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T ENE:W / 8 ' (Si EJ, : F - L/ 3 IO
T ENE:W / 8 ' (Si EJ, : F - L/ 3 IO
t<ENE:W~\ ~8~'(
2. Fundamental Physics of Solar Radiation Si~EJ,~~ OL
~F~-L\~3
/1t2
])A\:-?-9S IO~
This chapter describ~s the basic aspects of the transfer of cn'Crgy by electromagnetic
radiation as one <iqhreefundament~i physical transfer processes. From thc,bth~ri
elementary proc~~~~, heat, ~onduction and convection. arc convective proc~sses ()q.!
great impo~ance}of atmospheric energy transfen, but will nOI be coverp.9 jn,tI1ei\l
by the sun is presented. Using this framework the solar constant and the extraterres- i
trial radiation as a measure of the radiant flux received by the earth from ~lle sun arc':
All matter emits electromagnetic radiation alall wavelength:; due to 1!S atomic,
the material properties of the emitting body (particularly of its :.url:,ce). Doth ard! ,
a given body can,be made by using the idealized concept of a black bodi::, A per-'i:
feet black body is an object that docs not rencct any radiation whatever. but fully
absorbs all radiation falling on it. It emilS the maximum amount of energy along all.
(2.1) ..:
where k :::::1.381 10- 2 :1 WSK-I is Boltzmann's constant, II = ;6~G26 .'
10- 34 Ws2 is Planck's constant ilOd c == 2.998 . lOti ms I is the :vaeuun~ vcloc- i
ity oflig.ht. ' " . .i
,;' A mo;epract!c~.l for~lll!lation of Planck's law takes Into account that tpe' [lhO-ill "
t9nsnwy~ is<?~~()p'ic~nr~i~:sp~cdc,e.g. within a small solid angle.: Theil for theli i
'~ ) : ' ~ .; . , '1" ' !'. f. , -'. -1
6 2. Fundamental Pllysics ofS"olar Radiation
Lv(ir\P2./~~~:~~;:U;~[Wm-2sr-lsJ
; . (,,- :c
(2.2)
" .. j : ~ !'
. This exp're~~i(m Jt'- I:'ll\e~.the Planck lunction ami \:;\11 abo be wnllen in terms 'of
'wavelength:' . '. ,.." ...
The hemispherical spectral' radiant nux emerging from a unit surface (radiant
exitance) then is (Fig. 2.1):
(2.4)
For each temperature the black-body emission approaches zero for very small
and very large wavelengths. The curve for a wann black body Iics above the curve.
for a cooler black body at each wavelength. 1';'
Approximately, the sun (more strictly, its gascous ~urfacc) is a blacK-body emit
ter. The effective surf~ee temperature is ,..., 5780 K. . 0>
\ _ 2891, t mK:
Am - T . (2.5)
"
Integration of Planck's function (Eq. 2.3) over the entire wavelength domain leads
to the fundamental Sle!an-Bollzmann law, which givcs the total radiant nux density
emiued by a blackbody at temperature T (emittcd raJiation per unit time and area):
M._ = LX, M >.(T) d'\ = "! 1"" L>. (T) d'\ = aT'1 '(2.6)
. \
, I
i;
\.,
I.
i~
WithAnm ,= 41Tr:"" and 1'Stu, = G.% . UI" 111, tile total radiant lluxemiltcd by
the sun is: 1,11' ,
.Ii,
,.
0.0 J!l:.~-'-:'=---,---l...~=~~=-e::~==d
o 3 '
r:
',I ;1'
'i ; ,. ., :1,
Fig. 2.1. Spectra ofcmiucd blac~-body radi~tion ror T 6000 K to 4000 Kin steps or 500 K.
;! .
Esc is called the solar constant. This value has changed in the past as new md;
-:-.c:..> surement techniques (e.g. satellites) have been applied. !n the li~erature a value 91'
1353 Wm- 2 is given frequently. This value is out of date. . '
The solar. cqnstant is the solar radiant flux received on u surface of unit area
perpendicular to the sun's direction at the average sun-earlh distancc outside the
earth's atmosphere.
Being Ac the cross sectional area of thz earth disk as s'Cen by the sun' and '/"c If'!'
6371 km the mean earth radius, it is: ,,, '. 'I' '. i'
. W"'""""fIihC,m) i .,
Fig. 2.2. Spectra 'ofcmiUcd black-body radiation for T = 6000 K (sun liurfacc' , T ~ 10001<,
,I,.!.
i
I
and T = 300 K (earth surface) in a logarithnic scale. The straight line iudie tei; 'the wave
length or maximum emission as a rUllction :'If temperature as glvCII by Wien'li' 9isplacem\":llt
law. . '
2.5 Extraterrestrial Radiation '. 9
f~ = (fES):!
rES r'
I
I,
I
fU ::::!
JUO'
1 + 0.033 . cos ( ~ H) (2.15)
can be used..;, .
With this, the'extraterrestrial radiation at normal in~idence is given by:
I :~ ." it
:j)' ! :.Pt >Ht i,: :: -! 'tr:\ -
;iyou:: ~"Gac: . :
I'~ ~:oltl + 0.033. cos C~~n) ].
.
, (~.l6)
': .
. !
. I ' i ~ \.
sun
-
;":. . . .......''.. . . . - -1---
L
. ~.' :.
1 i
; ..... '...... .
.... / ,. !
1400
j
'"'E
s:
1380
1360
/
1340
1320
day ot year
Fig. 2.4. Annual variation of the extratcrrestrial irraLliancc at normal incidcnce d;lc to thc
varying sun-earth. distance. .
.,
.,
3. Solar Geometry
The amount of solar radiation reaching the earth surfate is affected by several in
fluences. If the highly variable attenuation of solar radiation by tlte atmosphere is
set aside for~ 'moment, the specific astronomical situation of the car&h 's revolu~ion
around thesuo'~ndit~rotalion around it:; polar axis an: the dOl\1inatil~g cOCCI:;. :~' ,
A~ the irradiance'on a plane nonnal to the su,n\ rays is exactly described by the
extraterrestria}iadiation, the angular displacement oi' the SUIl'S position' from this
nOnllal incidence has to be derived from astronomical alit! geographical considcra
tions~ Irradiarice on any surface is than given by
angle of incidence.
3~FSun~Earth Astronomy
)~_~ ,: ,1' .
The ~~ithrevolves around th~ sun in a plane called eclifJlic planc. The:eanh's axis.
(polar a.l'ds) is inclined at 23.45 (constant in time) with respect to the nonnal t.o
, the ecliptic plane. The same then holds for the angle between the canh's equatorial
plane and theccliptic plane.
I
12 3. Solar Geometry
U
, ~ 23 4'5 0
"
.,
:;m
(360(284 +
305
It)) , I (3.2)
Daily variations of solar radiation are u:ually calculated on the basis of solar time,
which is defined in the following way:
A solar day is the time interval betw~cn two consecutive crossings of the slIn's
path with the local meridian. The lengtL of thi:. interval changes from uay1lo,day
(deviation < 30 sec). Only its mean valu~ cquab :;4 h, ! . ',' ;i'
Solar 110011 then is the time of the crc: slIlg of the ~un 's path with the local merid
ian.
The variation of the solar day lengtl, i::, caused by (i) the ellip~ical pamoqhe
earth around the sun (Kepler's second aw: The radius vector" from the' sun ;toa
25
20
15
.
0; 10
Q)
& 5
c:
,g Q
.. ~
:. 'fi 5
Q)
-q ..to
-15
-
-20
~5L------------------------------------
o 100 200 300 365
day of year
planclsweeps out equal areas in cqualtilt:cs) ano (ii) the till oCthe cartl~'s axis with
respect to the ecliptic plane. This difference between the solar time and the lqcw'
mean ~ime ~n ~ninute:i is expressed by the t:ll1pirical C'ili<l1101I u/liIlU: E (Fig..3.2):
; .
E!~ 9;81~iI112D:~; 7.53cosB - 1.5~-;il1 B. I .
(3.4)
i
..~qef~:P.l~(j.69: ~ ((!1 81)/~64 in degrees.
1: - ..! il" , ..
For a ~ighera,ccjira!=ythefollowing fonnula can be used (Spcncer, :197 \): .1
;; ~ i .;-\.. '!' ,:1. .: 1 ' . -,' ~.
=
E '(0:000075 + 0.001868 cosd -0.032077 :-liB d \I ~
',;: : ,\i,--q:j-, . .
j' -:-0,PI,~6~5co:;2d - 0.04084\)si1l211) (l1')U 4/ .. ) (3.5)
where d again is the day angle.
The maximum value of E i5'16.5 minutes (for day It "" 303). :i'
Solar time differs from standard time (i.e. the tillle we an: used towork ~ith,
detennined by the time zone) duc to (i) variation or the kllt;th of ~he solar day,
and (ii) a difference between the local longitudc ami the standard longitude or'thc
appropriate time zone (Fig. 3.3).
- solar time = local time + E
Note: local time oF standard time!
The 10caLtime is a function of the ac.tual (local) Illngitulk 1" (i.e.: ::;,!111C local
time only on ~he same meridian), the ::;tar.dard li111e I:. a runction ortimczoncs o.nly
(corresponding to standard longitudes L.:.
Usually, the standard meridiilns arcwul~ .
tiples of ISO E9f W of Grcenwich. The standard meridian for Centrill;Europell'for'
example, ilj 15E (TZ '" -I from Greenwich). . . .,
The true solar time (TST or LAT) is ca1criatc,1 i'rom local tillle (LST) using
iAT='LMT+E
,; !l .
=L::rr - DST + 4(L. - Ld T f;
/') :"'1"1
I
20 ~--------------------------------~
C 10 . . . . , ....... : .... .
].
<U
.""'0E 0
.g!II
-. 6
UJ -10 . J. .
!; ,
II
.20 L-..I.-L.-........L...I--'-.l.-J'-'--'-rL-'-'-..J-J-J.-'--'-J....J.-'--'-'--'-'
.0
240 300 360
".
I'
....
,
-- . ..i
: " ,I'
= 13 : 00 + 0 : 27 - 0 : 11
= 13: 13.
The hour angle w is a quantity which describes the solar time in trigonometric
reWlOnshlps, It equals the angular dlsp.lacement 01 the sun from the local, meridian
due to the rotation ofthe earth. One hour corresponds to an angle of IS (360?/ 4h .
Il'ie morntnghours are' negative an th~ afternoon hours arc positive by' convcn(ion." i ,
planc'(precis~ly: to the normal to that plane) must be known, The s~n 's position in
the sky hemisphere can be completely described by Iwo {ju<lnlities (Fig. 3,4):
Equation Of Time
0= f(l/J,o;OJ,fl,[).
, -r:its ci:lc~iation:tw'o additional ar.gles have 10 be introduced: The slope an~le - .
F, flbetween th~C()liector plane 'and the horizontal surface which varies betwecn 0 Cor .
, a hOrizontal plane and \10 for a vertical plane. Ihe surface azimuth angle ~( as t]1e
.. deviation orlhe nonnal of the pLane from the local ml.!liulan. AI IS counted clockwise
~ from N where Its value IS 0, (thus for S it is 11:10 0 ) on both flbnisphl.!res. !:'l0te that
in the literature often a"value of 180 for an orientation towaru~ the equator is used!
-Then it is:
,. ~/.
a c of SOl.l~.e special situations simplilied I.!xpressiolls can be given:
pri:.:;ontal surfaces: Ii :::. O(i.f!., (os Ii =- 1. sill:} . 0)
The 900 complel11cill of thc zenith angle is thl! solar elevation angle (~ (solar
altitude).
Vertical surtbccs facing towards the equator: ;:I =:.c: \JO" . ')
hemisphere arid "'( = 00 for the south'!n1 hemisphere
Inclined surfaces facing towards the equator with a tilt angle equal to the absolute
value of the latitude (northem hemis<')hen:: /1 = 1(1. Ai = lHO"; :;outhcm hemi
sphere, (j = -I/J, [ 0):
e-
cos 0 = co:; 0 cos w (3.13)
"
In 111l' pn;vlOu;; chapters unly the cxtrall;rn:slilal radiiltllliT lIiI,' beell c.m:.ilicl'ed; I.C,. " ,
lhe radiative lran::.fer lhrough the <lInlO~phCll' ',V;l~ Illli 11l1l1len..:..:d by tile atlllllsplier,:.
'.I'Hblc 4.1. Cumposition or Ihe dry I\lmO~I)hel\; by \ l,lulllo.: (pPIII PilU, per million),
NihU;!l'l1 7iIof'y;----'
"Oxygen 20.'15 'V.
Argon 0.93%
Carbon Dioxide 350 ppm
Neoll 18 ppm
Hellul11 S pplll
Kryplon I ppm
Hydrogen 0.5 ppm
Ozone 0.0512 ppm (variuble)
,,~:'- .1
"'.. ..
r", ..
\,
II:
I.,
IJ
J ,
\
20 4. Interaction of Solar Raui<ltion wilh Ihe I\lmosplll:n:
,
.: .;r-'
"::'1'~~~~~~~~~~~:.-..
,.:'
The angular dislrlbulion of the scallered radiati()1l i~ givcn by the R.lyk,ig[. scat
tering phase function for unpolarizcd incident wdiali,,\11 (Fig. 4.1):
.Jji.' . (4.1)
I'(V') i;; ,\ lIon-dimcnsional parameter and is II<.Jnlldizcu to ullily. i,e., it has the
prol"'I'(Y thal
,
"
'
. .~- f .Inr ~itl. V)(N"dO ,.:: : "]
7i .I'
1ro , (4,2)
\1ic ',Cilikrilll!, is used lit~ n:I;.liwly ,,111;111 i,,"I:des !.IIl'h ;1:, Illill\l:;cuk' water
{I l pl.~'"
or log, cloutl particles, alltl p;:rtdes rCSll!lIIsihk I'or the pulluted sky, In
\/
.(
Relative Air
......4.l____= '. Mass
_z' :~..:.-- ..
;_-:::'-,-~;o"r.<,\,~,.,;., , .' _ ,,....~
. For an. assess.!nentof,extinction proCe~:;cs in HI": alm():;phc~c it is l!ccC'ssary lokllOw !$
the totalmus:; or.'optical PJlh' of ,.lniosphCIC whkh Ii.: be,lm IrJV(;fllCS 011 its way
to the surf!Ice (or the Ic\'e! ill question,. . ' ~. . . ' ', . . /~ .Z
.....
The rclalivc'palh length of direct sol'li b::<'!ll mdiallCl' Ihwu~h the .llmu:;pher..: is
,;iv"cn by the wtio between the vertical 0 )lleal );lIil 11/. lllld II "~ actual onticuh,llh'lll::'
t) Ie so HI' cam. II can bt) de;;cribed as a ilillctiull ()r~~. : ::lilh angh: a, 1I1l~ .2t::.~ ~ t\ ~~
'Tn, 1 , . .
,--.:. "'" - - - = IWC{)~ ;.... ni,,, (4 ..,)
7h elili Oz
Tit..: ~lllal1 I YUt"
i~ knuwn as Ill..: 1'f.4alil'C' ail' III<IS,\'. III ~vl.ll CIICI'l:\Y fur III" COIll
m'lmty AK/! IS llse9 (I'!g, ~,3), . .
--=Etj, (4,3) is slriellyvuliJ only for .1 plane paralld :!llllOspl!crc. In a rcal, spherical
atmosphere with refraction the relative uir mas:; AM is limited 10 about 36.5.
More accurate values for the relative air mass <.It standard pressure can be ob
tained from (Kasten, 1966):
(4.4)
,-
~
'E 2000
:1.
~.
<:
~
z::. 1500
'iii
c
Q)
"0
X
::l
<;;:: 1000
C
ro
=i}
r\1
'
t:;{J(l
ro'
~ ti
C)
,0c.
o
AlpmJ
fi~, 4.2. Planck spcctnllll lur bl"ck budy a\ T=5780 K (Ihick curve) '(md'~bssrycd soh':"
l\
"pC~lra .11 tile lOr ()r the all11u);pho.:rc (cxlralcll'l!strial, thin (III'VC) ami OIl tI);7'[!nl'lh surI'a.;c
" (grey mea).
"
.,.
/
'-I
, ','_, ~Bt definition, the, case of extraterrestri,ll radiation (i.e., no air mass at all) is
,~~, . ~escrJbedbyA~ O. " "
, ,~;' . : / ~'AM 1.5 is commonly lIsed as a reference air mass in data sheets of photo . .
;.~;:.,~.~
. - , voltaic modules. ' . '
4.2 SpcctralIr~c.-
~-'"' -- -: ::~~...~:-=::...... -
shift ufspc<.:lrulll
"
.. s[1cc;lrn 1'01' ..kar sky
'Chc standard spectra in Ch:!ptcr 4.2 apply till" '..:lo~(l:ess (i.t'. 1.'1..:;:1') ski..:s {lidy. Thu::.,
approximations conccl'Iling the incuming l;Jdialion arc po!:>sibk when gco:l1clry ;l'l{!
atmo~pheric turbidity (amollllt'of water vapor, ;Jcrosob) arc known'. .
But: Most oflhe redu,;:lion in irmdian.:c is due 10 doud:;!
--+ a quantity describing Ihis llVcrall reduclion is,lhc dea/"l1(,s.~ index:
.r Gdt (4,6)
. kL = IG"dt'
normaliz.ulionofglobul irradi:mcc by corresponding exlnllcrreslri"I' rudi.llion . '
, value, -:-+ eljmi1'\atingseasonal;trimd, .
'k, 'relates tb~ global radiation to the cxtrntcrr,::strinl radiation .and therefore gives
a dimensionless Ilumber.glvinglhc pcrceni~ge of the reduction of cxtralcrreslri;1
radiation due 10 nbsorplion nnd scnllcrillg by ,IiI' molecules, aerosols, water vapour
3.nd clouds.
Convention: kL is commoilly used in a generic sense as well as for hourly valucs.
for daily anI..! monthly vu)ucs J<t and J?t arc used, respectively.
{)-
, ~ ..
, '{
"
!
100 6 21 6 31 2&
ATIdOSPHEItE
lIboorbed by
Walar Vapour,
OuSl, C0.i
,0 22
300 9
Wrrr2 GJrrr2
200
100
3
0 - 0
90 60' 30 O -30' -60' -90'
N latitude S
Fig. 5.3. Mean mcriditlnal proIi Ie orcxtmlcrre~lrhll radi,llioil G u , global moialion G, direct
mdiation Co and dill'use radiation G u on II horizontal SUI'I;ICC, The 5c,IIe5 IIrc aver;!ge irradi
mlce (left. ill Wm- 2 ) and annual ~olar radiation (righI, ill GJm- 2 ),
"