THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Many people thought Educational Technology means equipment, tools,

gadgets, and technical instruments used in teaching and learning.

Educational technology means more than this. The problem of having

a common definition for educational technology has not been solved

through various attempts .Many reasons account for this. In the first

place, the terms education and technology from which the term

educational technology is derived are subject to many interpretations.

Secondly, the problem of definition comes from lack of consensus on

the SCOC of the subject. At one end, educational technology is seen as

being concerned with virtually all aspects of education from a lesson

or unit to the national educational system within which it operates. At

the other extreme, some restrict it to instructional materials or audio-

visual aids.

Thirdly, educational technology spans diverse fields such as education,

psychology, telecommunications, information systems, management

science and engineering. Different writers with backgrounds in these

fields tend to see the subject from their own perspective.

Fourthly, educational technology is often wrongly used

interchangeably by some with the terms: instructional technology,

technology of education, technology in education programmed

learning, operant conditioning, computers, information and

communication technology, educational media, etc.

THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

1
 Various attempts have been made to define the term educational

technology. The definitions have differed from one scholar to another.

Davies (1978) cited by Agun I. and Imogie I. (1988:13), identifies three

concepts of educational technology which represent three different

approaches to educational technology. We have educational technology

as hardware, as software and as systems approach.

Educational Technology as Hardware

This approach to educational technology characterised the early

formative years of the field. It sees educational technology as the

devices, equipment, machines, gadgets, tools and instruments used to

promote teaching and learning. This is also known as the tools

technology approach.

Educational Technology as Software

The software approach to educational technology emphasizes careful

design of the teaching- learning process using principles of

behavioural sciences. It is closely associated with programmed

learning and the behavioural objectives movement. It is the

behavioural science concept of educational technology. Emphasis is on

applying learning principles to the direct and deliberate shaping or

modifying of behaviour.

Educational Technology as Systems Approach

The systems approach is also known as the step-by-step plan, systems

analysis, systematic approach and systems technology. The systems

approach is an attempt to remedy the inherent weakness of the

2
approaches above. It sees educational technology as the systematic

application of ideas, resources, people, materials and equipment to the

solution of educational problems.

According, to Gibson (1971) quoted by Unwin D.

and McAlesee (1978), educational technology:
encompasses the systematic application of people,
ideas, materials and equipment to the solution of
educational problems... The process by which the
learning materials are selected or produced, by
which the modes of communication are designed,
and arranged in the learning environment, and the
strategies by which human and non-human
resources are utilized to improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of education is educational
technology.

The systems approach may be illustrated with the learning system.

The learning system according to Imogie and Agun (1988:47) is an

organized combination of people, materials, facilities, equipment, and

procedures which interact to achieve a goal. This is illustrated with

the diagram below:

3
DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Some of the various definitions of educational technology from various

sources and authors are as follows:

According to Educational Technology Act of US Congress in Grayson,

(1972: 883) quoted in Unwin, D. and Mc Aleese (1978). Educational

technology:

refers to hardware and software, including television,

radio, electronic classroom, instructional devices, still
and motion picture projectors, computer-assisted or
managed instructional equipment and materials,
communications equipment for educational
application, and oilier equipment and materials ...
necessary to assist the process of learning.

This definition restricts the meaning of educational technology to

instructional media, with emphasis on the gadgets used in learning.

The concept of technology in education is seen in terms of physical

products.

4
(b) Educational Technology according to Tickton, (1970:21) quoted

Agun, I. and Imogie, I. (1988:2) is:

a systematic way of designing, carrying out and

evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in
terms of specific objectives, based on research in
human learning and communication, and employing a
combination, of human and nonhuman resources to
bring about more effective instruction.

This definition defines educational technology in terms of the product

and process of technology as a way of organizing materials and men.

(c) Gagne (1968: 6) quoted in Unwin, D. and McAlesee (1978:313)

defined educational technology as the:

the development of a set of systematic techniques, and

accompanying practical knowledge for designing, testing
and operating schools as educational systems ....It draws
upon many disciplines, including those which design
working space, like architecture,. equipment, like the
physical sciences; social environments, like sociology and
anthropology ; . Administrative procedures, like the
science of organizations and conditions far effective
learning, like psychology.

This definition draws attention to the various fields that contribute to

educational technology.

(d) Educational Technology is also concerned with designing the

system as a whole; identifying alms and objectives, planning the

learning environment, exploring and structuring the subject matter,

selecting appropriate teaching strategies and learning media, evaluating

5
the effectiveness of the learning system and using the insights gained

from evaluation to improve that effectiveness for the future .

(Rowntree, D. (1974: 2).

This definition outlines the various operations that are carried out in

the field of educational technology.

The need for standard definitions and terms in the field of educational

technology has been the concern of the Association for Educational

Communication and Technology in the United States of America

(A.E.C.T.). After 14 years of work, the Association came up with the

most acceptable and professional definition:

Educational Technology is a complex, integrated process

involving people, procedures, ideas, devices, and
organization for analyzing problems, and devising,
implementing, evaluating and managing solutions to those
problems involved in all aspects of learning. In educational
technology, the solutions to problems take the form of all the
Learning Resources that are designed and/or selected as
Messages, People, Materials, Devices, Techniques and
Settings. The process for analyzing problems and devising,
implementing and evaluating solutions and identified by the
Educational Development Functions of Research - Theory,
Design, Production, Evaluation, Selection, Logistics, and
Utilization. The processes of directing or coordinating one or
more of these functions are identified by the Educational
Management Functions of Organization, Management and
Personnel Management.

Phases of Educational Technology

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Rowntree, Derek (1974:12 ) has identified four phases of educational

technology as:

1. Objectives (involves analyzing aims, specifying objectives and

designing criterion tests).

2. Design of learning
3. Evaluation
4. Improvement

This is illustrated in the diagram below:

OBJECTIVES AS CORNER STONE OF EDUCATIONAL

TECHNOLOGY

Educational technology is objectives oriented. It starts with objectives

and ends with objectives.

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AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

Every human activity and behaviour is oriented towards achieving a

purpose or attaining a target. This may be stated (or implied) as an

aim, a goal, an intention, a goal, an expected outcome, an objective, a

criterion or a standard.

TYPES OF OBJECTIVES

Various terms have been used to refer to the purpose or intent or

outcome of instruction. We have: aims, goals, objectives (terminal or

enabling) etc. Generally speaking, we can compress them to two: aims

(i.e. general or terminal objectives) at one end, and objectives

(instructional, behavioural, specific or enabling) at the other end.

Various types of objectives exist. Some writers like Benjamin Bloom

(1956), Davids R. Krathwohl et. al. (1964), Elizabeth Simpson (1971)

have taken time to classify or categorise objectives.

Generally speaking, there are three classes or domains of educational

objectives: cognitive, affective and psychomotor.

Cognitive Domain

The cognitive domain covers the thinking process such as

remembering, evaluating and problem solving. In. the cognitive

domain, Bloom (1956) identified six levels of objectives, with know-

ledge as the lowest level and evaluation as the highest:

Affective Domain

8
The affective domain taxonomy was developed by David R. Krathwohl

er.al (1964). Thedomain concerns the learners feelings, attitude,

interests, etc.

Psychomotor Domain

This domain focuses on objectives that involve the learner in some

kind of muscular activity. These objectives are often taught in physical

education, science practical, home economics, classes, introductory

technology classes, etc. The most widely used psychomotor objectives

taxonomy was developed by Elizabeth Simpson (1971).

BENEFITS OF OBJECTIVES

Objectives that are clearly stated in behavioural terms have many

benefits.

1. Objectives enable the instructor to communicate the intended

outcomes of instruction to students, teacher, and parents.

2. Precise objectives help students to learn better and faster. They

know the objectives ofa course and are given appropriate

references and resource materials to work towards those

objectives.

3. Objectives serve as a good source for assessment and evaluation.

Well specified objectives help the teacher to select appropriate

ways of checking or testing to find out whether the students have

acquired the specified knowledge, skills and attitudes or can

perform the actions indicated in the objectives. An objective can

9
 often be converted into a test question, with the verb determining

what type of test item to construct.

4. Objectives help the teacher (and even learner) to select and

structure the content of teaching. Objectives highlight and

suggest important topic areas of a course and even the way to go

about attaining it.

5. Objectives can help the teacher decide on appropriate learning

activities and teaching media. Well stated objectives will help the

teacher decide on what experiences they should pass through.

6. Objectives help to translate the broad aims into more attainable

learning outcomes, specific content and learning experiences.

7. Specifying objectives enables the teacher to concentrate on the

learners needs.

8. It provides focus for curriculum planners, teachers and

educational administrators.

WRITING OBJECTIVES

Objectives come from aims (educational goals, general or terminal

objectives). Aims come from the views we (teachers, students, parents,

employers and other stake holders) hold about the future needs of

people in society and about the skills needed by individual students.

They come from the subject matter that can facilitate the acquisition

of these skills. It is therefore important that we put at the back of our

mind the broad aims (goals) as we develop specific, instructional,

behavioural, performance, enabling, or learning objectives.

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A specific objective is a precise statement of the behaviour, action,

ability, skill or competency that a learner must posses as a result of

the instruction. It is a statement of what the learners should he able

to do after the instruction, which they couldnt do before.

Objectives for a lesson, a module, a unit, or an instruction ultimately

come from the national policy, syllabus, and scheme of work, text

books, curriculum guides, or sequencing charts.

The following ABCD format may be useful as you write the objectives:

A = Audience that will perform the objectives.

B = Behaviour expected of the performer.

C = Conditions under which the audience will perform when assessed.

D = Degree of measurement used to determine acceptable

performance.

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND INSTRUCTIONAL

TECHNOLOGY

As earlier noted, the two concepts of educational technology and

instructional technology may be mistakenly used interchangeably.

Although both are interrelated, Educational technology is a wider

concept and subsumes instructional technology. In other words,

instruction is a sub-set of educational technology.

Whereas educational may include everything from administration,

finance, curriculum to sanitation, the term instructional is restricted

to teaching and learning.

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The Association of Educational Communications and Technology

(AECT) in 1979, defined Instructional Technology as follows:

Instructional Technology is a complex, integrated process

involving people, procedures, ideas, devices and
organisation for analyzing problems, and devising,
implementing, evaluating, and managing solutions to those
problems, institutions in which learning is purposive and
controlled (AECT, 1979 :3).

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND

INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

There is misconception between some people that educational

technology and instructional technology are the same. In reality both

relates to education but there are certain glaring differences between

the two which can be described as:

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

1. Concept: it is a wider more 1. It is a sub-system of the main

comprehensive and broad system of educational

based concept technology. It refers to one of

the parts of educational

technology. It is a narrow.
2. Priority of goals. Priority of goal Priority of goals can be decided "in

can be decided in view of the context view of the locality and needs of the

and needs of the nation. specified

Learners
3 General supports: Educational Instructional Technology provides a

technology provides a general definite part of the curriculum to the

support to the teacher. students at regular intervals.

12
4. Academic performances: Academic 4. Academic performance of the

performance of the learner could learner could be determined in terms

be determined at national or or specifically and rigidly laid down

regional level terminal behaviour at the end of each

lesson.
5. Feedback is emphasized for 5. Feedback is emphasized for

teaching -learning at macro level improving teaching-learning at micro

- level
6. Production materials: Large; 6. Smaller material is produced by a

materials such as books, films, few interested teachers to make

programmed instruction materials their own classrooms situations

are produced on large scale. !

better
7. Projects: Educational; Technology 7. Instructional technology is

is concerned with large scale concerned with the short term

project and involves; long periods of projects on a smaller scale.

time.
8. Behaviour Outcomes: These may 8. These may be decided in view of

be decided keeping in view the the specific expectations from

ultimate needs of the nation. learners.

9. Skills and competencies: Efforts 9. Efforts are made for discovering

are made for discovering the skills skills and competencies of learners in

and competencies of learners all over specific and limited geographic area.

nation.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

The history of educational technology is as old as the history of

education. As education developed, more effective and efficient means

13
of instruction was developed. Right from the Stone Age, man has

sought ways of improving the educational enterprise. The use of visual

materials dates back to the Stone Age period when visual aids such as

stones, pebbles, sticks and cowries were used to enhance effective

communication and learning. The Egyptian hieroglyphics (visuals)

marked the beginning of writing.

The Sophists who lived in Athens in about the last half of the 5th

Century BC were probably the first educational technologists. It is

believed that their lectures were carefully prepared and delivered in a

systematic manner. They were also believed to be the first people to

develop techniques of analysis in teaching.

Philosophers like Socrates (479 - 399BC), Plato (428 - 349BC), St.

Thomas Acquinas and Aristotle dealt with issues relating to the right

methods of instruction, the sequence to be followed and the evaluation

to be adopted. The Socratic method of carefully structuring questions

and answers is well known. It included short organized units of

instruction directed toward specific objectives and tailored toward an

individual students interests and abilities. Aristotle considered note

taking as an essential part of the learning process. Both viewed

learning as an active and individual process based on objectives and a

structured learning environment.

A significant turning point in the history of educational technology

came in the year 1450 AD when a German, John Guttenberg, invented

a printing press. His invention gave birth to the age of books,

14
revolutionized the communication process and increased accessibility

to recorded information.

Several other inventions have contributed to the evolution of

educational technology. In the 19th Century, we had: the telegraph

(1837), typewriter (1867), telephone (1876), transparent film (1878),

incandescent lamp (1879), record cylinder (1887), record disc, AC

Motor (1892), photographic paper (1898) and wireless telephone

(1899). In the 20th Century, there were: radio tube and amplifier

(1907), mass production techniques (1909), heterodyne radio (1913),

television (1927), talking movies, FM radio (1935), Xerography (1938),

computer memory (1945). electric digital computer (1946), transistor

(1947), cybernetic theory (1948), information theory, Skinners The

science of learning and the art of teaching (1954), communications

satellite (1962), Open University in Britain (1972), extremely high

speed computer printing (1978), low-cost personal computer (1981)

(source: Knirk F. G. & Gustafson, K. L. (1986).

Imogie (2002: 34) identifies the following trends in the history of

modern educational technology:

Visual Instruction movement which emphasized the use of visual

materials to make more concrete the abstract ideas being taught;

classified the types of visual aids and emphasized the need to

integrate visual materials with instruction.

From Visual Instruction to Audio Visual Instruction: - had

impetus from the coming of sound recording motion pictures.

Both visual and audio visual instruction movements emphasized

things, sense and concreteness.

15
 From Audio Visual Instruction to Communications - emphasis

began to shift from devices (equipment) and materials to the

process of communicating information from source (teacher) to

the receiver (learner).

From Audio Visual Instruction to Early Systems Concepts - the

systems concept of educational technology revolutionized the

field with its emphasis on the identification and integration of

components of a system with a view to increasing system

efficiency. Audio-Visual materials were now seen as products to

he arranged and integrated in such a way as to solve identified

instructional problems and achieve specified objectives.

The communication and system concepts above were the two

dominant features and characteristics in the field in the early

1960s.
Audio Visual Communication: Synthesizing communications and

early systems concepts: The planning, production, selection,

management and utilization of the components of the entire

instructional system were now emphasized. The learning process

received more attention. Emphasis was now on synthesizing the

concepts of communications, systems, elements or components

of a system and design of a system and the concept of learning

theory.
Behavioural Science Concepts of Educational Technology: It

started in the middle of the 19th Century and drew its ideas

from the behavioural science particularly anthropology, sociology

and psychology. Specifically, it is necessary to note the

influences of two notable learning theorists (B. L. Thorndikes

classical conditioning and B. F. Skinners Operant conditioning

16
 theories) and the emergence of the systems approach in the late

1950s and early 1960s. Both Thorndike and Skinner studied the

laboratory behaviour of animals and then postulated theories of

human learning. Thorndike postulated the laws of cause and

effects, law of exercise, and law of readiness. Skinner gave the

theory of operant conditioning which emphasized that behaviour

is strengthened via reinforcement.

The systems approach, which has its origin in the United States

of America Air force is a sophisticated engineering concept used

for the development of weapon system. The systems approach

requires that a problem be identified and clearly specified,

broken down into its components, examined to see the inter-

relationships of the elements, before proffering solutions. It

requires a holistic view of the problem.

The behavioural science concept of educational technology, according

to Agun and Imogie (1988: 9) has had the following positive influence:

1. It shifted emphasis from products (concrete things as aids to

instruction) to the process of instruction.

2. It encouraged the application of research results to the design of

instruction.
3. It encouraged a holistic approach to educational problems by re-

emphasizing the view of the educational enterprise as a system

with sub-systems that are intrinsically related.

4. It encouraged the development of procedures and methods for

identifying and analyzing educational problems and for finding

solutions to them.

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 5. It encouraged the development of procedures and strategies for

effective and efficient utilization of ideas and resources to

improve the quality of education.

HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN NIGERIA

The early beginnings of educational technology in Nigeria can be

traced to the colonial era when the managers of voluntary agency

schools emphasized the production and use of simple learning

materials commonly known as teaching aids. Trainee teachers and

practising teachers were expected to produce and use both

representational materials such as pictures, maps, models as well as

real objects such as local seeds, plants, scenes, etc. The colonial

government in 1930 promulgated the first Education Ordinance which

provided that schools should have adequate teaching apparatus. Thus,

resource aspect of educational technology (or the hardware approach)

permeated the educational system and evolved with it.

In addition to the use of low cost materials in the schools, the British

Broadcasting Cooperation, London, in 1933 transmitted the first

educational programme in its West African Overseas Service. These

were for English Language and were once a week. The Nigerian

Broadcasting Service (NBS) was established in 1951. it inherited this

limited educational programme from the BBC. Similarly, towards the

end of the 1950s, the regional governments established Schools

Broadcasting Units in their regional headquarters utilizing the

broadcasting facilities of the NBS stations. By 1961, each of the three

Regional Governments had a Radio-Television Station of its own which

18
transmitted programmes on various subjects such as English,

Teaching Methodology, Civics, Geography and History to schools.

Between 1959 and 1962, Audio-Visual Centres were established by the

United States Agency for International Development (USAID) in the

former regions of Nigeria. (Imogie 1984: 28). It was these Audio-Visual

Centres that eventually formed the nucleus of the present Educational

Resources Centres in the different states. These centres were

established as units in the Ministry of Education.

The founding of modern educational technology in Nigeria may be

traced to the contributions, support and expert advice from such

international organizations as United Nations Educational Scientific

and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Centre for Educational

Development Overseas (CEDO) in Britain, United States Agency for

International Development (USAID), the Ford Foundation, Carnegie

Corporation, and the Canadian Universities Overseas. These bodies

assisted the Ministries of Education in the three regions in

establishing audio-visual units and the schools broadcasting units.

They also assisted the universities and some other Institutions of

higher learning in establishing their audio-visual units e.g. the Audio-

Visual Aids Unit of the Institute of Education, University of Ibadan

(1962), the Comparative Education Studies and Adoption Centre

(CESAC), the Curriculum Development and Instructional Materials

Centre (CUD1MAC) of University of Nigeria, Nsukka, the audio-visual

units of the Colleges of Education at Abraka and Lagos, the micro-

teaching programme at the Alvan Ikoku College of Education. Owerri.

19
Not only did these international organisations give materials, financial

and expert support, they also infused into the educational system the

idea of proper identification of educational problems, the statement of

objectives, logical sequencing and integration, evaluation and

research. They contributed greatly to the introduction of programmed

learning methods and applications.

EMERGENCE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

CENTRE

The three regional governments had Schools Broadcasting Units

which produced and transmitted radio and television programmes for

schools throughout Nigeria. Of the three, the most stable and active

was the Northern Schools Broadcast Unit. Its broadcasts were received

and used throughout Nigeria. Following the creation of states in 1967

and the breakup of the Northern Region into six states, the Northern

Schools Broadcast Unit was taken over in April 1, 1969 by the Federal

Government and re-named Federal Schools Broadcast Unit, Kaduna.

On 10 April 1975, the Federal Schools Broadcast Unit was merged

with the National Resources Centre, Lagos and Audio-Visual Aids

Development Centre, Kaduna. On 10 April 1977, this centre was

changed to the National Educational Technology Centre, Kaduna with

the following objectives:

1. The development and production of Educational Radio and

Television programmes for schools (Primary, Secondary and

Teacher Training Colleges).

2. The development and production of instructional teaching aids

for use in schools, using local materials.

20
 3. The training of specialists in the field of educational

broadcasting (Radio and Television, Audio-Visual Aids).

4. The conduction of seminar/conferences to teachers and teacher

trainers on the application of educational technology to class

teaching.
5. Provision of consultancy services to the Federal and State

Governments in the fields of the Broadcast Media, Audio Visual

Aids and Instructional System Technologies.

6. Establishment of National Educational Resource Library of

Equipment and materials for dissemination throughout the

country.
7. Documentation and collation of statistical data on the Broadcast

and Audio Visual Aids Services in the country.

8. Training of Educational Technologists and cinematographers for

services in Federal and State Government Establishments.

9. Assessment, evaluation and classification of imported

instructional aids, materials and equipment marketed in the

country (Nwamadi in Ogunranti (ed) (1982 : 257).

NATIONAL POLICY AND EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Thus, the activities that set the stage for the use of educational

technology was concluded with the emergence of the National

Educational Technology Centre in 1977 side by side with the National

Policy on Education. The policy was first published in 1977 and

revised in 1981 and devoted section 10, pp 42 43to the educational

technology under the heading Educational Services.

According to the National Policy on Education, the objectives of

Educational Technology are to:

21
 i. To develop, assess and improve educational programmes;
ii. To enhance teaching and improve competence of teachers;
iii. To make learning more meaningful for children
iv. To reduce educational costs;
v. To promote in-service education:
vi. To develop and promote an effective use of innovative materials

in schools.

To achieve these objectives, the National Policy on Education planned

the following measures:

To establish Teachers Resource Centres in all the states

To establish Curriculum Development Centres
To provide more fund to the NERDC and the universities by both

Federal and State governments

To established language centres, educational resources centres,

science and mathematics centres, workshops, libraries as well as

guidance and counselling centres.

THE NATIONAL TEACHERS INSTITUTE

Apart from the NETC, Kaduna, the National Teachers Institute,

Kaduna was established in 1976 to train under-qualified and

untrained teachers using the distance learning system. So far, the

Institute has run the following programmes by the distance learning

system: TC II, NCE, PTTP and Advanced Diploma and Post graduate

programmes. The media of instruction include self-instructional texts,

recorded audio and video cassettes and face-to-face contacts.

The Institute the following facilities: well equipped computer centre,

Internet caf with 10 work stations; a virtual library, printing press,

media resource centre, audiovisual section with studio and graphic art

22
and illustration, 50 watts FM stereo transmitter for radio NTI and V-

sat In link the NTI headquarters with the Zonal and State Offices.

23
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN FORMAL AND

NON FORMAL SETTINGS.

Educational technology performs the following functions:

1) It makes learning to become more concrete, real, immediate and

permanent. For example, videos, films, pictures, television and

the radio can bring to learners different animals, places, people

and events in their physical, natural context from the real world

outside into the classroom.

2) It makes instruction more scientific and systematic. Teaching

and learning are targeted at measurable objectives and based on

well researched learning theories.

3) It makes education to become more productive. Learners can

learn with speed and accuracy. Teachers can do more creative

work by allowing technology to handle routine jobs of

information transmission and heavy burden of administrative

tasks such as marking, recording, etc.

4) It helps to individualize instruction as the different learning

needs of students can hemet and catered for. Each learner can

go at his own pace and time.

5) Similarly, it gives equal access to education. With the internet,

for example, it is easy to gain access to the best libraries in the

world.
6) It provides the teachers with the means of arousing and

sustaining the interest of learners as well as promoting positive

attitude to learning. The teacher is able to vary his mode of

instruction using various devices. Use of instructional media

helps to generate interest.

24
 7) It promotes self-instruction. This course text is self-instructional.

It is a product of educational technology.

8) It promotes retention as the object being learnt can be seen,

smelt, tasted, touched, felt or heard by the learner. A learner, for

example, that engages in the dissection of a specimen is more

likely to retain and recall the essential internal features of the

specimen then one who simply listened to the lecture.

Imogie (1985) quoting Armsey and DahI (1973) summarized the

functions of educational technology as follows:

To improve instruction (qualitative)

To educate more people (qualitative)
To learn about learning (research)
To reform the curriculum (substance)
To improve the process (method) and
To articulate the system (structure).

IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY FOR A TEACHER

Scientific developments in the field of science, education, psychology

has revolutionalized the role of n teacher. The change in his role in

discharging his duties a teacher of modern age realizes the used of

educational technology in his profession because of the following

reasons:

i. Educational technology has provided a scientific base to the

educational theory and practice. It has provided an impetus to

classroom research because in its functional utility, the

empirical findings on educational practice are utilized to

improve the same.

25
 ii. The introduction of educational technology facilitates

modernization in the teaching-learning climate of institutions.

It has also given an opportunity to learners to be exposed to

professionally designed programmes on video or computers.

iii. Education technology supplements teachers in their

instructional programmes through the structured lessons for

remedial, enrichment or drill purposes.

iv. The learner gets the training of self-instruction and teachers

are relieved of the burden of routine repetition for exercise and

revision purposes.

v. Educational technology encourages a systematic organization

of content and instruction and integrating the teacher

directed instruction with structured material, teachers may

serve sometime of their routine teaching. That time may be

utilized for creative work and quality improvement.

The training and use of educational technology contributes towards

the professional growth of teachers. Its training equips them in the

use of scientific method of solving educational problems, its use adds

to teaching competence of teachers, as review and modification of the

programmes through the feedback of results at every aspect; it is the

main message of educational technology. It inculcates a scientific

outlook and scientific temper in teachers and hopefully through

induction, in learners too.

CONSTRAINTS MILITATING AGAINST EFFECTIVE PRACTICE OF

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY IN NIGERIA

26
Educational Technology is an educational innovation. Its practice is

therefore faced with a number of problems. Firstly, there is the

problem of ignorance and misconception of what educational

technology is. Some see educational technology in terms of teaching

aids and or the use of gadgets, tools and devices like projectors, films,

radio, television, computer, etc. The tendency of such a narrow view is

to focus on only the tools aspect of education, overemphasize gadgets

in schools and neglect the process of instruction and other important

aspects. In Nigeria for example, so much money was spent in

importing tools for Introductory Technology, with much of the gadgets

lying idle for several years due to so many factors. A correct conception

of educational technology would have suggested a more careful and

holistic planning, implementation and evaluation of the project.

Another serious factor militating against the effective practice of

Educational Technology in Nigeria is what Imogie (1984: 34) calls lack

of institutional readiness for Educational Technology. These are

factors related to the adoption and diffusion of Educational

Technology as an educational innovation. The factors include:

a) Bureaucratic bottlenecks and rigid organisational structure that

oppose innovation and insist on maintaining the status quo.

b) Poor reward system that does not recognise or promote the use

of innovative techniques of Educational Technology.

c) Lack of professionally or academically trained personnel in

Educational Technology limits the practice of the field.

d) Poor funding and allocation for Educational Technology at the

various levels of the educational system (primary, secondary and

tertiary) leads to inadequate supply of facilities, equipment and

27
 materials. No wonder, most of our schools are ill-equipped, if at

all.
e) Closely related to poor financial allocation or provision for

educational technology is the issue of lack of space and

instructional resources in Nigerian schools and colleges. Most

classrooms, lecture halls and auditoria are not designed or

adapted to accommodate audio-visual devices.

Educational Technology Centres are non-existent in most schools and

colleges, higher institutions and at the national, state and local

government levels.

a) Irregular power supply.

b) Teaching load that leaves the teacher with little or no time to

adopt and use educational technology tools and techniques.

c) Lack of relevant educational media in majority of subject areas.
d) The Nigerian educational system places much emphasis on

examinations and certification thereby limiting the extent to

which Educational Technology tools and techniques can be used

in the instructional process.

e) Lack of professionalization of educational technology in Nigeria is

a major constraint.
f) Maintenance problems exist. Also, there is lack of spare parts.

The following are some of the solutions to constrain of Educational

Technology in Nigeria:

1. The misconceptions about what Educational Technology should

be corrected through regular and intensive workshops, seminars,

conferences, publications and publicity of what the correct

concept is.

28
 2. Individual institutions that provide and/or utilize educational

technology services should find comprehensive solutions to those

institutional readiness factors described earlier.

3. Staff with sufficient academic or technical training in

Educational Technology should be engaged. Training institutions

will have to design and provide short-and-long term academic

programmes for the training of educational technologists that

will fill existing vacancies.

4. A conducive environment for practising Educational Technology

should be created by government and proprietors of the

educational institutions. Regular power supply, provision of

infrastructural facilities, and other essential services are

necessary prerequisites for the development of Educational

Technology in Nigeria.
5. Practitioners of Educational Technology will have to work

cooperatively towards professionalizing the field. Such

professional associations as the Nigeria Association for

Educational Media and Technology (NAEMT) need to play a

leadership role by popularizing the profession through

educational technology seminars, publications, workshops,

conventions, exhibitions and other media related activities.

6. The workload of teachers should be at the optimal level that will

give them time and room for creativity and effective practice of

educational technology.
7. Teachers which practice educational technology should be

rewarded or compensated properly.

SYSTEMS APPROACH TO INSTRUCTION

29
Instruction refers to the deliberate arrangement of events or

experience(s) to help a learner achieve a desirable change in

performance. It is a set of events that are deliberately arranged in such

a way that learning is facilitated. Instruction is not mere teaching

because it is more systematic, specific and objective. The purpose of

instruction is to help people learn.

To be effective, instruction must be properly planned and designed in

a systematic way. The systems approach to instruction therefore

implies careful planning, design; implementation and evaluation of the

events that will help a learner achieve the desired learning outcome(s).

While a variety of instructional design models, exist, there are three

fundamental steps:

1. Identifying the outcomes of instruction;

2. Developing the instruction; and

3. Evaluating the effectiveness of the instruction. (Gagne, Briggs

and Wager .1992 : 21)

According to Onyejemezi (1990: 80), the systems approach to

instruction entails carrying out the following:

a) identify the educational problem to he solved or the

educational activity to be undertaken;

b) state the objectives to be achieved in solving the problem or

undertaking the educational activity;

c) indicate the conditions necessary for the achievement of

the objectives;
30
 d) map out appropriate methods and material resources to be

used in order to achieve the objectives;

e) design the way of knowing whether or not the objectives are

achieved and determine whether the objectives have been

achieved; and

f) Where the objectives are not achieved or the educational

activity is not successfully carried out, we examine a- e

above, locate the problem, make necessary changes and

tackle the problem again until the objectives are achieved

or the educational activity is successfully completed.

The systems approach to instruction is an attempt to conceive of the

instructional process as an event comprising of several elements

(teacher, learner, content, media, method, evaluation and feedback)

which work cooperatively together to promote learning efficiency and

effectiveness. The systems view entails that all parts of the

instructional system must be considered and handled simultaneously,

rather than in bits and pieces independently. It is a holistic and

dynamic procedure which involves planning, development,

implementation, evaluation and modification.

INSTRUCTIONAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM AND DEVELOPMENT

Communication is essential for the existence of societies, whether they

are developed or developing. It is necessary for your accumulation of

knowledge and capability. Furthermore, it serves as an instrument of

social interaction. For the desirable change in learners behaviour and

acquisition of knowledge and skills to be accomplished,

31
communication must both take place between the teachers and

learners. It is important for teachers to have deep knowledge of what

communication process is and also be skillful in the use of

communication skills.

Meaning / Definitions of Communication

Communication is a universal and everyday occurrence, and therefore,

it is a concept that has generated a lot of interest on the part of

researchers, governments and organisations. The universal nature of

communication has led to countless definitions of the term (Sybil,

Oche and Oludayo, 1990). Some of these definitions, according to

them, are:

- Communication is any means by which a thought is transferred

from one person to another (Chappell, R. and Read, W.L. 5th ed.,

1984).

- Communication is the process by which one person (or a group)

shares and imparts information to another person (or group) so

that both people (or group) clearly understood one another

(Udall, R. and Udall, S., 1979).

- Communication is not just the giving of information, it is the

giving of understandable information and receiving and

understanding the message. .It is the transferring of a message

to another party so that it can be understood and acted upon

(E.C. Eyre, 1983).

32
 - Communication is an exchange of ideas, thought or knowledge

between at least two people with an intention of changing the

behaviour of one another particularly the decoder (Abimbade,

1997).

In terms of classroom usage, the term communication can be defined

as the totality of the teachers efforts to ensure that all the stated

instructional objectives are accomplished through effective

manipulation of the task, method(s), media, learners as well as the

entire teaching learning environment.

Types of Communication
Generally speaking, there are two types of communication. They
are oral and written. Oral communication is used in
intrapersonal, interpersonal, small group and mass
communication.

1. Intrapersonal Communication:
This type of communication involves only one person.
Communication process is non-interactive as it involves an
individual talking to him self in a manner that may be
internalized or externalized. When an individual externalizes his
thought, his idea or feelings allowed by talking, it is considered as
abnormal.

2. Interpersonal Communication:
This is a form of communication in which two people are
involved. It is often referred to as face-to-face communication. It
is not when such medium like the telephone is used, but two
people are still involved.
Interpersonal communication encourages exchange of
idea/information in the form of dialogue and or a discussion.
Since only two people are involved in interpersonal
communication, it is usually regarded as an effective form of

33
communication in that immediate response from both the sender
and the receiver is facilitated.

Small Group Communication:

This is a form of communication in which three or more people
are involved. Small group communication therefore refers to the
exchange of ideas/information among members of a group.
Typical of a group is a normal class size of 30 pupils or a little
above. Members of the group are expected to work together as a
team to achieve the common objectives.

Public Communication:
This is a form of communication in which the speaker addresses
a larger audience compare with the small group communication.
Typical of public communication are Organised political or
religion rally.

Mass Communication:
This refers to a situation whereby so many people are target
audience of the speaker. As a result of the population of the
audience, the speaker may resort to using such mass media like
the radio and the television to reach out to the audiences in
different locations simultaneously. Other mass media include:
the newspapers, magazines, sound film and the internet.

Written Communication:
This refers to the translation of oral messages into the alphabetic

symbols to convey meaningful ideas, messages or information.

Our emphasis here is on the use of oral communication.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS IN THE CLASSROOM

34
The communicator, the message and the receiver are the three

essential elements necessary for any form of communication to occur

relating this to the classroom situation, the teacher is the

communicator (sender of message), knowledge being impacted by the

teacher is the message and the receivers are the students.

When the teacher (who is the sender) charges or encodes, his thoughts

according to his knowledge and skill (experience) into verbal, visual or

stimulus symbols (messages), this message will reach the students

(who are the receivers). Before the students receive the message, it has

to go through a channel and the channel could be the teacher himself

or any of the instructional materials i.e. using during the teaching and

learning processes, such as the chalkboard, maps, charts, graphs,

transparencies, films pictures and models etc. When this message

reached the students, they will make a sense out of the message by

interpreting or decoding the message according to their experiences.

Ideally, at this point the mental image of the teacher and the students

ought to match. However, the communication may go wrong

somewhere between the teacher and the students, which will cause

what is normally referred to as communication gap.

The process of communication in the classroom

35
The students then will react or respond to the message in their

individual unique ways. The total response the teacher gets from his

students is what is called feedback. In the feedback process however,

the students do more than decode the message, they must also encode

their thoughts for relay back to the teacher. This could be in verbal

symbols by asking questions, seeking for more explanations or it could

be in visual symbols by nodding their heads or frowning their faces

etc. The teacher will in turn decode the feedback. In effect the

receivers (students) become senders and the sender (teacher) becomes

receiver.

The continuous nature of communication

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

A model can be viewed as a representation in symbolic and schematic

form, the relationship existing or assumed to be existing in a system.

Dike (1988) defined a model as a systematic representation which

36
abstracts and categories certain potentially relevant aspects of a

phenomena.

Models as visual representations help us to conceptualize the

relationship of the key elements associated with a process. They also

help us to understand a process or phenomena. Various models of the

communication process have been formulated. Some of the models

that shall be discussed here include schramm's models, David Berlo's

Model.

David Berlo's Model: The communication model proposed by David

Berlo considered the psycho-sociological aspects of human

communication. Since the Psycho-sociological aspects of both the

sender and the receiver are taken into account, the model is often

referred to as a psychological model. The model has four main

components. These are: Source, Message, Channel and Receiver and

hence the acronym SMCR ascribed to David Berlo's Model of

communication.

SOURCE MESSAGE CHANNE RECEIVER

* Communication skill * Code * Seeing * Comm.

/Skills

* Attitude * Content * Hearing * Attitude

* Knowledge * Treatment * Touching *

Knowledge

* Socio-cultural context *Element * Smelling * Socio-

cultural context

37
* Structure * Tasting * Context

The Schramm's adopted Shannon's model of communication. His

adaptation of Shannon mode! Incorporates Shannon's concern with

the technical aspect of communication, but its central concern with

communication is reception and interpretation of meaningful symbols.

The Shramm's adaptation of the Shannon Model emphasized that

there is communication when the sender's and receiver's fields of

experience overlap. The model is illustrated below.

In this model, the sender of the message encodes the message in

accordance to his skill and knowledge, (that is, his field of experience)

and the receiver who is the learner besides decoding the message

38
must have tc encode his interpretation of the signal for relay back to

the sender who is the teacher. Thus the receiver becomes sender and

sender becomes receiver. Both the sender and receiver interpret the

message in accordance with their fields of experience.

Communication in the model below is viewed as an interpretive

transaction between or among individuals. This calls for the cyclic

nature of the communication process, and to the kinds of activities

taking place within an individual in a communication encounter. In

his explanation Schramm asserted that one is constantly decoding

signs from environment, as well as interpreting the signs and

subsequently encoding something as a result. He maintained that it is

misleading to think of the communication process as starting

somewhere and terminating somewhere. Thus it is actually a process.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION IN THE CLASSROOM

39
When communications are taking place in the classroom between a

teacher and his students, something may go wrong in or between any

components in the communication processes which will act as a

barrier to any one of the communications. A communication barrier is

defined as; "anything which will inhibit of block an accurate

communication". Some of the important communication barriers

include:

Inadequate produced message due to careless message sending

Problems of sending information

Problem of noise

Psychological problem

Inadequate channel chosen for the communication

The problem of meaning

Inaccurately received message

Contradicting verbal and non verbal message

MEDIA IN EDUCATION

Every instructional activity involves communication. Educational

media play a very important role in teaching and learning.

THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATIONAL MEDIA

Education cannot take place without one form of communication or

the other. Communication involves the process of sending and

receiving information or messages. For messages to get transmitted

40
(sent or received) they must pass through a channel or medium or

transmitter. Thus, media are channels through which messages,

information, ideas and knowledge are conveyed and or disseminated.

When such media are used for educational or instructional purposes,

they are called educational media.

Medium (or media in plural) is used in general to mean a means of

communication. It refers to anything that carries information between

a source and a receiver. Instructional or educational media are means

of communication used to carry messages with an instructional

intent. Examples include printed materials, photographs, audio

recordings, video recordings, radio, television, films, etc. The

communication process is illustrated the diagram below.

Educational or instructional media help to facilitate the achievement

of instructional objectives.

The term teaching aids was popular in the 60s. Today, we use the

term educational media or instructional media. The differences

41
between teaching aids and educational media or instructional media is

that teaching aids are tools for the teacher to use in teaching,

instructional or educational media can instruct on their own. Teaching

aid connotes that it aids the teacher in teaching. It is supplementary

in the teaching-learning process; it is administered and controlled by

the teacher and only does part of the job of instructional.

Today, most instructional media can teach on their own when properly

programmed and when presented to students in an environment of

enquiry conducive to learning. They are not supplementary to teaching

but can bring about learning even in the absence of the human

teacher physically present. They can present a complete body of

information and can be largely self-supporting.

Adewoyin (1990: 70) sees the main distinction between the terms :

teaching aids and instructional media as lying in orientation of each

of the terms. While the concept of teaching aids is teacher-controlled,

teacher-managed or teacher-centred, that of educational media is

learner-centred.

FUNCTIONS OF INSTRUCIIONAL MEDIA Instructional media play a

very critical role in teaching and learning. Some of the values,

functions or roles of instructional media are:

Instructional Media provide concrete experiences and enables

students to integrate prior experiences with new learning.

Instructional media help to support teacher-based instruction.
Instructional media can facilitate students drill and practice.
Instructional media can help promote the discovery or inquiry

approach to learning and teaching.

42
 Instructional media can help take over some of the routine tasks

of the teacher thereby enabling him to have more time for other

important tasks.

Instructional media is particularly suited to individualized

instruction.

Closely related to the point above is the use of instructional

media in special education. Exceptional children can get special

instructional treatments, even when in conventional schools.

Thus, instructional media can help adjust instruction to

different groups.

Instructional media can help learners to concentrate their

attention, time and effort on a learning task.

Instructional media has taken instruction to non-formal settings

outside the school.

It is important to differentiate between software and hardware.

Software is the learning and teaching materials that carry information

or the instructional content. They are the consumables or the

disposables which wear and tear as they are used.

Hardware is the equipment or devices which are used for presenting

materials. They include machines, equipment, tools or gadgets with

which the software will be transmitted.

The table below shows examples of hardware and the software that

accompany each of them. You can see fig. 3 for the classification

43
SYSTEMATIC PLANNING FOR THE USE OF MEDIA

Various instructional models have been proposed by various authors

and experts among which is the ASSURE model developed by Heinch

R., Molenda M. and Russel James D. (1985: 33) in their book

Instructional Media and the New Technologies of Instruction.

THE ASSURE MODEL

The ASSURE model gives six steps or procedures in the systematic

planning for the use of media. The authors of the ASSURE model

believe that if their procedures are followed, it will assure that media

become effective in instruction. However, the proponents start by

specifying some assumptions:

1. That a particular audience has been identified (e.g. the class to

teach is known).

44
2. That training or instruction is what is required i.e. it is lack of

knowledge that is the cause of the problem to be tackled.

3. That the content of instruction has been competently analysed in

terms of its scope, sequence and accuracy (e.g. there is a

curriculum guide to be followed).

ASSURE is an acronym for:

A = Analyze Learner Characteristics

S = State Objectives

S = Select, Modify or Design materials

U = Utilize Materials

R = Require Learner Response

E = Evaluate

Analyse Learner Characteristics

The first step in planning to use media is to identify the learners. You

cannot select the best medium to achieve the objectives if you do not

know your students. You need to know two types of traits:

a. General characteristics not directly related to the lesson

content such as age, gender or class, job/position,

intellectual aptitude, and cultural or socioeconomic factors.

These factors will help you to determine the level of the

lesson and the kind of examples that will be meaningful to

the learners.

45
 b. Specific entry competencies (those knowledge, skills and

attitude) that the learners already possess that is relevant

to the topic or lesson. Relevant questions here are:what

prerequisite skills do the learners possess?.What is the

attitude of the learners to the subject? Have learners

already mastered some aspects of what you intend to

teach? Answers to these questions will suggest the next

step to take.

Various means can be used in gathering data about your target

audience. We could use informal (or even direct) questioning of and

conversation with learners and group leaders. We could examine

academic and other records. Various kinds of tests can be

administered. We could use standardized tests or teacher-made tests.

Entry testing can help determine whether or not the learners possess

the prerequisite skills. Protests could be administered before

instruction in order to find out if the learners have already mastered

what you intend to teach so that you dont waste your time.

A study of the characteristics and capabilities of you audience will

enable you to match your media and instruction methods to these

character and capabilities.

State Objectives

46
The next step is to state the objectives of instruction. You have to be as

specific as possible. Your instructional objectives should follow the

ABCD format. They should state the audience, the behaviour, the

condition and the degree.

The objectives may be derived from a needs assessment, a syllabus or

lifted from a text book. It could be taken from a curriculum guide or

developed by the instructor.

Well stated objectives will enable you to make the correct selection of

media and methods. Knowing your objectives will enable you create a

learning environment in which the objectives can be achieved.

Select, Modify or Design Materials

By identifying the present knowledge, skills and attitudes of your

audience you have laid the foundation. Clearly stated objectives point

to where you intend to go. The next task is to build on the foundation

in order to reach your target. Just as there must be a match between

learner and objectives, there also must be a match between learner

and materials.

Thus, the next step is to obtain appropriate materials that will allow

your students meet the instructional objectives. There are three

options:

a. Selecting available materials,

b. Modifying existing materials, and

c. Designing new materials.

47
If materials that will allow your students meet the objective are

available, then use them. It saves time and money. When the media

and materials available do not match your objectives or are unsuitable

for the audience, it is advisable to modify them. If modification is not

feasible, the Final alternative is to design your own materials.

Selecting Available Materials

The pervasive presence of instructional media especially the increasing

access to the internet and other sources entails that careful selection

must be made. V

In selecting materials for instruction, you are advised to consider the

following:

a. The characteristics of the learners e.g. vocabulary, reading

or listening level, possession of prerequisite skills, etc.

b. The nature of the objectives - will the material help you

and your students to attain your objectives?

c. The instructional approach, and

d. The constraints of the instructional situation. You may

need to ask: is the time, money, equipment, personnel or

facilities that will be needed for the use of the media

Various media appraisal checklists that suggest the detailed criteria to

look for have been designed generally for media and specifically for

each of the specific classes of media. Such checklists can serve as

useful guide. It is also recommended that the instructor or teacher

48
should keep a personal file describing the instructional strengths and

weaknesses of available media.

Modifying Available Materials

You are advised to modify available media if found unsuitable. This

may be the preferred option instead of designing from scratch. It could

however be tasking. A picture or diagram that contains too much of

details and complex terminology could be modified to contain less

details. Some materials can be modified to reflect the local culture or

situation. You can pick just the portion(s) that you need from a film, a

video, audio tape, filmstrip, slides, textbook, etc. With sophisticated

editing machines now available, it is possible to modify videos and

audio tapes. Even instructional games can be modified to suit your

situation.

It is however necessary to caution that copyright laws and restrictions

must be respected in your handling and use of such materials.

Designing New Materials

When it becomes absolutely necessary for you to design own

materials, you will need to consider the following factors:

a. The objectives to be achieved.

b. The characteristics of your audience.

c. The cost of supplies needed to prepare the materials.

d. The necessary technical expertise needed to design and

produce the material.

49
 e. The necessary equipment to produce and/or use the

materials you intend to design.

f. The facilities needed to prepare and/or use the materials.

g. The time necessary to design and produce the material

you intend to produce.

Utilize Materials

The next step in the ASSURE model is to plan how the materials will

be used and how much time will be spent using them. It is suggested

that the following utilization procedures be followed:

a. preview the material

b. practice the presentation

c. prepare the environment

d. prepare the audience, and

e. present the material

f. follow up

(a) Preview the Material

This entails going through the materials yourself to ensure that it

actually meets your need. You are to also note some of the points you

will need to highlight during presentation.

50
(b) Practice the Presentation

It is advisable that you practice your portion of the presentation at

least once well in advance. Microteaching techniques can be very

useful here. It is possible to practice before a mirror, a colleague or

friend, an audio tape recorder, or a video tape recorder.

(c) Prepare the Environment

It is necessary to prepare in advance the wherever the presentation

will take place. This may be classroom, seminar room, auditorium, etc.

The facilities will have to be put in order and tested. Things to consider

may include: seating arrangement, ventilation, lighting, power supply,

access to light switches, condition of the facilities, room darkening,

etc.

(d) Prepare the Audience

Adequate preparation of the learners for a presentation can determine

effective instruction. As already noted, Ausubel highlighted the

importance of advance organisers in instruction. This can be inform

of a broad overview of the

lesson or an introduction to lesson content, relating the presentation

to the topic being studied, making the learner appreciate what he will

gain from the presentation, and directing attention to specific aspects

of the presentation. We could in form the viewers of the specific

objectives. It may be necessary to identify and explain difficult and

unfamiliar terms and vocabulary.

(e) Present the Material

51
Capture and sustain the interest and attention of the audience. Be

natural and avoid distracting mannerisms. Position yourself well.

Create a relaxed environment.

(f) Follow Up

Follow up with class discussion, small group activities, or individual

projects and reports.

Require Learner Response

Learning theorists have emphasized the importance of participation in

learning as well as constant reinforcement of desired behaviours. It

has long been realized that creating opportunity for learner

participation and learner response enhances learning.

Learning becomes most effective when you allow the learner to engage

several senses (hearing, sight, touch, smell, taste) in learning.

Learning by doing is known to be very effective. Materials need to be

designed to include overt and covert responses such as vocalizing,

writing out words, taking notes, manipulating materials, answering

questions, short quizzes.

It is necessary to give feedback by confirming or correcting responses

made. Immediate feedback is particularly important when working

with slow learners.

In short, there should be activities within the lesson that allow

learners to respond and to receive feedback on the correctness of their

responses.

52
Computers are well suited for providing opportunity for learner

response and reinforcement

Evaluate

The final step in the ASSURE model for effective learning is evaluation.

After instruction, we need to find out if the learning objectives set at

the beginning have been achieved, whether or not the media and

methods were effective and if the teacher had been effective.

Evaluation takes place before, during and after instruction. We had

earlier noted the need for entry testing, pre-testing and other data

gathering methods in order to know the learners to be instructed.

Also, in selecting materials, a number of criteria had to be used in

judging what materials to use. During instruction various forms of

questioning, checking, reinforcement of positive responses, etc go on.

After the completion of instruction, a comprehensive evaluation of

learner achievement, effectiveness of the media and methods and even

the teacher must be done.

Various methods are used in evaluation depending on the objectives.

Apart from the conventional paper-and-pencil tests, we can use oral

questioning, interviews, observation checklists, anecdotal records,

project, inspection of products, performance checklists, or a rating

scale.

Evaluation is both the end and beginning of instruction. At the end of

instruction, there is evaluation. The feedback from evaluation is used

as the starting point of the next and continuing cycle of the ASSURE

model.
53
INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

These are materials that do not require projection for viewing. They

are not electronic. Examples are printed materials, pictures, diagrams,

charts, posters, models, real things, the chalkboard and other display

boards. They are so common and easily obtainable.

1 PRINT MEDIA

Printed materials include textbooks, reference books, readers,

workbooks, handbooks, tutors guides, journals, magazines,

periodicals, newspapers, letters, booklets, posters, bulletins, handouts

and handbills, etc.

2 NON-PROJECTED VISUALS

These are visuals that do not require projection for viewing. They are

readily available and are used more extensively in the classroom. This

is particularly true of developing countries where lack of electricity,

poor funding, lack of know how limits the use of projected and

electronic media.

Non-projected visuals under three classes: still pictures, Graphics

and models and realia.

(a) Still Pictures

Still pictures are photograph-like representations of people, places and

things. They include photographs, illustrations (in books, magazines,

and newspapers), drawings and paintings.

54
Tips

It is important for you as a teacher to draw your students attention to

relevant photographs and require them to use the illustrations in their

study. Large pictures are to be preferred to small pictures when

dealing with a group or the class. Limit the number of pictures to be

used. Use one picture at a time and keep away the ones already used

to avoid distraction. Ask direct questions from the picture in order to

keep your students attention. Write important information contained

in the pictures or questions as captions for the pictures if they are to

be displayed.

(b)Graphic Materials

A second major category of non-projected visuals is graphic materials

or simply graphics. Graphics are non-photographic, two-dimensional

materials that communicate information or ideas using some

combination of drawing, words, symbols and pictures. Graphic

messages are brief, well focused and visually symbolic rather than

fully representational. Graphic materials are of various kinds namely:

drawings (including sketches and diagrams), charts, graphs, posters,

cartoons and comics.

Drawings

Drawings, sketches, and diagrams use lines and symbols to represent

persons, place, things and concepts. They show relationships or help

55
to explain processes such as how a thing works or how it is

constructed. .

Drawings are less detailed than still pictures and are often more easily

understood by learners of all ages. Drawings can be used in all phases

of instruction. Indeed, it is necessary for the teacher to illustrate his

lesson with drawings from the beginning to the ending. Drawings form

a useful companion of the teacher. They frequently appeal- in

textbooks and other classroom materials.

Charts

A chart is a combination of pictorial, graphic, numerical or verbal

materials. It gives a clear visual summary of a vital process, concept or

relationships. It is important to keep your chart simple. It should have

a clear, well-defined instructional purpose. It is better to have a series

of simple charts than a single complex one.

Charts help to present visually ideas or concepts which are likely to be

difficult if presented orally or in written form. They are useful in

highlighting the important points of any presentation. Charts can

readily be found in textbooks and other classroom materials. They are

also available commercially and can be readily produced by the

teacher from card boards of various colours and sizes. Charts are

probably the most useful type of instructional materials available to

the teacher. They are regarded as the backbone of the visual materials

available to the teacher. There are various kinds of charts including:

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Types of Charts

Organization charts (or Organogram) which show the relationship or

chain of command in an organization. They illustrate the structure of

an organization, an institution, a company, or government

department. The organogram illustrates the flow of authority in an

organization from the head clown the line to the bottom.

Flow charts (or process charts) show a sequence, a procedure or a

process. In representing a flowchart, rectangles, circles, lines and

arrows are used. Flow-charts show how different activities,

procedures, processes merge into a whole.

Tabular charts (or table) carry numerical information or data. They

are also used in showing time information as in school or study time

tables.

Time and sequence charts: These are used to show the

developmental stages of an event. The land mark events are identified

and arranged in chronological order. Pictures or drawings can be

added to the time line to illustrate important events or major stages of

development.

Strip and flip charts: The strip and flip charts are ideal for topics

that have phases. The idea is to expose a part at a time. The strip

chart is a single chart but with the component parts covered with

strips of paper. The strips of papers are removed at appropriate times.

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The teacher exposes the concealed information one at a time until all

the information contained in the chart are presented. A flip chart, on

the other hand, will contain more than one sheet, each dealing with a

specific stage or phase. For example, we can use a flip chart to present

the life cycle of butterfly or cockroach. Each stage is shown on a sheet.

As the teacher proceeds, he flips open the sheets one after the other.

The phase under study helps to conceal the previous and next sheet.

This helps to prevent distraction and to focus attention.

Tree and stream charts: These are mostly used for genealogy, to show

composition or interrelationships of generations of families or classes.

Whereas the tree chart is used to show branching sub-division of a

subject, in the case of the stream chart, several small sources or

tributaries finally converge to form a single stream

Graphs

Graphs are visual representation of numerical data. They are well

suited for compressing information and for showing

proportional/numerical relationships. There are four major types of

graphs: bar, pictorial, pie (or circle), and line. The type you choose to

use will depend on the message you intend to convey and the level of

your audience.

Graphs

Bar
Pictorial
Pie
Line

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Bar Graph: They represent quantities of variables using

vertical/horizontal bars drawn from the same baseline. Whereas the

width of the bars is the equal, the height varies to indicate the

measure of the quantity being represented. Bar graphs are easy to

read and can be used with primary school age children. The bar graph

is particularly useful in comparing similar items at different times or

different items at the same time e.g. quantities of an export crop

produced for different years or revenue generated from various export

produce within a given year. It is best to limit the quantities being

compared to eight or less to avoid confusion.

Pictorial Graphs (Pictogram): They use simple drawings, figures,

objects or pictures to represent the data. It is an adaptation of the bar

graph. The pictogram looks real, attractive and generates the learner

interest. They appeal to a wide audience, especially young pupils.

Circle (or pie) Graphs: This type of graph is in form of a circle. A

circle is divided into segments, each representing a proportion of the

whole. The combined parts of the whole add up to 100%. The

percentage value of each component is converted as a fraction of 3600

which is the total of the angles of a circ le.

The pie chart is used to show the budget allocations, scores of

students in different subjects, etc. It is relatively easy to interpret. It

may however be difficult to judge proportions accurately when

segments are small.

Line Graphs: This is the most precise and complex of all graphs. It is

made up of two axes, namely: the vertical and the horizontal axis. The

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horizontal axis bears the variables being measured while the vertical

axis bears points to which values have been ascribed. Line graphs are

very useful in plotting trends or relationship between two sets of data.

They help to simplify a mass of complex information. They are used for

presenting such information as rainfall, temperature, blood flows, cost

of living, etc over a period of time.

Posters

Posters are visuals that communicate using a combination of lines,

colour, and words and are intended to catch and hold attention. They

are used to announce events or pass on brief information or messages.

Posters to be effective, must attract attentions, carry provocative

wordings, excite curiosity, be humorous, creative and persuasive.

Posters can be used in various ways for instruction. They can be used

to stimulate interest in a new topic or school event. They can be used

for motivation or to promote positive attitude to things like reading,

safety or healthy habits.

You can use the poster to promote usual literacy among your students.

You can ask students to react and interpret a poster. They can he

asked to design their own posters on various subjects and this will

promote some positive values.

Posters can be obtained from various sources Advertisements in

newspapers and magazine; catalogues of companies: Shops and

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supermarkets, government departments, religious: institutions, etc.

are good Sources of posters. The teacher and his pupils can make

their own posters.

Cartoons and Comics

A cartoon is a pictorial representation or a caricature or a person, idea

or Situation that is designed to influence public opinion or to

entertain. Most cartoons arc humorous and help to ridicule and

expose the evils in society. They employ caricature, exaggeration,

symbolism and humour. Cartoons derive their influence from their

compactness, simplification of issues and sharply drawn illustrations

mixed with humour. Cartoons can be found in newspapers, magazines

and periodicals. They are easily and quickly read and appeal to

children and adults alike.

Cartoons in the school system can be used to promote good behaviour

and discourage undesirable habits or behaviours. When properly

utilized, cartoons can be made to stimulate the interest of students

and encourage them to participate in class activities. Cartoons can be

subject to various interpretations and that is why the producer should

ensure that the message is communicated to the intended audience.

The comic is a form of cartooning in which a cast of characters enacts

a story in a sequence of closely related drawings designed to entertain

the reader. Comic books and magazines stimulate the reading habits

of young people.

C. MODELS AND REALIA

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Models are 3 dimensional representation of a real thing, situation or

scene. Three-dimensional instructional materials are those materials

that have thickness, i.e. they have length, breadth and height or

depth. The two-dimensional materials, on the other hand, are flat,

having only length and breadth.

Realia refers to real models and objects such as coins, tools, artifacts,

plants, animals, etc. Realia give direct purposeful learning experience.

However, it is not always possible to use real things. They are not

always available when and where they are needed. At times, they may

be too big, too complex, too heavy, too costly or too dangerous to use

or be brought to class. Teachers have to turn to models which are

representations of real things.

Models may be larger, smaller, or the same size as the object it

represents. The globe is for example, a reduced model of the earth.

The atom may be represented by an enlarged model whereas a model

may be constructed to have the exact size of the human heart or

kidney. Models of almost anything can be purchased from shops e.g.

toy shops) for classroom use. When you construct a model with your

students, you stimulate in them the spirit of inquiry, creativity and

discovery.

Models can be made from different kinds of materials such as

cardboards, wood, metals, paper, clay, plastic and plaster.

Display Formats

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The non-projected visuals discussed in the preceding sections will

need to be displayed in the classroom in one way or the other. You may

simply hold up a single visual for the students to see it. You may use

any of the following:

Chalk boards
Multipurpose boards
Bulletin boards
Cloth boards
Magnetic boards
Flip charts
Exhibition

The way you display your visuals will depend on the following factors:

the nature of the audience, the nature of your visuals, the lesson

objectives, the instructional setting and the availability of the various

display formats.

Chalk Boards

The chalk board is one of the oldest and most commonly used

instructional materials in the classroom. The chalkboard is positioned

in front of the classroom at a point visible to all members of the class.

It was once called blackboard when the colour was mostly black.

Nowadays, boards and chalk now come in a variety of colours. We have

various kinds of chalkboards: movable/portable chalkboards and

wall/fixed chalkboards .They may be made of word, concrete or

metallic material (e.g. magnetic board).

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The chalk board can assist you in developing ideas your lesson. YOU

can build your explanations point by point. You can present graphics,

diagrams, symbols, charts and other desired illustrations. The

chalkboards can be used along with other instructional materials such

as models, mock-ups, charts, flash boards and other devices.

Tips

a. You should put, in advance, before class, any extensive drawing

or writing on the chalkboard to avoid wasting the time of the

students.
b. To avoid distractions cover material written on the chalkboard

until you are ready to use it.

c. Face the class when you are talking.
d. Write and draw boldly to enable every pupil in class to see and

read with ease.

e. Use chalkboard tools such as rulers, dividers and templates of

all kinds.
f. Move to different positions in class to assess visibility of

chalkboard work.
g. Write uniformly and horizontally on the board.

Multipurpose Boards

More modern classrooms have multipurpose boards which can be

used for many purposes. They have a smooth white plastic surface

and markers are used instead of chalk. They usually have a steel

backing and can be used as a magnetic board for display of visuals.

The boards can be used to project films, slides and overhead

transparencies. Thus the multipurpose board can serve as

chalkboard, magnetic board and projector screen.

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Bulletin Boards

The bulletin boards, also known as a notice board or billboard, are

constructed with a softwood, plywood, straw board, or thick cardboard

sheets. Posters, pictures, maps, charts, cartoons, comic, paintings,

essays, objects, models and specimens can be attached to the board

using thumbtacks, pins and other sharp fasteners. Boards come in

different sizes and may be attached to the wall or kept portable for use

on a table or easel.

Bulletin boards can be used in various ways to serve your

instructional needs. It is intended to stimulate students interest,

promote creative expression, and encourage students participation.

They are used to display visuals related to class work, the best work of

the learners, current events and to commemorate special occasions.

Items to be displayed on the bulletin board should be carefully

selected and arranged. Plan the display on paper well in advance. Do

not overload the board. Visuals no longer needed should be removed.

Use attention-getting devices such as cardboard arrows, loured pins,

and cards with felt-pen lettering, etc.

Cloth Boards (or Flannel Board)

These are hoards constructed with cloth stretched over a sturdy

backing material such as plywood, masonite, soft ceiling board, or

hard cardboard sheet. The background cloth may be a felt, flannelette,

blanket, native woven cloth or towel.

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The materials to be attached to the board may be drawings, paintings,

pictures, cut outs, captions, sentence cards, word cards, light objects

and specimens. These visuals are backed with flannel, sandpaper or

any material with rough surface. The principle is that any material

which has rough surface will cling to another if pressed lightly

together without the aid of an adhesive.

When visuals need to be moved around to illustrate a process or

sequence, cloth boards are particularly useful. Cloth boards can be

used to illustrate stories, poems and other reading materials. Like

chalkboards, they can be used to develop the lesson step by step.

Magnetic Boards

They serve much the same purpose as cloth boards. In the case of

magnetic boards, they have metal surface which allows magnet

materials to stick. Visuals are backed with a magnetic and then placed

on the metal surface of the board. Any metal surface in the classroom

such as steel cabinets, metal walls and doors can he used as magnetic

boards.

Flip Charts

We had earlier treated flipcharts above .Unlike chalkboards, flip chart

scan be taken easily to where the learning group is and the display on

it can be reused. They can be an effective supplement to or even a

substitute for board displays. They are particularly useful for

instruction involving sequential steps in a process.

Tips

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As with other display boards, the following tip will be found useful:

a. Keep the lettering and visuals simple, but large enough for

everyone to see.
b. Avoid backing the students; talk to the audience not to the flip

chart.
c. Reveal the sheets as arranged only when you are ready to

discuss them.
d. Use colours that provide sharp contrast
e. Maintain proper sequence in the arrangement of the sheets.

Exhibits (or Exhibition)

When you display the various kinds of non-projected visuals discussed

in this unit in an integrated manner for the purpose of instruction, we

say, you have an exhibition. The exhibits on display can be used for

the same purposes and in much the same ways as their individual

components are used. Mode of display, techniques for using them in

instruction are also similar. Exhibitions can be set upon a table, a

shelf or desk or in a corner. We hear of nature corner in the

classroom.

You can make your exhibition for a theme, for a lesson, for a topic, for

a unit or at the end of these. Exhibits should be well spread out so

that people can see them clearly. Captions and other materials are

clearly written and well arranged. It is necessary to avoid the pit fall of

including visual material relating to many subjects. It is better to have

a guiding theme or topic e.g. an exhibition on transportation, housing,

marriage, health care, child care or water supplies.

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