus higher
to different populations that reflect their average age. He temperatures; they start their upward mass progression in
was a pioneer in measuring the radial velocities of stars in class L. Evolved stars (giants and supergiants) cannot
clusters, especially for the massive O stars become as cool as class T. Little is understood about T
stars. The class is not yet subdivided, and the full range of
Trumpler classification Classification of OPEN temperatures and masses is unknown. Chromospheric
CLUSTERS using three criteria. The criteria are the emission has been seen in spite of the low masses, fully
number of stars in the cluster, the amount of stellar convective natures and presumably low magnetic field
concentration towards the centre of the cluster, and the strengths of the stars
range of brightnesses of the member stars. It was devised
by Robert TRUMPLER. T Tauri star Very young star still settling on to the MAIN
SEQUENCE, typified by the VARIABLE STAR T Tauri. T
Tsiolkovskii, Konstantin Eduardovich (18571935) Tauri stars are found to the right of the main sequence on
Russian rocket pioneer, now justly regarded as the father a HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM, where HAYASHI
of astronautics. Between 1903 and 1929 he wrote many TRACKS trace the evolution of PRE-MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS.
seminal papers on fundamental spaceflight technology, Characteristics of the T Tauri stars include: emission
415
Tucana
mall, rather inconspicuous southern constellation, representing a toucan, twenty-one centimetre line EMISSION LINE of neutral
S between Indus and Hydrus. It was introduced by Keyser and de Houtman at
the end of the 16th century. Its brightest star, Tuc, is mag. 2.9. Tuc is a mul-
hydrogen in interstellar space, resulting from the energy
difference between two sublevels of the lowest energy
tiple star with bluish-white components of mags. 4.4 and 4.5 (separation 27) state of hydrogen. The line at 21 cm (1420 MHz) lies in
and mag. 5.2 (10 to the south-west). Tucanas deep-sky objects include the the RADIO WAVE region of the ELECTROMAGNETIC
SMALL MAGELLANIC CLOUD and the 4th-magnitude globular cluster FORTY- SPECTRUM. If a hydrogen atom is in the upper sublevel,
SEVEN TUCANAE (NGC 104). its electron and proton have their spins aligned in the
same direction. There is a small probability that the
416
Tychos Star
spinning electron will flip over so that the spins are in Tunguska event This
opposite directions, and this change emits a photon at photograph of flattened trees
21 cm. The existence of the 21 cm line was predicted by and blasted trees, taken in
Hendrik van de HULST in 1944, and was discovered by 1927, shows the devastation
him and others in 1951. Neutral atomic hydrogen will be that was caused by the aerial
in its lowest possible energy state in interstellar space, explosion in Siberia in 1908.
and it is this that can be mapped using the 21 cm line, to The effects on a city would
show the distribution of hydrogen gas throughout the have been terrible.
Galaxy. Radio waves penetrate the interstellar dust with
ease, and so the 21 cm line can be observed from
everywhere in the Galaxy, including the centre and the
far side of the Galaxy. The velocity of the gas can be
determined, so that the spiral arm structure can be
traced (once a model is used to relate how each part of
the Galaxy rotates about the centre).
417
UARS
UARS Abbreviation of UPPER ATMOSPHERE RESEARCH At minimum the spectra of U Geminorum stars show
SATELLITE wide emission lines, which during the brightening merge
gradually into the continuous background, reappearing at
U
UBV System System of colour indices using differences maximum as absorption lines. At least two possible U
of magnitudes at three selected spectral bands. The bands Geminorum stars have been found in globular clusters
are (U) ultraviolet (360 nm), (B) blue (440 nm) and (V) (M5 and M30).
visual (550 nm). It is now extended into the red (R),
near-infrared (I) and further (J, K and L). It is Uhuru (SAS-1) NASA Small Astronomy Satellite
occasionally irreverently referred to as the Alphabet launched in 1970 December to carry out the first X-ray
Soup System. See also PHOTOMETER sky survey. It discovered neutron stars in binary systems
and extended X-ray sources in clusters of galaxies. Uhuru
U Cephei Algol-type eclipsing VARIABLE STAR, which means freedom in Swahili. See also X-RAY ASTRONOMY
varies between magnitudes 6.6 and 9.8. The primary
minimum lasts just under 10 hours and occurs every UKIRT Abbreviation of UNITED KINGDOM INFRARED
2.493 days. The period of the star is slowly increasing, TELESCOPE
and also shows some irregular, spontaneous variations.
The system consists of two stars moving in a nearly UKST Abbreviation of UNITED KINGDOM SCHMIDT
circular orbit. The smaller of the two stars is brighter TELESCOPE
and more massive; it is of spectral type B8V and has a
mass 4.7 times that of the Sun. The larger component is ultraviolet astronomy Study of astronomical objects at
a G-type giant star, with a mass only 1.9 times that of wavelengths in the ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM usually
the Sun. A stream of gas is flowing from the larger, less between 90 and 310 nm. The regions from 380 to
dense star. This slows the rotation of the large star and 310 nm (near-ultraviolet) and from 90 to 10 nm
speeds up the smaller, more massive companion. The (extreme-ultraviolet) are also included in this area. The
surfaces of the two stars are only about 10 million km (6 interstellar medium becomes opaque at 91.2 nm, the limit
million mi) apart, just about the same as the diameter of to the Lyman series of the hydrogen atom, but the gas is
the giant star. patchy and inhomogeneous so astronomical objects can
be detected in the extreme-ultraviolet range. Many stars
U Geminorum star (USGS) Subtype of VARIABLE STAR; and galaxies emit in the ultraviolet and the main strength
they are also known as SS Cygni stars, after the brightest of ultraviolet astronomy has been SPECTROSCOPY,
member, and as DWARF NOVAE, along with the z especially that provided by the INTERNATIONAL
CAMELOPARDALIS STARS and SU URSAE MAJORIS STARS. U ULTRAVIOLET EXPLORER (IUE) satellite, with over
Geminorum stars are named after the prototype, 104,000 spectra. Ultraviolet astronomy probes the
discovered by John Russell Hind (182395) in 1855. physics and chemistry of hot gas around stars, nebulae
Almost 400 are now known. They are characterized by and the interstellar medium, since the spectra provide
rapid outbursts of between 2 to 6 magnitudes, followed information about motion, rotation and winds.
by a slower return to minimum, where they remain until The ozone high in the STRATOSPHERE of Earths
the next outburst. atmosphere absorbs electromagnetic radiation at
Periods range from 10 days to several years and are wavelengths shorter than 300 nm, making ground-based
fairly constant when averaged out over many cycles, but observations of the ultraviolet impossible. Early
there may be considerable variations in both period and experiments (down to 200 nm) were possible from
brightness from one cycle to the next. Members of the SU balloon platforms, which could reach altitudes of 45 km
Ursae Majoris subclass have both normal maxima and (28 mi). The first satellite experiments involved studying
supermaxima, which last about five times as long and are the ultraviolet spectrum of the Sun, culminating in an
twice as bright. Another group, with periods between 50 American series of satellites, the Orbiting Solar
and 80 days, sometimes show anomalous maxima in which Observatories (OSO). Other early satellites included the
the rise takes several days, instead of the usual day or so. American COPERNICUS satellite, the European TD-1 and
Almost all U Geminorum stars show rapid irregular the Dutch ANS satellites. The INTERNATIONAL
U Geminorum star The flickering of around mag. 0.5 at minimum. Because they ULTRAVIOLET EXPLORER (IUE) was launched in 1978 and
light-curve of a typical U are all binaries, some also show eclipses at minimum. operated until 1996. A conventional aluminium-coated
Geminorum star shows All are close binaries, comprising a subgiant or dwarf mirror cannot be used for ultraviolet astronomy because
repeated outbursts at intervals star of type K to M, which has filled its ROCHE LOBE, aluminium oxide absorbs ultraviolet radiation at
ranging from about ten days to and a WHITE DWARF surrounded by an ACCRETION DISK wavelengths shorter than 160 nm. Alternatives such as
several years. During outburst, of infalling matter. Variations in the flow of matter magnesium fluoride or lithium fluoride are often used.
the brightness climbs rapidly, and/or variations in the atmospheres are thought to When the EXTREME ULTRAVIOLET EXPLORER (EUVE)
with a slower decline. cause the outbursts. The longer the period of the star, satellite, operating between 1 and 100 nm, was launched
Outbursts occur as a result of the greater the variation, which suggests a relationship in 1992, it detected hundreds of sources, hot stars and
mass transfer to an accretion with the RECURRENT NOVAE, though the physical basis even some extragalactic sources. Several other satellites
U disk around the smaller, more
massive star in these close
for this, if any, is unclear. There have been suggestions
that U Geminorum stars evolve from W URSAE MAJORIS
have been launched, including the FAR ULTRAVIOLET
SPECTROSCOPIC EXPLORER (FUSE) and the extreme-
binary systems. variables but this remains speculative. ultraviolet (EUV) camera on ROSAT; the HUBBLE SPACE
TELESCOPE (HST) has ultraviolet capabilities because it is
sensitive in the wavelength range 110 to 2500 nm. There
have also been ultraviolet astronomy experiments aboard
8
the SPACE SHUTTLE, including the Hopkins Ultraviolet
Telescope (HUT).
9 Ultraviolet observations contribute to all branches of
apparent magnitude
418
Ulysses
419
umbra
swung it out of the ecliptic plane. Equipped with a suite the ROYAL OBSERVATORY, EDINBURGH until 1988, when
of esoteric solar study experiments, Ulysses flew over the its close relationship with the nearby ANGLO-
north solar pole in 1995 July and repeated a pass over the AUSTRALIAN TELESCOPE was formalized and it became
south pole in 2001 January. Further passes over the poles part of the ANGLO-AUSTRALIAN OBSERVATORY. Its
were scheduled, starting with a north polar pass in 2001 principal task during its first two decades was to
76-0438
October, although the Ulysses budget limits operations conduct photographic surveys of the entire southern sky
until 2001 December. The spacecraft is capable, new in various wavebands, which were then digitized at
budgets permitting, of continuing its unique exploration, Edinburgh. In the early 1980s, experiments with fibre
with further passes in 2006 and 2007. optics led to new modes of operation for the telescope,
culminating in 2001 with the deployment of a robotic
umbra (1) Dark central cone of the shadow cast by a 150-object spectroscopy system known as 6dF.
planet or satellite. See also PENUMBRA
United States Geological Survey (USGS) Sole
umbra (2) Darkest, coolest, usually central region of a science agency for the US Department of the Interior. Its
United Kingdom Infrared SUNSPOT, with a typical temperature around 4000 K. Flagstaff Field Center was established in Arizona in 1963,
Telescope HII emission from The umbra is commonly surrounded by a grey, less cool originally for lunar studies and training astronauts for the
the Egg Nebula can be seen in penumbra. APOLLO PROGRAMME in geology. Since then, Flagstaffs
this UKIRT image. A torus of activities have expanded to include the study of the origin
emission is apparent in the Umbriel Icy SATELLITE of URANUS. It was discovered in and evolution of the terrestrial planets and the major
plane of rotation. 1851 by William LASSELL, who found its neighbour ARIEL satellites of the Solar System, the development of
in the same year. Umbriel is Ariels near-twin in size and techniques of remote sensing and image processing to aid
is only slightly less dense; it is curious, therefore, that it in the interpretation of planetary surfaces, and to produce
should appear so different. Similarities would perhaps be topographic and geological maps of planetary bodies.
revealed if images were available of the unseen two-thirds
of each globe. United States Naval Observatory (USNO) One of
As its name suggests, Umbriel is darker than the other the oldest scientific institutions in the United States,
large satellites of Uranus, having an albedo of 0.19. The founded in 1830 to maintain the US Navys
imaged part of the globe is much more heavily cratered, chronometers and navigational instruments. It moved to
and therefore older, than the cratered terrain on Ariel. Its its present location in Washington, D.C. in 1893. A
dark colour could be a result of exceptional radiation- 0.66-m (26-in.) refractor, built by ALVAN CLARK & SONS
darkening of methane with age or a particularly high in 1873 (and for ten years the worlds largest refractor), is
carbon content. The only bright material visible on still used at Washington for SPECKLE INTERFEROMETRY.
Umbriel is the floor of the 150-km-diameter (90-mi) At the main observing site at Flagstaff, Arizona
crater Wunda and in the central peak of the 110-km- (established in 1955), USNO operates a 1.55-m (61-in.)
diameter (70-mi) crater Vuver, both of which have astrometric reflector, used to take the photographs that
albedos of about 0.5. See data at URANUS led to the discovery of Plutos moon, CHARON, in 1978. It
also operates the Navy Prototype Optical Interferometer
United Kingdom Infrared Telescope at the Anderson Mesa site of LOWELL OBSERVATORY.
(UKIRT)Telescope of 3.8 m (150 in.) aperture located at
MAUNA KEA OBSERVATORY in Hawaii, one of the first large Unity First US module of the INTERNATIONAL SPACE
telescopes designed specifically to work in the infrared. STATION to be launched, in 1988. Unity is a node to
When it was opened in 1979, it was operated as an provide connections to other parts of the ISS.
outstation of the ROYAL OBSERVATORY, EDINBURGH, in
collaboration with the Netherlands and the University of Universal Time (UT) Non-uniform TIMESCALE based
Hawaii. A sea-level headquarters was built in nearby Hilo. on the rate of rotation of the Earth. In the past this was
Today, UKIRT is the responsibility of the JOINT determined by making accurate observations of star
ASTRONOMY CENTRE in Hilo. Instrumentation developed positions using an instrument known as a PHOTOGRAPHIC
for the telescope at Edinburgh during the 1980s ZENITH TUBE (PZT), but today it utilizes a technique
pioneered novel techniques of imaging and spectroscopy called satellite laser ranging. Pulses of laser light are
in the infrared. It gave this branch of astronomy similar reflected off artificial satellites in known Earth orbits,
capabilities to optical astronomy. A wide-field infrared allowing the position of the laser telescope relative to the
camera allows large-area surveys to be carried out. satellite, and hence the rotation of the Earth, to be
unsharp masking Before measured to a high degree of accuracy (see SATELLITE
processing (left) the fine detail United Kingdom Schmidt Telescope (UKST) Large LASER RANGER).
in this image of part of the SCHMIDT TELESCOPE inaugurated in 1973 at SIDING This measure of the Earths rate of rotation provides a
Lagoon Nebula (M8, NGC SPRING OBSERVATORY in central New South Wales, timescale designated UT0. This timescale is dependent
6253) is slightly blurred. After Australia. With its 1.2-m (48-in.) corrector plate and upon the location the observations were made from and
unsharp masking (right) fine 1.8-m (72-in.) spherical mirror, the instrument was has to be corrected for the shift in longitude caused by the
U details, such as small stars,
are less blurred.
modelled on the OSCHIN SCHMIDT TELESCOPE at
Palomar Observatory. The UKST was an outstation of
slight wandering of the Earths geographical poles (POLAR
MOTION). The corrected timescale is called UT1 and it is
this that is generally implied when the term UT is used.
COORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME (UTC) is a uniform
ATOMIC TIME scale, based on caesium-beam atomic
clocks; it is the basis of civil time. Because the Earths rate
of rotation is gradually slowing due to the effects of tidal
braking, UTC and UT1 are gradually diverging. In order
to keep them linked, and thus ensure that time as kept by
a clock is in step with that as measured by the position of
the Sun in the sky, a LEAP SECOND is periodically
introduced to UTC to keep it within 0.9 second of UT1.
See also GREENWICH MEAN TIME (GMT); INTERNATIONAL
ATOMIC TIME (TAI); TIMEKEEPING
420
Uranus
Our Universe is commonly thought to have only three visiting scientist at Yerkes and McDonald Observatories.
dimensions of space and one of time, but some theories His long-term investigations of the BO star Scorpii
postulate that there are rolled-up dimensions through yielded the first highly detailed analysis of a stellar
which some quantum fields work. These rolled up atmosphere to discuss the phenomena of spectral line
dimensions also constitute a part of our Universe, but we shifts and pressure broadening.
do not see them as a normal dimension, rather we feel
their effects as forces or fields. Another common Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS)
misconception is that spacetime and matter must be First spacecraft of the NASA Mission to Planet Earth
expanding out into something or that spacetime warps programme; it was at the time the largest ever flown for
in another dimension by mass. Since this dimension or atmospheric research. It was deployed into Earth orbit by
direction is not within our Universe, it can never be seen the Space Shuttle in 1991 September. It investigates the
or experienced by definition; thus its characteristics are mechanisms controlling the structure and variability of
irrelevant. The singularity in a BLACK HOLE, although the upper atmosphere to help create a comprehensive
consisting of infinitely warped spacetime, remains part of database in order better to understand the depletion of
our Universe although a signal cannot escape. However, ozone in the stratosphere. UARS helped confirm that
some ideas in GENERAL RELATIVITY claim that black holes, man-made chlorofluorocarbons are responsible for the
if combined with a black hole in another universe, can depletion of ozone. The spacecraft was equipped with ten
form a bridge or WORMHOLE to another universe under instruments, some of which have failed.
special conditions.
Additionally, some interpretations of quantum theory upper culmination Passage of a CIRCUMPOLAR STAR
state that every time a wave function is collapsed, in other across the MERIDIAN between the POLE and the ZENITH.
words something is measured, a new universe is created. At this point the stars HOUR ANGLE is exactly 0h. See
In the case of tossing a coin, if it comes up heads it is in also CULMINATION
one universe, but there is another universe created where
it came out tails. Most quantum theorists do not take Uppsala Astronomical Observatory Observatory of
seriously this multi-universe idea of the so-called Uppsala University, Sweden, with origins in the early
Copenhagen interpretation of quantum physics, but 17th century. The present building in central Uppsala
theoretically there is no reason why it cannot be true. dates from 1853, when it replaced the old Celsius
Observatory of 1741. In 2000 the Astronomy Uranus The extreme axial
University of Arizona Department of Astronomy Department vacated the 1853 observatory building and tilt of Uranus is compared with
See STEWARD OBSERVATORY moved to a new laboratory in the city, having merged that of Earth.
with the Department of Space Physics. An outstation at
unsharp masking Photographic technique used for Kvistaberg Observatory, 50 km (30 mi) south of
revealing fine detail in astronomical images. The process Uppsala, has a 1.0-m Schmidt telescope; the 0.5-m (20-
involves making a positive contact copy of the negative
image on a glass photographic plate using low-contrast
in) Schmidt of the former Uppsala Southern Station at
SIDING SPRING OBSERVATORY, Australia, is now operated
U
film. The film is placed in contact with the back of the on behalf of NASA for near-Earth object searches.
original plate and a diffuse light source used, producing
a blurred copy of the large-scale structure from the Uraniborg First observatory constructed on the Danish
original plate. When replaced in contact with the back of island of Hven by Tycho BRAHE during 1576-80; the
the glass plate, the blurred image of the unsharp mask name means Castle of the Heavens. It included
Earth 23.5
cancels out the large scale structure on the original, accommodation, a library, an instrument workshop and
revealing the fine detail. even a printing press. See also STJERNEBORG
Unsld, Albrecht Otto Johannes (190595) German Uranus Seventh planet in the Solar System, the first to
astrophysicist who, from the 1920s, used quantum be discovered telescopically. In 1781 William HERSCHEL,
physics to improve the modelling of stellar atmospheres. observing from Bath, was examining the small stars in
He was thus able to explain the behaviour of the the neighbourhood of H Geminorum when he found a
hydrogen atoms that produce the Balmer lines in the star visibly larger than the rest, which he suspected to
solar spectrum (1929). For this research, Unsld be a comet. As no one had previously discovered a
obtained high-resolution spectroheliograms with Mount planet this view is understandable. Uranus is the third
Wilsons 45-m (150-ft) tower telescope; subsequently, largest of the major planets. It is more than four times Uranus 98
he obtained high-resolution spectra of other stars as a the size of the Earth and 14 times more massive.
421
ureilites
Uranus The rings of Uranus N would also be consistent with the deep oceans of super-
were discovered during heated water in the interior of Uranus. This unusual
observations from the Kuiper interior structure may also account for Uranus not
Airborne Observatory of a possessing a significant internal heat source, in contrast to
stellar occultation by the planet the other jovian planets, Jupiter, Saturn and Neptune.
in 1977. A series of dips in the Since Uranus is so distant from the Earth, the Voyager
stars brightness prior to its 2 spacecraft encounter provided a dramatic increase in
disappearance behind the the understanding of it. The planetary magnetic field is
planet indicated the presence extraordinary, since it is inclined at 60 to the rotational
star
of the rings. Similar dips were path of axis of the planet. The dipole field has a strength of
from
seen after the star re-emerged as seen 0.25 G, which compares with field strengths of 0.21 G at
from behind the planet, aircraft Saturn and 0.31 G at the Earth. Uranus is the most
confirming that the inclined magnetic field in the Solar System, with a
occulting material was in rings correspondingly large difference from the planetary
extending around Uranus. rotational axis. It is possible that the magnetic field may
be in some stage of reversing its polarity, which is
Uranus currently south-seeking towards the Earth. The planet
has an extensive MAGNETOSPHERE, which stretches for
rings more than 18 RU and contains a hot plasma environment
with temperatures reaching more than 10,000 K. There is
a complicated interaction between this hostile region,
containing the trapped charged particles, and the
embedded rings, satellites and the upper atmosphere of
the planet. The magnetosphere sweeps away tiny particles
orbit of Miranda
from the rings and affects the chemistry of the satellites
by heating their surfaces by particle bombardment. On
the sunlit side of the planet there is an intense electroglow,
Uranus is denser than the larger gas giants, Jupiter and while on the dark side auroral activity is detected through
Saturn. It is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, these magnetospheric/atmospheric interactions, which are
in approximately solar proportions, with small amounts also related to a huge glow in the atmosphere, spreading
of methane, ammonia and their photochemical products. outwards for about 2 RU (50,000 km/31,000 mi).
Uranus has a greenish visual appearance, due to the Uranus, like Jupiter and Saturn, has a banded
absorption of sunlight in the blue/green portions of the appearance, which is barely visible from Earth. The cloud
spectrum by methane gas in its atmosphere. Uranus is motions reveal a predominantly zonal circulation, where
also thought to contain heavier materials, such as oxygen, the winds are blowing in a eastwest direction rather than
nitrogen, carbon, silicon and iron. Beneath the extensive from north to south. This circulation resembles the flow
layers of clouds, there is thought to be an ocean of super- on Jupiter and Saturn and, to a lesser extent, the motions
heated water, forming a mantle overlying the Earth- on every planet in the Solar System. The motions are
sized rocky core. It has been suggested that this extensive zonal in spite of the substantial differences in their solar
ocean may have originated from ACCRETION of billions of heating distributions, confirming that it is the rotation of
cometary planetesimals, primarily composed of aqueous the planet that organizes the weather systems. Unlike all
materials and found in large numbers in the outer parts the other planets, however, the polar regions are slightly
of the Solar System during its early formation. The warmer than the equatorial regions of the planet.
numerous collisions and high pressure of the region Extensive haze layers, created photochemically and
where the water is currently located accounts for its composed of acetylene and ethane particles, obscure the
super-heated state. major weather systems on Uranus. During the Voyager 2
Uranus Features in the Uranus axis of rotation is tilted by 9752 with respect encounter, several discrete clouds composed of methane
atmosphere of Uranus are less to its orbit. Consequently, it is unique in our Solar System particles were seen in the southern mid-latitudes, at the 1-
pronounced at visible since its axis of rotation is close to its orbital plane. In its 2 bar pressure level. Some of these clouds resemble the
wavelengths, as seen in the motion around the Sun, each pole is presented towards the convective systems seen on Earth. The temperature at the
1997 Hubble Space Telescope Sun and the Earth. During the encounter by the VOYAGER cloud-top levels is approximately 64 K. There is a small
image at left. The right hand 2 spacecraft in 1986 January, the south pole of the planet seasonal variation of about 5 K in the cloud-top
image, in red wavelengths was directed towards the oncoming probe and the Earth. temperatures, but this will have a negligible effect on the
where absorption by methane The evolution of this axial tilt is probably a result of meteorological systems since the Uranus atmosphere
can be detected, does reveal collisions with planetesimals early during the planets responds sluggishly to solar radiation, like a very deep
banding structure, resembling formation a major collision after the planet had grown to ocean. Although the upper clouds are composed of
that seen in the clouds on the a large size would have disrupted it. A possible candidate methane, layers of ammonia, ammonia polymers and
other gas giant planets. for these collisions is a swarm of comets, an event that water clouds may exist deeper in the atmosphere.
U Uranus is now known to possess at least 21 satellites.
The five main satellites, MIRANDA, ARIEL, UMBRIEL,
TITANIA and OBERON, were discovered during Earth-
based telescopic observations. These satellites have
densities in the range 1.261.5 g/cm3 and are probably,
therefore, composed mainly of water ice and rock, with
small amounts of methane clathrate. However, they do
appear to have varied surfaces. Oberon, Titania and
Umbriel are the least geologically active of the satellite
family, with Umbriel the darkest and most inactive of this
set. The tectonic activity increases from Ariel to Miranda,
which both show evidence of surfaces with fracture
patterns, scarps, valleys and layered terrains. Miranda has
the appearance of a body reassembled following a major
collision at some earlier stage in its existence, with
features resembling the grooves of Ganymede, the
canyons of Mars and the compressional faults of
Mercury, all on this tiny body. The 10 new satellites all
reside in the region between Miranda and the rings, with
422
Urey, Harold Clayton
423
Ursa Major
Ursa Major This wide-field mixture of gases believed to have been present in the
view of Ursa Major is Earths primordial atmosphere. The products included
dominated by the seven bright various organic molecules, including two amino acids
stars of the Plough. The substances essential to life.
constellation sprawls below and
to the right of the Plough, with Ursa Major See feature article
fainter stars marking out the
Great Bears paws and head. Ursa Major Moving Cluster Nearest OPEN CLUSTER
to the Earth; it is at a distance of 75 l.y. The URSA MAJOR
Moving Cluster includes five of the seven stars of the
well-known asterism the Plough (Big Dipper). The star at
the tip of the tail, UMa, and the pointer that lies nearer
to the pole, UMa, are the non-members. Over long
periods of time the motion of these two stars will distort
the present star pattern. The other five stars share the
URSA MAJOR (GEN. URSAE MAJORIS , ABBR . UMA )
same basic motion through the Galaxy, forming a
MOVING CLUSTER, and have about the same distance from
hird-largest constellation and one of the best known, the Great Bear lies in the us. They resemble a very open cluster of a few stars.
T northern sky between Draco and Leo. Many ancient northern cultures pic-
tured a bear in this part of the sky. In Greek mythology these stars represent either
When the motions of other bright stars through the
Galaxy are plotted, it is found that more show the same
Callisto, who fell victim to Junos passion, was turned into a bear and was then motion as the Ursa Major stars. Sirius is one such star,
placed by Zeus in the sky for safety; or Adrastea, a Cretan nymph who raised the and others include Leonis, Aurigae, Eridani and
infant Zeus and whom he placed among the stars in gratitude. It is easily recog- Coronae Borealis. In total about 100 members of this
nized by the asterism of the PLOUGH (Big Dipper), the five central stars of which MOVING GROUP are known. Many are widely scattered
are part of the URSA MAJOR MOVING CLUSTER. across the sky from Ursa Major. Their separation in
Ursa Majors brightest star, ALIOTH, is mag. 1.8. MIZAR is a quadruple system, space is moderately large, certainly larger than in a
whose brightest components are both white, mags. 2.3 and 3.9, separation 14.4, normal cluster. Our Sun is taking us through the outskirts
which forms a wide optical double with ALCOR, mag. 4.0, separation 11.8. Xi UMa of the group, which is why its member stars can appear
is another multiple system, consisting of a binary with yellow components, mags. on all sides of the sky.
4.3 and 4.8, separation 0.93.1, period 59.8 years, both of which are themselves
spectroscopic binaries. Other interesting stars include Lalande 21185, mag. 7.5, Ursa Minor See feature article
which at just 8.3 l.y. away is the fourth-closest star to the Sun; and Groombridge
1830, mag. 6.4, which has the third-largest proper motion of any star. Ursid meteors METEOR SHOWER active between
Deep-sky objects in Ursa Major include the OWL NEBULA (M97, NGC 3587), December 19 and 24 from a RADIANT close to Ursae
an 11th-magnitude planetary nebula; M81 (NGC 3031), a 7th-magnitude spiral Minoris. Activity peaks around December 2223, usually
galaxy; M82 (NGC 3034), an 8th-magnitude irregular STARBURST GALAXY, prob- at zenithal hourly rate no greater than 10. However, some
ably disrupted by a near collision with M81 about 40 million years ago; and M101 noteworthy displays have been seen. The 1945 return,
(NGC 5457), an 8th-magnitude face-on spiral galaxy. which first brought the shower to prominence, gave
observed rates of 100 meteors/hr. Lesser enhancements
BRIGHTEST STARS
occurred in 1982 and 1986, and it is possible that further
Name RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance good Ursid displays have been missed. Ursid meteors are
h m mag. mag. type (l.y.)
fairly swift. The stream parent is Comet 8P/Tuttle.
Alioth 12 54 55 58 1.76 0.2 A0 81
Dubhe 11 04 61 45 1.81 1.1 F7 124 USGS Abbreviation of UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL
Alkaid 13 48 49 19 1.85 0.6 B3 101 SURVEY
Mizar 13 24 54 56 2.23 0.3 A2 78
Merak 11 02 56 23 2.34 0.4 A1 79 USNO Abbreviation of UNITED STATES NAVAL
Phad 11 54 53 42 2.41 0.4 A0 84 OBSERVATORY
11 10 44 30 3.00 0.3 K1 147
Tania Australis 10 22 41 30 3.06 1.4 M0 249 UT Abbreviation of UNIVERSAL TIME
Talitha 08 59 48 03 3.12 2.3 A7 48
09 33 51 41 3.17 2.5 F6 44 Utopia Planitia Vast plain on MARS, 3200 km
Megrez 12 15 57 02 3.32 1.3 A3 81 (2000 mi) in diameter, centred near 50.0N 242.0W. It
Muscida 08 30 60 43 3.35 0.4 G4 184 was the landing site of VIKING 2 in 1976.
Tania Borealis 10 17 42 55 3.45 0.4 A2 134
Alula Borealis 11 18 33 06 3.49 2.1 K3 421 UV Ceti Active red dwarf FLARE STAR that exhibits large
flares every few hours UV Ceti is a 12th-magnitude
binary, both components spectral type M5.5 V. At
U URSA MINOR (GEN. URSAE MINORIS , ABBR . UMI )
8.7 l.y. distant, it is one of the Suns closest neighbours.
See table of nearest STARS
mall, rather inconspicuous northern circumpolar constellation, the Little Bear UX Ursae Majoris star Eclipsing VARIABLE STAR with
S lies between Draco, which surrounds it on three sides, and the north celestial
pole, which is at present close to its brightest star, POLARIS, mag. 2.0. In Greek
Algol-like characteristics and extremely short period.
Unlike normal ALGOL STARS, members of this small
mythology it represents Ida, a Cretan nymph who helped her sister, Adrastea, raise group show rapid and completely random brightness
the infant Zeus and whom he placed among the stars alongside her sister (the near- variations outside of eclipse, up to as much as 1.5
by constellation of Ursa Major) in gratitude. Ursa Minors seven brightest stars magnitudes in the case of RW Trianguli. During eclipse
form an asterism similar in shape to the Plough sometimes called the Little Dipper. this star has an asymmetric light-curve, often with
and UMi (KOCHAB and Pherkad) are known as the Guardians of the Pole. shoulders before and after minimum. The maximum
brightness of UX Ursae Majoris is subject to variations of
BRIGHTEST STARS
amplitude 0.01 to 0.2 magnitude over periods of one to
Name RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance 20 minutes. The average maximum and minimum
h m mag. mag. type (l.y.)
brightnesses also vary, and there are oscillations in the
Polaris 02 32 89 16 1.97 3.6 F7 431 period. UX Ursae Majoris stars have a bright gaseous
Kochab 14 51 74 09 2.07 0.9 K4 126 cloud surrounding the smaller, brighter component of the
Pherkad 15 21 71 50 3.00 2.8 A3 480 system, which ejects gas erratically. The larger, less
luminous companion may lose mass to the smaller star.
424
Van Biesbroeck, George
V
Valles Marineris This
composite Viking image shows
the huge, sprawling canyon
system of the Valles Marineris
(Mariner Valley) on Mars.
Ancient dry river channels run
vacuum Volume of space containing a low pressure gas. 25,000 km (9000 and 16,000 mi) above the equator, but it northwards from the chaotic
A perfect vacuum would contain no particles at all, but curves downwards towards the magnetic poles. This terrain at the east (right).
this is unreachable in practice. On the Earth, a soft region contains mainly electrons from the solar wind. The
vacuum contains gas at a pressure of 0.01 Pa, a hard Van Allen belts are a potential hazard to Earth-orbiting
vacuum, gas at 106 Pa. The interstellar medium, away spacecraft, since the radiation levels are high enough to
from interstellar gas clouds, contains gas at a pressure of have an adverse effect on the electronic subsystems and
around 1012 to 1014 Pa. on-board instrumentation, especially following a
GEOMAGNETIC STORM. Similar radiation belt regions of
Valles Marineris Series of enormous, interconnected trapped, charged particles have been discovered around
canyons on MARS, situated between 30W and 110W, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
just south of the Martian equator. These canyons,
produced by extensive faulting of the crust, extend from Van Allen, James Alfred (1914 ) American physicist
the crest of THARSIS MONTES to the vicinity of CHRYSE who discovered (1958) the radiation belts surrounding
PLANITIA, a distance of 4500 km (2800 mi). In the west Earth. He has spent most of his career (1951 ) at the
the canyon system emerges from Noctis Labyrinthus University of Iowa, investigating Solar System radiation
then trends approximately westeast. The main section of and magnetic fields. After World War II, he used captured
the system comprises a number of parallel, straight-sided German V-2 rockets to measure cosmic rays, inventing the
chasms, beginning in the west with Ius Chasma and rockoon method of reaching far greater altitudes than
Tithonium Chasma. The central section sees both the previously possible by launching rockets first carried to
widest and deepest expression: here three vast troughs, high altitude by balloons. An organizer of the
each 200 km (120 mi) wide and up to 7 km (4 mi) deep, INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR, he analysed data from
slice through the plains. At the eastern end the canyons the early Explorer spacecraft to map two torus-shaped
pass into chaotic terrain. Ophir Chasma and Candor regions of radiation above the Earths equator now named
Chasma are situated to the north of the central canyon the VAN ALLEN BELTS. More recently, he and his colleagues
complex. The west and east ends of Ophir Chasma are have made detailed studies of SOLARTERRESTRIAL
both rather blunted and the trend of the canyon walls is INTERACTIONS. In all, Van Allen has served as principal
continued laterally by lines of crater chains, indicating an investigator for 24 different space missions.
underlying structural control. Spacecraft images reveal
the existence not only of erosional debris but also of Van Biesbroeck, George (18801974) Belgian-
rhythmically layered deposits, which, by analogy with American astronomer (born Georges Achille van
terrestrial rocks, would be expected to have been laid Biesbroeck), an observer of double stars at Yerkes
down in quiet conditions beneath a cover of water. Such Observatory (191764). He moved to the United States Van Allen belts Earth is
deposits are seen generally to form flat-topped hills when Belgium was invaded in World War I. At Yerkes, he surrounded by radiation belts,
(mesas) or irregular blocks within the troughs. The mesas used the 40-inch (1-m) telescope to carefully re-observe which contain energetic
and canyon walls are finely stratified by both light and 1200 double stars identified at Lick Observatory by particles trapped by the
dark materials on a scale of a few metres, indicating a William Joseph Hussey (18621926). During his long magnetic field. The inner belt
complex geological history. Very recent evidence points career, Van Biesbroeck preferred computing and refining dips low over the South
to the deposition of the layered strata prior to the large- orbits of known pairs to seeking new doubles. He Atlantic, where its particle
scale faulting that gave rise to the canyon system. discovered three new comets (1925, 1936, 1954) and the population can present a
faint companion of the star BD 4 4048, with an absolute hazard to satellites.
Valhalla Largest multiple-ringed impact BASIN on
Jupiters satellite CALLISTO. At 4000 km (2500 mi) in
diameter, it is in fact the largest such structure in the outer belt cosmic ray belt inner belt
entire Solar System. A 600-km-wide (400-mi) bright
circular patch representing the impact site is surrounded
by a series of concentric fractures.
V
Van Allen belts RADIATION BELT regions in the
terrestrial MAGNETOSPHERE in which charged particles are
trapped as they spiral along the magnetic field and bounce
up and down between reflection points located towards
the magnetic poles. These regions were discovered in
1958 by James Van Allen on analysis of Geiger counter
data from the EXPLORER 1 satellite. The inner region of the
Van Allen belts is located between 1000 and 5000 km
(600 and 3000 mi) above the equator; it contains protons
and electrons, which are either captured from the SOLAR
WIND or originate from collisions between upper
South Atlantic anomaly
atmosphere atoms and high-energy COSMIC RAYS. The
outer belt region is located between 15,000 and
425
Vandenberg Air Force Base
426
Veil Nebula
equipment. It is now possible to obtain precise three- INTERNATIONAL OBSERVATORY. It is operated by the
colour data on a wide range of stars. Similarly, the use of Vatican Observatory Research Group, and observing time
CCD equipment has enabled amateurs to reach fainter is shared with the UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA DEPARTMENT
magnitudes than were possible with purely visual OF ASTRONOMY. The telescope has an unusually deep
methods. All such observations have been welcomed by primary mirror whose focal length is equal to its diameter.
the professionals because there are so many variable stars It was made at the University of Arizona Mirror
to be observed: in 1786 there were only 12; by 1866 this Laboratory to test new spin-casting and optical polishing
had grown to 119; by 1907 the number had increased to techniques that have since been used for mirrors up to
1425; the advent of photographic methods of discovery 8.4 m (330 in.) in diameter (in the LARGE BINOCULAR
saw numbers grow rapidly thereafter until by 1941 there TELESCOPE). The VATT saw first light in 1993.
were 8445 known variable stars. Since then the number
has continued to increase rapidly so that today there are Vega The star Lyrae, the fifth-brightest in the sky,
tens of thousands of these stars. visual mag. 0.03 (although HIPPARCOS found it to be
To observe variable stars, both professionals and DELTA SCUTI STAR a variable with fluctuations of a few
amateurs need detailed maps of small areas of the sky in hundredths of a magnitude). It is a blue-white main-
which the variable is situated and on which both the sequence star, spectral type A0 V and 50 times as
variable and the surrounding stars are clearly identified, luminous as the Sun, at a distance of 25 l.y. The Infrared
preferably with a sequence of comparison stars of constant Astronomical Satellite detected a disk of gas and dust
brightness. This is often impossible for the simple reason surrounding Vega, possibly a PROTOPLANETARY DISK. The
that the magnitudes of the surrounding stars have not been stars name comes from of the word waqi, part of an
accurately determined. This problem may be overcome in Arabic phrase meaning swooping eagle.
several ways, one of which is to select what appear to be
suitable comparison stars from photographic plates and to Vega 1 and 2 Two space probes launched by the Soviet
assign letters to them as symbols. This then enables visual Union in 1984 December. Seven months later, on their
observations to be made pending the determination of way to Halleys Comet, they released landers on to the
accurate magnitudes later. For making a visual estimate of surface and two balloons into the atmosphere of VENUS.
a variable star, the observer compares it with two stars of The landers sent back data for just under an hour, while
known, unchanging brightness. There are three principal the balloons transmitted for 46.5 hours as they drifted
methods the ARGELANDER STEP METHOD, the around the planet. Their closest approaches to the comet
FRACTIONAL METHOD and the POGSON STEP METHOD. took place on 1986 March 6 and 9 respectively.
The main sources of the necessary charts are the Although the Vegas were used as pathfinders for the
Variable Star Sections of the BAA and RASNZ, and the GIOTTO spacecraft, they also obtained valuable images of
AAVSO. The importance of variable stars is shown by the comets nucleus and other data on its coma. The flyby
the fact that about one-third of the astronomical literature distances were 8890 km (5520 mi) and 8030 km
is concerned with them in some way. (4990 mi) on the sunward side of the nucleus. The
probes carried identical payloads of two cameras, infrared
variation Term with several meanings in different spectrometers, gas and dust mass spectrometers, dust
contexts. Lunar variation is the second-largest periodic impact detectors and plasma analysers. The name Vega
PERTURBATION of the Moons longitude, caused by the was derived from Venera and Galley (the Russian
Sun, displacing it from its mean position by 3929.9 pronunciation of Halley).
with a period of 14.765 days (half of the synodic month).
The perturbation, discovered by Tycho Brahe at around Veil Nebula Faint SUPERNOVA REMNANT in Cygnus; it is
1580, was the first major advance in the knowledge of the spread over an area about 3 wide, just south of Cyg.
Moons orbit since the discovery of the evection by Also known as the Cygnus Loop, the Veil Nebula has
Ptolemy in about AD 140. The perturbation varies as the three principal sections, each with separate NGC
sine of twice the longitude difference of the Sun and designations: NGC 6960 at the west (RA 20h 45m.7 dec.
Moon, and hence it is zero at new and full moons. Thus 3043); NGC 6974 and 6979 in the centre (RA 20h
it does not affect the times of occurrence of eclipses, 50m.9 dec. 3200); and NGC 6992 and 6995 at the
which allowed it to escape detection for 14 centuries. east (RA 20h 56m.8 dec. 3128). While quite
Annual variation is the annual rate of change of the prominent on long-exposure images, the filaments of the
coordinates of a star due to the combined effects of Veil Nebula are rather difficult to observe visually without
PRECESSION and PROPER MOTION. Secular variation is
the rate of change per century of the annual precessional
VELA (GEN. VELORUM , ABBR . VEL )
change in a stars coordinates. Magnetic variation is the
angle between the directions of magnetic north and true
north at any particular location on the Earths surface; its outhern constellation between Pyxis and Carina, part of the old Greek figure of
value changes with time. S ARGO NAVIS, the ship of the Argonauts; Vela represents the ships sails. Its
brightest star, Regor, is an optical double (separation 41) with bluish-white com-
Varuna Large TRANS-NEPTUNIAN OBJECT catalogued as ponents, one the brightest WOLFRAYET STARS in the sky (range 1.811.87), the
asteroid number 20000. It was discovered late in the year other mag. 4.3. and Vel, together with Iota and Carinae, form an asterism
2000, although images of it on photographic plates dating known as the FALSE CROSS, because it can be confused with Crux (the Southern
back to 1955 have been identified. Varuna takes 285 years
to orbit the Sun, in a low-eccentricity orbit with
Cross). Deep-sky objects include IC 2391, a large, bright open cluster; NGC
3201, a 7th-magnitude globular cluster; the Eight-Burst Nebula (NGC 3132), a
V
perihelion at 40.9 AU and aphelion at 45.7 AU. Varuna is 9th-magnitude planetary nebula; and the supernova remnants the GUM NEBULA
particularly notable because its absolute magnitude and the much more recent VELA SUPERNOVA REMNANT, at the heart of which lies
(H=3.7) indicates that it may be among the largest known the VELA PULSAR.
asteroids. If its albedo is as low as 0.05, then its equivalent
diameter would be about 1100 km (680 mi), which is BRIGHTEST STARS
larger than CERES. If its albedo is 0.25, however, its Name RA dec. Visual Absolute Spectral Distance
h m mag. mag. type (l.y.)
diameter would be only 500 km (300 mi).
Regor 08 10
47 20 1.75
5.3 WC8 O9 841
Vastitas Borealis Northern circumpolar plain of MARS. 08 45
54 43 1.93 0.0 A1 80
Suhail 09 08
43 26 2.23
4.0 K4 573
Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope (VATT) Markeb 09 22
55 01 2.47
3.6 B2 539
Research facility consisting of the 1.8-m (72-in.) Alice P. 10 47
49 25 2.69
0.1 G5 116
Lennon Telescope and the Thomas J. Bannan N 09 31
57 02 3.16
1.2 K5 238
Astrophysics Facility located at the MOUNT GRAHAM
427
Vela
428
Venus
VENUS: DATA
Globe
physical characteristics
diameter 12,104 km
density 5.24 g/cm3
mass (Earth = 1) 0.8149
volume (Earth = 1) 0.8568
escape velocity 10.40 km/s
inclination of equator to orbit 177.3
sidereal period of axial rotation 243.0 days (retrograde)
surface gravity (Earth = 1) 0.903
surface temperature 750 K
albedo 0.76
mean visual magnitude (greatest elongation) 4.4
orbital constants
semimajor axis 0.723 AU
eccentricity 0.007
inclination to ecliptic 3.395
sidereal period of revolution 224.701 days
mean synodic period 583.92 days
mean orbital velocity 35.02 km/s
mean longitude of perihelion 131.571
satellites none
429
vernal equinox
430
vignetting
very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) standard 3-hour videotape can capture over 270,000 video astronomy These
Combining of RADIO TELESCOPES separated by individual images, and frame-by-frame playback makes tri-colour images of Jupiter
thousands of kilometres to act as a RADIO for easy identification of the best images recorded, were caught in 1999 October
INTERFEROMETER in order to observe the same which can be selected and combined by IMAGE (left) and 2000 December
astronomical object with a resolving power of 0.0002. PROCESSING. (right). Using a monochrome
The radio telescopes for VLBI are located around the Throughout the 1990s, developments in highly light video camera, consecutive
world, many in the United States, Europe and Australia, sensitive CCD image sensors have paved the way for con- exposures were made in red,
plus several in other countries. Several radio telescopes venient astronomical imaging with video cameras. In 1998 green and blue light.
in Europe can also combine together to form the a video camera was used on the historic 60-inch (1.5-m)
European VLBI Network (EVN). VLBI can study telescope at Mount Wilson by a Boston University team
structure in quasar jets, and it showed the superluminal imaging notoriously difficult Mercury. They obtained
motions in the jet of the quasar 3C 273 and the active unprecedented ground-based images of a hemisphere not
galaxy M87. Knowledge and understanding of radio previously imaged during the Mariner 10 flyby.
sources has been revolutionized by VLBI. Video cameras are also widely used to record fireball
Intercontinental VLBI has also used measurements of a and meteor showers. In 1999 members of the INTERNA-
known quasar to track the positions of the telescopes, TIONAL OCCULTATION TIMING ASSOCIATION captured
monitoring the steady drift of the continents and the video evidence of meteoric impact events on the Moon
wandering of the poles. during the November Leonid meteor shower. To study
the radiant of an extremely faint meteor shower, a wide-
Very Small Array (VSA) Ground-based instrument angle lens is coupled to the input window of an image
designed to map the cosmic microwave background intensifier, and a video camera then records the image at
radiation on angular scales of about 1. It has 14 antennae the output window of the intensifier. Image intensifiers
with apertures of 0.32 m (13 in.) on a single tip-table can be used for real-time viewing and recording of many
mounting located at an elevation of 2385 m (7820 ft) at deep-sky objects.
the Observatorio del Teide of the INSTITUTO DE To produce useful images, detail is important and the
ASTROFSICA DE CANARIAS (IAC) in Tenerife. The project number of TV lines a camera produces governs the reso-
is a collaboration between the MULLARD RADIO lution of the video image. Many amateurs use modified
ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY, JODRELL BANK OBSERVATORY low-light security cameras that output between 400 and
and the IAC. 600 lines. The output signal can be recorded directly to
videotape or a computer using a video capture interface.
Vesta Large MAIN-BELT ASTEROID; number 4. Its size, Analogue S-VHS video machines are capable of record-
albedo and location, near the inner edge of the main ing up to 400 lines, while digital recorders and computer
belt, mean that Vesta is the brightest of all such asteroids capture devices are capable of more. To preserve spatial
and may just attain naked-eye visibility. Images obtained resolution sacrificed in most single-chip colour cameras
with the HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE show Vesta to be and maintain optimal signal-to-noise ratios, monochrome
roughly spherical, with a very large depression around cameras produce the best results when used for tri-colour
its southern pole, which may be a vast impact crater. imaging of planets.
Like PALLAS, Vesta has a high average density As with conventional cooled CCD cameras, video
(c.3.9 g/cm3), which may be due to a metallic interior images transferred to computer can be further processed
similar to nickeliron meteorites, despite its surface using image-processing software. Since a video camera is
reflectivity indicating a stony composition. Its mass is an uncooled integrating device, individual frames suffer
about 3.0 1020 kg (0.41% the mass of the Moon). from some amount of thermal dark noise generated by the
Several smaller asteroids have similar orbits to Vesta (see cameras electronics. Stacking or layering several selected
HIRAYAMA FAMILY) and this group, formed from the individual images can produce a smoother, more aestheti-
fragmentation of an earlier body, is thought to be the cally pleasing final picture with improved depth of detail.
source of the METEORITES known as eucrites, howardites
and diogenites. vignetting Partial shadowing of an optical image
V
caused by obstructions within the light beam or by
video astronomy Use of video cameras for optical components too small to pass all the beam. The
astronomical imaging. The large image scales produced effect of vignetting is to make some parts of the image
by a CCD offer dramatic detailed views of the Sun, dimmer than they should be, but it is not always
Moon, planets and brighter planetary satellites. Unlike detected by the user. It is often present in cheap
the long integration times possible with cooled CCD binoculars and can be detected by looking at the bright
imagers, conventional video cameras are limited to short spot visible in the eyepiece when viewed from a
exposure times comprised of two consecutive fields distance. This spot should be circular and evenly
combined to produce a stream of continuous pictures at illuminated. If it is not, then some vignetting, usually
25 or 30 frames per second. This fast frame ability caused by the prisms, is present. The effect is
makes video an excellent tool for accurately timing sometimes present when taking photographs through a
occultation events. The fast exposure time of telescope. It may not be noticed on a photograph of the
continuous video also provides an effective way to sky but a terrestrial shot will often be brighter in the
capture an unpredictable moment of steady seeing. A middle and darker at the corners.
431
Viking
Viking Compiled from cluster is about 65 million l.y. away, and is marked by the
images obtained by the Viking giant elliptical galaxy M87, also known as the radio
orbiters, this composite shows source Virgo A, which is ejecting a strong jet of gas. In all
the Amphitrites Patera region of there are 16 Messier objects in the cluster; the total
Mars. Radial ridges extend number of galaxies in the cluster is about 3000.
northwards for about 400 km
(250 mi) from this old volcano. virial theorem Theorem concerning the conservation
of energy equations that relates the kinetic energy of gas
or stars to the gravitational potential energy:
E = PG + KE
where E is the total energy, PG is the gravitational
potential energy, and KE is the kinetic energy or energy
of motion. It is useful in determining the mass of a system
based on its gravitational field and the orbital velocities of
stars or gas clouds orbiting around it.
432
Voyager
433
Vulcan
434
West, Comet
walled plain Older term, still used by some lunar Webb Society International society of amateur and
observers, for large lunar CRATERS. professional astronomers who specialize in observing
double stars and deep-sky objects (DSOs), founded in
W
Walter Ancient lunar crater (33S 1E), 129 km (80 mi) 1967 and named in honour of the 19th-century amateur
in diameter. Its walls are deeply incised from later observer the Reverend T.W. WEBB. The Webb Society
impacts, to the point that they have been eroded away to publishes a quarterly journal, Deep Sky Observer, and
the north and south. The ejecta have also been removed specialist observing guides for various categories of DSO.
by impact erosion. While the floor appears to contain
peaks to the north-east, these are mostly crater rims that Webb, Thomas William (180785) English clergyman
have merged because of the proximity of the impacts. whose Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes (1859) did
much to popularize amateur astronomy in Britain. His
Wargentin Lunar crater (50S 60W), 89 km (55 mi) in book was based on 25 years of observing planets and
diameter. It was originally a complex crater with central variable and binary stars with a 3.7-inch refractor,
peaks, wall terracing and an ejecta blanket. After its though after 1864 he began to popularize the new silver-
formation, however, lunar basalts flooded the interior, on-glass reflecting telescopes of George Henry With
covering the central peaks and the inner wall structures. (18271904). Webb was pre-eminently an observer, not
Indeed, the lava level is higher than the surrounding lunar concerned with making scientific discoveries, just
surface. The ejecta blanket has been eroded away by wishing to enjoy the beauty of the night sky. He inspired
meteorite erosion. many to do likewise, and is therefore one of the
founders of modern amateur astronomy.
Warner & Swasey Co. Machine-tool company based in
Cleveland, Ohio, that made several large telescopes for wedge Adjustable, angled platform placed under a
major observatories in the late 1800s and early 1900s. FORK MOUNTING to adjust it to the local latitude. Many
Worcester Reed Warner (18461929) was a machinist modern SCHMIDTCASSEGRAIN TELESCOPES are
from Massachusetts who had an interest in astronomy; in equipped with computer-controlled drives allowing
1880 he opened a factory in Chicago with Ambrose them to be used without a wedge for visual purposes, or
Swasey (18461937), a mechanical engineer from New with a wedge for ASTROPHOTOGRAPHY. The wedge is
Hampshire. After a year, they relocated their operations required to create a true EQUATORIAL MOUNTING and
to Cleveland, where there were more skilled machinists, eliminate FIELD ROTATION.
and the business prospered.
Warner & Swaseys first telescope was a 9 -inch Weizscker, Carl Friedrich von (1912 ) German
(240-mm) refractor sold to Beloit College, Wisconsin, with theoretical physicist and astrophysicist known for his
a lens by ALVAN CLARK & SONS. Buoyed by this success, the theories of stellar energy generation and the formation of
firm began making larger German equatorial mountings. the Solar System. In 1938 he proposed, independently of
Large, sturdy mountings of this type were necessary to Hans BETHE, that stars generate energy in their extremely
support the large refracting telescopes favoured by major hot cores via the successive fusion of nuclei of hydrogen,
observatories in the late 19th century. Warner & Swasey helium and carbon. Weizscker calculated how much
were the first telescope-makers to approach telescope energy each reaction would produce. In 1944 he proposed
design as a total engineering problem, and their highly a theory of the formation of the Solar System, a variant of
accurate equatorial drives gained them renown. One of Pierre-Simon de LAPLACEs NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS. In
their innovations was to replace the tangle of ropes and Weizsckers COSMOGONY, vortices develop in a disk of
chains used to control the long tube assemblies with a more condensing gas and dust surrounding the primordial Sun,
elegant and efficient system of rods and gear trains triggering the formation of bodies by accretion.
controlled from the eyepiece end of the telescope.
By 1886 Warner & Swasey had completed LICK West, Comet (C/1975 V1) Long-period comet, the
OBSERVATORYS 36-inch (0.9-m) refracting telescope brightest of the 1970s, discovered photographically by
which, with another Clark lens, was then the worlds Richard West (1941 ) in 1975 November. Comet West
largest. They topped this achievement with the 40-inch became a bright morning object in 1976 February and
(1-m) refractor installed at YERKES OBSERVATORY (1893). March. Perihelion, 0.20 AU from the Sun, was reached on
From 1885 to 1915 John BRASHEAR supplied most of the
lenses for the firms telescopes.
435
Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope
1976 February 25. The nucleus broke into four fragments is heated, sublimating ices are ejected in jets along with
soon afterwards. Comet West reached a peak brightness of silicates, generating the comets dust tail. He showed that
mag. 1, and showed a prominent fan-shaped dust tail these jets, confirmed by 1986 spacecraft studies of Comet
2530 long. The orbital period is of the order of 500,000 HALLEY, can affect the comets orbital motions. The
years, and it is likely that the individual nuclear fragments FRED L. WHIPPLE OBSERVATORY is named in his honour.
will each make their returns well separated from the others.
Whirlpool Galaxy (M51, NGC 5194) Face-on spiral
Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope (WSRT) galaxy in the constellation Canes Venatici (RA 13h 29m.9
Major radio telescope array near the village of Westerbork dec. 4712), with apparent magnitude 8.4 and angular
in the north-east of the Netherlands, operated by the diameter 11 7. Discovered by Charles MESSIER in
Netherlands Foundation for Research in Astronomy. 1773, the Whirlpool Galaxy takes its name from drawings
Completed in 1970, it consists of 14 antennae 25 m and descriptions made in 1845 by Lord Rosse, who saw its
(82 ft) in diameter arranged along a 2.7-km (1.7-mi) prominent spiral arms through his 72-inch (1.8-m)
eastwest baseline. Ten of the antennae are fixed in reflector. M51 appears to be interacting with a smaller
position, while the remaining four can be moved along rail companion galaxy, NGC 5195. It is the most prominent
tracks to synthesize a telescope up to 2.7 km in aperture. member of a small group that lies 37 million l.y. away.
Wezen The star Canis Majoris, visual mag. 1.84. It is a whistler Effect that occurs when a plasma disturbance,
white supergiant of spectral type F8 Ia with a luminosity caused by a lightning stroke, travels out along lines of
around 50,000 times that of the Sun, lying some 1800 l.y. magnetic force of the Earths magnetic field and is
away. The name comes from the Arabic wazn, meaning reflected back to its point of origin. The disturbance may
weight, the significance of which is unknown. be picked up electromagnetically and when converted to
sound gives the characteristic drawn-out descending
Whipple, Fred Lawrence (1906 ) American planetary pitch of the whistler. This is a dispersion effect caused by
scientist who devised the dirty snowball picture of the greater velocity of the higher-frequency components
Whirlpool Galaxy The cometary structure. He spent most of his scientific life at of the disturbance. The reflections from ionized meteor
magnificent Whirlpool Galaxy Harvard, where he directed the SMITHSONIAN trails (see RADAR ASTRONOMY) can be observed as a
(M51, NGC 5194) takes its ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY (195573). In the 1930s, his whistler in a receiver tuned to a distant transmitting
name from its pronounced photographic studies of meteor paths provided evidence station. Here the whistler is an interference beat between
spiral structure. The small that meteor showers occur when swarms of debris left the ground wave from the transmitter and the wave
companion galaxy at left, NGC behind by comets intersect the Earths orbit. Whipples reflected from the ionized meteor trail.
5195, appears to be interacting comet model (1949) described them as large aggregates of
with the Whirlpool. ices and silicate debris; when the comet nears the Sun and white dwarf Evolved STAR with mass similar to the Sun
but with a radius only about as large as that of the Earth.
White dwarfs are composed of DEGENERATE MATTER and
are supported by electron degeneracy pressure. The
density of the matter from which they are made is
enormously greater than that of any terrestrial material:
one cubic centimetre of white dwarf matter weighs
approximately one tonne.
The first white dwarf to be discovered was the
companion of Sirius, now called SIRIUS B. In 1844
Friedrich BESSEL discovered irregularities in the motion of
Sirius, and concluded that it must have a companion, the
pair forming a BINARY SYSTEM with a period of about 50
years. In order for its gravity to swing Sirius around in its
orbit, it was clear that the companion must have a
comparable mass (quantitative analyses using Keplers
third law for the binary orbit giving a mass between 75%
and 95% of the Suns mass), and yet it must be very faint
to have remained undetected by direct observation. In
1862 ALVAN CLARK and his son Alvan Graham Clark
discovered a very faint star close to Sirius, which was
subsequently identified as the elusive companion. As the
distance to the system was known, this allowed the
companions luminosity to be estimated as only about
1/360 of that of the Sun.
In 1914 W.S. ADAMS made the surprising discovery
that Sirius B had the spectrum of a white star, with a
surface temperature about two and a half to three times
that of the Sun. The total radiation from the surface of a
hot body rises as the fourth power of its temperature, so
that each square centimetre of Sirius Bs surface should
radiate between thirty and eighty times as much as the
W Sun. The only way to reconcile this with the very low
total luminosity inferred above was to conclude that the
radius of Sirius B was far smaller than that of any star
known at the time. The result remained uncertain until in
1925 Adams succeeded in detecting the gravitational
redshifts of several absorption lines in the spectrum of
Sirius B. This general relativistic effect depends on the
ratio of the stars mass to its radius. As the mass was
already known from the properties of the orbit, Adams
was able to find the radius of the star in an independent
way, giving an estimate consistent with his earlier result.
It was very quickly realized that their enormous
matter densities make white dwarfs fundamentally
436
Wiens law
pressure demanded by the stronger gravity. Thus in white dwarf This close-up
response to the loss of energy by radiation from its view from the Hubble Space
surface, the star has actually had to become hotter. This Telescope shows part of the
means that radiation losses from its surface will continue, globular cluster M4 in Scorpius.
driving the evolution to more tightly bound and hotter While most of the objects seen
configurations ever onwards: the star cannot simply cool here are old, red stars, several
down and stop evolving. In the white dwarf state, white dwarfs (circled in blue)
however, we have seen that the supporting degeneracy have also been found.
pressure is independent of the temperature of the stellar
material: the star can now radiate all its thermal energy
into space without any consequences for its internal
structure, and the evolution of the star ends with it quietly
cooling down to a cold, dark, inert configuration known
as a BLACK DWARF.
In practice the star will by then consist entirely of
helium and heavier elements, its original hydrogen having
been transmuted in the course of its earlier evolution. The
existence of the Chandrasekhar limiting mass means that
this endpoint is not available to all stars, but only to those
whose mass is below the limit when they reach the white
dwarf state. It is now known that more massive stars must
end their evolution either as NEUTRON STARS or BLACK
HOLES. Neutron stars are also supported by degeneracy
pressure, but of neutrons rather than electrons; for them,
too, there is a maximum mass, although its precise value
is less certain than for white dwarfs.
different in nature from normal stars. In a star like the Many white dwarfs are now known, and their
Sun, it is the thermal pressure of the gas and radiation of observed properties are in good accord with theoretical
the star that prevents it simply collapsing under its own predictions. Much interest now centres on white dwarfs
weight. As early as 1926, the British astronomer Ralph in binary systems, particularly those that are close enough
Howard Fowler (18891944) showed that this cannot for gas to be pulled off the companion star on to the
be the case for white dwarfs. Instead, the pressure white dwarf. Such systems are called CATACLYSMIC
required to hold up these stars against their own gravity VARIABLES and include NOVAE and DWARF NOVAE.
is provided by a fundamental quantum-mechanical Evidence also suggests that a very old, faint population of
effect which had been discovered only months before by white dwarfs exists in the halo of our Galaxy.
US physicist Enrico Fermi (190154) and British
physicist Paul Dirac (190284). white hole Inverse evaporating BLACK HOLE. Although
As in most stars, the matter inside a white dwarf is nothing can escape a black holes gravity, a black hole
almost completely ionized, that is, the electrons have all actually has a temperature and particles can tunnel out of
been ripped off their parent atoms (here because of the it. The temperature and emission of particles and energy
frequent collisions between atoms) leaving the matter as a by a black hole depend on the inverse of the temperature
mixture of free electrons and nuclei. What Fermi and of the black hole; low-mass black holes emit particles at a
Dirac had discovered is that there is a fundamental limit higher rate than high-mass black holes. A white hole is the
to how close together two electrons can be pushed. final moments of evaporation of a black hole when
Electrons resist being in the same place with the same information and matter emerge from the hole in an
speeds: push them closer together and they will react by unpredictable fashion.
moving faster. This motion amounts to a pressure, called
degeneracy pressure: it differs from ordinary thermal Widmansttten pattern See IRON METEORITE
pressure in depending only on the density of the
constituent particles, rather than on the product of the Wiens law Law, formulated in 1893 by the German
density and the gas temperature. physicist Wilhelm Wien (18641928), relating the
The larger the mass of a star supported by wavelength of the peak emission from a BLACK BODY to its
degeneracy pressure, the faster the electrons inside it temperature. It takes the form:
must move, until ultimately, for stars of masses only
slightly greater than that of the Sun, they are moving 0.0028979
max =
with speeds close to that of light. The theory of T
RELATIVITY forbids motions faster than light, so that where max is the wavelength of the peak emission, and T
relativistic corrections must be made to the degeneracy is the temperature. As a consequence of the operation of
pressure for such stars. The pressure is then found to Wiens law, cool stars appear reddish in colour, medium
increase rather less rapidly with the density. temperature stars like the Sun are yellow-white, while hot
In 1931 Subrahmanyan CHANDRASEKHAR computed stars appear blue-white.
the structure of a white dwarf with these relativistic effects
included. He made the discovery that a white dwarf
cannot have a mass more than about 1.4 times the Suns CLASSIFICATION OF WHITE DWARFS
mass (see CHANDRASEKHAR LIMIT). For larger masses,
gravity would always overwhelm the pressure forces and
Type
DA
Spectral Characteristics
spectrum dominated by Balmer series of hydrogen
W
the star would collapse under its own weight. Stars with DO spectrum dominated by ionized helium
initial masses ranging from about 0.08 to about 8 solar DB spectrum dominated by neutral helium
masses (over 95% of the stars of our Galaxy) will DC featureless spectrum
eventually end up as white dwarfs. DQ spectrum shows presence of carbon, generally in
All stars lose energy into space by radiation. In molecular form
response to this constant drain of energy, the central parts DZ lines of heavy elements other than carbon, for example
of the star gently sink closer together during huge calcium, magnesium or iron
expanses of time, becoming denser and more tightly DBQ or DBZ weak carbon or heavy elements together with
bound by their mutual gravitational attraction. If the star dominant neutral helium
is supported in the normal way by thermal pressure, it has PG1159 ionized helium as well as highly ionized carbon and
to become hotter in order to supply the increased nitrogen features
437
Wild Duck Cluster
Wilkins, John (161472) English churchman and writer winter solstice Moment when the Sun reaches its
who helped to found the Royal Society. He was probably greatest declination and lowest altitude in the sky. In the
the first writer to explore the ideas of Galileo and Kepler northern hemisphere this occurs around December 22
for an English readership. In Discovery of a World in the when the Suns declination is 23.5S, marking the
Moone (1638) he speculated on the Moons structure and southern limit of its annual path along the ecliptic. At this
W discussed the design of a machine that could fly there. point it is overhead at the TROPIC OF CAPRICORN and the
hours of daylight are at a minimum, the day of the
William Herschel Telescope (WHT) Optical solstice also marking the shortest day of the year. In the
telescope with a mirror 4.2 m (165 in.) in diameter, the southern hemisphere the winter solstice occurs around
largest of the three Anglo-Dutch telescopes of the ISAAC June 21, when the Sun is overhead at the TROPIC OF
NEWTON GROUP at ROQUE DE LOS MUCHACHOS CANCER. See also SUMMER SOLSTICE
OBSERVATORY in La Palma. Opened in 1986, the WHT
was the last telescope to be built by the firm of GRUBB, Winthrop, John (171479) Colonial American scientist,
PARSONS & CO., which closed down once it was delivered. professor of mathematics at Harvard University
The WHTs mounting allows it to be switched between (173879), where he made long-term meteorological and
PRIME, CASSEGRAIN and NASMYTH FOCI, and there is a sunspot observations; he gave Harvard its first telescope
comprehensive instrument suite taking advantage of this (1672). Winthrop correctly predicted the return of
versatility. High-dispersion and multi-object spectroscopy Comet HALLEY in 1759 and made detailed observations
438
WolfRayet star
of the apparition. He observed the transits of Venus in of accurately counting the number of sunspots and
1761 and 1769, organizing a successful expedition to groups, formerly known as the Zrich or Wolf number
Newfoundland for the earlier event. (see RELATIVE SUNSPOT NUMBER).
WIYN Telescope Highly innovative 3.5-m (138-in.) Wolf, Maximilian Franz Joseph Cornelius (Max)
optical telescope at KITT PEAK NATIONAL OBSERVATORY, (18631932) German astronomer, who was a pioneer of
completed in 1994. It is owned and operated by the astrophotography, discovering 232 minor planets and
WIYN Consortium, which consists of the University of dark nebulae in the Milky Way. He was the long-time
Wisconsin, Indiana University, Yale University and the (18931932) director of Heidelbergs Knigstuhl
NATIONAL OPTICAL ASTRONOMY OBSERVATORY. The Observatory. Among Wolfs asteroid discoveries were
telescope combines a spin-cast mirror (made at the (323) Brucia, the first found photographically, in 1898,
STEWARD OBSERVATORY Mirror Laboratory) with a and (588) Achilles, the first TROJAN ASTEROID identified,
compact, lightweight structure and a low-turbulence in 1906. His star counts of his wide-field Milky Way
enclosure. The WIYN telescope has only one-eighth of photographs enabled him to map huge dark clouds of
the moving mass of the nearby (and similarly sized) obscuring gas and dust. He discovered that planetary
MAYALL TELESCOPE, built in 1973. nebulae are gaseous shells. Before it was understood that
the spiral nebulae were other galaxies, Wolf obtained
W.M. Keck Observatory Major optical observatory many spectra of these objects, showing (1908) that they
operating the two largest single-mirror telescopes in the were composed of stars. He observed and catalogued
world. The identical 10-m (394-in.) instruments are over 6000 nebulae and galaxies, including many
located at an elevation of 4145 m (13,796 ft) at MAUNA members of the Coma and Perseus galaxy clusters; the
KEA OBSERVATORY, Hawaii, and the facility has its sea-level majority of these objects were newly discovered.
headquarters at nearby Kamuela. Built with funding from
the W.M. Keck Foundation, the observatory is operated Wolf number See RELATIVE SUNSPOT NUMBER
jointly by the CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
the University of California and (since 1996) NASA. WolfRayet star (WR star) Hot star that is experiencing
Construction of the first telescope, Keck I, began in high mass loss. The spectra of WolfRayet stars show
1986, pioneering the use of segmented-mirror broad emission lines, making them easy to identify in
technology in large telescopes. The mirror is composed spectroscopic observations, even at large distances.
of 36 hexagonal segments, each 1.8 m (72 in.) wide and First recognized by the French astronomers Charles
75 mm (3 in.) thick, under computer control to WOLF and George Rayet in 1867, WolfRayet stars are
maintain a continuous reflective surface. The technique divided into three broad spectroscopic classes WN, WC
has since been widely adopted in, for example, the and WO. WN stars show EMISSION LINES predominantly of
HOBBYEBERLY TELESCOPE. helium and nitrogen, although emission lines of carbon,
Keck I began science operations in 1993 May, and was silicon and hydrogen can be observed in some spectra.
followed in 1996 October by Keck II. A large and varied The spectra of WC stars are dominated by carbon and
suite of instruments has been developed for the helium emission lines with no hydrogen and nitrogen. The
telescopes, most notably an ADAPTIVE OPTICS system that more rare WO stars are similar to WC stars, with oxygen
permits the Kecks imaging cameras and spectrographs to lines and lines of other elements showing high ionization.
achieve maximum efficiency. Also available is a mode that WolfRayet stars have surface temperatures between
allows the two telescopes to be combined along with 25,000 and 50,000 K, luminosities between 100,000 and
several 2.0-m (79-in.) outrigger telescopes, allowing high- one million times that of the Sun, and masses from 10 to
resolution optical INTERFEROMETRY to be carried out. 50 solar masses. The very high luminosities generate a
radiation pressure that drives a wind of gas up to a rate of WolfRayet star The
Wolf, Charles Joseph tienne (18271918) and 10 solar masses in a million years. The average maximum extremely hot star HD 56925
Rayet, Georges Antoine Pons (18391906) French velocity of material ejected from WR stars is 800 to over has ejected this nebulosity,
astronomers who discovered a new class of high- 3000 km/s (5001900 mi/s). catalogued as NGC 2359.
temperature stars, now known as WOLFRAYET STARS. WolfRayet stars demonstrate quite dramatically the WolfRayet stars like HD
Rayet worked at the Paris and Bordeaux observatories effect that mass loss can have on massive stars. Their 56925 show enormous rates of
and was first director (1879) of the observatory at original hydrogen-rich envelopes have been stripped away mass loss via stellar winds, and
Floriac, France. Wolf also worked at Paris, and it was to expose regions in which the products of NUCLEAR rapidly become unstable.
there, while examining spectra of the nova that appeared
in 1866 May, that he and Rayet noticed wide, bright
emission lines (later identified with helium, carbon and
oxygen) that they later found (1867) also in the spectra
of three hot, luminous stars in Cygnus.
439
Wollaston, William Hyde
REACTIONS are present. The type of WR star that model. He also correctly described Saturns rings as being
emerges after the mass loss depends on how far evolution composed of particulate matter.
had progressed before the hydrogen envelope was lost.
Because of their spatial association with O STARS, and wrinkle ridge Long, sinuous, narrow ridge. Wrinkle
their peculiar surface abundances, WR stars are believed to ridges are abundant on the plains of the Moon, Mercury
be descended from O stars. Around 50% of WR stars are and Mars; they are interpreted to be compressional
found in BINARY SYSTEMS. Many central stars of tectonic structures. Wrinkle ridges are typically not more
PLANETARY NEBULAE are WR stars. About 220 WR stars than a few hundred metres high, a few kilometres wide
are known in our Galaxy, but this is a lower limit because and tens to hundreds of kilometres long. On Earth
most WR stars are hidden from view by dust. One WR wrinkle ridges are rare because of surface erosion.
star is easily visible to the unaided eye: the 2nd-magnitude
southern-hemisphere star Velorum is a WC star with a W Serpentis Eclipsing VARIABLE STAR with extremely
SPECTROSCOPIC BINARY companion of spectral type O7. unusual light variations, between magnitudes of about 8.9
and 10.3. The generally accepted period is 14.153 days.
Wollaston, William Hyde (17661828) English chemist There appears to be an overlying longer period of about
and physicist who made some of the earliest observations 270 days. In addition to the deep minimum, there are also
of the solar spectrum. In 1801 he noticed five dark two shallow minima and three maxima. The system
(absorption) lines in the solar spectrum, but misinterpreted consists of two stars of roughly the same size, but of
them as boundaries between different colours. In 1814 different brightness, rotating inside a common envelope.
Joseph von FRAUNHOFER confirmed the existence of these From one of the components (of spectral class A or F)
features, and in 1859 Gustav KIRCHHOFF correctly ejection of material is taking place. The system evolves
explained their nature. Wollaston was one of the first to rapidly and the period is increasing. One of the two stars
observe ultraviolet light. He also invented the Wollaston itself may be an INTRINSIC VARIABLE.
prism, which is used in some POLARIMETERS.
W Ursae Majoris star (EW) One of the three main
Woolley, Richard van der Riet (190686) English subtypes of ECLIPSING BINARY. W Ursae Majoris stars
astrophysicist who greatly advanced the development of exhibit continuously varying light-curves, with primary
astronomy in Australia. Woolley directed MOUNT STROMLO and secondary minima of identical or almost identical
OBSERVATORY (193955), acquired a 1.88-m (74-inch) depth. They differ from BETA LYRAE STARS in being
reflecting telescope, at the time the southern hemispheres smaller, less luminous stars of nearly identical brightness.
largest. As Englands tenth ASTRONOMER ROYAL, he The stellar cores are surrounded by a common convective
directed the Royal Greenwich Observatory (195671). envelope. W Ursae Majoris stars are CONTACT BINARIES.
Woolleys contributions spanned studies of the solar They are thought to be possible precursors of DWARF
photosphere, chromosphere and corona; the measurement NOVAE and other CATACLYSMIC VARIABLES.
of stellar radial velocities; investigations of RR Lyrae
variables and the stellar populations in globular clusters; W Virginis star (CW) Type of pulsating VARIABLE STAR
and the determination of large-scale galactic motions. superficially similar to a CEPHEID VARIABLE. On the
HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM they typically lie in the
wormhole Connection of two black holes either from spectral class range G0 to M0 and the absolute
two locations in our Universe, or one from our Universe luminosity range Mv = 1 to 4; they are thus giant
and one from another, separate universe. These black stars. Their masses could be as low as 0.5 solar mass,
holes are connected by their SINGULARITIES and suggesting that they have evolved from low-mass MAIN-
theoretically can provide a bridge or shortcut from one SEQUENCE stars. They lie on the INSTABILITY STRIP on the
location to another, or from one universe to another. HR diagram, which goes from Delta Scuti stars on the
Wormholes are also called EinsteinRosen bridges after main sequence through the RR Lyrae stars and Cepheids
the first physicists to consider the mathematical possibility to the irregular variables and Mira stars; therefore the
of such connections as suggested by GENERAL RELATIVITY. cause of their variation is thought to be the same, that is, a
layer of ionized helium within the star.
Wright, Thomas (Thomas Wright of Durham) W Virginis stars may be distinguished from classical
(171186) English philosopher, instrument-maker, Cepheids by the less-regular shape of their light-curves and
teacher and popularizer of astronomy. In An Original the double-peaked nature of their maxima. Their periods
Theory, or New Hypothesis of the Universe (1750), Wright range from approximately one day to 100 days and their
described the Milky Way as a flat disk of stars with the PERIODLUMINOSITY LAW is distinctly different from that of
Solar System at its periphery, an essentially correct the Cepheids. They do not form a homogeneous group:
some belong to Population I and some to Population II.
white hole
Occasionally W Virginis stars show small period changes.
RU Camelopardalis, however, is a remarkable case: its
variations suddenly stopped in 1964 for about three years.
The spectral type of RU Camelopardalis (KO to R2 with
excess carbon) is later than usual for W Virginis stars, but
the star is otherwise unremarkable. It is not understood
how pulsations can stop, or start, in such a short time.
Because these stars are brighter than the RR Lyraes, but
fainter than the Cepheids, and have a well-defined
W wormhole This is a
mathematical representation of wormhole
periodluminosity relationship, they may be used to
estimate distances for galactic and extragalactic objects.
the distortion of spacetime
produced by a Schwarzschild WZ Sagittae Star, originally classified as a RECURRENT
wormhole connecting two NOVA, that has many similarities with the U GEMINORUM
universes via a black hole and DWARF NOVA class; it may be a link between the two types.
a white hole. While predicted Four outbursts have been observed, in 1913, 1946, 1978
by Einsteins equations, such and 2001. It is also an eclipsing system, with a period of
wormholes cannot exist in 81.5 minutes. The light-curve at eclipse resembles that of
reality, since the occurrence a W URSAE MAJORIS STAR. WZ Sagittae is normally around
of white holes is forbidden magnitude 15.5 at minimum, but has reached 7.0 during
by the second law of an outburst. Possible masses of the components are 0.59
black hole
thermodynamics. and 0.03 solar mass.
440
X-ray binary
XMM Abbreviation of X-Ray Multi-Mirror spacecraft, the companion on to the surface of the white dwarf and
now called NEWTON. burnt, with temperatures of several hundred thousand
degrees a unique situation of steady nuclear burning at
X
X-ray astronomy Study of energetic processes and the surface of a compact star.
extreme physical conditions high temperatures, winds X-ray astronomy established that NEUTRON STARS
and accretion disks, neutron stars and black holes. X-rays were present in binary star systems; CYGNUS X-1 is one of
are generated by several environments: hot gas with a the best candidates for a system containing a BLACK
temperature greater than 1,000,000 K will emit radiation HOLE. It has revolutionized our understanding of the end
through atomic lines and thermal bremsstrahlung; high- of a stars life and of compact objects. The surface of a
energy electrons scattered by low-energy electrons produce PULSAR in Vela has been detected in X-rays, as have some
X-rays (inverse COMPTON EFFECT); electrons in strong other young pulsars. The surface temperature of the
magnetic fields emit SYNCHROTRON RADIATION; and hot neutron star in the Vela Pulsar is around 1,000,000 K.
stars emit thermal BLACK BODY RADIATION. X-rays are also Binary star systems containing a compact object show a
generated when material such as hydrogen ignites in variety of phenomena, depending on the mass and
NUCLEAR REACTIONS. The X-ray wavelength region is geometry of the members. The presence of an
around 0.04 to 2.5 nm, but this is more usually expressed ACCRETION DISK in the system means that the X-ray
as from 0.5 to 30 keV, since X-rays are often measured in emission can be intermittent (see X-RAY BURSTERS; X-RAY
energy terms as kilo-electron-volts (keV). Hard X-rays are NOVAE). The strange X-ray binary SS433, with its
usually regarded as those in the range 10 keV and above, relativistic JETS, was found to emit X-rays. Some 200
and soft X-rays lower than 10 keV. Many types of SUPERNOVA REMNANTS have been found by their extended
astronomical object emit X-rays, from the Sun, with a X-ray emission, which comes from very hot gas behind
CORONA of around 2,000,000 K, to BINARY STARS the shock front. SUPERNOVA 1987A was observed by
containing a compact object (see X-RAY BINARY), to galaxies ROSAT several times; X-rays were first detected in 1992,
with a supermassive BLACK HOLE at the centre. However, becoming steadily stronger.
X-rays from astronomical objects cannot be detected from When the ANDROMEDA GALAXY was observed by
the ground: 10 cm of air at ground-level, or three sheets of ROSAT, around 550 sources were detected, about the
paper, will stop 90% of 3-keV X-rays. same number as the bright X-ray sources in our own
X-ray astronomy began in 1949 with the discovery Galaxy. The LARGE MAGELLANIC CLOUD (LMC) has a
that the Sun emitted X-rays, and the subsequent study of source (LMC X-3) that is very similar to Cygnus X-1,
its general properties, by Herbert FRIEDMAN, Burnight with a possible black hole as the compact object in the
and co-workers, using a Geiger counter on a V2 and massive X-ray binary star system. Many galaxies emit
other sounding rockets. This work, together with that X-rays (see X-RAY GALAXY); clusters of galaxies (for
using the UK Ariel I satellite, built and launched by example Coma, Virgo, Perseus) emit X-rays from hot
NASA in 1962, established that high-temperature (about intergalactic gas. Observations have shown that the Sun is
107 K) plasma was created in the corona during solar embedded in a bubble of hot gas around 160 l.y. in X-ray astronomy This
FLARES. Solar X-ray studies continued through the 1960s diameter, with a temperature of over 1,000,000 K Chandra X-ray Observatory
and 1970s with several NASA satellites, including the perhaps heated by a long-past supernova explosion. In image shows a young
Orbiting Solar Observatory and the SOLAR MAXIMUM Cygnus there is a superbubble of hot (1,000,000 K) gas, supernova remnant in
MISSION. The Sun is not a strong emitter of X-rays, so it with a density of about 0.001 particles/cm3. The Centaurus. A rapidly
was a major surprise when Riccardo GIACCONI and superbubble is over 1000 l.y. across, possibly the largest expanding shell of gas 36 l.y.
colleagues discovered a strong X-ray source in the structure in the Galaxy, and this may be the result of a in diameter, G292.0+1.8
constellation of Scorpius (SCORPIUS X-1) in 1962 using a cluster of stars becoming supernovae. contains large amounts of
sounding rocket. By 1970, after some dozens of sounding oxygen, neon, magnesium,
rocket flights that gave a total exposure of only a few X-ray binary Close BINARY STAR system emitting X-rays, sulphur and silicon. It has a
hours, about 50 individual X-ray sources had been either continuously or at intervals. X-ray binaries usually pulsar at its centre.
discovered, including the CRAB NEBULA, the galaxy
CENTAURUS A, the quasar 3C 273, and a diffuse X-ray
emission component (the X-ray background), which
appeared to be isotropic at energies above 2 keV.
The launching of the UHURU satellite by NASA in
1970 December marked the beginning of a new era for
X-ray astronomy. It carried out an all-sky survey resulting
in the discovery of more than 400 discrete X-ray sources.
More satellites followed, including the UK Ariel V satellite
and the NASA COPERNICUS satellite. In 1978 NASA
launched the EINSTEIN OBSERVATORY satellite, which
carried an X-RAY TELESCOPE with an angular resolution of
a few arcseconds. This satellite ushered in a new era in
X-ray astronomy. Consisting of a large nested grazing-
incidence X-ray telescope, it responded to photons in the
0.14 keV energy range. The combination of good
angular resolution and high sensitivity led to the discovery
of several thousand new X-ray sources during the 2 -year
operational life of the satellite. Recent X-ray satellites
include EXOSAT launched in 1983, ROSAT in 1990, and
CHANDRA and NEWTON, both launched in 1999.
There are now more than 150,000 X-ray sources
known. X-rays have even been detected from the Moon
(reflected solar coronal X-rays) and from comets. X-ray
X
spectra show highly ionized lines of oxygen, iron and
other heavy elements, often with so many electrons
stripped from the atom that they mimic the hydrogen
spectral series. It has been found that many types of
ordinary star emit X-rays. BROWN DWARFS have been
detected with X-rays from their coronae. A population of
WHITE DWARFS has been found to be continuously
emitting X-rays because material is being accreted from
441
X-ray burster
X-ray binary The strong of the neutron star and is burnt to helium (see NUCLEAR
X-ray source Cygnus X-3 is a REACTIONS). When the amount of helium on the surface
close binary system in which of the neutron star exceeds a critical amount, the helium
matter from a normal star is suddenly ignites, causing a burst of X-rays. The
being drawn into a neutron temperature can rise to 30 million K at the peak of the
star or black hole. This burst and 10 seconds later fall back to 15 million K.
Chandra X-ray Observatory Almost 30 X-ray bursters have been found in GLOBULAR
image shows a halo of CLUSTERS; for example, the first was found in NGC 6624
emission resulting from (Omega Centauri has five, M22 has four). They are
scattering by interstellar dust generally found close to the centre of the cluster, where
in the line of sight, allowing the the star density is very high. These X-ray bursters are
distance to Cygnus X-3 to be also thought to be binary stars, with a neutron star
estimated at 30,000 l.y. accreting material from a low-mass companion star.
442
Young, Charles Augustus
Yagi antenna Basic form of ANTENNA, used in RADIO The observations of spectral lines provide information
TELESCOPES and for work on the IONOSPHERE. It consists about the temperature and density of the hot plasma in
of several parallel elements mounted on a straight the Suns atmosphere, and about motions of the plasma
Y
member; it is the familiar form of a television aerial. A along the line of sight. The SXT images X-rays in the
Yagi antenna often forms the basis of cheap arrays used range 0.254.0 keV and can resolve features down to 2.5
for APERTURE SYNTHESIS. It was developed by the in size. Flare images can be obtained every 2 seconds.
Japanese engineer Hietsugu Yagi (18861976). Smaller images with a single filter can be obtained as
frequently as once every 0.5 seconds. The HXT observes
year Time taken for the Earth to complete a single hard X-rays in four energy bands and can resolve
revolution around the Sun. Several different types of structures with angular sizes of about 5. These images
year are defined, with differing lengths, according to can also be obtained once every 0.5 seconds.
which point of reference is chosen. An ANOMALISTIC Yohkoh played an important role in improving
YEAR is one revolution relative to PERIHELION; it is understanding of processes in the solar atmosphere. Of
equivalent to 365.25964 mean solar days. An ECLIPSE particular interest were the origin of solar flares, the link
YEAR is one revolution relative to the same node of the between such flares and coronal mass ejections, studies of
Moons orbit; it is equivalent to 346.62003 mean solar coronal holes and the evolution of magnetic loops.
days. Nineteen eclipse years are 6585.78 days, almost The Yohkoh spacecraft is in a slightly elliptical low
exactly the same as a SAROS. A SIDEREAL YEAR is one Earth orbit, with an altitude ranging from approximately
revolution relative to the fixed stars; it equivalent to 570 to 730 km (355 to 455 mi); 65 to 75 minutes of each
365.25636 mean solar days. A TROPICAL YEAR or solar 90-minute orbit are spent in sunlight.
year is one revolution relative to the EQUINOXES; it
equivalent to 365.24219 mean solar days. For Young, Charles Augustus (18341908) American Yohkoh This Yohkoh image
convenience, the civil or CALENDAR year is set at a whole solar astronomer at Dartmouth (186677) and Princeton of the active Sun at X-ray
number of days, usually 365 but 366 in a LEAP YEAR. (18771905) who made early spectroscopic studies of the wavelengths shows hot coronal
solar corona, proving its gaseous nature. He obtained the plasma in magnetic loops
Yerkes Observatory Observatory of the University of first FLASH SPECTRA of the solar chromosphere during a above active regions. Cooler,
Chicago, located at an elevation of 334 m (1050 ft) at total eclipse in 1870 and compiled a catalogue of bright dark regions above the poles
Williams Bay, Wisconsin, near Chicago. It is famous for solar spectral lines to measure the Suns rotational are described as coronal holes;
its 1.02-m (40-in.) refracting telescope, built in 1897 with velocity. Young obtained the first successful photographs these extend to lower solar
optics figured by ALVAN CLARK & SONS and a mounting of solar prominences in visible light. latitudes at sunspot minimum.
constructed by the WARNER & SWASEY COMPANY, and still
the largest refractor in the world. The observatory owes its
foundation to George Ellery HALE, who persuaded the
streetcar magnate Charles Tyson Yerkes (18371905) to
finance the great telescope. The observatory also has
1.02-m (40-in.) and 0.6-m (24-in) reflectors and a
number of smaller instruments. Gerard KUIPER used the
40-inch to discover MIRANDA in 1948 and NEREID the year
after. Today, though LIGHT POLLUTION limits
observational astronomy from the William Bay site, Yerkes
is still a major research institution and its astronomers use
such facilities as the Astrophysics Research Consortiums
3.5-m (138-in.) telescope at Apache Point, New Mexico,
the HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE and the telescopes of the
W.M. KECK OBSERVATORY.
443
z
Z
astronomer known for his part in the discovery of Ceres. In Zenit Heavyweight former Soviet Union satellite
1786 he began building the Seeberg Observatory near launcher, first flown in 1985, which can place payloads
Gotha, Germany; three years later he began searching for weighing 13 tonnes into low Earth orbit. The two-stage
the hypothetical planet between Mars and Jupiter predicted Zenit, built in the Ukraine, had 28 successful and 9 failed
by BODES LAW. Concluding that a more organized search launches to 2001. It mainly carried Soviet electronic
by the worlds most skilled observers would be necessary to intelligence and Earth observation satellites. The booster
find the missing planet, in 1800 he convened a meeting at also provides the basis of the SEA LAUNCH commercial
the private observatory of Johann SCHRTER, one of the satellite launcher.
CELESTIAL POLICE. On 1801 January 1, Giuseppe PIAZZI
discovered CERES, orbiting between Mars and Jupiter. The zenith Point on the CELESTIAL SPHERE directly overhead
asteroid was subsequently lost, but Zach recovered it using an observer and 90 from the horizon. This is known as
orbital calculations by Carl Friedrich GAUSS. the astronomical zenith. Because the Earth is not a sphere,
the geocentric zenith is defined as a line joining the centre
ZAMS Abbreviation of ZERO-AGE MAIN SEQUENCE of the Earth to the observer. The point 180 away from
the zenith, directly beneath an observer, is the NADIR.
Z Andromedae star (ZAND) Type of CATACLYSMIC
VARIABLE, included in the larger SYMBIOTIC STAR zenith distance Angular distance from the ZENITH to a
grouping. Z Andromedae star systems resemble DWARF celestial body, measured along a GREAT CIRCLE. It is
NOVAE, but instead of a main-sequence secondary, they usually expressed as a topocentric measure, from the
contain a red giant or supergiant together with a hot observers position on the Earths surface, but sometimes
white dwarf. The components are close together, and geocentric, as measured by a hypothetical observer at the
MASS TRANSFER appears to occur either in the form of a centre of the Earth. The zenith distance is equal to 90
stream of material or as an enhanced stellar wind, minus the altitude of the body above the horizon.
depending on the system. The material is accreted by the
white dwarf, either directly or through an ACCRETION zenithal hourly rate (ZHR) Useful index of METEOR
DISK, giving rise to occasional outbursts. Z Andromedae SHOWER activity, allowing comparison of observations
itself has a magnitude range of 8.3 to 12.4. made at different times and under different sky
conditions. Zenithal hourly rate is determined by allowing
zap crater Most commonly, a very small crater created for the altitude (a) of the shower RADIANT during
by micrometeorite impact. It is a usually lined with glasses observations, the stellar limiting magnitude (LM), and the
and surrounded by fractures. POPULATION INDEX (r, indicative of the proportions of
faint meteors that might be lost to background skyglow in
Zarya Russian Functional Energy module for the the shower under study). The derived ZHR corresponds
INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION (ISS). It was the first ISS to the expected number of meteors seen in a perfectly
component to be launched, in 1988. transparent sky (LM = 6.5) with the radiant overhead;
it is calculated by multiplying the observed hourly count
Z Camelopardalis star (UGZ) ERUPTIVE VARIABLE by 1/sin a r6.5LM.
star, a subtype of DWARF NOVA. Z Camelopardalis stars
differ from the common dwarf nova class (see U zero-age main sequence (ZAMS) MAIN SEQUENCE
GEMINORUM STAR) in that they experience occasional as defined by stars of zero age, which is the point when
standstills, remaining more or less constant in brightness they have achieved a stable state, with core temperatures
for a long period. These standstills always seem to begin sufficiently high for nuclear fusion to begin. As the star
during a decline from maximum. When the standstill evolves and changes hydrogen into helium, its chemical
ends, the star drops to minimum brightness, and then composition changes and it shifts to the right of its zero-
resumes its normal behaviour. Both the occurrence of age position on the HERTZSPRUNGRUSSELL DIAGRAM.
the standstills and their duration, ranging from a few days
to many months, are quite unpredictable. Z zero gravity Apparent absence of GRAVITATIONAL
Camelopardalis itself is the brightest member of the class. FORCES within a free-falling system. A body in a zero
It may reach magnitude 10.2 at brightest and falls to gravity or free-fall state experiences no sensation of
about 14.5 at minimum. The usual interval between weight, hence the weightlessness of astronauts, since the
outbursts is roughly 22 days. spacecraft is continuously free falling towards the Earth
while its transverse motion ensures that it gets no closer.
Zeeman effect Splitting of a spectral line into several The term zero gravity does not imply a total absence of
components by the presence of a magnetic field. Where gravity, rather it refers to an absence of any detectable
the components are unresolved, a broadened line is seen. gravitational forces. Although gravity becomes very weak
The effect allows the measurement of the strengths of at large distances from massive bodies, it nowhere declines
magnetic fields on the Sun, the stars and even in the absolutely to zero. See also ACCELERATION OF FREE FALL
interstellar medium.
Zeta Aurigae ECLIPSING BINARY with a period of 972
Zeldovich, Yakov Borisovich (191487) Russian days; the visual range is from magnitude 3.7 to 4.2. It is
astrophysicist and cosmologist, born in Minsk, modern the faintest of the three Kids near Capella. The Zeta
Belorussia, who originated the pancake model of Aurigae system consists of a hot B-type star and a
LARGE-SCALE STRUCTURE in the Universe. With Rashid supergiant companion of type K; the distance is about
Alievich Sunyaev (1943 ) he described the 790 l.y. During the partial phase of the eclipse of the hot
SunyaevZeldovich effect, an apparent reduction in star, its light shines through the outer, rarefied layers of
the temperature of the cosmic background radiation as it the supergiant, and there are complicated and informative
passes through hot ionized gas between members of spectroscopic effects. The eclipse of the B-type star is
galaxy clusters. In the early 1970s, Zeldovich and others total for 38 days; this is preceded and followed by partial
developed a model of the early Universe in which huge stages lasting for 32 days each.
Z discrete lumps of primordial matter collapsed
asymmetrically under their own weight as they cooled, Zhang Heng (AD 78139) Chinese scientist, the first in
forming thin pancakes. The model correctly predicts China to build a rotating celestial globe and an armillary
the arrangement of galaxies in sheets and voids revealed sphere with horizon and meridian rings. With these and
by REDSHIFT SURVEYS. other simple instruments, he observed and catalogued 320
444
Zllner photometer
bright stars, and estimated the total number of naked-eye zodiacal catalogue Catalogue of stars in a narrow zone
stars as 11,520. He concluded that the sky is large and the straddling the ECLIPTIC (the zodiac), through which most
Earth small a radical concept at the time. Zhang of the planets and asteroids move. OCCULTATIONS of stars
understood that the Earth and Moon are spherical, lunar in this region by the Moon, planets or smaller members
eclipses are caused by the Earths shadow falling upon the of the Solar System permit highly accurate position
Moon, and the Moon shines by reflected sunlight. measurements of the occulting body, and may also reveal
the binary nature of an occulted star, or even allow an
ZHR Abbreviation for ZENITHAL HOURLY RATE estimation of its radius. Zodiacal catalogues therefore give
highly accurate positions of stars. James Robertsons
Zijin Shan Observatory See PURPLE MOUNTAIN Catalogue of 3539 Zodiacal Stars brighter than 9th
OBSERVATORY magnitude was published in 1940; the largest zodiacal
catalogue (USNO-SA2.0) lists about 50 million stars.
zodiac Belt of CONSTELLATIONS, roughly 8 on either
side of the ECLIPTIC, through which the Sun, Moon and zodiacal dust See INTERPLANETARY DUST
planets (except Pluto) appear to pass. The zodiac
includes the 12 familiar constellations Aries, Taurus, zodiacal light Faint, diffuse conical skyglow seen
Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, extending along the ecliptic soon after twilight ends at
Capricornus, Aquarius and Pisces, which are of varying sunset, or before dawn begins to brighten the sky ahead
sizes. In ASTROLOGY, however, the zodiac is divided into of sunrise. The zodiacal light is comparable in brightness
12 equal signs, each 30 long, but because of the effects to the Milky Way, and it is best seen from temperate
of PRECESSION and re-definitions of constellation latitudes in the spring evening sky about 90 minutes after
boundaries they no longer coincide with the sunset, or in the autumn morning sky about 90 minutes
constellations of the same name. Precession has also before sunrise. At these times, the ecliptic is steeply
caused the ecliptic to now pass through the constellation inclined relative to the western or eastern horizon
Ophiuchus, while the zodiac now also includes parts of respectively. From lower latitudes between the tropics
Cetus, Orion and Sextans. and the equator viewing conditions for the zodiacal
light are favourable throughout the year. Transparent
zodiacal band Very faint band of light that extends skies and the absence of moonlight (even a crescent
along the ECLIPTIC and joins the ZODIACAL LIGHT to the moon can swamp it) are essential for successful
GEGENSCHEIN. Its brightness is variable and it can only be observation of the zodiacal light.
observed under conditions of extreme clarity when no Broadest at its base, the zodiacal light extends some
Moon is present. Like the zodiacal light, it is caused by 6090 along the ecliptic from the Sun, and it is produced
the scattering of sunlight towards the Earth by a cloud of by the scattering of sunlight from myriad small
dust particles surrounding the Sun (see INTERPLANETARY (1300 m diameter) particles lying in the plane of the
DUST). The band is faintest at around 135 from the Sun planets orbits. This material, originating from emissions
and brightens towards the cone of the zodiacal light and by comets close to perihelion and collisions in the asteroid
towards the gegenschein. belt, forms a vast zodiacal dust complex, which permeates
the inner Solar System out to the orbit of Jupiter, 5 AU
from the Sun. Spacecraft measurements show that the
dust is very much less abundant beyond Jupiter.
The zodiacal light is joined around the ecliptic to the
GEGENSCHEIN by narrow faint extensions known as the
zodiacal bands. Variations in the intensity of the zodiacal
light are thought to occur, with maximum brightness
being found at sunspot minimum when interplanetary
space is pervaded by fast-flowing particle streams from
coronal holes.
The zodiacal dust complex contains a mass of material
estimated to be equivalent to that of a typical comet
nucleus; without continual replenishment from active
comets, the complex and its associated zodiacal light
would probably disappear within about 10,000 years.
445
Zond
Zond Eight unmanned Soviet spacecraft launched in Andromeda Galaxy (M31) reached a maximum average
196470. Zond 1, 2 and 4 returned no data. Zond 3 apparent magnitude of 17. However, the nova observed
photographed the farside of the Moon in 1965. Zond 5, in 1885 in that galaxy, designated S Andromedae, had
6, 7 and 8 went around the Moon and returned to Earth reached 7th magnitude, and now that the great distance
as part of preparations for a crewed circumlunar mission. to M31 was appreciated, it was clear that this was a
phenomenon of a different order from ordinary novae.
zone of avoidance Region of the sky near the plane of Zwicky and Baade suggested that a supernova is a
the Milky Way, where dust absorption and the high cataclysmic stellar explosion that leaves behind a neutron
concentration of stars make it difficult to locate other star, and that the CRAB NEBULA was a supernova remnant
galaxies optically. It typically spans 10 on either side of the (the latter confirmed in 1968 with the discovery of the
galactic plane. Some kinds of galaxies in the zone of CRAB PULSAR). From 1936, using the newly developed
avoidance can now be detected by their radio, infrared or Schmidt camera, Zwicky discovered and examined many
X-ray emissions, which are less vulnerable to dust and gas supernovae in other galaxies.
absorption. Surveys of such galaxies are important for In 1933 Zwicky inferred the presence of dark matter
tracing LARGE-SCALE STRUCTURE, since some important by observing that outlying members of the COMA
nearby SUPERCLUSTERS and the GREAT ATTRACTOR either CLUSTER were moving more rapidly than could be
cross the zone of avoidance or lie mostly within it. explained by the calculated mass of the cluster, and four
years later he suggested that dark matter could be
Zrich number See RELATIVE SUNSPOT NUMBER investigated via gravitational lensing by intervening
galaxies. His extensive studies of galaxies culminated in
Zvezda Russian Service Module for the INTERNATIONAL the six-volume Catalogue of Galaxies and Clusters of
SPACE STATION (ISS). Galaxies (196168), listing 30,000 galaxies and 10,000
clusters, compiled with colleagues and completed just
Zwicky, Fritz (18981974) Swiss physicist and before his death.
astrophysicist, born in Bulgaria, known chiefly for his
observational and theoretical work on supernovae and his ZZ Ceti star (ZZ) White dwarf VARIABLE STAR, with
cataloguing of clusters of galaxies. He left Switzerland for low amplitude (0.0010.2 mag.). The variations arise
the United States in 1925, joining the CALIFORNIA from non-radial pulsations, and generally multiple
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY in 1927, where he was periods are present simultaneously in each star. Periods
appointed professor of astrophysics in 1942. Although range from about 30 seconds to 25 minutes. There are
Zwicky lived in America for nearly fifty years, he retained three recognized subtypes based upon the presence of
his Swiss citizenship. hydrogen, helium, or helium and carbon absorption
In 1934 he and Walter BAADE coined the term super- lines in the spectra. Approximately 50 examples are
nova. They had noted that ordinary novae in the currently known.
446
STAR
MAPS CREATED BY
WIL TIRION
Maps 1 & 2: Northern Stars to dec. +30
Map 3: Equatorial Stars, RA 18 to 0h, dec. +60 to 60
Map 4: Equatorial Stars, RA 12 to 18h, dec. +60 to 60
Map 5: Equatorial Stars, RA 6 to 12h, dec. +60 to 60
Map 6: Equatorial Stars, RA 0 to 6h, dec. +60 to 60
Maps 7 & 8: Southern Stars to dec. 30
hese star maps were specially created for this edition
T by Wil Tirion. Between them they cover the whole of
the sky, with some overlap. Maps 1 and 2, on these
4h
TAU
R US
AURIGA
pages, represent the northern stars down to declination
+30. Maps 3 to 6 cover a broad strip of the sky extend- +40
ing 60 either side of the celestial equator, suitably ori-
ented for northern hemisphere observers.
(Southern-hemisphere observers should simply turn the 58
Menkalinan
3h
book through 180.) Maps 7 and 8 show the southern
stars, to declination 30. PERSEUS
IES
All 88 constellations are shown on these maps. (An Capella
AR
index showing on which map(s) each constellation
+50
appears will be found alongside maps 7 and 8.) The 17
48
R Algol
16
TRIANGULUM
6 7
2h
Mirphak
+60
Almaak
M33
PISCES 884
+70
Double
Cluster
51
869
1h
CAMELOPARDALIS
Mirach
58
+80
M31 50
Andromeda Galaxy
1,2
ANDROMEDA
R
Schedir
CASSIOPEIA
Caph Polaris
0h
R +90
CEPHEUS +80
41,40
VV
11
5
23h
4 Alderamin
6
PEGASUS 2
+70
LACERTA
2 1
1
W
DRACO
33
60 +60
7000 North
America Nebula 2
22
1
h
Deneb
2
61 1
+50
Sadr
T
P
R
CYGNUS
21
h
52
LYRA
39
41
12
+40
Vega
20 h
KEY TO STAR
MAGNITUDES
M57 HER
0.0 and brighter 0.1 0.5 0.6 1.0 1.1 1.5 1.6 2.0 2.1 2.5 2.6 3.0 3.1 3.5 3.6 4.0 4.1 4.5 4.6 5.0 5.1 5.5 Ring Nebula
19 h
+30
18h
448
6h
+30
RT
7h STAR MAP 2: NORTHERN STARS TO DEC. 30
constellation names are in capital letters, while star
GEMINI 8h names are lower case with an initial capital. A few other
Castor
AURIGA features, for example prominent asterisms such as the
Square of Pegasus, are also named. The Milky Way is
UU
+40 shown in a lighter blue than the main background. The
3
ecliptic (the Suns path against the background stars) is
7
shown as a dashed red line. The Moon and the planets
2
5
CANCER will always be found near the ecliptic. Stars to magni-
9h
Menkalinan 4 tude 5.5 are shown (in half-magnitude steps), together
2 with major deep-sky objects. A key to star magnitudes
3
RS
and a key to map symbols accompany each chart. The
1 6 LYNX
+50 brightest stars are shown in their true colours.
21
31
38
LEO
10 UMa
10
h
10
15
2
+60 12
21
15
LEO MINOR
26
+70
2
46
11h
CAMELOPARDALIS 1 23
2 URSA MAJOR
47
M81
+80
M82
Merak
Dubhe M97
Owl Nebula
The Plough
Polaris Phecda
12h
+90 North
Pole
Megrez
T
URSA
ES
MINOR
ERENIC
5
Alioth
Y
+80 Kochab
COMA B
41,40
Mizar
Cor Caroli
Alcor
80
Thuban
M51
13 h
RR
Whirlpool Galaxy
CANES VENATICI
+70 Alkaid
DRACO
AT
+60
44
14 h
17,16
Etamin
BOTES
1
+50 2
30
15 h
HERCULES
CORONA
BOREALIS
+40
M13 1
2
h
16
KEY TO
68
Double stars Variable stars Open clusters Globular clusters Planetary nebulae Diffuse nebulae Galaxies MAP SYMBOLS
+30
17h
18h
449
STAR MAP 3: EQUATORIAL STARS, RA 18 TO 0h, DEC. 60 TO 60
13
2 Dumbbell Nebula
VULPECULA
113 95
M27 1 109
51 110 102
+20
1 SAGITTA 111
TV FF
9 S
Square of Pegasus PEGASUS
Algenib
Markab
70
Enif 1
72
+10
55
R OPHIUCHUS
DELPHINUS Altair
SERPENS
PISCES (Cauda)
TX EQUULEUS 67
70
68
0
E Q U AT O R 71
AQUILA
30 3
E R
CL
IPT
M11
3,2
1 IC
10
2 1
SCUTUM M16
2 1 Eagle
Nebula
AQUARIUS
CETUS Omega Nebula
1 M17
2
7 98 M25
Y M24
20 1
T 2
99 88
36 M20
CAPRICORNUS Trifid Nebula
86 52
2 2,1 M22
1 Nunki M8
24 Lagoon
Nebula
2
1
59
W
30
Fomalhaut M55
SCULPTOR 2 SAGITTARIUS Kaus Australis
PISCIS AUSTRINUS 1
MICROSCOPIUM
40
1
1
Ankaa 2
1
1 1
2
CORONA AUSTRALIS
2
2
1
PHOENIX Alnair
1
50
GRUS TELESCOPIUM ARA
INDUS Peacock
TUCANA
PAVO
60
0h 23h 22h 21h 20h 19h 18h
450
STAR MAP 4: EQUATORIAL STARS, RA 12 TO 18h, DEC. 60 TO 60
DRACO
URSA MAJOR
Megrez Double
Alioth stars
Alcor The Plough
80 Mizar
Phecda Variable
17,16 stars
Eltanin
+50
Open
Alkaid
44 clusters
M51
Whirlpool Galaxy
Y
Globular
clusters
BOTES
CANES VENATICI
30 2
1
+40
Planetary
Cor Caroli nebulae
M13
1
HERCULES 68 2 Diffuse
nebulae
CORONA BOREALIS
+30
Galaxies
Izar
Alphekka
W North
Galactic Pole
451
STAR MAP 5: EQUATORIAL STARS, RA 6 TO 12h, DEC. 60 TO 60
15
0.0 and Megrez
brighter
Merak
M35
LEO
54
1
COMA
BERENICES Algieba The Sickle M44 Beehive
2
+20 60
93
GEMINI
LEO
Alhena
CANCER
Denebola 30
Regulus R S
+10
31
13
ORION
Procyon 2237 8
VIRGO Rosette Nebula
CANIS MINOR
18
E Q U AT O R 1
0
2
TIC
LIP 1
EC C
SEXTANS
Alphard
MONOCEROS
10
2
U M47
12
CORVUS
1 Sirius
HYDRA
1
3 1
16 2 Mirzam
20
LEP
CRATER M41
2
Y 11
2 1
1
CANIS MAJOR
2,1 k Wezen
Adhara
3 Aludra
30
PYXIS
f
ANTLIA
v1,2
q c
U h1 COLUMBA
40 a
h2
w
d
i q e
L2
CENTAURUS
B
D P L1
m VELA a b
2
c Q
3 C
C
p J PUPPIS
M
V
H
50
H
I.2391 A Canopus
x
J CARINA
Gacrux N
CRUX g
3532
PICTOR
u
s a Avior
1
x h
2 3372 Eta Carinae Nebula
60
12h 11h 10h 9h 8h 7h 6h
452
STAR MAP 6: EQUATORIAL STARS, RA 0 TO 6h, DEC. 60 TO 60
6h 5h 4h 3h 2h 1h 0h
2 +60
Caph
1
Double Cluster
CAMELOPARDALIS
884 869 CASSIOPEIA Double
stars
Schedir
7 Variable
stars
R
Mirphak
+50
51 Open
clusters
48
Capella
Menkalinan
Globular
clusters
Almaak
Andromeda Galaxy
AURIGA M31
58 Algol
+40
16 R Planetary
PERSEUS nebulae
17 Mirach ANDROMEDA
R Diffuse
TRIANGULUM nebulae
M33
6 +30
Alpheratz
Elnath 41 Galaxies
TAURUS
Hamal
PEGASUS
2,1 2,1
Square of Pegasus
Algenib
1
ORION 2 90 5 70
PISCES
1 88
+10
2 1
2,1 2
Betelgeuse Bellatrix
3
32
4 Menkar
EC
LIP TX
TIC
5
Mintaka 6 10
0
Alnilam E Q U AT O R
Alnitak
32
2,1 M43 Mira
Orion 1 30
Nebula
2 3 2
Saiph
Rigel 10
2 1
RX CETUS 3
53 2 1
ERIDANUS
1 2
54 Deneb Kaitos 7
20
5 4 T
6 2
3
9 8
LEPUS 7
South
Galactic Pole 2
1
2
2 1
30
2
FORNAX
Phact
43 41 i
2
g SCULPTOR
COLUMBA
f
y 40
Acamar
Ankaa
s
CAELUM e
ERIDANUS
2
1 1
2 R
50
HOROLOGIUM
PHOENIX
PICTOR
p
DORADO Achernar
RETICULUM
HYDRUS TUCANA
60
6h 5h 4h 3h 2h 1h 0h
453
18h
30
STAR MAP 7: SOUTHERN STARS TO DEC. 30
19h
The constellations and their names are approved by
Kaus Australis
the International Astronomical Union. 20
h M55
SAGITTARIUS
Constellation Map
Andromeda 1, 3, 6
40
Antlia 5 2
1
Apus 8 CORONA
Aquarius 3 AUSTRALIS
21 h
1
Aquila 3
Ara 3, 4, 8 1 2
1
2
Aries 6 MICROSCOPIUM
Auriga 1, 2, 5, 6 50
Botes 4
Caelum 6
Camelopardalis 1, 2
TELESCOPIUM
Cancer 5
22 h
Canes Venatici 4
Canis Major 5 60
Canis Minor 5
Capricornus 3
Peacock
Carina 8 PISCIS AUSTRINUS
PAVO
Cassiopeia 1
1
1
Centaurus 4, 5, 8 2 2
INDUS
Cepheus 1 Alnair
2,1 70
Cetus 6 Fomalhaut 1 2
Chamaeleon 8
23 h
Circinus 4, 8
GRUS
Columba 5, 6
SX
Coma Berenices 4
Corona Australis 3, 7 80
Corona Borealis 4
Corvus 4 OCTANS
TUCANA
Crater 5
Crux 8
Cygnus 3 SCULPTOR
1
Delphinus 3
0h
90
104 (47 Tuc)
3 South
Dorado 6, 7 Pole
Draco 3 Small Magellanic Cloud
Eridanus 6 Ankaa
2
1
Fornax 6 2
Gemini 5
Grus 3 2 80
HYDRUS
Hercules 3, 4 1
MENSA
2
Horologium 6, 7 p
Hydra 4, 5 Achernar
Hydrus 7
1h
70
PHOENIX 1
2070
2
Tarantula Nebula
Large
Magellanic Cloud
R
RETICULUM DORADO
R
HOROLOGIUM
ERIDANUS 60
s
FORNAX
2h
Acamar
e PICTOR
2
2 50
1
y
CAELUM
h
f
3h
i
40
41 43
COLUMBA
4h
KEY TO STAR 2
Phact
MAGNITUDES 0.0 and brighter 0.1 0.5 0.6 1.0 1.1 1.5 1.6 2.0 2.1 2.5 2.6 3.0 3.1 3.5 3.6 4.0 4.1 4.5 4.6 5.0 5.1 5.5
5h
30
6h
454
18h
30
17 h STAR MAP 8: SOUTHERN STARS TO DEC. 30
RR
Constellation Map
M7 Indus 7
16 h
Shaula Lacerta 1, 3
G
Leo 5
SCORPIUS Leo Minor 5
40
2 1 2 1
Lepus 5, 6
2
Libra 4
2
1 Lupus 4, 8
h
15
Lynx 2, 5
LUPUS Lyra 3
1
2 Mensa 7, 8
Microscopium 3, 7
50
Monoceros 5
c2
c1
d Musca 8
2 1 2 1 Norma 8
Octans 7, 8
1
14
Ophiuchus 3, 4
PAVO Orion 5, 6
60 ARA
NORMA Menkent 4
Pavo 3, 7, 8
1 1
3
y Pegasus 3
2
2 1
Perseus 1, 6
TRIANGULUM
AUSTRALE 2 1
Phoenix 3, 6
Pictor 5, 6, 7, 8
d
Atria Pisces 3, 6
70
V Piscis Austrinus 3
Puppis 5, 8
13h
Rigil Kent R 5139
Omega Centauri
Hadar Pyxis 5
X
APUS
CIRCINUS Reticulum 6, 7
1
2 1 n Sagitta 3
Sagittarius 3, 4
80 J
e
Coalsack Scorpius 4
4755
Sculptor 3, 6
Coalsack
1
Mimosa
CENTAURUS Scutum 3
Acrux Gacrux
Serpens 3, 4
CHAMAELEON 2
D
OCTANS Sextans 5
MUSCA 1,2 CRUX
Taurus 6
12h
90
South
Pole B
Telescopium 3, 7
Triangulum 6
C3
2,1 2
C Triangulum Australe 8
x 3532 Tucana 3, 7
Southern Pleiades Eta Carinae
Nebula u
Ursa Major 2, 4, 5
I.2602 3372
80 Ursa Minor 1, 2
p HYDRA
x Vela 5, 8
MENSA Miaplacidus q s
Virgo 4
S i
J
p Volans 8
ZZ
R
Vulpecula 3
11 h
i h
U
70 N
2 c
a g
q
VOLANS
Avior m
2
M
2516 ANTLIA
H
VELA
I.2391
60 c
CARINA
10 h
PICTOR a
b
A
w
V
J e
d
Canopus Q
H P
50
PYXIS
h2
L1
h1
Naos
L2 a
q
9h
40
v1,2 f
COLUMBA
PUPPIS
8h
CANIS MAJOR KEY TO
Double stars Variable stars Open clusters Globular clusters Planetary nebulae Diffuse nebulae Galaxies MAP SYMBOLS
7h
30
6h
455
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Abbreviations NOAO/AURA/NSF 91 Anglo-Australian Observatory, Observatory, Photograph by David Malin 292b Todd
AMANDA Antarctic Muon and Neutrino Detector Array Photograph by David Malin 92 Anglo-Australian Boroson/NOAO/AURA/NSF 295 Akira Fujii/DMI 296
AUI Associated Universities, Inc. Observatory, Photograph by David Malin 97 John Caldwell Mark McCaughrean/ESO 297 NOAO/AURA/NSF 298 C.
AURA Association of Universities for Research in (York Univ. Ontario)/Alex Storrs (STScI)/NASA 98t Courtesy M. Lowne 299 Dr Seth Shostak/Science Photo Library
Astronomy, Inc. of the TRACE consortium, Stanford-Lockheed Institute for 302t NASA/JPL/USGS 302b John Bally (Univ.
Caltech California Institute of Technology Space Research/NASA 98b NASA/JPL 99 Courtesy Colorado)/NOAO/AURA/NSF 303t Mir 27 Crew CNES
CfA Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics SOHO/LASCO Consortium 100 DMR/COBE/NASA/Four- 303b Courtesy SOHO/MDI Consortium 305
CNES Centre National dtudes Spatiales, France Year Sky Map 101 DMR/COBE/NASA/Two-Year Sky Map NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems 308 Bill
CXC Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, Harvard- 103 P. Garnavich (CfA) et al/STScI/NASA 104 ESO 105 Schoening/NOAO/AURA/NSF 310 NASA/ESA/Hubble
Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics ESO 106 NASA/JPL 107t Akira Fujii/DMI 107b Heritage Team (STScI/AURA) 313 Anglo-Australian
DLR Deutschen Zentrum fr Luft- und Raumfahrt NASA/JPL/Brown Univ. 109t NASA/JPL 109b Anglo- Observatory/Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, Photograph by
DMI David Malin Images Australian Observatory, Photograph by David Malin 110 David Malin 314t Dr R. Albrecht ESA/ESO/ST-ECF/NASA
DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program Courtesy of the Deep Impact Mission/NASA 314b A. Stern (SwRI), B. Buie (Lowell
ERSDAC Earth Remote Sensing Data Analysis Center, (http://deepimpact.jpl.nasa.gov) 111 NASA 112 Observatory)/ESA/NASA 316 ESO 320 Courtesy
Tokyo NASA/JPL 113 ESO 114 Akira Fujii/DMI 116 ESO 118 SOHO/EIT Consortium 322 NASA/JPL 323 C. R.
ESA European Space Agency Akira Fujii/DMI 119 Bill Schoening/NOAO/AURA/NSF ODell/Rice Univ./NASA/STScI 324 NASA/JPL 325
ESO European Southern Observatory 121 ESO 122 NASA/JSC 125 A. Cochran (Univ. NASA/CXC/SAO 327 John Bahcall, Institute for Advanced
FTS Fourier Transform Spectrometer (Kitt Peak) Texas)/STScI/NASA 126 L. J. King (Univ. Study, Princeton/Mike Disney (Univ. Wales)/NASA 328t Dr
GSFC Goddard Space Flight Center Manchester)/STScI/NASA 127 NASA/JPL/USGS 129 John Hutchings/Dominion Astrophysical Observatory/STScI
IAC Instituto de Astrofsica de Canarias NOAO/AURA/NSF 130 Anglo-Australian 328b Gregory L. Slater/Gary A.
ING Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes Observatory/Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, Photograph by Lindford/NASA/ISAS/Lockheed-Martin Solar and
IPAC Infrared Processing and Analysis Center of California David Malin 131t NASA/JPL/USGS 131b NASA/JPL 134 Astrophysics Laboratory of Japan/Univ. Tokyo 329
Institute of Technology NASA/JHU Applied Physics Laboratory 135t A. Fruchter NASA/JPL 332 NRAO/AUI 334 NASA/JPL 335
ISAS Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, Japan and the ERO Team (STScI)/NASA 135b Anglo-Australian NASA/JPL/USGS 337 Prof. J. Huchra/Harvard-
JAROS Japan Resources Observation System Observatory/Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, Photograph by Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics 338 NASA/Hubble
Organization David Malin 136 Univ. Arizona/DLR/NASA/JPL 137 ESO Heritage Team (STScI/AURA) 340 NASA/JPL 341
JHU Johns Hopkins University 138 NASA 141t Courtesy SOHO/MDI Consortium 141b Dr NASA/JPL 343t NASA/JPL 343b Anglo-Australian
JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory S. R. McCandliss, Dr K. R. Sembach and the FUSE team Observatory/Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, Photograph by
JSC Johnson Space Center 142 SEC/NOAA/US Department of Commerce 145 David Malin 344t NASA/JPL 344b ESO 345 Bill
KSC Kennedy Space Center Courtesy SOHO EIT Consortium 147 Anglo-Australian Schoening/NOAO/AURA/NSF 346 MPE 347 Anglo-
LaRC Langley Research Center Observatory, Photograph by David Malin 148 Nigel Australian Observatory/Royal Observatory, Edinburgh,
MISR Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer Sharp/NOAO/NSO/Kitt Peak FTS/AURA/NSF 149 Photograph by David Malin 349 ESO 351 NASA/MIT/F.
MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology NASA/JPL 150 Akira Fujii/DMI 152 NASA/JPL/DLR Baganoff et al 354t NASA/Hubble Heritage Team
MITI Ministry of International Trade and Industry 153 NASA/JPL/Univ. Arizona 154 ESO 155 (STScI/AURA)/R. G. French (Wellesley College)/J. Cuzzi and
MPE Max-Planck-Institut fr extraterrestrische Physik, NASA/JPL/Brown Univ. 156 NASA/JPL/USGS 157 Gemini J. Lissauer (NASA/Ames Reseach Center)/L. Dones (SwRI)
Garching Observatory/NSF/Univ. Hawaii Institute for Astronomy 159 354b J. T. Trauger (JPL)/NASA 355t NASA/JPL 355cr
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration S. Ostro (JPL/NASA) 160 Nigel Sharp/NOAO/AURA/NSF NASA/JPL 356 NASA/KSC 361 Gran Telescopio
NCSSM North Carolina School of Science and 161 ESA/MPE 162 NOAO/AURA/NSF 163t Michael Rich, CANARIAS (GTC), Instituto de Astrofsica de Canarias 362
Mathematics Kenneth Mighell and James D. Neill (Columbia Univ.)/Wendy SETI@home/Univ. California, Berkeley 363
NSO National Solar Observatory Freedman (Carnegie Observatories)/NASA 163b Anglo- NOAO/AURA/NSF 364 NASA/KSC 365t NASA/JPL 365b
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Australian Observatory/Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, Hubble Space Telescope Comet Team/NASA 368
NOAO National Optical Astronomy Observatory Photograph by David Malin 164 S. Ostro (JPL/NASA) 165t CXC/NASA/SAO 369 NASA 370 Courtesy SOHO/LASCO
NRAO National Radio Astronomy Observatory G. Scharmer/Swedish Vacuum Solar Telescope 165b A. Consortium 372 Akira Fujii/DMI 373 Courtesy
NSF National Science Foundation Fruchter and the ERO Team (STScI, ST-ECF)/NASA 166 SOHO/MDI Consortium 374 Courtesy SOHO/LASCO
RGO Royal Greenwich Observatory ESO 167 NASA/JPL/Cornell Univ. 170 Akira Fujii/DMI Consortium 375t Rolf Kever/The Institute for Solar Physics
SAO Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 173 (x-ray) NASA/UMass/D. Wang et al (optical) of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 375b ESA 376
SOHO Solar and Heliospheric Observatory. SOHO is a NASA/HST/D. Wang 174 Courtesy SOHO/MDI Consortium Anglo-Australian Observatory, Photograph by David Malin
project of international cooperation between ESA and 175 Anglo-Australian Observatory, Photograph by David 377 Genesis Photo Library 378 NASA/KSC 383
NASA Malin 176 NASA/JPL/USGS 177 ESO 178 Sheila NOAO/AURA/NSF 384 NOAO/AURA/NSF 387t Anglo-
STScI Space Telescope Science Institute Terry/Science Photo Library 181 NASA/JPL 182 ESA 183 Australian Observatory, Photograph by David Malin 387b
ST-ECF Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility Sir Patrick Moore Collection/Ludolf Meyer 184 Anglo- Anglo-Australian Observatory, Photograph by David Malin
SwRI Southwest Research Institute, Boulder, Colorado Australian Observatory, Photograph by David Malin 185 390 NASA/Donald Walter (S. Carolina State Univ.)/ Paul
TRACE Transition Region and Coronal Explorer, Lockheed Raghvendra Sahai and John Trauger (JPL)/WFPC2 science Scowen and Brian Moore (Arizona State Univ.) 391
Martin Solar and Astrophysics Laboratories team/NASA 187 R. Williams (STScI)/NASA 188 NASA/Jayanne English (Univ. Manitoba)/Sally Hunsberger,
USAF US Air Force NASA/JSC 189 NASA/JPL 190 Akira Fujii/DMI 193tl Sarah Gallagher and Jane Charlton (Pennsylvania State
USGS US Geological Survey NASA/JPL/USGS 193tr NASA/JPL 193b Roger Univ.)/Zolt Levay (STScI) 393 Courtesy SOHO/MDI
WIYN Univ. Wisconsin, Indiana Univ., Yale Univ. and Lynds/NOAO/AURA/NSF 194l Johan Knapen/Nik Consortium 394 Courtesy SOHO/MDI Consortium 395
NOAO Szymanek (Univ. Herts) 194r Johan Knapen/Nik Szymanek NASA/GSFC/U. Hwang et al 396t Jeff Hester (Arizona
(Univ. Herts) based on data in the ING Archive 195 State Univ.)/NASA 396b Anglo-Australian Observatory,
t top, b bottom, l left, r right, c centre NASA/GSFC/LaRC/JPL/MISR Team 196 IPAC/JPL 197 Photograph by David Malin 398t NASA/JPL 398b Akira
IPAC/JPL 198 ESA/ISOCAM/ISOGAL Team 199 Fujii/DMI 399 Romano Corradi (IAC)/Mario Livio
Endpapers T. A. Rector/B. A. Wolpa/NOAO/AURA/NSF NASA/Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA) 200 (STScI)/Ulisse Munari (Osservatorio Astronomico di
Half-title ESO Opposite title ESO Opposite Foreword NASA/STS-108 Crew 201 ESA 204 NASA/JPL/Lunar and Padova)/Hugo Schwarz (Nordic Optical Telescope)/NASA
ESO Opposite page 1 NASA/JSC 3 Nigel Planetary Laboratory 206t IPAC 206b Natural History 400 Anglo-Australian Observatory, Photograph by David
Sharp/NOAO/AURA/NSF 4l NASA/JPL/Malin Space Museum, London 207 Nik Szymanek (Univ. Herts) 209 Malin 401 NASA/JPL/Univ. Arizona 402 NASA/JPL 403
Science Systems 4br NOAO/AURA/NSF 5t ESO 5b NASA/JPL 210 Ian Morison/Jodrell Bank Observatory 212 NASA/JPL 405 NASA/JPL/Lunar and Planetary
NASA/GSFC 6 NASA 7t Science Photo Library 7b NASA/JPL/Univ. Arizona 213t Reta Beebe/Amy Simon Observatory 409t STScI 409b NASA/JPL 410t
NASA/JPL 8 NASA 10 NASA/JPL 13t NASA/JPL/Caltech (New Mexico State Univ.)/STScI/NASA, 213b NASA/GSFC 410b S. Ostro (JPL/NASA) 411t Bill
13b NASA/JPL/Cornell Univ. 14 Science Photo Library 16 NASA/ESA/John Clarke (Univ. Michigan) 214 NASA/JPL Livingston/NOAO/AURA/NSF 411b Alan Fitzsimmons 412
T. A. Rector/B. A. Wolpa/NOAO/AURA/NSF 18 Sir Patrick 215 Anglo-Australian Observatory, Photograph by David Robert Dalby/Nik Szymanek (Univ. Herts) 413
Moore Collection 19 AMANDA Collaboration 21 Malin 216 NASA 218 Anglo-Australian Observatory, NASA/JPL/USGS 415 ESO 416 Anglo-Australian
NASA/JPL 22t NASA 22b NASA/David R. Scott 25 Photograph by David Malin 219t NOAO/AURA/NSF 219b Observatory/Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, Photograph by
National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center/Cornell S. Ostro (JPL/NASA) 221 A. Caulet (ST-ECF, ESA)/NASA David Malin 417 Courtesy Tunguska Page of Bologna Univ.
Univ./NSF 26 NASA/JPL 27t NASA/JPL 27b 222t NASA/JPL 222b NASA/LaRC 223 NASA/JPL 228 (http://www.th.bo.infn.it/tunguska) 419t NASA/Hubble
NASA/JPL/USGS 28t NASA/USAF 28b Chuck Claver, Alcatel Space Industries 230 NASA/GSFC/DMSP 231 Heritage Team (STScI) 419b NASA/KSC 420t Courtesy of
Nigel Sharp (NOAO)/WIYN/NOAO/NSF (Courtesy WIYN NASA/Harold Weaver (JHU)/HST Comet LINEAR the UK Infrared Telescope, Mauna Kea Observatory, Hawaii
Consortium, Inc. All Rights Reserved) 32 J. and M. Tich, Investigation Team 236t NASA/JSC 236b NASA HQ 237 420bl Nik Szymanek (Univ. Herts) 420br Nik Szymanek
Klet Observatory, Czech Republic 34 David Parker/Science NASA/JSC 239 NOAO/AURA/NSF 241 Anglo- (Univ. Herts) 421 NASA/JPL 422 Heidi Hammel
Photo Library 39 NASA 43 Akira Fujii/DMI 45 Anglo- Australian Observatory/Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, (MIT)/NASA/STScI 423 Kenneth Seidelmann, US Naval
Australian Observatory, Photograph by David Malin 46 S. Photograph by David Malin 244 ESO 245 NASA/JPL 246t Observatory/NASA/STScI 424 Akira Fujii/DMI 425
Ostro (JPL/NASA) 47 The Boomerang Collaboration 48 NASA/JPL/USGS 246b NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science NASA/JPL/USGS 426 IAC/RGO/Malin, Photograph by
ESO 49t All Rights Reserved Beagle 2. Systems 247 NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems David Malin 428t Anglo Australian Observatory,
(http://www.beagle2.com) 49b Robin Scagell/Science 249t NASA/JPL/GSFC 249b NASA/JPL 250 Photograph by David Malin 428b Novosti 429t NASA/JPL
Photo Library 50 Akira Fujii/DMI 51 ESO 52 NASA/JPL ESA/ESO/MACHO Project Team 251t NASA/JHU Applied 429b NASA/JPL 430 ESO 431l Steve Massey 431r Steve
53t A. Dupree (CfA)/NASA/STScI 53b Big Bear Solar Physics Team 251b Richard Wainscoat/Gemini Massey 432 NASA/JPL/USGS 433
Observatory 56 Nik Szymanek (Univ. Herts) based on data Observatory/AURA/NSF 254 NASA/JPL 255 NASA/JPL NASA/GSFC/MITI/ERSDAC/JAROS and US/Japan ASTER
in the ING archive 57 NRAO/NSF 58 Bruce Balick and 256 Daniel Bramich (ING)/Nik Szymanek (Univ. Herts) 257 434 NASA/JPL 435 Akira Fujii/DMI 436 Javier Mndez
Jason Alexander (Univ. Washington)/Arsen Hajian (US Naval Alan Fitzsimmons 262 Anglo-Australian Observatory, (ING)/Nik Szymanek (Univ. Herts) 437 Harvey Richer (Univ.
Obs.)/Yervant Terzian (Cornell Univ.)/Mario Perinotto (Univ. Photograph by David Malin 263 NASA/JPL 264t British Columbia)/STScI/NASA 438 Nik Szymanek (Univ.
Florence)/Patrizio Patriarchi (Arcetri Observatory)/NASA 59 NASA/JSC 264b Akira Fujii/DMI 265 NASA/JPL/USGS Herts) 439 Anglo-Australian Observatory, Photograph by
Rex Saffer (Villanova Univ.)/Dave Zurek (STScI) 62t 268 NASA/JPL/USGS 269 NASA/JSC 274 Alistair Gunn, David Malin 441 NASA/CXC/Rutgers/J. Hughes et al 442t
NASA/JPL 62b T. Nakajima and S. Kulkarni (Caltech)/S. Jodrell Bank Observatory 276 Scott Manley and Duncan NASA/SRON/MPE 442b (X-ray) NASA/CXC/SAO (optical)
Durrance and D. Golimowski (JHU) 63 NOAO/AURA/NSF Steel 278t NASA/JPL 278b Lawrence Sromovsky (Univ. AURA/NOAO/NSF 443 ISAS 445 Domenic Cantin 447
65 NASA/JPL 68t NASA/JPL 68b NASA/JPL 70 Carl Wisconsin-Madison)/STScI/NASA 279l NASA/JPL 279r ESO
Grillmair (Caltech)/NASA/STScI 71 Natural History NASA/JPL 280 NASA/JPL 281t Institute for Cosmic Ray
Museum, London 72 Anglo-Australian Observatory, Research, Univ. Tokyo 281b NASA/NCSSM/C. Olbert et al
Photograph by David Malin 73 NASA/JPL/Univ. Arizona 74 284 Robin Scagell/Galaxy Picture Library 285t Ian King Illustration acknowledgements
Akira Fujii/DMI 75t NASA/CXC/SAO 75b S. Ostro 285b Mike Shara, Bob Williams and David Zurek Artworks prepared by Philips/Raymond Turvey
(JPL/NASA) 79 NOAO/AURA/NSF 82 ESO 83 (STScI)/NASA 288t NASA/UMass/D. Wang et al 288b Stefan Chabluk 40
NASA/MIT/F. Baganoff et al 84 NASA/JPL/USGS 86 NASA/JPL/USGS 289 NASA/JPL 290 NASA/JPL/Arizona Cartography by Philips 122 and 408
NASA/JPL/USGS 87 ESA 88 H. Weaver (JHU)/NASA 89 State Univ. 291 NASA/JPL/USGS 292t Anglo-Australian Star Maps created by Wil Tirion 44855
456