Photosynthesis: A Level Biology 2016-17

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
A Level Biology 2016-17
Compiled by Reviewed by
Dr.Saba Parkar Mr.Anil Govind
Photosynthesis
Syllabus Content
Photosynthesis as an energy transfer process
The investigation of limiting factors
Learning Outcomes
Compiled by For AL- Exam in 2017 May /June Reviewed by

Main Points to Remember
The absorption spectrum for chlorophyll shows which wavelengths of light are
absorbed (mostly blue and red, hence green light is reflected).
The action spectrum shows what the rate of photosynthesis is at different
wavelengths (i.e. how well the light is used).
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages:
a. Light Dependant Reactions (on the thylakoid membrane):
A photon hitting a chlorophyll molecule in photosystem II (PSII) excites an

electron, triggering the photolysis of H2O into oxygen, protons and electrons.
The released electrons pass through a series of electron carriers (PQ, b6-f,
then PC) before reaching PS I.
At PS I, the electrons are excited again by incident photons. They then pass
through the FD electron carrier.
The electrons can either travel back to PQ, powering the proton pump (cyclic
photophosphorylation), or reach the NADP reductase enzyme (non-cyclic
photophosphorylation), whereby NADP+ions are reduced to NADPH.
The proton gradient powers the production of ATP from ATP-ase
enzymes in the thylakoid membrane.
b. Light Independent Reactions (in the stroma) the Calvin-Benson

cycle:
The enzyme rubisco (ribulosebiphosphate carboxylase) catalyses the fixing of

a CO2 molecule to the 5-carbon ribulosebiphosphate.
This decays into two 3-carbon molecules of phosphoglycerate.
ATP from the LDR is used to form diphosphoglycerate.
NADPH is used to reduce this to glyceraldehyde phosphate (GALP).
One molecule of GALP is removed per 3 molecules of CO2, and the rest go on
to be modified into ribulose phosphate then ribulosebiphosphate.

All organisms require energy
Some organisms (autotrophs) obtain energy directly from the sun and store
it in organic compounds (glucose) during a process called photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy --> 6O2 + C6H12O6
Energy for Life Processes

Energy is the ability to do work
Work for a cell includes growth & repair, active transport across cell
membranes, reproduction, synthesis of cellular products, etc.
Work is the ability to change or move matter against other forces (W = F
x D)
Autotrophs or producers convert sunlight, CO2, and H2O into glucose
(their food)
Plants, algae, and blue-green bacteria, some prokaryotes, are producers
or autotrophs
Only 10% of the Earths 40 million species are autotrophs
Other autotrophs use inorganic compounds instead of sunlight to make
food; process known as chemosynthesis
Producers make food for themselves and heterotrophs or consumers that
cannot make food for themselves
Heterotrophs include animals, fungi, & some bacteria, &protists

Biochemical Pathways
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are biochemical pathways
Biochemical pathways are a series of reactions where the product of one

reaction is the reactant of the next
Only autotrophs are capable of photosynthesis
Both autotrophs & heterotrophs perform cellular respiration to release energy

to do work
In photosynthesis, CO2(carbon dioxide) and H2O (water) are combined to

form C6H12O6 (glucose) & O2 (oxygen)
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy --> 6O2 + C6H12O6
In cellular respiration, O2 (oxygen) is used to burn C6H12O6 (glucose) &

release CO2(carbon dioxide), H2O (water), and energy
Usable energy released in cellular respiration is called adenosine triphosphate

or ATP
Light Absorption in
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts in plant & algal cells

absorb light energy from the sun
during the light dependent reactions
Photosynthetic cells may have

thousands of chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are double membrane

organelles with the an inner
membrane folded into disc-shaped
sacs called thylakoids
Thylakoids,
containing chlorophyll and
other accessory pigments, are in
stacks called granum (grana, plural)
Grana are connected to each other &

surrounded by a gel-like material

called stroma
Light-capturing pigments in the grana are organized into photosystems
V. Pigments
A. Light travels as waves & packets called photons
B. Wavelength of light is the distance between 2 consecutive peaks or troughs
C. Sunlight or white light is made of different wavelengths or colors carrying

different amounts of energy
D. A prism separates white light into 7 colors (red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo, & violet) ROY G. BIV
E. These colors are called the visible spectrum
When light strikes an object, it is absorbed, transmitted, or reflected
When all colors are absorbed, the object appears black
When all colors are reflected, the object appears white
If only one color is reflected (green), the object appears that color (e.g.
Chlorophyll)
Pigments in the Chloroplasts
A. Thylakoids contain a variety of pigments ( green red, orange, yellow...)
B. Chlorophyll (C55H70MgN4O6) is the most common pigment in plants & algae
C. Chlorophyll a & chlorophyll b are the 2 most common types of chlorophyll in

autotrophs
D. Chlorophyll absorbs only red, blue, & violet light
E. Chlorophyll b absorbs colors or light energy NOT absorbed by chlorophyll a

F. The light energy absorbed by chlorophyll b is transferred to chlorophyll a in
the light reactions
G. Carotenoids are accessory pigments in the thylakoids & include yellow,

orange, & red
Photosystems & Electron Transport Chain
A. Only 1 in 250 chlorophyll molecules (chlorophyll a) actually converts light

energy into usable energy
B. These molecules are called reaction-center chlorophyll
C. The other molecules (chlorophyll b, c, & d and carotenoids) absorb light

energy and deliver it to the reaction-center molecule
D. These chlorophyll molecules are known as antenna pigments
E. A unit of several hundred antenna pigment molecules plus a reaction center

is called a photosynthetic unit or photosystem
F. There are 2 types of photosystems --- Photosystem I & Photosystem II
G. Light is absorbed by the antenna pigments of photosystems II and I
H. The absorbed energy is transferred to the reaction center

pigment, P680 in photosystem II, P700 in photosystem I
I. P680 in Photosystem II loses an electron and becomes positively charged so it

can now split water & release electrons (2H2O 4H+ + 4e-
+ O2)
J. Electrons from water are transferred to the cytochrome complex of

Photosystem I
K. These excited electrons activate P700 in photosystem I which helps
reduce NADP+ to NADPH
L. NADPH is used in the Calvin cycle
M. Electrons from Photosystem II replace the electrons that leave chlorophyll

molecules in Photosystem I
X. Chemiosmosis
A. Synthesis or making of ATP (energy)
B. Depends on the concentration gradient of

protons ( H+) across the thylakoid membrane
C. Protons (H+) are produced from the splitting of

water in Photosystem II
D. Concentration of Protons is HIGHER in the

thylakoid than in the stroma
E. Enzyme, ATP synthetase in the thylakoid

membrane, makes ATP by adding a phosphate
group to ADP

Overview of Photosynthesis 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
A. Photosynthesis is not a simple one step reaction but

a biochemical pathway involving many steps
B. This complex reaction can be broken down into two reaction systems ---
light dependent & light independent or dark reactions
Light Dependent Reaction: H2O O2 + ATP + NADPH2
Water is split, giving off oxygen.
This system depends on sunlight for activation energy.
Light is absorbed by chlorophyll a which "excites" the electrons in the

chlorophyll molecule.
Electrons are passed through a series of carriers and adenosine

triphosphate or ATP (energy) is produced.
Takes place in the thylakoids.
Two types

When PSII absorbs light, an electron is excited to a higher energy level
in the reaction centre P680 and captured by the electron acceptor. The
oxidized chlorophyll is now a very strong oxidizing agent, its electron
hole must be filled.
An enzyme attracts electrons from water and supplies them to P680,
replacing the lost electrons when it absorbed light energy.
This reaction splits a water molecule into 2 hydrogen ions and an
oxygen atom, which immediately combines with another oxygen atom
to form O2.
This is the water-splitting step of photosynthesis that releases O2.
Each photoexcited electrons passes through eletron transport chain
As electrons are passed through the chain, their fall to a lower energy
level is used to produce ATP. This ATP synthesis is called
photophosphorylation because it is driven by light energy
When an electron reaches the bottom of the electron transport chain,
it fills an electron hole in P700, the chlorophyll a molecule in the
reaction centre of PSI.

This hole is created when light energy drives an electron from P700 to
the electron acceptor.
The electron acceptor passes the photoexcited electrons to a second
electron transport chain.
The electrons are transferred to NADP. This reaction stores the high-
energy electrons in reduced NADP, the molecule that will provide
reducing power for the synthesis of sugar in the Calvin cycle
CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
Involves only PSI
Light is absorbed by PS1 and

is passed to P700
An excited electron is emitted

from P700
It is then captured by an
electron acceptor and passed
back to P700 via a chain of
electron carriers
During this process, enough

energy is released to
synthesize ATP.

Light InDependent Reaction: ATP + NADPH2 + CO2 C6H12O6
Carbon dioxide is split, providing carbon to make sugars.
The ultimate product is glucose.
While this system depends on the products from the light reactions, it
does not directly require light energy.
Includes the Calvin Cycle.
Takes place in the stroma.
Calvin Cycle
A. Carbon atoms from CO2 are bonded or "fixed" into organic compounds
during a process called carbon fixation
B. The energy stored in ATP and NADPH during the Light Reactions is used in
the Calvin cycle
C. The Calvin cycle has 3 main steps occurring within the stroma of the
Chloroplast
STEP 1
CO2 diffuses into the stroma from surrounding cytosol
An enzyme combines a CO2 molecule with a five-carbon carbohydrate

called RuBP
The six-carbon molecule produced then splits immediately into a pair of

three-carbon molecules known as PGA
STEP 2
Each PGA molecule receives a phosphate group from a molecule of ATP
This compound then receives a proton from NADPH and releases a phosphate
group producing PGAL
These reactions produce ADP, NADP+, and phosphate which are used again
in the Light Reactions.
STEP 3
Most PGAL is converted back to RuBP to keep the Calvin cycle going

Some PGAL leaves the Calvin Cycle and is used to make other organic
compounds including amino acids, lipids, and carbohydrates
PGAL serves as the starting material for the synthesis of glucose and fructose
Glucose and fructose make the disaccharide sucrose, which travels in solution
to other parts of the plant (e.g., fruit, roots)Glucose is also the monomer
used in the synthesis of the polysaccharides starch and cellulose
D. Each turn of the Calvin cycle fixes One CO2 molecule so it takes six
turns to make one molecule of glucose

Whats RuBisCO?
The enzyme RuBisCO (short for ribulose biphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase) is the

most abundant enzyme on earth, as itmakes approximately 50% of leaf protein. It
is of upmost importance to life. Although you can see that the Calvin cycleuses
RuBisCO to combine a molecule of RuBP and carbon dioxide, as the name of
RuBisCO suggests, oxygen can also fit into the enzyme complex. This results in a
reaction called photorespiration.
Photorespiration is a process whereby oxygen combines with RuBP in the place of

carbon dioxide. This lowers theefficiency of photosynthesis in plants, as this undoes
a lot of the work of the process so far and also leads to theformation of the toxic
hydrogen peroxide.
When photorespiration begins to occur, i.e. when there is a high concentration of

oxygen in the atmosphere in relation to the concentration of carbon dioxide, the
reactions catalysed by RuBisCO produce two products: phosphoglycerate (PGA)and
phosphoglycolate (PPG). PGA re-enters the Calvin cycle, being converted back into
RuBP, and so is not too problematic, but this does slow down rate of photosynthesis
somewhat. PPG, however, is much more difficult to get rid of, as it has to leave the
chloroplast and enter mitochondria (among other organelles), undergoing a long
series of reactions before the end products can re-enter the Calvin cycle. This
obviously lowers photosynthetic efficiency.So why does RuBisCO have oxygenase
functions? Due to the controversial functions of photorespiration, there is no
exactanswer at the moment, although many scientists have speculated. Certain
theories have suggested that, since the combination of RuBP and oxygen leads to
the formation of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), it is to aid homeostatic mechanismsas
this substance makes a key contribution to cellular redox homeostasis. It has also
been suggested that RuBisCO allowsoxygen to combine with RuBP to stop free ATP
and NADP from mixing with oxygen and forming radicals (compounds with unpaired
electrons and incomplete outer energy levels) which can damage the cells
metabolic function.

XII. Factors Determining the Rate of Photosynthesis
A. Light intensity - As light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis

initially increases and then levels off to a plateau
B. Temperature - Only the dark, not the light reactions are temperature
dependent because of the enzymes they use (25 oC to 37oC)
C. Length of day
D. Increasing the amount of carbon dioxide available improves the

photosynthesis rate
E. Level of air pollution

Adaptations of the leaves in C4 plants
Conditions of high temperature and high light intensity will increase the rate of
photorespiration in plants. In photorespiration, the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase (Rubisco) acts as the catalyst for the combination of oxygen with RuBP,
instead of carbon dioxide. This results in an overall intake of oxygen and output of
carbon dioxide and means that less RuBP is available for carbon dioxide fixation.
Conditions which promote photorespiration are found in the tropics. Tropical

grasses have a leaf structure which allows them to avoid photorespiration. Such
plants are referred to as C4 plants. Some of the most productive crop plants in the
world are C4 plants - for example, sugarcane and maize.
The structural features of the leaves which distinguish C4 plants are as follows :
Around the vascular bundles are arranged a group of cells known as bundle
sheath cells. These cells contain RuBP and Rubisco, but have no direct contact with
the air and, therefore, are not exposed to high concentrations of oxygen.
Around the bundle sheath cells is another ring of mesophyll cells these are in
contact with air spaces, but have no air spaces between them, ensuring that no
oxygen reaches the bundle sheath cells.
The mesophyll cells contain an enzyme called PEP carboxylase, which catalyses
the combination of carbon dioxide with a compound called phosphoenolpruvate or
PEP. This results in the formation of oxaloacetate.
This oxaloacetate is then converted to malate, which is passed on to the bundle

sheath cells, where carbon dioxide is removed from the malate and combined with
RuBP in the usual way. The Calvin cycle then proceeds as normal.

How sorghum is adapted to survive in arid environments Sorghum is the fifth
most important cereal crop in the world. It is of particular importance in areas of
low rainfall it is able to grow successfully in areas of low water supply and shows
many of the characteristics associated with xerophytes (plants adapted to living in
arid conditions).
These include :
A very dense root system both widespread and deep, allowing an efficient
uptake of whatever water is available.
The leaves are covered with a thick, waxy cuticle especially on the lower surface
reduces the evaporation of water from the surface of the leaves.
Specialised motor cells (bulliform cells) on the upper-side of the leaves and
strengthening tissue (sclerenchyma) below the vascular bundles, which cause the
leaves to roll inwards when water is in short supply, hiding away half of the
stomata. This allows the build up of water vapour, reducing the difference between
the water potential inside the leaf, again reducing the diffusion of water vapour
from the leaves.
The number of stomata is low and the air spaces inside the leaf are small. They
are only found well away from the vascular tissues, increasing the distance that the
water has to diffuse before it is lost from the leaf.
Like maize, it is a C4 plant, so, as long as there is sufficient water, sorghum can
continue to photosynthesise even when it is very hot and sunny

A limiting factor is a factor that controls a process. Light
intensity, temperature and, CO2 concentration and availability of H2O are all
factors which can control the rate of photosynthesis.
Usually, only one of these factors will be the limiting factor in a plant at a
certain time. This is the factor which is the furthest from its optimum level at a
particular point in time. If we change the limiting factor the rate of
photosynthesis will change but changes to the other factors will have no effect
on the rate.
If the levels of the limiting factor increase so that this factor is no longer the
furthest from its optimum level, the limiting factor will change to the factor
which is at that point in time, the furthest from its optimum level. For example,
at night the limiting factor is likely to be the light intensity as this will be the
furthest from its optimum level. During the day, the limiting factor is likely to
switch to the temperature or the carbon dioxide concentration as the light
intensity increases.

Effects of changes in light intensity, CO2, H2O and temperature on the
rate of photosynthesis
1. Light intensity
This affects the rate of the light-dependent reaction. The energy that
drives this process is light energy.
When the light intensity is poor, there is a shortage of ATP and NADPH, as
these are products from the light dependent reactions. Without these products
the light independent reactions can't occur as glycerate 3-phosphate cannot be
reduced. Therefore a shortage of these products will limit the rate of
photosynthesis.
2. Temperature
This affects the rate of the light-independent reaction. The energy that
drives this process is heat energy.

At higher temperatures, molecules have more kinetic energy so collide
more often and are more likely to react when they do collide.
Many enzymes are involved during the process of photosynthesis. At low
temperatures these enzymes work slower. At high temperatures the enzymes
no longer work effectively. This affects the rate of the reactions in the Calvin
cycle and therefore the rate of photosynthesis will be affected.
3. CO2 concentration
CO2 is a reactant in photosynthesis. Normal air contains only about

0.04% CO2.
When the CO2 concentration is low, the amount of glycerate 3-phosphate
produced is limited as CO2 is needed for its production and therefore the rate of
photosynthesis is affected.

4. Availability of H2O
H2O is a reactant in photosynthesis, but there is usually far more H2O available
than CO2, so even if water supplies are low this is not usually a problem.
However, water supply can affect the rate of photosynthesis indirectly, because
a plant that is short of water will close its stomata, preventing CO2 from
diffusing into the leaf.
lf the level of anyone of these factors is too low, then the rate of photosynthesis
will be reduced. The factor that has the greatest effect in reducing the rate is
said to be the limiting factor.
Economics of greenhouses
Farmers can use their knowledge of factors limiting the rate of photosynthesis
to increase crop yields. This is particularly true in greenhouses, where the
conditions are more easily controlled than in the open air outside:
The use of artificial light allows photosynthesis to continue beyond

daylight hours. Bright lights also provide a higher-than-normal light intensity.
The use of artificial heating allows photosynthesis to continue at an
increased rate.

The use of additional CO2 released into the atmosphere inside the
greenhouse also allows photosynthesis to continue at an increased rate.
Artificial light in the green house.
However, the additional cost of providing extra lighting, heat and CO2 has to be
weighed against the increased crop yield and the extra income it will provide.
The cost of should not exceed the additional income it generates for the farmer.
In practice, the farmer will need to find the optimum growing conditions for the
crop, given the costs of providing extra lighting, heat and CO2. Paraffin lamps
have traditionally been used in greenhouses. Their use increases the rate of
photosynthesis because as well as the light generated from the lamps, the
burning paraffin produces heat and CO2 too.

Investigating the effect of environmental factors on the rate of
photosynthesis
One way to measure the rate of photosynthesis is to measure the rate at which
oxygen is given off by an aquatic plant. There are various ways in which oxygen
can be collected and measured. One method is shown in the diagram below.
Alternatively, you can make calcium alginate balls containing green algae and
place them in hydrogencarbonate indicator solution. As the algae
photosynthesise, they take in carbon dioxide which causes the pH around them
to increase. The indicator changes from orange, through red to magenta.
Whichever technique is used, you should change one factor (your independent
variable) while keeping all others constant (the control variables). The
dependent variable will be the rate at which oxygen is given off (measured by
the volume of oxygen collected per minute in the capillary tube) or

the rate at which carbon dioxide is used (measured by the rate of change of
colour of the hydrogencarbonate indicator solution).
The independent variables you could investigate are:
Light intensity. You can vary this by using a lamp to shine light onto the
plant or algae. The closer the lamp. the higher the light intensity.
Wavelength of light. You can vary this by placing coloured filters
between the light source and the plant. Each filter will allow only light of certain
wavelengths to pass through.
CO2 concentration. You can vary this by adcting sodium
hydrogencarbonate to the water around the aquatic plant. This contains
hydrogencarbonate Ions, which are used as a source of carbon dioxide by
aquatic plants.
Temperature. The part of the apparatus containing the plant or algae
can be placed in a water bath at a range of controlled temperatures.


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PHOTOSYNTHESIS

A Level Biology 2016-17

Compiled by For AL- Exam in 2017 May /June Reviewed by

Photosynthesis occurs in two stages:

a. Light Dependant Reactions (on the thylakoid membrane):

A photon hitting a chlorophyll molecule in photosystem II (PSII) excites an

b. Light Independent Reactions (in the stroma) the Calvin-Benson

The enzyme rubisco (ribulosebiphosphate carboxylase) catalyses the fixing of

Compiled by For AL- Exam in 2017 May /June Reviewed by

6CO2 + 6H2O + energy --> 6O2 + C6H12O6

Energy for Life Processes

Compiled by For AL- Exam in 2017 May /June Reviewed by

Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are biochemical pathways

Biochemical pathways are a series of reactions where the product of one

Only autotrophs are capable of photosynthesis

Both autotrophs & heterotrophs perform cellular respiration to release energy

In photosynthesis, CO2(carbon dioxide) and H2O (water) are combined to

In cellular respiration, O2 (oxygen) is used to burn C6H12O6 (glucose) &

Usable energy released in cellular respiration is called adenosine triphosphate

Chloroplasts in plant & algal cells

Photosynthetic cells may have

Chloroplasts are double membrane

Grana are connected to each other &

Compiled by For AL- Exam in 2017 May /June Reviewed by

Light-capturing pigments in the grana are organized into photosystems

A. Light travels as waves & packets called photons

B. Wavelength of light is the distance between 2 consecutive peaks or troughs

C. Sunlight or white light is made of different wavelengths or colors carrying

E. These colors are called the visible spectrum

When light strikes an object, it is absorbed, transmitted, or reflected

When all colors are absorbed, the object appears black

When all colors are reflected, the object appears white

Pigments in the Chloroplasts

A. Thylakoids contain a variety of pigments ( green red, orange, yellow...)

B. Chlorophyll (C55H70MgN4O6) is the most common pigment in plants & algae

C. Chlorophyll a & chlorophyll b are the 2 most common types of chlorophyll in

D. Chlorophyll absorbs only red, blue, & violet light

E. Chlorophyll b absorbs colors or light energy NOT absorbed by chlorophyll a

G. Carotenoids are accessory pigments in the thylakoids & include yellow,

Photosystems & Electron Transport Chain

A. Only 1 in 250 chlorophyll molecules (chlorophyll a) actually converts light

B. These molecules are called reaction-center chlorophyll

C. The other molecules (chlorophyll b, c, & d and carotenoids) absorb light

D. These chlorophyll molecules are known as antenna pigments

E. A unit of several hundred antenna pigment molecules plus a reaction center

F. There are 2 types of photosystems --- Photosystem I & Photosystem II

G. Light is absorbed by the antenna pigments of photosystems II and I

H. The absorbed energy is transferred to the reaction center

I. P680 in Photosystem II loses an electron and becomes positively charged so it

J. Electrons from water are transferred to the cytochrome complex of

L. NADPH is used in the Calvin cycle

M. Electrons from Photosystem II replace the electrons that leave chlorophyll

A. Synthesis or making of ATP (energy)

B. Depends on the concentration gradient of

C. Protons (H+) are produced from the splitting of

D. Concentration of Protons is HIGHER in the

E. Enzyme, ATP synthetase in the thylakoid