Accepted Manuscript

Title: CHEMICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

OF AVOCADO (Persea americana Mill.) SEED FIBROUS
RESIDUES

Author: Enrique Barbosa-Martn Luis Chel-Guerrero Edith

Gonzalez-Mondragon David Betancur-Ancona

PII: S0960-3085(16)30106-7
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.fbp.2016.09.006
Reference: FBP 776

To appear in: Food and Bioproducts Processing

Received date: 22-6-2016

Revised date: 7-9-2016
Accepted date: 23-9-2016

Please cite this article as: Barbosa-Martn, Enrique, Chel-Guerrero, Luis,

Gonzalez-Mondragon, Edith, Betancur-Ancona, David, CHEMICAL AND
TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF AVOCADO (Persea americana
Mill.) SEED FIBROUS RESIDUES.Food and Bioproducts Processing
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2016.09.006

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 CHEMICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF AVOCADO (Persea

americana Mill.) SEED FIBROUS RESIDUES

Enrique Barbosa-Martna, Luis Chel-Guerreroa, Edith Gonzlez-Mondragnb, David

Betancur-Ancona a*
a
Facultad de Ingeniera Qumica, Universidad Autnoma de Yucatn. Perifrico Norte Km.
33.5, Tablaje Catastral 13615, Colonia Chuburn de Hidalgo Inn, 97203 Mrida, Yucatn,
Mxico. Tel. +52 9999460956, Fax. +52 9999460994. * E-mail:bancona@correo.uady.mx
b
Universidad Tecnolgica de la Mixteca, Carretera a Acatlima Km. 2.5, 69000 Huajuapan
de Len, Oaxaca, Mxico.

1
HIGHLIGHTS

Avocado seeds fibrous residues are interesting by-product for food industry

The residues present high proportions of soluble dietary fiber and neutral detergent fiber

The fibrous residues retain four times their weight in water and six times their weight in oil.

Avocado seed fibrous residues properties make them promising technological ingredients

2
ABSTRACT

In industrial processing of the avocado (Persea americana Mill.) fruit only the pulp is used,

resulting in thousands of tons of seeds as a waste by-product. Chemical and technological

characterizations were done on fiber residues produced with one of two fiber extraction

methods: Method A, using NaHSO3; and Method B, using NaHSO3, NaCl and tris-

hydroxymethyl-aminomethane. Proximate composition, total, soluble and insoluble dietary

fiber, acid and neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose

were determined. Also, technological properties were evaluated on fiber residues. The main

results were: yield did not differ (p>0.05) between methods (A: 45.63 %; B: 48.11 %), but

they did differ (p<0.05) in ash, moisture and nitrogen-free extract. The residues relatively

high proportions of soluble dietary fiber, neutral detergent fiber and hemicellulose allowed

them to retain four times their weight in water and six times their weight in oil. The

properties of avocado seed fibrous residues make them promising technological ingredients

in industrial food systems.

Keywords: Persea americana Mill, Avocado seed, Technological properties, Total dietary

fiber, Soluble dietary fiber, Insoluble dietary fiber.

1. INTRODUCTION

Avocado Persea americana Mill. is a fruit tree native to Mesoamerica and Central

America, but is currently grown worldwide. A member of the Lauracea family, mature trees

can reach heights from 15 to 30 m. Its fruit has a dark green, rugose rind that covers a

yellow-green pulp rich in oils that is appreciated for its sensory and nutritional

characteristics (Giffoni et al., 2009). The large seed accounts for an average of 15 to 16 %

3
of fruit weight. The pulp is a significant source of vitamins (D, E, B6, B12 and C), minerals

as potassium, phosphorus, calcium, iron and sodium (Dreher and Davenport, 2013),

essential amino acids (valine, lysine, phenylalanine, isoleucine, leucine, threonine and

methionine) and unsaturated fatty acids (oleic, linoleic and linolenic) (De Oliveira et al.,

2013).

Mexico is the leading avocado producer, accounting for approximately 38 % of global

production (Gutirrez et al., 2010). Within Mexico, the state of Michoacn is the primary

producer. Avocado fruit is marketed worldwide and processed into value-added products

such as guacamole, puree, and oils, among other derivatives. These products utilize only

the pulp, leaving behind approximately 148,000 tons of seeds as waste by-product

(Gutirrez et al., 2010). If not discarded properly, these pose a serious disposal challenge

and can promote pest vectors such as insects and rodents.

Avocado fruit seeds are a potential alternative fiber source. This makes them a candidate

for study as part of the current boom in identifying applications for vegetable by-products,

such as dietary fiber (Ceballos and Montoya, 2013). The major potential use in the food

industry of these tropical fruit by-products can be as food additives as antioxidants,

antimicrobials, colorants, flavorings, and thickener agents. In addition, the complete

utilization of fruits by-products could lead the industry to a lower-waste agribusiness,

increasing industrial profitability (Ayala-Zabala et al., 2011).

Avocado seed fiber has possible biological and technological uses (Mugdil and Barak,

2013). The seed is high in potassium and antioxidants, and is one of the best sources of

dietary fibre. Has showed had higher amounts of phenolic and a more intense in vitro

antioxidant potential than the than the edible portions (pulp) and the common synthetic

antioxidants as Trolox due to the content of tannins and polyphenolic compounds within

4
the seed (Rodriguez-Carpena et al., 2011; Segovia-Gomz et al. 2014). Some

phytochemical studies on avocado seeds have identified various classes of natural products

such as saponin, phytosterols, triterpenes, fatty acids, furanoic acids, flavonol dimers and

proanthocyanidins. Some of them are related to antimicrobial, antifungal activities and

larvicidal effects (Rodriguez-Carpena et al., 2011; Giffoni et. al 2009). Pahua-Ramos et al.,

(2012) investigated the effect of methanolic extract of avocado seed flour on the lipid levels

in mice on a hyperlipidemic diet and concluded that the antioxidant activity of phenolic

compounds and dietary fiber in avocado seeds may be responsible for the

hypocholesterolemic activity in a hyperlipidemic model of mice.

Extracting dietary fiber from vegetable by-products provides an opportunity to add value to

primary production and mitigate the negative environmental impacts associated with their

disposal (Ceballos and Montoya, 2013). Dietary fiber has a number of reported biological

effects in humans, including early satiation (Kristensen and Jensen, 2011);

retention/excretion of bile acids (Kristensen et al., 2012); gastrointestinal laxative (Jing et

al., 2012); hypoglycemia (Post et al., 2012); hypocholesterolemia (Hu and Yu, 2013); as

well as prebiotic and cardioprotective properties (Slavin, 2013), among others. It also has

useful technological properties such as its capacity to improve softness in bakery products

(Mugdil and Barak, 2013) and as a potential emulsifier in meat products (Ospina et al.,

2011).

The present study objective was to better understand the potential of avocado (Persea

americana Mill.) seed fiber produced using two processing methods as an ingredient in

food industry processes by chemically and technologically characterizing it.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

5
2.1 Materials

Persea americana Mill seeds were obtained in the state of Yucatan, Mexico. The fruits

purchased from local market then prepared in laboratory to obtain seeds. Impurities and

damaged seeds were removed. Reagents were analytical grade and purchased from J.T.

Baker (Phillipsburg, NJ, USA), Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO, USA), Merck

(Darmstadt, Germany) and Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc. (Hercules, CA, USA).

2.2 Seed powder preparation

Chopped avocado seeds (Persea americana Mill cv. Hass) were spread onto a tray and

placed in an oven at 60 C until dry. The chopped seeds were turned periodically to ensure

uniform dryness. Later, the chopped seeds were finely ground (20-mesh screen, 841 m)

using a Retsch Ball Mill grinder (Retsch GmbH, Germany) for 20 seconds. The resulting

avocado seed powder with 0.84 mm of average particle size was stored at 4 C until use.

2.3 Extraction of fiber residues

Avocado seed fibrous residues were produced by wet fractionating the seed powder with

two different processes. In the first process (called method A), seed powder was suspended

in a sodium bisulphite solution (1500 ppm SO2) at a 1:5 (w/v) ratio, and the suspension left

to soak under constant agitation a room temperature for 1 h (Chel-Guerrero et al., 2016).

The suspension was sifted through an 80-mesh sieve (177 m) to retain a solid fraction

containing the fiber residue and letting a slurry fraction containing protein and starch (this

fraction is discarded). The fiber fraction was washed in distilled water three times and then

re-suspended in distilled water and centrifuged at 1100 x g for 12 min (Mistral 3000i,

Sanyo MSE, UK) to recover the fiber after the final wash. This washed fiber fraction was

6
dried at 40 C in a convection oven for 12 h, weighed, and milled in a Cyclotec (Tecator,

Sweden) mill until it passed through a 60-mesh screen (250 m). It was stored at room

temperature in a sealed container.

The second process (called method B) was done according to Khan (1987). Seed powder

was immersed in a solution containing 2 mM Tris (pH 7.0), 7.5 mM NaCl and 80 mM

NaHSO3 This suspension was wet-milled with a Kitchen-Aid (Benton Harbor, MI, USA)

mill and the resulting slurry passed through a 80-mesh sieve (177 m). It was then washed

twice with solvent A to separate the fiber solids from the starch. The fiber was oven dried at

40 C for 12 h and then milled in a Mykros (Infraestructura Inteligente, Mexico) impact

mill until passing through a 60-mesh sieve (250 m). The methods used (Khan 1987 and

Chel-Guerrero et al., 2016) raise the integral use of avocado seeds. Both processes propose

the use of reagents to solubilize proteins and disperse of the starch granules for obtaining

the fibrous residues.

Chemical and technological characterizations were done separately of the fiber fractions

obtained from each extraction method. All analyses were done in triplicate.

2.4 Fiber residue proximate composition

Standard AOAC (1997) methods were used to determine nitrogen (method 954.01), fat

(method 920.39), ash (method 925.09), crude fiber (method 962.09), and moisture (method

925.09) contents in the fiber residues. Nitrogen (N2) content was quantified with a Kjeltec

Digestion System (Tecator, Hgans, Skne ln, Sweden) using cupric sulfate and

potassium sulfate as catalysts. Protein content was calculated as nitrogen x 6.25 to facilitate

comparison with other sources, because there is no specific conversion factor for avocado

7
seed fibrous residues. Fat content was obtained from a 1 h hexane extraction according to

Soxhlet principle using a Soxtec System (Tecator, Hgans, Skne ln, Sweden). Ash

content was calculated from sample weight after burning at 550 C for 2 h. Moisture

content was measured based on sample weight loss after oven-drying at 110 C for 2 h.

Carbohydrate content was estimated as nitrogen-free extract (NFE) by difference from the

sum of the protein, fat, ash and crude fiber contents.

2.5 Total dietary fiber (TDF), insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) and soluble dietary fiber

(SDF).

2.5.1 Total dietary fiber (TDF)

TDF content was measured with the gravimetric enzymatic method (Prosky et al., 1988).

Avocado seed fiber residue (1 g) was weighed and 50 mL phosphate buffer (50.0 mM, pH

6) was added. -Amylase enzyme (0.1 mL, Sigma A-3306) was incorporated and agitated

at 60 rpm, 100 C for 15 min. Protease (0.1 mL, Sigma P-3910) was added and were

agitated at 60 rpm, pH 7.5, 60 C, for 30 min. Amyloglucosidase (0.3 mL, Sigma A-9913)

was added and agitated at 60 rpm, pH 4.0, 60 C for 30 min. Finally, 95 % ethanol (v/v),

preheated to 60 C, was added at a 4 volume ethanol for one volume sample. This sample

was vacuum filtered into crucibles for dietary fiber at constant weight, into which a 1 g cap

Celite (Sigma C-8656) had been previously placed. The residue remaining in the flask was

washed three times with 20 mL of 78 % ethanol, twice with 10 mL of 95 % ethanol, and

twice with 10 mL acetone. Protein content (N x 6.25) and ash was quantified for residues.

- -
TDF (%) =

8
2.5.2 Insoluble dietary fiber (IDF)

The same method (Prosky et al., 1988) was used to quantify IDF, but with omission of

addition of 95 % ethanol (v/v) at 1:4 (v/v).

2.5.3 Soluble dietary fiber (SDF)

This parameter was calculated as the difference between TDF and IDF:

SDF (%) = -

2.6 Van Soest Fiber Components

2.6.1 Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF)

Avocado seed fiber residues were oven dried at 55 C. They were then dried in 50 mL

fritted glass crucibles overnight at 100 C and hot weighed (W1). Fibrous residues

(approximately 1 g) were weighed (W2) into a Berzelius beaker. 100 mL of acid-detergent

solution (20 g cetyltrimethylammonium bromide - CTAB) in 1 L 1.0 N sulfuric acid was

added and heated to boiling for 10 min. It was then refluxed for 60 min from boil onset.

The sample was filtered using minimal vacuum and the beakers were washed using acid

detergent solution and boiling water to insure complete transfer of all fiber particles into the

crucible. This residue was rinsed twice with 30-40 mL acetone. Finally, the fiber residue

was dried overnight at 100 C and weighed hot (W3). Percent acid detergent fiber (ADF)

was calculated as follows (Van Soest et al., 1991; Segura-Campos et al., 2014a):

9
 -
% ADF (DM basis) =

Where:

W1 = crucible tare weight in grams

W2 = initial sample weight in grams

W3 = dry weight of crucible and dry fiber in grams

2.6.2 Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF)

Samples of avocado seed fiber residues (1 g) were processed as above but with a volume of

100 mL neutral-detergent solution. This solution was prepared add 30.0 g sodium lauryl

sulfate, 18.61 g EDTA, 6.81 g sodium tetraborate decahydrate, 4.56 g sodium phosphate

dibasic; and 10.0 ml triethylene glycol, in 1 L distilled water. The solution was stirred and

heated (50 C) to facilitate solubility and pH was adjusted to 6.9-7.1 (Van Soest et al.,

1991; Segura-Campos et al., 2014a).

2.6.3 Acid Detergent lignin (ADL)

Avocado seed fiber residues were processed as above for ADF, but using a volume of 100

mL 72 % H2SO4 solution. The crucibles containing samples were burned in a muffle

furnace at 500 C for 2 hours, and the crucible weighed to the nearest 0.1 mg (W3)

(AOAC, 1990).

2.6.4 Cellulose and hemicellulose

10
These parameters were calculated as follows:

Cellulose (%) = -

Hemicellulose (%) = -

2.7 Technological properties

Water-holding (WHC) and oil-holding capacity (OHC)

Both these capacities were measured following Chau et al., (1997) modified by Segura-

Campos et al. (2014b). Avocado seed fiber residues (1 g d.b.) was weighed out and stirred

into 10 mL distilled water or corn oil (Mazola, CPI International) for one min. These fiber

suspensions were centrifuged at 2 200 g for 30 min and supernatant volume measured.

Water-holding capacity was expressed as kilograms of water retained per kilogram of

sample, and oil-holding capacity as kilograms of oil retained per kilogram of fiber. Corn oil

density was 0.92 g/mL.

2.7.1 Water Absorption capacity (WAbC)

This property was determined according to AACC method 88-04 (1984) adapted by

Segura-Campos et al. (2014b). Approximate water absorption capacity (AWAC) was

initially measured by weighing out of avocado seed fiber residues (2 g d.b.), adding water

until saturated (approx. 40 mL) and centrifuging at 2 000g for 10 min. Excess water was

discarded and the residue weighed and AWAC was calculated. Water absorption capacity

11
(WAbC) was then confirmed by placing samples in four tubes, adding different quantities of

water to bracket the measurement (1.5 mL and 0.5 mL water above initial weight, and 1.5

mL and 0.5 mL water below initial weight; one in each tube), agitating vigorously in a

vortex for 2 min, and centrifuging at 2 000g for 10 min (Beckman GS-15R centrifuge).

The supernatant was discarded and the residue weighed. Average water absorbed was

measured, WAbC calculated, and expressed as kilograms of water absorbed per kilogram of

sample.

2.7.2 Water Adsorption capacity (WAdC)

This property was determined according to Chen et al., (1984) adapted by Segura-Campos

et al. (2014b). Briefly, Avocado seed fiber residues (1 g d.b.) was placed in an equilibrium

micro-environment at 98 % relative humidity, generated by placing 20 mL saturated

potassium sulfate saline solution in tightly sealed glass flasks and placing these in

desiccators at 25 C. The sample was left in the microenvironment until reaching constant

weight (72 h). Water adsorption capacity was expressed as kilograms of water per kilogram

of sample.

2.8 Statistical analysis

Statistical analyses were done to identify the datas central tendency and deviations. One-

way ANOVAs and a Duncan statistics test (5 % significance level) were run to evaluate

proximate composition, dietary fiber content and functional properties. All analyses were

done according to Montgomery (2014) and implemented with the Statgraphics Plus ver. 5.1

software (Statpoint Technologies Inc. WA, USA).

12
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Fibrous component extraction

Fiber yield did not differ (p>0.05) between methods: 45.632.49 % for Method A (NaSO3);

and 48.113.28 % for Method B (NaSO3, NaCl and hydroxymethyl-aminomethane). Either

method can therefore be used to extract avocado seed fiber residues (ASFR). Considering

that they produce the same amount of fiber, Method A is preferable since it uses fewer

reagents, has consequently lower costs and generates fewer potentially environmentally

harmful effluents. The avocado seed is an example of tropical fruit by-products that have a

successful opportunity at the secondary process of extraction of compounds and ingredients

for food industry. The integral use of agricultural by-product as avocado seeds is a

requirement and a demand that needs to be met by developing countries wishing to

implement low-waste technology in their agribusiness (Ayala-Zabala et al., 2011).

3.2 Chemical characterization

Proximate composition results showed the samples not to differ (p>0.05) in terms of fat,

protein and fiber contents. Differences (p<0.05) were identified in ash, moisture and

nitrogen-free extract contents. Comparison of the present data to previously reported

composition data for Hass avocado variety seeds (Bressani et al., 2009), suggests that

extraction process modifies proximate composition (Table 1).

Fat content in the ASFR was lower (Method A: 2.17 %; Method B: 2.14 %) than that

reported for Hass avocado pulp (15.4 %) (Dreher and Davenport, 2013) and seeds (5.52 %)

(Bressani et al., 2009). Avocado pulp has been touted as a good protein source, but the

13
results showed the ASFR to have a higher protein content (4.98 %) than both Hass avocado

pulp (3.71 %) and seeds (3.44 %) (Bressani et al., 2009). Indeed, other studies have

reported even lower protein contents (1.2 - 2.1 %) in Hass avocado pulp (Jacobo et al.,

2013). Crude fiber content in the ASFR was within the range reported for Hass avocado

pulp (between 5.2 % and 24.55 %) (Ceballos and Montoya, 2013; Bressani et al., 2009), but

higher than reported for seeds of different avocado varieties (0.7 % and 4.24 %). The

differences could be due to variability in agro-climatic conditions for growing of avocado

fruit (Bressani et al., 2009).

3.3 Dietary fiber quantification

Values for crude fiber represent only an approximate percentage of fiber content, and

provide no detailed information on dietary fiber content, such as indigestible

polysaccharides (cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin) and lignin (Misurcov et al., 2012). To

generate more accurate data on the fiber fraction, total dietary fiber (TDF), soluble dietary

fiber (SDF) and insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) were quantified. No difference was observed

between samples for TDF (p>0.05), but they did differ (p<0.05) in terms of SDF (soluble

hemicelluloses and pectins) and IDF (cellulose and insoluble hemicelluloses). The

SDF/IDF ratio in samples processed with Method A was 0.304 and that for samples

processed with Method B was 0.242 (Table 2). TDF content found in the ASFR extracted

in this study (47 %) were higher than those reported by Padhua-Ramos et al., (2012) in

avocado seed meal (34.8 %). These authors claim that high dietary fiber content is of

sufficient level to promote beneficial health effects as a reduction of cholesterolaemia,

changes on the glycemic and insulinaemic responses, and antioxidant activity.

14
Available carbohydrates (AV) were estimated by difference (100 - weight in grams of

moisture + protein+ fat + ash + total dietary fiber, in 100 g of fiber residues). AV contents

were 34.66 0.25 % and 33.11 0.33 %, for samples processed with Method A or Method

B, respectively. This available carbohydrate represents that fraction of carbohydrate that

can be digested by human enzymes, is absorbed and enters into intermediary metabolism

and they are available to provide energy to body cells.

Since dietary fiber accounted for almost half of the ASFR samples from either method, they

could be used for their nutraceutical characteristics or as functional ingredients. Their high

IDF proportion (A: 36.39 %; B: 38.15 %) may provide the ASFR the physiological

properties of this fiber type, including increase of the fecal mass, improvement of intestinal

transit (Mugdil and Barak, 2013), retention of bile acids (Kristensen et al., 2012) and

decreased serum cholesterol levels (Hu and Yu, 2013). The samples would also retain the

physiological properties of SDF (A: 11.08 %; B: 9.25 %), such as delayed gastric emptying

and retention of soluble substances, among others (Kristensen and Jensen, 2011).

Their high IDF contents also suggest use of the ASFR as additives in food systems because

this type of fiber modifies characteristics such as texture or general acceptance in different

foods (Elleuch et al., 2011). For example, in cereal products (pasta, bread, cakes and

extrudates) IDF promotes greater density increases nutritional value and improves and

functional characteristics (Foschia et al., 2013). In meat products, IDF can have positive

impacts on texture by increasing consistency and promoting formation of stronger

structures (Ospina et al., 2011). The SDF fraction is useful as a beverage stabilizer

(Dhingra et al., 2012) and for promoting freshness and softness in baked products (Mugdil

and Barak, 2013).

15
3.4 Van Soest fiber fractions

Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) (hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin and cutin), acid detergent

fiber (ADF) (cellulose, lignin and cutin) and acid detergent lignin (ADL) (lignin and cutin)

contents were quantified for the IDF fraction. These components did not differ (p>0.05) in

either ASFR (Table 2). Cellulose and hemicellulose contents were estimated in response to

the observed NDF, ADF and ADL contents. Cellulose levels did not differ (p>0.05)

between methods A (7.64 %) and B (7.74 %), but hemicellulose values were higher

(p<0.05) with method A (Table 2). Comparison of the NDF:ADF ratios of the ASFR (A:

1:0.51; B: 1:053) to a high SDF cereal such as oats (1:0.4) (Savioli et al., 2000), showed the

studied samples to have a higher proportion of insoluble elements. In contrast, arrowleaf

sida (1:0.92) (Savn, 2002) has a much higher IDF content than the ASFR, so much so that

it is used as fodder. As mentioned previously, IDF has a number of physiological properties

all of which provide it specific technological properties (Mugdil and Barak, 2013).

The present ASFR samples had levels of different IDF components that make them a

promising element in food systems. For example, hemicellulose can be used in baked

products to generate firmness and improve sensory acceptance (Hu et al., 2009). Cellulose

can be substituted for up to 50 % of pork fat, resulting in quality sausages with 45 % less

fat and 15 % less cholesterol (Campagnol et al., 2012). Lignins present a similar behavior

to hemicellulose and cellulose. Have many possible applications in foods since their strong

molecular bonds confer them high resistance under extreme conditions, meaning they are

largely unaffected by high temperatures, among other conditions (Dhingra et al., 2012)

3.5 Technological characterization

16
No significant differences (p>0.05) between the fiber residues produced with either method

were observed for WAbC (3.18 % vs. 3.60 %), WHC (4.13 % vs. 4.03 %), and OHC (6.37

% vs. 6.22 %). Water adsorption capacity (WAdC) was higher (p<0.05) in the Method B

residues (Figure 1). All these are important properties of dietary fiber sources, and are

influenced by a fibers structural matrix, its IDF:SDF ratio, particle size, vegetal source and

extraction process (Zambrano et al., 2003).

Water holding capacity (WHC) is explained by two action mechanisms: the physical

interaction of water absorption capacity (WAbC) and the chemical interaction of water

adsorption capacity (WAdC). The soluble components of a fiber residues SDF fraction

(Table 2) and its protein content are mainly responsible for WHC (Table 1). It is the

interaction between SDF compounds (pectin, gums and mucilages) (Kristensen and Jensen,

2011) and proteins (Aminlari et al., 2009), which have an affinity for soluble components,

that allows fibrous residues to hold four times their weight in water. At the gastrointestinal

level, water retention of this sort results in increased bolus viscosity, possible greater fecal

mass, early postprandial satiety, as well as the trapping and removal of soluble components

such as glucose (Misurcov et al., 2012).

The fibrous residues produced with either method were able to retain six times their weight

in oil, due largely to their high IDF contents (Table 2). Residue OHC was due to the

affinity of the IDF structure for oil components, and is expressed as the bond between the

residues and lipids such as cholesterol and fatty and bile acids (Misurcov et al., 2012).

The physical and chemical effects of the ASFR SDF content, expressed as WHC, would

allow their use in food systems requiring water capture and retention, such as jams, jellies,

creams, ketchup and baked products. This is possible because SDF increases system

viscosity and stability, and disperses more readily in water than IDF (Mugdil and Barak,

17
2013; Dhingra et al., 2012). The residues high WHC would also make them potentially

useful technological ingredients in meat products, in which they could impart juiciness and

improve texture (Ospina et al., 2011). One limitation of the studied ASFR is that their high

OHC would cause an unpleasant greasy sensation if used in fried products.

When compared to other high IDF content plant-origin by-products, the ASFR studied here

had notably high OHC values (Method A: 6.37 g/g; Method B: 6.22 g/g). These were

clearly higher than values reported for pumpkin peel (3.75 g/g) (Nyam et al., 2013), banana

stem (2.68 g/g) (Jacometti et al., 2015), banana peel (2.64 g/g) (Alarcn et al., 2013) and

apple pulp after processing for cider (1.69 g/g) (Cerda et al., 2015). The OMAC values for

the ASFR (Method A: 0.71 g/g; Method B: 0.68 g/g) were similar to those reported for

pumpkin shell (0.74 g/g) (Nyam et al., 2013), but lower than those for banana peel (2.33

g/g) (Alarcn et al., 2013).

4. CONCLUSIONS

The two tested fiber component extraction methods resulted in avocado seed fibrous

residues with similar chemical and technological properties. No differences (p> 0.05) were

observed in fat, protein and fiber contents, although ash, moisture and nitrogen-free extract

contents did differ (p<0.05) between the residues. Both fibrous residues had a higher IDF

fraction than SDF fraction. Total dietary fiber (TDF), NDF, ADF, ADL and cellulose did

not differ (p>0.05) between them, but hemicellulose was higher in the residue extracted

with Method A (NaHSO3) than that extracted with Method B (NaHSO3, NaCl and

hydroxymethyl-aminomethane mixture). Their high insoluble fiber fraction could provide

18
them physiological effects such as improved intestinal transit, bile acid retention and

lowering of cholesterol. Both residues held four times their weight in water and six times

their weight in oil, suggesting their use as additives to increase freshness, softness and

viscosity in baked products, and juiciness in meat products.

5. Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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 FIGURE CAPTIONS

Figure 1. Water-holding capacity (WHC), oil-holding capacity (OHC), water absorption

capacity (WAbC) and water adsorption capacity (WAdC) of avocado seed fiber residues
extracted with one of two methods. Data are mean standard deviation (n=3). Different
superscript letters in the same property indicate statistical difference (p<0.05).

25
Table 1. Proximate composition (g/100 g sample) of avocado seed fibrous residues (ASFR)
produced with two methods, and whole Hass avocado seeds.

ASFR ASFR Hass avocado seeds

Component
Method A Method B (Bressani et al., 2009)
Moisture 9.05 0.04a 9.99 0.02b 7.66 0.53
Crude protein 4.98 0.05a 4.98 0.03a 3.44 0.03

Crude fat 2.17 0.03a 2.14 0.02b 5.52 0.00

Crude Fiber 5.98 0.13a 6.25 0.49b 3.98 0.45

Ash 1.30 0.03a 2.45 0.16b 3.85 0.03

Nitrogen-free
76.52 0.13a 74.19 0.23b 75.55 0.56
extract
Data are mean standard deviation (n=3). Different superscript letters in the same component
indicate statistical difference (p<0.05).

26
Table 2. Total, insoluble and soluble dietary fiber, neutral and acid detergent fiber, lignin,
hemicellulose and cellulose in avocado seed fiber residues (g/100 g sample).

ASFR ASFR
Component
Method A Method B

Total dietary fiber (TDF) 47.84 0.78a 47.41 0.14a

Insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) 36.39 0.18a 38.15 0.59b

Soluble dietary fiber (SDF) 11.08 0.65a 9.25 0.49b

Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) 40.44 0.48a 39.66 0.64a

Acid detergent fiber (ADF) 20.63 0.39a 21.21 0.24a

Acid detergent lignin (ADL) 12.99 0.19a 13.47 0.27a
Hemicellulose 19.81 0.18a 18.45 0.22b
Cellulose 7.64 0.28a 7.74 0.25a

Data are mean standard deviation (n=3). Different superscript letters in the same
component indicate statistical difference (p<0.05).

27
 7
6.37a 6.22a

5
4.13a 4.03a
g / g sample

4 3.60a
3.18a

0.54b
1 0.23a

0
WHC OHC WAbC WAdC
Method A Method B

Figure 1. Water-holding capacity (WHC), oil-holding capacity (OHC), water absorption capacity
(WAbC) and water adsorption capacity (WAdC) of avocado seed fiber residues extracted with one
of two methods. Data are mean standard deviation (n=3). Different superscript letters in the same property
indicate statistical difference (p<0.05).

28