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Teacher self-assessment through the use of portfolio .......................................................................... 8

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Teacher self-assessment through the use of portfolio

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: self-assessment, teacher portfolio
Introduction
This research aims at the exploration of the teachers self growth and more specifically it aims
to investigate the teachers beliefs on self-assessment and on the use of the teacher portfolio. First
of all, it attempts to explore the degree of the teachers awareness of the terms and then
concentrates on their practices. Furthermore, it will help them recognize their mastery experiences,
provide clear standards of teaching, find the gaps between desired and actual practices and help
them select improvement goals. As Calderhead (1989) says, reflective teaching is generally
understood to concern more than the cognition involved in teaching; it concerns metacognitive
processes of comparison, evaluation and self-direction.
The first part attempts to provide the definition of self assessment, stress its importance for
educators and establish criteria that will aid them in goal setting through reflection. Schon (1987)
asserted that the application of theory into practice is driven by reflection and that such a process
will lead to a state of expertise. The creation of a self assessment tool can help teachers recognize
their mastery experiences, select clearer standards for teaching and find possible gaps between
desired and actual practices. In this case the assessment tool is the teacher portfolio. There is an
attempt to define portfolio and stress its value for the teacher. There will be suggestions on how to
organize it and what it should contain. The development of a professional portfolio depends on the
teacher, the purpose it is created for and its possible audience.
The second examines the research methodology applied in this study. After establishing the
context and the aims for conducting this study, there is the presentation of the research tools;
namely the questionnaire and the interview.
The third part focuses on the presentation and analysis of the findings of the research process and
finally the last part further discusses the findings deriving from the analysis of the research results
and several suggestions are made focusing on the need for further research on the issue.
Additionally, the implications for the teachers and the teaching procedure are discussed.
Definition of self-assessment and the teacher portfolio

Self-assessment
Given the fact that the teachers role in the teaching procedure is a central one, as learning is
shaped through their choices and attitude (, 1998), it becomes essential that their
beliefs and practices constantly improve so that they will enable not only their students, but also
themselves to cope with the ongoing changes in the learning environment. They should be able to
maneuver and adjust themselves according to the current needs and challenges (, ,
2002). So they have to perceive both their and the learners needs, as well as ascertain whether
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their teaching choices have been proved successful or not, and identify what needs to be altered.
This can be effectively accomplished through the process of teachers self-assessment.
During this process teachers undertake to assess the value of themselves or their practices based
on specific criteria (, , , 2007). These criteria are shaped by
their subjective opinions and attitudes, determined by the person him/herself and the messages
received by society, and the objective elements they receive from the environment (Burns,
1982).Teachers have to detach themselves in order to observe their thoughts, feelings and actions,
and thus assess themselves (, 2004).
Teacher self-assessment focuses on teachers themselves and not on the learners or the material
used. The questions asked during this process and their interpretation aid them to make decisions
about themselves and their teaching practices. Self-assessment helps them to recognize and accept
themselves (-, 2002), to make decisions on their strengths and weaknesses with a
view to improve them. It is a technique for improving achievement leading to professional growth
as described in Ross and Bruce (2007). Professional development according to Hargreaves and
Fullan (1995) is multi-dimensional. The teacher must be flexible so as to be able to adapt to
change, constantly develop his/her knowledge and skills that will eventually provide him with a
positive and realistic self-perception.
The teaching procedure focuses on specific goals and serves the needs of a specific group of
learners. All the activities or the tools that are used to serve the aims of the lesson are also selected
according to the needs of the specific group of learners (Kreymer-Hayon, 1993). It is therefore
obvious that the lessons effectiveness and organization is inextricably linked to the careful
selection of goals, which may be better defined through self-assessment. This strong dependence
between self-assessment and goals is evidenced through the process of reflection, where the
practitioners after framing the situation, they determine the features they will attend, the order that
will be imposed on the situation and they directions that they will follow to change it
(, 1998, Schon, 1983).
Self-assessment is not something unusual as many teachers may practice it daily and intuitively
but not systematically. It is spontaneous and it can take place during teaching as reflection in
action (Schon, 1983), where teachers question their decisions and try to find solutions to the
problems raised. In addition, teacher self-assessment challenges teacher beliefs; the term usually
refers to teachers pedagogic beliefs or those related to teaching (Borg, 2001). Teacher beliefs of
their role may vary as they may view themselves as:
a) the bearers of social and cultural values and knowledge, responsible for transmitting them
(Kremer-Hayon,1993)
b) the professionals responsible for the learners progress, who are willing to try on new ideas
(, 1997)
Teachers have also to challenge the idea of being good or effective. Good teachers are
characterized by the love for their learners and their profession, their level of knowledge,
knowledge of pedagogy, being methodical, their administrative skills, moral, personality, patience,
self-control, feeling of justice, respect for students, colleagues, themselves etc. As we can see from
all the above, teachers are preoccupied with the idea of being good and effective professionals.
Parents, school directors, students are all participants in this process of defining what it means to
be a good or an effective teacher. According to Ziller (1973) self-assessment evolves through the
opinions a person thinks that the important others have about him/her. Additionally, teacher self-
assessment involves personal ambitions and subjective assessments that the person is based on in
order to decide what is success or failure (, 1998). Self-assessment does not refer to
feelings of superiority or perfection, but to feelings of acceptance and respect about him/herself.
Another benefit of self-assessment is that it encourages the willingness for personal learning and
reflection to teaching that is absolutely necessary for a teacher (Cullingford, 1995). The results of
this willingness, exemplified as teachers spirit of cooperativeness, knowledge of the learners
needs, provision of positive feedback, are evidenced in both teachers and learners success.
Aiming these goals, however, demands time and teachers can be effective only if they are willing
and persistent.
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Teachers focus on their own practices, make judgments on their competence and efficiency of their
knowledge, performance, beliefs and actions with the aim to achieve self improvement (Kremer-
Hayon, 1993, Airasian, Gullickson, 1997, Kyriacou, 1997). They are also responsible for the
learners moral and educational growth. In order to respond to their role they have to rely on their
knowledge and experience. Self-assessment is also the result of an inner need for personal
development and change based on questioning (Mac Beath, 2001). This questioning of beliefs and
practices makes them re-examine things that were taken for granted. As they become researchers
in their own classroom, they are more aware of the practices used in the classroom and have a
personal opinion on that (, 2001). It is common sense that the longer the teaching
experience, the better the instincts about the learners needs and the appropriate teaching practices.
But time is limited and teachers questioning and decisions may be skin deep (Kremer-
Hayon,1993). Self-assessment can also be affected by the lack of training that may also lead them
to misleading conclusions.
Methods for self-assessment

Some of the most common methods for self-assessment are the following:
Questionnaires/checklists. They can be used after the teaching procedure to focus on a
specific matter the teacher wants to reflect on.
Learner questionnaires. They can be used before and after the teaching procedure,
depending on the matter that is in question.
Video/tape recorded lessons. They can enlighten the teacher on aspects of the teaching
procedure that cannot be noticed by the teacher while teaching.
Diary. A teacher diary is usually a written record of ideas, personal experiences and self-
observations. It can be time consuming but it aids reflection on classroom practices.
Interviews. Learner or colleague interviews can contribute to self-assessment if they are
focused on a specific matter and the answers are recorded. They can offer more qualitative
feedback contrasted to questionnaires, as the interviewers can be more explanatory and
affect the interviewees to use more in-depth analysis.
Peer observation. Observation by colleagues can be very enlightening as it is an objective
way of gathering data
Teacher portfolio. It may differ, depending on the teacher and may include the teachers
qualifications (C.V, seminars,etc) and material used in the classroom (lesson plans,
learners sample essays, activities created by the teacher etc). A portfolio portrays the
teachers knowledge and skills on the subject and also his/her professional growth based
on the ability to detect the goals of his/her teaching and their constant revision and renewal
All these can prove to be useful tools for the collection of valuable data and each teacher can adapt
them according to his/her needs and, although most of them can not be used on a daily schedule
due to lack of time, they can be effective if they are gradually integrated by the teachers in the
process of self-assessment. For the purposes of the specific dissertation, however, emphasis is put
on the teacher portfolio, which is considered to be one of the most effective of the methods
mentioned above.
Portfolio
A professional portfolio is a collection of artifacts structured and organized by the teachers
themselves after careful thought and selection. These artifacts illustrate the teachers skills and
abilities (Doolittle, 1994, Marolla, Goodell, Mues, Scorcinelli, 2000), evidenced by samples of
student work and further supported by reflective writing, deliberation and conversation with peers,
teachers and faculty (Shulman, 1998, Lyons, 1998). The portfolio includes data that represent the
scope development and quality of ones teaching, and has to be put together in a meaningful way
so as to clearly demonstrate their practices and actual development (Doolittle, 1994).
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Steps for creating a teacher portfolio

As Scorcinelli and Mues (2000) point out teaching portfolios are used for two purposes that may
also overlap: a) as a process for reflecting and improving ones teaching and b) as an evaluative
product for tenure, promotion or awards. Portfolios vary depending on their purpose, intended
audience and the teachers needs (Scorcinelli, Mues, 2000). A Professional Teaching Portfolio is
in essence a self-portrait: Your own very personal advertisement (Cook and Kessler, 1993). So
each portfolio will be different depending on the personality of each teacher and the assets s/he
wants to portray.
In order to create an effective portfolio teachers have first of all to decide on the purpose for its use
and then decide on the content and format depending on the indented audience. This will affect the
selection of artifacts that will be included. Each component serving a specific purpose, should
illustrate the approaches and the methods that will be described in the Teaching Philosophy.
Teachers also decide on their competencies, knowledge and skills that should be part of their
portfolio. Teachers have to be selective on the evidence that will be gathered according to the
qualities they want to demonstrate. This process of selection involves careful thinking and each
document displayed in the portfolio should justify the reason it is there. Goal setting is the
beginning and the end of this cycle of assessment. Teachers set goals, work on then and then their
progress is reflected and adapted if it is necessary. But the most important asset of this process is
its reflective commentary or narrative account that provides an in depth analysis of the work
samples so as to comprehend the teachers choices and design.
A typical layout (adopted by Seldin, 1997) could contain:
1. Teaching Philosophy
2. Teaching Responsibilities and Strategies
3. Representative Course Syllabi, including Assignments, Examinations and Supplementary
Reading
4. Advising
5. Evaluation of teaching
6. Honors Related to Teaching During Review Period
7. Major Award Prior to Review Period
8. Teaching Improvement Activities
9. Conclusion
10. Appendices
Advantages and disadvantages

Apart from the obvious advantages of using a portfolio there also apparent difficulties in their
construction and implementation. First of all, they can be time consuming to be constructed and
assembled (Russo, 2004). Moreover, they can be superficial in their construction and become a
simple container of documents (Russo, 2004, Doolittle, 1994). Variability in content and
construction is another reason for caution, according to Doolittle (1994), as well as the element of
subjectivity during the evaluation process. There is also lack of consensus in what teachers should
know or what they should be able to do. But as mentioned earlier each portfolio is as unique as the
individual that has created it.
Research
This research was designed to address the following issues:
1. The level of familiarity the teachers have with the concepts of self-assessment and the teacher
portfolio
2. The degree to which they employ self-assessment techniques either consciously or
subconsciously.
3. Their attitudes towards adopting self-assessment techniques and more specifically that of
teacher portfolio.
4. The feasibility of the adoption of self-assessment techniques (and especially that of teacher
portfolio) in their practices (identify difficulties or limitations).
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5. The degree to which teachers are sensitive to the element of self-improvement and professional
development and whether they associate self-assessment practices with them.
The mixed-method research (questionnaire and interview) was preferred for the conduction of this
research that is the co-existence of two research approaches on a study in order to bring in
productive results. The questionnaire was sent through e-mails to consultants of the English
language and they distributed it to the EFL teachers of their districts. All the e-mails included the
questionnaire in two forms: the classical doc type (where they had to download the questionnaire,
answer it, save it and then send it by mail) and a link (where the same document had been
uploaded to be answered online) so that the respondents would have the opportunity to use the
form that is more familiar to them. In the case of the interviews, all the respondents were given
details about the specifics of the research and they all agreed to participate in the interview with no
hesitation. The interviews took place in their houses at a mutually convenient time and they were
tape recorded under their permission. The three interviewees (all women) are from different
districts and have at least 5-6 years of experience. Their role in the research was to clarify or
further elaborate on the issues encountered in the questionnaire and even provide invaluable
information and feedback for the research. There was an attempt to include teachers from various
prefectures of Greece, different age groups and various working experiences.
Findings
The questionnaire was answered by 33 EFL teachers, 97% of which were female and 3% male,
depicting the predominance of women in Greece in the field of EFL teaching. Almost one third of
the teachers (37%) are 31-35 years old, another 36% are 36-40, 24% are over 40 and only 3% are
26-30. As far as the participants professional qualifications are concerned what is surprising is
that a large number of the participants (41%) do not own any other diploma apart from their BA,
while most of them seek to expand their knowledge as 34% have already completed a MA and
22% are still in progress of getting one. None of them is holding a PhD and only 3% is holding
another diploma (a second degree in pedagogy). These findings imply that more than half of the
participants are already searching for further professional development and that they have
probably encountered theories of self-assessment and could be positive to the use of several forms
of self-assessment or they may have encountered the concept of the teacher portfolio. When it
comes to their working experience, one third of the participants (33%) have been working 6-10
years and most of them have been working more than ten years. Only a small percentage, 3%, has
small teaching experience (1-5 years). So most of them have quite a long experience and this will
enable us to draw conclusions. Most of the participants (41%) work in a Primary School, 31% of
them work in a Junior High School, 19% in a Senior High School, and only 9% in something else
that does not involve working in a classroom with students (Centre of Environmental Education or
have currently been transferred to the Directorate of Primary and Secondary Education of their
prefectures), but they must have teaching experience.
The first table presents the findings on the first two research questions concerning their level of
familiarity with the concepts and the degree to which they consider that they employ self-
assessment techniques. As we can see most of them claim to be familiar with the concepts and that
they assess themselves (usually at the end of the year, as noted at the interviews).
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Table 1: Research questions 1 and 2

Quantitative Qualitative
(questionnaire) (interview)
82% familiar with both All of them familiar

concepts with the concepts
Quantitative Qualitative
(questionnaire) (interview)
91% assess themselves All of them
The next table (table 2) presents their beliefs and feelings about their practices and attitudes, as
these are essential to understand themselves as teachers and to improve themselves and the
educational process. 70% feel confident about their scientific knowledge and secure about their
teaching practices. Most of them feel that they are completely free to act in their classrooms and
adopt the practices that are better suited to their students needs. Autonomous teachers are
confident about their subject and teaching knowledge. It also encourages lifelong learning and
reflection of the teaching process. When it comes to the matter of feedback on teaching, 72%
claim that they collect feedback, which is information about teaching so as to make informed
changes that will be beneficial both to the students and to the teachers that aspire to develop
themselves professionally. These percentages seem to coincide with the previous ones about the
scientific knowledge, the teaching practices and the feeling of being autonomous in the classroom.
They further portray that the majority of teachers bring this feeling of confidence in their
classrooms.
Table 2
The nest table (3) portrays the teachers worries about the greatest difficulty in promoting teacher
self-assessment. Most of them (54%) claim that unfamiliarity with the several means for self-
assessment is the greatest and lack of previous similar experience is the second one (22%). Lack of
time is another difficulty for 17% of the questionnaire respondents and 7% confess that it can be
discouraging to find out your weaknesses through reflection. It is essential to note here that
although 82% of the teachers claimed previously (table 1) that they are familiar with the concept
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of self-assessment, they do not seem totally confident to try several means of self-assessment as
they as not acquainted with them.
Table 3
What is the greatest difficulty in

promoting teacher self-
assessment?
unfamiliarity with the several
0 5 10 15 20 25
unfamiliarlack of time lack of it can be other
1 22 7 9 3
Table 4 aims to explore the teachers beliefs concerning the possible advantages of the
construction of a teachers portfolio. The majority of them seem to believe that it will provide
them with a deep understanding of how to improve their ability to meet the students needs and
link the students outcomes to their teaching. They are also certain that they will learn how to
observe their classrooms and this will eventually lead them to think about their work more
thoughtfully through the use of critical reflection. Finally, more than two thirds of the participants
are convinced that the creation of a teacher portfolio will not only help them clarify the
complexities of teaching but it will also promote their development. On the contrary, there is one
third of the participants who is probably skeptical about the use of portfolio or who may not be
fully aware of it, as they may only be familiar with the concept.
Table 4
14k.promote my professional
14j.become more
14i.assume more
14h.give and get useful

totally agree
14g.think about my work in
agree
14f.understand better what it
neutral
14e.understand better the disagree
14d.become a better totally disagree
14c.improve my ability to
14b.understand how
14a.clarify the program
0 5 10 15 20
Teachers responses as to the possible disadvantages of using the Teacher Portfolio are portrayed
in Table 5. Most of the participants claim that they have no difficulty in understanding the
portfolio concept. They further believe in the importance of documenting their practices that will
help them assess themselves. Almost half of them however are not convinced how it will help
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them with instruction design. Moreover they proclaim their difficulty in the selection of artifacts
and on the issue of assessing them. As we can conclude, most of the questionnaire participants
approve of the use of teacher portfolios and are confident about the benefits of their use. However
their acquaintance with the term is rather superficial as they probably ignore how to use it.
Table 5
15h.I don't believe in the

importance of documenting
15g.I don't believe it will
facilitate learning and
15f.I have difficulty in
understanding the portfolio
totally agree
15e.I have difficulty in how to
assess my artifacts agree
I have difficulty in the neutral
selection of artifacts disagree
15c.It is time-consuming totally disagree
15b.I don't think thinking as an

assessor is valuable in being
15a.I don't think it will help me
in design instruction
0 5 10 15 20
Limitations of the research- Conclusion

The aim of this research was on the one hand to investigate the teachers views on self-assessment
and the use of teacher portfolio and on the other to shed more light on their classroom practices.
Despite the fact that this study has some limitations, such as its small scale and the limited time for
conducting it, there are still some conclusions that can be drawn. One of the limitations of the
study is the fact that it is a small-scale one to make generalizations about the beliefs of EFL
teachers on self-assessment. Nevertheless the respondents represent different prefectures and this
may pinpoint to some extent the general tendency towards self-assessment and their beliefs and
familiarity about the use of teacher portfolio. The second issue that should be stressed is the
teachers unwillingness to respond to questionnaires. Even in the case of the online questionnaire,
there had to be many calls for help in order to achieve a respectful number of them.
Nevertheless it is evident in the findings that teachers are convinced about the benefits of
assessing themselves. They are totally assured about the change it can bring on their teaching
practices and the impact it will have on their development as professionals. But it is also clear that
although most of them assess themselves, they are not trained how to do it. If we expect them to
apply self-assessment to their practices successfully, then they should be trained how to do it. The
majority of the results also imply that teachers are highly motivated to participate in projects that
will make them better professionals and they are willing to try new practices for that purpose.
So an idea for future research would be to focus on ways that can actually help teachers to assess
themselves. Case studies, workshops or state seminars could also help in that direction. Current
educational policies proclaim that change is of paramount importance, but in order for teachers to
be capable to make them part of their teaching practices they have to be trained so as to further
exploit them. All the previous beliefs were investigated during the research part were teachers
portrayed their thoughts and practices. The most important outcomes of the research findings are
the following: first of all the teachers total conviction that self-assessment techniques provide
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clear standards of teaching by improving their achievement and lead to professional growth, and
the lack of appropriate training that will help them to find the gaps between desired and actual
practices and help them select improvement goals. Nevertheless it is important to note their
motivation for self-improvement and the use of techniques that promote professional growth.
They also revealed mismatches between the teachers beliefs and their actual practices. Familiarity
with the terms does not guarantee awareness of their use. What this study proposes is workshops
or seminars that will train them to reflective and awareness-rising practices
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Ferdig R. E. (2013), What massive open online course have to offer to K-12 teachers and students, Michigan
Virtual Learning Research Institute. http://media.mivu.org.institue/pdf/mooc_report.pdf.
22-01-2016.
Ferguson, R., & Sharples, M. (2014), Innovative Pedagogy at Massive Scale: Teaching and learning in
MOOCs, Open learning and Teaching in Educational Communities, V. 8719 of the series Lecture Notes
in Computer Science, 9th European Conference on Technology Enhanced Learning, Graz, , 16-19
2014, pp. 98 111.
Khalil H., & Ebner M. (2014), MOOCs completion rates and possible methods to improve retention A
Literature Review, ,
, 2014, pp. 1236 1244, Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
Koxvold, I. (2014), MOOCs: Opportunities for their use in compulsory age education, Research report
2014, Cairneagle Associates: Department for Education. :
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_Opportunities_for_MOOCs_in_schools_FINAL.pdf. 16-02-2016.
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Teaching and Learning Environments, Journal of Online Learning Research, 1 (1), pp. 85-106.
Sharron, H. (2014), Is there a role for MOOCs in schools?, Teaching Times, Vol. 6.1. :
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: 27-01-2016.
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Willems, J. (2014), Challenges for conceptualizing EU MOOC for vulnerable learner groups,
European MOOC Stakeholders Summit 2014 (. Cress U., & Kloos C. D.), pp. 33-42.
: http://www.emoocs2014.eu/sites/default/files/Proceedings-Moocs-Summit-2014.pdf .
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2 , , ,
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DECES MODEL: Learning Design for E-Learning. An experiential

approach for active engagement
Themeli Chryssa
(Bolton University, UK)
Abstract
Smart learning design is a relative new concept which aims to develop more technology enabled
frameworks. The format of the distant learning design is based on a new model called EDECES: create
more experiences and prosopognosia (less instructions, more real - life scenarios and timely
communication), personal learning spaces (personalized curriculum), active critical and creative dialogue
and peer reviewing, explanations about what you have learnt and adaptation to new digital environments
(reflections and reflexivity), creativity (products of autonomy), constant democratic evaluation (weekly
polls, learning analytics) and finally sharing with peers and colleagues. While connecting human to human
and information, the EDECES model relies on the powers of the networks to maximize impacts and build
better connections. It is important to discover new paths and follow them to see where they are going like
Odysseus looking for Ithaca.
Keywords: Smart Learning, Technology Enhanced Learning, Active Learning, Prosopagnosia,

EDECES: experiences, dialogue, explanations, creation and sharing.
The difficulty lies not in the new ideas but in escaping from the old ones.
John Maynard Keynes
Introduction
Why we need a new model for learning design?
The European Union research has found out that universities, vocational training centres and
businesses need to improve relevance to smart growth (Europe 2020). Smart growth takes in to
account the lower levels of investment and innovation, the insufficient use of
information/communications technologies and the difficult access to innovation in some sections
of society. Too many problems were identified by EU research regarding education and training.
Too many young people leave education/training without qualifications and the numbers attaining
medium-level qualifications are better, but the qualifications often fail to match labor market
needs. Moreover, under a third of Europeans aged 25-34 have a university degree in comparison
to 40% in the US and over 50% in Japan
In the job market, some multinational companies take the initiative to train their employees
using e-learning platform and search for talent outside the conservative framework of university
degrees. Job recruiters put emphasis on more generic skills such as media literacy, critical and
creative thinking, communication, collaboration, cultural awareness and behavioral characteristic
rather than field - specific competencies. The job market changes so fast that is difficult even to
imagine what kind of expertise will be needed in the years to come.
On the educators side, teachers that promote learning autonomy and self exploration are the
ones most awarded (Cherif et al., 2016). There seems to be a shift from pedagogy (child learning)
and andragogy (adult learning to Heutaugy that demands more technologies, exploration,
personalized scaffolding and self-reflection. Heutagogy adds a new frame of reference to go
beyond diffuse phrases like self-directed learning, to encapsulate the outcomes we expect from
students using multimedia and online learning. Heutagogy also acknowledges that learners do
immensely valuable work for themselves by filling in the gaps of their formal education through
discovery and reflection (i.e., learning on the job) (Paslow, 2010, p.121). On the students side,
informal learning and new technologies address more the demands of the job recruiters lists and
mobile and wearable technologies are fast- adopted by the youths.
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New technologies offer new opportunities for education. The International Association for
Smart Learning Environments (IASLE 2016 cited in Giannakos et al., 2017) provides a broad
interpretation of what a smart learning environment is. In particular, IASLE states that a learning
environment can be considered smart when various innovative features and attributes like
adaptation, flexibility, and thoughtfulness and so on are associated with the system (Spector,
2014). In a general sense, a smart learning can be described as a learning process characterized
from effectiveness, efficient and engaging for a wide variety of learners with different levels of
prior knowledge (adaptation affordances).Smart learning is enabled by technologies that rely on
sensors, big data, open data, new ways of connectivity and exchange of information (e.g., Internet
of Things, RFIDs); those integrated environments belong on the broad sense of smart learning
environments. Like any other type of learning environments, video-based learning environments
need to follow the same principles, and while video-based learning environments are becoming
more flexible, thoughtful and adaptive (e.g., Khan Academy, Udacity) as well as several new such
environments that incorporate smart behavior are created (e.g., Adaptemy, Dreambox,
SmartSparrow) (Giannakos et al., 2016).
New trends have created new rules for learning, teaching and working. The MIT report 2016
(Wilcox et al., 2016) considers e-learning as a catalyst for Higher education reforms. It highlights
the importance on transdisciplinary perspective from fields such as educational research, discipline
based learning, neuroscience, economics to name a few. Crucial information derived from the
learner could enable different methodological approaches to be developed. It is imperative to
understand who the students are before designing any learning task (Cherif et al., 2016).
Figure 1: Many fields of research contribute to the study and advancement of the complex
system of higher education (MIT report 2016, p.16)
Obstacles to educational change
The learning design for vocational technology enhanced learning is a very daunting process
facing major obstacles such as information obesity and decay. On one hand, information decay
has not only to do with the disappearing of digital data but also with knowledge which is made
obsolete faster and faster (Rajaram et al., 2014). On the other, information obesity is a failure to
turn information into knowledge, and thus use it to sustain personal and professional life-long
learning. It may be caused by reductions in the quality of information, a lack of skills, training or
even external pressures, whether from "information industries", peers, or organizations within
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which people work, to consume information before they have properly judged worth (Whitworth,
2009).
Stakeholders in the learning process, such as faculty and administrators, appear to have different
reasons for adopting or resisting distance education and new technologies (Themelis, 2013). For
example, the huge increase in interest in online learning has not always been synonymous with
wide-scale adoption by HE institutions because of various hurdles and obstacles (Orr, et al., 2009).
Core faculty are often hesitant about participating because they fear it will add to their workload,
diminish quality, or compromise intellectual property (Blin & Munro, 2008). Educators have
always had a profoundly ambiguous relationship with technology (Power & Morven-Gould,
2011). Some instructors find technology too complicated to use or others claim technology is just
(or only) a tool that could not affect the pedagogy or the teacher presence. Teachers are strongly
inclined to ignore innovative perspectives to learning when they threaten to disturb this established
status and the fact that they may be making use of technology cannot be interpreted as evidence
that their attitudes about its usefulness or their teaching approaches are changing. Only by
changing the conceptions and beliefs of teachers regarding teaching and learning (with or without
technology) can any significant changes be effected in their teaching practices.(Kirkwood &
Price, 2016, p.6). In many cases, misconceptions, believes and lack of reflective praxis are more
important than technical competences. Therefore, for optimal performances, the pedagogy and the
technology must create an engaging and compelling environment and educators have to be able to
experience it in order to be able to design tasks. All in all, there are so many factors influencing the
learning process that are difficult to be measured in quantitative terms.
Students frustration with old fashion education has led to a new rebellious movement which
starts with hackschooling makes me happy and continues with the uncollege organization of Dale
J. Stephens (2014). Stephens is considered to be an educational futurist highlighting the
disconnection between the theoretical subject matter taught in college and its real
world applications. This social movement gains more and more followers worldwide.
The UnCollege movement is founded on these principles:
Many people pay too much for university and learn too little.
You can get an amazing education anywherebut youll have to stop writing
papers and start doing things.
You need an excellent education to survive in a world where 50% of the
population is under 30.
Subjects taught in traditional universities are often contrived, theoretical, and
irrelevant, promoting conformity and regurgitation rather than innovation and learning.
You dont have to decide what to do with your life at age 18.
You can contribute to society without a university degree.
You cannot rely on university to give you a complete and relevant education when
professors are often more interested in researching than teaching.
If you want to gain the skills requisite for success, you must hack your
education.[20]
The UnCollege movement believes that college, while not itself adverse, needs significant
changes because:
Tuition is rising at twice the rate of inflation.

Students are not learning.
Students are incurring high levels of debt to finance their educations.
Other obstacles to be overcome when designing for innovation and learning have to do with
learners habits of learning, organizational/institutional constrains, technological affordances to
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name few. Due to the limitations of this paper, the focus needs to be placed on the environment
where the EDECES model will be developed.
Networked learning environment and flow of communication in distance education
While connecting human to human and information, networked learning exploits the power of
networks. Christakis and Fowler (Christakis & Fowler, 2009) studied the power of networks and
found out that networks have a surprising power to alter norms, behaviors and information
exchange. They claim that a network is like a super organism that is greater than the sum of its
part. A network is not the sum of a group of people, it includes something more, connections that
can be regarded as ties. The particular pattern of ties (topology) within the network can be
regarded as responsible for achieving more in educational field and everyday life. The topology of
the network can vary but what seem to be common, are connections (to whom) and the contagion
which disseminates information, behaviors, feelings, and norms.
Line = a relationship between two people

more embedded = central
less embedded = periphery
Node = a person
embedded: the degree to which a person is connected within a network
Figure 2: Description of a network (Christakis & Fowler, 2009)
To know who we are, we must understand how we are connected (Christakis & Fowler,
2009, p. 291). Under the light of this concept, educators and learners are part of a networked
organism in distant learning that allows participants to see themselves in different roles, affecting
others or being affected in complex ways. To build the proper environment for EDECES model is
vital to monitor the flow of communication with in the networks. The Social Physics movement in
MIT has significantly proved that democratic flow of communication within the network
predetermines the success or failure of the team work in any field. Having in mind to monitor the
flow of communication, the instructional designer of any course would implement the following
experiential approach for active engagement.
EDECES: experiences, dialogue, explanations, creativity and sharing
EDECES MODEL was created to address the need for better flow of communication, more
practicality, personalization and smart growth in the field of technology enhanced learning for
professional development.
More experiences, less instructions
Why lecture does not work?
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According to Time magazine (Time magazine, 2009), more than 700 studies have confirmed
that lectures are less effective than a wide range of methods for achieving almost every educational
goal you can think of. Online video lectures are even worst as a mean to teach (Themelis, 2013).
Even for the straightforward objective of transmitting factual information, they are no better than a
host of alternatives, including private reading. Moreover, lectures inspire students less than other
methods, and lead to less study afterwards. Professionals especially lead busy life and need to
invest their time most effectively.
The role of lectures and direct instruction is more and more question in the digital age. Books,
online media presentation (YouTube, info grams), even serious gaming seem to offer less time
consuming and creative alternatives for learning and teaching. McKeachie and Svinicki (2006)
believe that lecturing is best used for:
Providing up-to-date material that cant be found in one source

Summarizing material found in a variety of sources.
Adapting material to the interests of a particular group.
initially helping students discover key concepts, principles or ideas
How can you create experiences for learning?

We do not store experience as data, like a computer: we story it.
(Winter, 1988, p. 235)
Moderation and personalization seems to be critical for future learning in EU (Europe, 2014).
European research findings focus on new ways to promote lifelong and life-wide learning, shaped
by the ubiquity of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). Therefore, in order to
create experiences online, different forms of delivering information that offer personally relevant
information along with technologies that assist learning outcomes could be implemented.
Case studies, collaborative platforms, synchronous role-playing activities, storyline software,
3D worlds, serious games, phone applications, social media and software that collect and analysis
tendencies such as learning analytics, and synchronous communication with experts seem to
provide more experiential learning. For example, the EU funded e-tree projects created a 3D
platform with real life scenarios that bank employees play in order to improve their
communication skills (Etrees.eu, 2013).The aims of the e- Tree project are:
An online service for practicing, evaluating, and enhancing communication skills, using a
game-based learning methodology that will permit employees, trainees and unemployed
people to improve their spoken communication skills.
A user-validated game-based learning methodology and corresponding training resources
that will permit trainers, training organizations and businesses that wish to provide training
opportunities to their employees to develop and use their own interactive branching
scenarios and content.
The bottom line is that tools are available and could create experience closely related to real-
life, although the intervention of technology qualitatively alters the context. There is room for
research and implementation in vocational training. What is missing is e-search for them and fast
adoption.
Mimicry of thinking, behaviors & social signaling

Many theorists regard learning as a process of mimicry of what other people do, think and
show. Case studies explaining, what other have done, real-time dialogue with experts or focus
groups could make a difference. Lakoff (2012) states that senses do not reach only our feelings,
emotions and aesthetic sense, but intellect as well. For example, Allmendinger (2010) explains that
gestures in particular can provide cognitive support aimed at conveying information that is
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helpful for understanding information presentation and discourse. Baxter highlights the importance
of body language, claiming that mirroring behaviors and reactions visually helps instructors to
cope with the different voices/identities without losing the plot. Synchronous video
communication could be an option that could students and educators experience better flow of
communication and prosopagnosia the ability to recognize faces could enhanced qualitatively
the learning experience. (Themelis, 2013).
Researchers at the MIT research labs (Pentland, 2008) put great emphasis on audio-visual cues
they call honest signals. These signals are gestures, voice tones and body language that affect
communications and trigger responses. The main purpose for investigating honest signals is that:
by better understanding their influence today, studies can shed light on the structure and function
of modern social networks labs (Pentland, 2008, 2010). His research group has developed tools
and research processes to collect and measure social signaling. They have developed tools and
research process to collect and measure social signaling. What has been found so far is that
audiovisual cues and prosopagnosia (recognizing faces and facial expressions) influence critical
activities such as dialogue, negotiations, social cohesion, productivity, group decision making
and group management. Pentland argues that much of human decision-making is largely
determined, not by conscious rational logical decision-making, but rather by unconscious
processes. This 'social sense' thus forms another channel of communication that revolves around
social relations rather than words. Pentland suggests that some honest signals are difficult to fake
and hence provide a window into our intentions, goals and values. His research studies provide
evidence that social signaling seems to provide social cohesion which can increase sharing of tacit
knowledge, attitudes, habits and social support. Based on Pentland research, the core of learning
seems to be mimicry and sharing of professional experiences to face real-life demands and the
continuous need for change and adaptation. Learning design starts with what professionals want to
learn, the instructors design the experiences that will cause them to learn it, build in some checks
that this is happening along the way and has happened by the end (Race, 2010).
If learning is all about being able to apply what students have learned in different contexts then
perhaps instructors should do as Race suggests, and start with how; how are learners going to
demonstrate their learning, what are they going to do, and what will it actually be useful for.
Rather than starting with the abstract learning objectives such as understand or appreciate
which is difficult to define especially for cultural diverse- learning audience, maybe instructors
could start with the skills and products of the learning (Race, 2010).
On the one hand, vocational training students are life-long learners that need to allocate time
effectively to manage time and responsibilities. Online educators lacking face to face contact
sometimes need to know more about their students before manage the content and chunking of
information. Therefore, the first task of the specific leaning design model is to design their
learning portfolios for all the people involved. It is the first steps for participants to acquire the
sense of the sharing culture of the networked learning philosophy. Case studies and storylines
seems to follow this sharing culture that aims at talking about here and now of the professional
reality.
On the other, online educators need to be supported to learn from experience that links
individual with shared and institutional reflection. Professors must be trained in powerful learning
environments where teaching is situated in real and authentic tasks, and in ways where teachers
themselves constitute a part of a larger learning and professional community for the purpose of
exchanging perspectives, resolving dilemmas, and confronting uncertainty in transforming
practice.
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E-portofolios in vocational training as a mirror of experiences
Coffey and Ashford-Rowe (2014) investigated the potential and the available tools of e-
portfolios in Australian Universities and concluded that they could be successfully implemented
for life-long learning and professional development. It could be as a personal learning space that
could depict achievements, reflection and recording practical experience were the most common
academic deployments of ePortfolio in both, existing and intended practice. A total of 56% of the
respondents indicated an intention to use ePortfolios with students for training graduate attributes,
which in contrast with the existing 20% of the declared practitioners, indicated a significant
potential growth of the practice believed to be highly beneficial to student employability. The
specific study enhance the technological progress of e-portfolios such as Mahara and PeddlePad
while the Google sites which are widely used because of their open source nature. To transfer the
research findings and innovative practice the technology enhanced corses could dedicate
significant time to address the need for further adoption of e-Portfilois to vocational training.
Digital personas could be described as individuals need to define their digital identity- how
they present themselves across these spaces (Solove, 2004). The avatars one chooses to represent
oneself, the style of language one uses and the degree to which she or he are open (both
professionally and personally) within these spaces, give a collective picture of how people are
viewed by others. Thus, it could add a more personal touch to the training process and potential
enhance social learning.
Active Critical Dialogue & Peer Reviewing

Vocational lifelong learning cannot be easily based on right and wrong answers in the fast
paced digital age but on offering more options for people among which they can choose what they
need in their professional field. This process can be described as demosophia. The word
"Demosophia" is formed from two Greek words. The first refers to the people, and is recognizable
as part of the word "democracy". The second refers to wisdom, and is recognizable as associated
with the latter part of the word "philosophy. Demosophia is a concept like "the wisdom of the
people". This concept of democratic discussion that could lead to collective wisdom presupposes
design for roles exchange so as to coordinate a productive dialogue which could be the source for
further engagement and reflection. Role exchange needs to be considered because of power issues.
All people need to be actively engaged if they want to and no one is to dominate the online
discussions that can easily lose focus, especially in asynchronous forums.
Peer critiquing (Conole, 2013) the ability to comment on other peoples work. This has become
standard practice within the blogosphere and is being used in general society. For example a
growing number of authors and journalists are now active bloggers and traditional book writing is
being supplemented by writers keeping a blog and inviting readers to comment on the evolving
plot, by academics (through self-reflective blogs on digital scholarship and research ideas) and by
learners (in terms of keeping their own reflective blogs or contributing to a collective cohort blog).
Explanations as a product of reflections and reflexivity

Im no longer uncertain about being uncertain: uncertainty is now my mantra.
(Reflective practice student)
You understand how to act from knowledge, but you have not yet seen how to act from not-
knowing. (Chuang Tsu, 1974, p. 68)
The word reflection has static connotations, meaning the action of turning [back] or fixing the
thoughts on some subject (Oxford English Dictionary), with the associated definition of the
reversed reproduction of an image. Reflexivity is a stance of being able to locate oneself in the
picture, to appreciate how ones own self influences [actions] and adapt to a new context. Being
mindfully aware develops accurate observation, communication, ability to use implicit knowledge
in association with explicit knowledge, and insight into others perceptions. In the digital age,
professionals have to watch how they learn and adapt to changes, being aware of the process of
knowledge construction which is faster than ever-before. Hence, the learning design process have
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to take in to account ways to make learners more adaptable to change and technologies. Exposure
to case studies, synchronous dialogues with experts, new tools and perspectives could be a way to
go.
Education cannot stand still. It changes moment by moment, day by day, and year to year.
Some educators would like it if change stayed away as predictability would ensure certain
outcomes. However, change can be a useful element as it gives an opportunity to improve
professional practice. To articulate the change and the adaption process is the content of reflection
and reflexivity which is vital for learner who more and more adopt the qualities of a qualitative
researcher. Thus, explanations of theories or processes could be developed as form of reflections
via a Vlog or reflectivity- the ability to unlearn and tryout new things, concepts, tools or adopt new
behavioral patterns.
Creative products of learning: Creativity as Rhizomatic Learning - The community is the

curriculum
Figure 3. Rhizomatic learning

Dave Cormier, a Canadian who teaches at the University of Prince Edward Island (UPEI), has
been writing for a number of years about a concept he calls rhizomatic learning. The diagram
above is a map of his recent talk at the Connect 2013 conference in Niagara Falls, Canada
(Cormier, 2013).
The whole idea of rhizomatic learning is to acknowledge that learners come from different
contexts, that they need different things, and that presuming you know what those things are is like
believing in magic, he writes. It is a commitment to multiple paths. To know more about the
community, it is vital while organizing learning design and the Universities do not take it
seriously. E-portfolios, if they are creatively built, could give a profile of the learner and his digital
persona. Learning is a process and it cannot be categorized strictly in the concept of learning
outcomes. It is an inquiry methods that aims at investigate problems or explore ideas without
prescriptive solutions or thinking frameworks. More open ended activities and tasks could assist
the experimentation needed in the digital era. A good example related to young learners is the
SOLE project which was established by Dr.Sugata Mitra. He claims that Anyone can create a
SOLE spark curiosity in children by asking them to explore a Big Question using the Internet
and their ability to work together. Learning happens spontaneously in these purposefully chaotic
environments. (Mitra, 2013 page 4).
Sharing students work to professional related conferences and

Learning products
More and more online course focus on writing. Write your point of view, writing for reflection,
writing for assessment. Although writing is in many cases effective, learners in order to be
motivated need more concrete evidence of their engagement in a specific course. What may be
regarded as concrete? Visible learning products, experience, skills could be obvious and
motivational. For example, being able to use a tool, create a course design, find applications for
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memorization of Chinese vocabulary and learn how to shop in French. For more theoretical
backgrounds, it could be the creation of a wiki, Vlog or a learning community. Everything that
could create a change or have an observable impact exploiting the powers of the networked
society.
Constant Democratic Evaluation (Weekly Polls, learning analytics).

Assess early, assess often.
Many successful public speakers know that they need to tailor their message to resonate with their
audience. Similarly, think about how marketers carefully research their audiences to learn more
about the needs of consumers to better position their products. This process raises a series of
related questions for college faculty: How well do we know what our students already know, what
their interests are, what they want to learn, and what lessons they walk away with from our
teaching? Therefore assess early could provide useful insight in to the students needs and learning
objectives. Weekly evaluations and learning analytics could offer a better description of what the
participants consider valuable and what needs to be emphasized or deemphasized in the course.
This way, the learning design could be dynamic and easily transformative. Technology is for
facilitating the learning process by making it is faster and more engaging. Educators could gather
data for evidence based decision making and students could air their voices in order to have better
options for learning. A good example related to young learners is the SOLE project which was
established by Sugata Mitra. He claims that Anyone can create a SOLE spark curiosity in
children by asking them to explore a Big Question using the Internet and their ability to work
together. Learning happens spontaneously in these purposefully chaotic environments.
Sharing students work to professional related conferences and publications, social

media.
Online vocational training could offer new skills and improvement of performance. By sharing
professional experience in social media, community of practise, and conferences, the students
embrace the digital culture of networked learning which is the basis of new knowledge
construction. Building new ideas on developing old ones could help innovation and faster
implementation of praxis.
Figure 4.EDECES: create more experiences (less instructions more real - life scenarios) and personal
learning spaces (personalized curriculum), active critical dialogue and peer reviewing, explanations about
what you have learnt and adaptation to new digital environments (reflections and reflexivity), creativity
(products of rhizomatic learning), constant democratic evaluation (weekly polls, learning analytics) and
finally sharing with the community of practice.
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Conclusion
The EDECES model aims to use interdisciplinary findings and create experiential
environments for active engagement for both educators and students. It has been successfully used
in the vocational training centre E&X Themeli in Athens, Greece in teaching foreign languages
and new technologies. It is scheduled to be used in American vocational training centres and
Oxford Business Union in 2017. The evaluation process seems favourable and emancipatory for
both students and educators but more specific investigation and interdisciplinary implementation is
needed.
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ICH BIN AUSLNDER-LEIDER ZUM GLCK- (SONGTEXT)

Ich bin Auslnder
Leider zum Glck
Ich bin Auslnder
Leider zum Glck
Ich gehe irgendwann nach Hause zurck

Mein Name ist Daisuke und komme aus Japan.

Ich brauche viele Jahren aus Hiroshima hier an
Berlin ist eine Wste, aus Stein nur aus Stein
Manchmal ist es gut, manchmal eine Quall
Ich bin Auslnder Leider zum Glck

Ich gehe irgendwann nach Japan zurck
In Winter ist es kalt

Im Sommer ganz sehr hei
Die Currywurst ist lecker
Doch ich esse lieber Reis
Ich wohne in einer Wohnung
In Berlin Mitte
Ich arbeite als Sushi Koch
Bestellen Sie was bitte

Leider spreche ich kein Deutsch

Die Leute kein Japanisch
Doch ich muss ja auch nicht
Ich bin ja nicht artig
Um ***bin ich nach Hause
Ist es manchmal so
In Berlin ist ganz schn
Aber auch in Tokyo

Er ist Auslnder Leider zum Glck
2 , , ,
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from ECLL 2013: the Inaugural European Conference on Language Learning Shifting Paradigms:
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York & London: Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group.
Crowell, A., & Kuhn, D. (2012, 04). Developing Dialogic Argumentation Skills: A 3-year Intervention
Study. Journal of Cognition and Development, 15(2), . 363-381.
Dwyer, C. P., Hogan, M. J., & Stew, I. (2012). An evaluation of argument mapping as a method of
enhancing critical thinking performance in e-learning environments. Metacognition Learning, 7, . 219
244.
Evagorou, M., & Avraamidou, L. (2008, 03). Technology in support of argument construction in school
science. Educational Media International, 45(1), . 33-45.
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Communication, 32(4), . 365-387.
Galbraith, D. (2009, 3). Cognitive Models of Writing. GFL: German as a Foreign Language, . 7-22.
Kuhn, D., & Udel, W. (2003). The Development of Argument Skills. Child Development, . 1245-1260.
Mayer, R. E., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). Cognitive Constraints on Multimedia Learning: When
Presenting More Material Results in Less Understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 39(1), .
187-198.
Rigotti, E., & Morasso, S. G. (2009). Argumentation as an Object of Interest and as a Social and Cultural
Resource. (N. M. Mirza, & A.-N. Perret-Clermont, .) Argumentation and Education: Theoretical
Foundations and Practices, . 9-66.
Streitz, N., Manfred, T., & Hannemann, J. (1989). From ideas and arguments to hyperdocuments: travelling
through activity spaces. HYPERTEXT (. 343-364). New York: Proceedings of the 2. ACM conference.
ter Berg, T., & van Gelder, T. (2015). Critical Thinking Reasoning and Communicating with Rationale.
Amsterdam: Critical Thinking Skills BV.
Toulmin, S. (2003). The uses of Argument (Updated Edition .). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
Twardy, C. R. (2004). Argument Maps Improve Critical Thinking. Teaching Philosophy, 27(2), . 95-116.
van Gelder, T. (2002, 11). Argument Mapping with Reason!Able. The American Philosophical Association
Newsletter on Philosophy and Computers, . 85-90.
van Gelder, T. (2003). Enhancing Deliberation Through Computer Supported Argument Visualization.
P. A. Kirschner, S. J. Buckingham Shum, & C. S. Carr (.), Visualizing Argumentation (. 97-115).
Springer London.
van Gelder, T. (2007). The rationale for RationaleTM. Law, Probability and Risk, 6, . 23-42.
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kelybotsoglou@yahoo.gr

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This article attempts to show that the ethnographic realia of Russian literary texts are best assimilated by
students who study Russian as foreign language at Greek Universities, by exposing them through Russian
videos or films. Audiovisual material can restore the lack of Russian speaking environment and at the
same time can effectively contribute to the development of the students intercultural and
intercommunicative competence.
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Key words: Audiovisual literacy, intercultural competence

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Special Education pre-service teachers in Greece use of social media
Kontopoulou Konstantina
University of Leicester
kk229@le.ac.uk
Abstract
This paper presents findings from a part of a larger PhD study that aims to explore how pre-service teachers
in Greece use social media informally for personal and academic purposes. This paper focuses on seven
Special Education pre-service teachers uses of social media. It presents initial findings that emerged from
semi-structured interviews in order to explore in-depth participants experiences with new technologies. The
findings suggest that participants use an array of social media in their everyday lives for personal purposes.
Participants also used new technologies for academic purposes which include both course-related issues and
information about the field of education in general. Participants also described how they use technologies
differently compared to how they used them prior to entering the Special Education department.
Keywords: pre-service teachers; social media; informal use
Introduction
Social media have penetrated society providing users with opportunities to generate content, as
well as collaborate, interact and share resources with other individuals and groups on a global
scale (Conole, 2013). Social media include video sharing websites, blogs, wikis, forums and social
network sites among others.
The potential of social media for educational purposes has generated a lot of interest (Conole,
2013; Schroeder et al., 2010; Tess, 2013) as their characteristics align well with what is the
perceived wisdom on good pedagogy (Conole, 2010, p. 142) and they can provide opportunities
for lifelong learning (Ala-Mutka, 2010).
There have been numerous studies that aimed to explore the integration of social media into
Higher Education settings(Hramiak et al., 2009;Irwin et al, 2012;Junco et al., 2011;Wang et al.,
2012; Wheeler & Wheeler, 2009). At the same time, the importance of exploring the informal
ways young people use new technologies on their own initiative (Deng & Tavares, 2015, p. 313)
fortheir learning needs outside the classroom setting has been identified in the literature(Vaughan
et al., 2011; Vivian et al., 2014; Wodzicki at al., 2012). Responding to such calls, this qualitative
PhD study focused on how one particular group of university students, pre-service teachers in the
Greek context, use social media informally for personal and academic purposes. Moreover, taking
into account that a lot of research on social media and students focuses on the UK and the USA
(Madge et al., 2009), this study aims to contribute to the literature by focusing on a different
context. It is hoped that this will help to establish a broader understanding of students perceptions
and practices.
Questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, diaries and follow-up interviews were used for the
PhD project. Participants were recruited from Special Education, Early Years and Primary
Education departments from different Universities in Greece. For the purposes of this paper, the
interview findings from the first group of participants will be presented; seven Special Education
pre-service teachers.
Literature review
According to empirical evidence from research,university students use social media mostly for
social purposes, such as maintain friendships (Smith & Caruso, 2010; Towner &Muoz, 2011).
However, there is evidence from research that suggests university students also use social media
on their own initiative for academic purposes.
A study with university students in Australia (Vivian et al., 2014) aimed to explore students
use of Facebook for informal academic purposes. Findings from observation of 70 students
2 , , ,
2 , , 256
Facebook activity for a period of 22 weeks suggested that although the majority of Facebook
activity was social in nature, students are also using their personal SNS to discuss academic
related matters (p. 8). Such topics included experiences about doing work or procrastinating,
course content and grades (p.1). In a similar vein, Towner and Muoz (2011) surveyed 283
university students in the USA. They found that more than half of the students use Facebook for
some sort of informal academic purpose (p.42). Also in the USA, Head and Eisenberg (2010)
found that 52% of their survey respondents use Wikipedia for course-related research even if an
instructor advised against it (p. 3).A quantitative study with 213 first year undergraduate students
in Britain showed that Facebook was primarily used for social purposes, and secondarily for
informal learning purposes (Madge et al., 2009). However, the study showed that students use of
Facebook for educational purposes was increasing as the year passed by. One important qualitative
study that aimed to explore undergraduate students informal uses of social media is Selwyns
research (2009) in the UK. Selwyn analysed students Facebook posts to investigate why students
used Facebook. It was found that only 4% of the posts were education-related. Selwyn (2009)
concludes that participants use of Facebook for educational purposes involved either the post-
hoc critiquing of learning experiences and events, the exchange of logistical or factual information
about teaching and assessment requirements, instances of supplication and moral support with
regards to assessment or learning, or the promotion of oneself as academically incompetent and/or
disengaged.
Research questions and participants

This paper focuses on two of the research questions that guided the PhD project:
How do pre-service teachers in Greece use social media informally for personal purposes?
How do pre-service teachers in Greece use social media informally for their academic
learning?
The participants were seven pre-service teachers (five female and two male) studying Special
Education at one university in Greece.Five of the participants were in their fourth year of their
studies and one was in his third year. One participant who is also a professional in a field unrelated
to education had already completed her fourth year but had not finished her studies at the time of
the interview. All of them had Internet access at home. All participants had both a laptop and a
smartphone or an iPhone, except one who only had a laptop.
Methodology and ethical considerations
Semi-structured interviews were conducted. The aim of the interview was to gain a rich insight
into participants informal uses of social media. I conducted all the interviews face-to-face. Two of
the participants participated in a joint interview. The interviews were audio-recorded.
I informed participants about their right to withdraw from the study at any stage and assured
them that their data would be used anonymously and confidentially. I used Stutchbury and Foxs
(2009) ethical framework as a tool that would facilitate continuous ethical appraisal of the study
(for a more detailed analysis of how ethical considerations prompted me to adapt the original
design of the study, see Kontopoulou and Fox, 2015)
Data analysis
My approach to data analysis was inductive, which is defined as an approach where
researchers gather data to build concepts, hypotheses, or theories (Merriam, 2009, p.15). I
transcribed all the interviews verbatim. I started the data analysis by printing out all transcripts. I
highlighted key words and phrases and made notes on the text. Then I printed out my research
questions, so as to map participants responses against my research questions. I identified initial
themes and I uploaded the transcripts to the NVivo software. I also write a summary of each
Special Education cohort interview. Harding (2013) suggests the use of summaries as a way to
2 , , ,
2 , , 257
reduce the large amount of information that is available through any interview transcript to a form
where it is easier to identify the main points (p.64). The themes that emerged from the data are
presented in the following section.
Results
This section presents initial findings in two sub-sections; a) what social media do pre-service
teachers use b) how pre-service teachers use social media in everyday life, and b) how pre-service
teachers use of social media informally for academic purposes.
What social media do pre-service teachers use?

All participants had at least one email account and all used Youtube and Wikipedia. Facebook
was also used by all participants, except one. This participant used to have a Facebook account but
she decided to deactivate it some years ago. Other social media tools mentioned by fewer
participants were: Skype, Instagram, Viber, Slideshare, forums among others.
When asked if their use of social media as university students is different before entering the
Special Education department, all participants replied positively. Overall, they described that this
difference lay mostly in terms of the number of social media tools that they use as university
students or the purposes they now use social media for.
For example as one participant stated, unlike in the past where her uses of technologies were
for purely entertainment purposes, she recently discovered how she could use them for her own
self-directed learning.
Before [that] it was only [for] entertainment and I said ok, all is good. Oh, now [I use them] a
bit for more personal knowledge, to search for some things, to see what is this, what is that
A similar view is echoed by another participant who explains how her current use of Youtube
includes searching for educational material:
Now, for example, I have found lots of educational material on Youtube, which I would never
have thought of [doing]
How do pre-service teachers use social media in their everyday life?

All Special education pre-service teachers reported using social media in their everyday life for
personal purposes. Based on the activities these pre-service teachers reported doing when using
social media for everyday uses, I identified the following themes; (1) communication, (2)
entertainment and hobbies, (3) information and news, and (4) work purposes. In particular:
Communication
Special Education pre-service teachers use new technologies for communication mostly with
their offline network, such as friends and families. This finding aligns with other research (Towner
&Muoz, 2011). Only two participants used social media to interact with people they do not know
through forums and Facebook groups.
Facebook was by far the most popular social media tool for communication used by all
participants except the one who does not have a Facebook account. Email and Skype were also
used, while Viber and forum for communication were mentioned by 2 and 1 person respectively.
Entertainment and hobbies

Participants also described how they used social media for their entertainment and in order to
pursue their hobbies. Youtube was the clear winner in this category used by all participants to have
fun, pass time and learn more about their offline hobbies, followed by Facebook and Instagram
which were mentioned by fewer people. Other social media tools were only mentioned once.
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2 , , 258
Information and news

All participants except one use social media to stay up-to-date with current affairs or receive
information in general. Wikipedia was the most common tool, as it was mentioned by 4
participants, followed by Youtube (3 participants). Forums, email, Facebook and online
newspapers were mentioned by two participants and blogs were mentioned by one person only.
The following quote illustrates how the participant turns to Wikipedia in order to get
information about things that interest them:
I may hear about an artist that I did not know, I will search to find [out about him]or about an
artist that I just discovered and want to learn more about his discography, for example, or
filmography
Work purposes
Two participants mentioned using social media for work-related purposes. One participant is a
professional in a field unrelated to Education, while the other participant helps with the family
business. For both participants, Email is the social media tool that helps them communicate with
clients. Google, forums, Facebook groups and blogs were mentioned by the professional
How do pre-service teachers use of social media informally for academic purposes?
Regarding academic use of social media, findings from this study suggest that participants use
social media for (1)course-related, and (2) information relating to their field of education in
general. In particular:
Course-related purposes
This theme includes use of social media to:i) access material for help with assignments, courses
and teaching practice, as well as for participants self-directed learning, and ii) interact with their
peers and university teachers. Interaction with peers involved both course-related issues and the
experiences of student life.
More particularly, as far as access is concerned, participants reported using social media as a
starting point for their assignments, with Wikipedia being the most popular tool of choice. More
particularly, participants mentioned using Wikipedia in order to help them start writing an
assignment, as it provides them help with terminologies. Youtube, forums and Google were also
mentioned by fewer participants, while blogs and Slideshare by only one participant.
Apart from help with assignments, participants also described how they use new technologies
for their own self-directed learning. Youtube and Wikipedia were the most popular social media
used by participants who wanted to learn more about something related to with courses, such as a
theory they heard about in class. For example, as one participant stated Wikipedia helps her
understand how theoretical concepts mentioned in the university classroom are applied in real life.
Wikipedia [for] information, yes, when I search to find what, how what they told us in the
department is done. That is, how it is translated in reality
Two participants also mentioned the internet in general, as a tool that facilitates their self-
directed learning. One participant also mentioned having signed up for one Massive Open Online
Course (MOOC) as she hoped she would find useful information for an assignment, but did not
complete it.
Participants also described how they use social media to access material that would directly
help them with their courses, exams or the teaching practice component in schools. For this
category, several social media were mentioned; Youtube was mentioned by 5 people, Internet in
general and sites, as well as Universitys electronic platform were also used for this purpose by 3
participants. Blogs as well as education-related groups on Facebook were mentioned by 2
respectively. Other social media tools were mentioned once.
For example, one participant described how she visited education-related groups on Facebook
2 , , ,
2 , , 259
driven by a need to access new material that would be useful for her the teaching practice;
I wanted material, I wanted ideas, I wanted to see new things, to do [new things], so I wanted to
see what is happening, what other people suggest, what is going on in other pages, what is
happening as regards Special Education
In addition to accessing material for course-related purposes, pre-service teachers reported

interaction with their peers on social media about topics related to their courses. These interactions
took place mostly through Facebook and secondly through email but to a lesser extent. Other
social media tools were mentioned once.
Facebook student groups was mentioned by all participants who have a Facebook account. As
was expected, some participants reported actively participating in the group and others not.
Although some participants only visited those groups to read posts, for the purposes of this paper it
is included in the interaction category, as the main purpose of these groups is to allow students to
interact with others. Participants described discussions mostly about courses, queries about
assignments or teaching practice, teachers visiting hours, timetable changes, announcements,
exchanging views and helping each other during exams by pointing others to what is important
according to teachers. Two participants, who lived in a city other than the one where the university
is based, described how accessing this type of practical information is important and useful to
them. Both stated that the Facebook student group helped them stay informed without having to
call the Administrations office. One of them also mentioned the practical help he received when
he asked the members of the group for books that he needed. It is important to note that the only
participant of this study who did not have a Facebook account (and therefore, she had no access to
the Facebook student group) stated that she recognises its usefulness in academic life, as she now
has to rely on her classmates to inform her about announcements that could also be seen on the
Facebook student group. However, when asked if she would think of reactivating her account in
order to reap the benefits she mentioned, she replied negatively. This paradox was also identified
with some other participants who while recognising the groups usefulness, they do not feel that
they would be lost without it.
Apart from information about courses, the findings suggest that Facebook student groups a
space where pre-service teacherscan discuss their feelings about the experience of being students,
or socialise with their peers. Topics that were mentioned included possible exam topics,
suggestions about courses based on which teachers require assignments or which teachers are
generous with marking, nagging about receiving a low mark or expressing their anxiety for exams
or annoyance about delays in announcement of marks. As one participant pointed out the
Facebook student group was a space where students can ask questions that you dont normally ask
teachers.
The following quote illustrates some of the discussions that can be seen in those groups;
He failed me and things like that, look how many [students] he failed and things like that
Another function of Facebook was mentioned by one of the students who live in another city
than the university, and therefore had limited opportunities to meet peers. He explained how
Facebook helped him make new friends from university. He described Facebook as a link
between the university and himself, as it was a way for him to get to know and socialise with his
peers. This resonates with what Madge et al. (2009) who argues that Facebook is part of
thesocial glue that helps students settle into university life (p. 152). In this study, there is
evidence that Facebook was a space where students could express their student identity. As
expected, apart from Facebook student groups, some participants also mentioned using Facebook
to interact with individual peers about course-related issues.
Academic use of social media, also involved communication with their university teachers.
Similar to other studies, email was the number one tool used by all participants in order for them to
contact their teachers mostly about questions that have to do with courses (Conole et al., 2008).
One participant mentioned that some teachers use Facebook groups to make an announcement or
2 , , ,
2 , , 260
interact with students. Skype was used only once by one participant to communicate with a teacher
about an assignment.
Information about the field of education.

Apart from course-related information, participants used social media in order to learn more
about their future profession. Different social media tools were mentioned by participants with
Facebook being the most popular tool of choice. Field-related information was mostly accessed
through Facebook groups or pages about education that participants have joined or liked and the
Facebook student groups. Youtube, blogs, educational sites, forums and Wikipedia were also used,
but less frequently. Some of the field-related topics that were mentioned by participants were the
following; recent developments and problems in the field of education, articles about learning
difficulties, videos about teaching and other inspirational videos about children, information about
postgraduate studies and specialisation routes, employment issues, material and teaching ideas,
educational seminars, events such a marathon for people with mobility difficulties and the role of
technology in the Special Education classroom.
Participants expressed how social media help them stay up-to-date with developments in the
field of education. One participant also mentioned that it was this opportunity to learn more about
the field that made her decide to set up a Facebook account, despite her initial negative attitude
towards this specific social media tool. In particular, she described how she used to be unwilling to
set up a Facebook profile as she felt it was meaningless and dangerous in terms of how much
exposure a user gets. However, as a Special Education pre-service teacher, she changed her mind
when she realised the ways in which Facebook could be useful for her in the future, as far as her
future profession is concerned. She stated that Facebook gives users the opportunity to easily and
effortlessly access the things that interest them, such as seminars, without having to visit specific
websites. Another participant also exhibited such a proactive attitude, by saving educational sites
that she found in several spaces online for her future reference.
As mentioned above, apart from the education-related groups on Facebook, Facebook student
groups also provide pre-service teachers with field-related information. However, not surprisingly,
the main emphasis of those groups is to provide Special Education students with information
related to their courses. This is the reason why two participants expressed their annoyance when
people post such field-related information to the group. Both participants expressed their wish for
the group to remain course-oriented.
Discussion
Participants used a variety of social media in their everyday lives. Two participants used social
media more extensively than the rest, in terms of the number of social media tools used, possibly
due to their social media-rich prior experiences. Both participants claimed their passion for
technologies started at a young age and continues to this date. Moreover, both participants
described more active uses of social media than the other participants, as they mentioned posting
to online discussions.
Communication with their other people was mentioned by all participants to varying degrees.
As expected these pre-service teachers mostly interacted with their offline network. This confirms
findings from other studies (Smith & Caruso, 2010). The only participants that also interact with
people they do not know were the two male participants. Both mentioned that they sometimes add
people they are not friends with to their Facebook friends. Moreover, one of them reported
participating in forum discussions from a young age and the other described how he sometimes
expresses his views online on Facebook groups. Entertainment and receiving information and
news were equally popularpersonal uses. Youtube and Wikipedia are very popular tools for
personal purposes. As expected, all participants consumed information from those tools. None of
them reported uploading a video or editing a Wikipedia entry. As Selwyn (2012) notes most users
use Youtube and Wikipedia to consume rather than produce material.
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2 , , 261
From this data, academic learning was found to be a wide concept, covering course-related
learning, but also obtaining information about the field of education. Evidence from this study
suggest that the lines between course-related and field-related use could be described as blurred.
For example, when a pre-service teacher visits a blog wishing to find ideas for their teaching
practice could be seen as course-related use. However, it can be argued that this contributes to
their professional learning, as they stay up-to-date with developments in the field of education
(field-related learning)
As it is obvious from the data, although all participants have email accounts, their academic use
was mostly limited to exchanging files with peers and communicating with their teachers when
there was a specific need. It seemed that Facebook replaced the use of emails as far as informal
interactions with peers is concerned. Facebook seemed to be a tool which participants use for both
personal and academic purposes. As far as academic purposes are concerned, Facebook was used
both for course-related issues and field-related issues.
Not surprisingly, all participants used social media for course-related purposes, such as
assignments, exams, and their courses. All participants who had a Facebook account referred to the
Facebook groups addressed to students. Again, most participants used these Facebook student
groups to consume information, such as read something related to their learning, while some of
them also mentioned making posts. It is important to note that the vast majority of the posts in
these groups as was described by those pre-service teachers revolved around practical information,
instead of deeper discussions about courses. This resonates with findings from other studies,
such as Selwyns (2009) and Madge et al.s (2009). However, empirical evidence from this study
suggests that such practical information is appreciated by the participants, as the immediacy of
receiving information helps them feel more up-to-date with regards to their course. The
discussions in these groups range from practical information about courses to videos and articles
about education in general. Joyful posts in which pre-service teachers express their feelings and
emotions of being students were also mentioned. Such joyful interactions about the particularities
of being a student were also identified in Selwyns (2009) study.
Field-related information was another important theme that emerged from the data. Pre-service
teachers mainly accessed field-related information on several social media tools. Some participants
also reported joining other education-related Facebook groups or visiting education-related
forums. None of them reported actively contributing to those discussions that were mainly
addressed to practitioners, possibly because they felt outsiders. As one participant said when
asked why he has never posted anything to education-related groups that he reads, they cannot add
anything important to practitioners discussions, as they belonged to a different group:
They are in-service teachers, we are still pre-service
However, despite not actively participating in the discussions, some participants visited those
groups and read in-service teachers discussions and posts. It seems that pre-service teachers could
benefit from this exposure to their future field of work. In the literature it has been suggested that
social media may enhance preservice teachers knowledge of professional organizations and of
trends and issues in education (Pilgrim & Bledsoe, 2011, p.21). Also, the potential of social
media to help pre-service teachers expand their professional network and build their social capital
with future colleagues and relevant educational groups should be taken into consideration. Indeed,
as it is often argued the 21st century teacher should be able to use new technologies for their
professional learning and interaction with other teachers (Ala-Mutka, 2010). Teacher education
departments could encourage such early exposure to the future profession online.
Finally, there might be a need to review what it means to be active or passive use on social
media. Data from this research suggests that despite the fact that passive use of their informal
academic use was predominant (for example, when watching a tutorial on YouTube, or consulting
Wikipedia), participants managed to fulfil a personal goal, such as passing their exams or getting
started with their assignment. In other words, not contributing to social media discussions does not
mean that they are not taking control of their learning. Further research on factors that influence
2 , , ,
2 , , 262
pre-service teachers active or passive use could add to our understanding of their social
media practices.
Limitations and conclusions

This qualitative study aimed to provide insight into how Special Education pre-service in
Greece used social media informally. An important limitation is the small number of participants.
However, as this paper presents findings from a part of a bigger PhD project in terms of
participants, research questions and data collection tools, it is hoped that the analysis of the PhD
study will bring more robust findings and a deeper insight into pre-service teachers perceptions
and practices with social media, as well as the factors that influence their decisions to use or not
use social media.
The findings of this qualitative study suggest that pre-service teachers in Greece chose to use
an array of social media for both personal and academic purposes. Moreover, academic purposes
was found to be a wide concept covering not only course-related, but also field-related purposes,
as participants used social media to learn more about their future profession. This carries
implications for teacher educators, as they could provide pre-service teachers with more
opportunities for field-related learning, for example, through suggesting relevant online
communities or blogs.
It is hoped that the findings of this study will contribute to the literature about prospective
teachers uses of social media beyond the university classroom.
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The intervention of parents on students motivation in three secondary

schools in Attica
Katsoulis Athanasios
Phd Candidate, English Teacher
Katsou1986@gmail.com
Abstract
A selection of current frameworks of thinking was recently collected together and analysed. Even if
motivation is not a new concept, the researcher further focused on it as it still remains a key-subject in the
educational system. This paper describes the enquiry undertaken in three secondary schools of Athens -with
different kinds of students -in order to offer a possible answer to the question whether parental involvement
affects their motivation notion. The sample consisted of 120 ninth graders (62 boys, 58 girls). Parents and
teachers were informed about this research and cooperated fully with their contribution being made by
allowing the students to complete a standarized to the Greek reality questionnaire. We also approached
scientifically the correlations between different parenting styles and goal orientations, by interpreting
concepts like psychological control, unconditional acceptance and task or avoidance orientation. It was
found that those students were indeed gradually affected by their family environment. Positive effects on
their thinking behaviour were less impulsion and increased capacity to make balanced school decisions,
whereas negative ones had to do with low self-esteem and underachievement. Gender is another crucial
factor in this research, as girls and boys did not react similarly. On the one hand, girls do not afford pressure
but praise for parents love and care at the same time. On the other hand, boys are less emotion-affected and
focused on more demanding tasks. Nevertheless, both of them are seeking for their parents attention in
order to achieve their goals. Consequently, nowadays family comes to play a great role on boosting and
developing students capacities.
Key-words: motivation, secondary schools, parental involvement, teachers, questionnaire
Introduction
The concept of motivation is a key-tool in our era and remains a priority for the scientific
community. In particular, the motivation of students is an important issue in secondary education,
owing to the importance of academic performance in their professional life. Student motivation,
according to the seminal work of Brophy (2010), is the degree to which students invest attention
and effort in various pursuits, which may or may not be the ones desired by their teachers and is
primarily subjective. Much of the research on educational motivation has also been rightly
centered on the family, where the majority of homework takes place and where students are most
likely to acquire a strong motivation to gain new knowledge (Ames et al., 1987). This paper
intended to describe in which ways parental involvement comes and affects students motivation in
three secondary schools of Athens. A comprehensive view of involvement is presented by
(Epsteins, 1997) model. This specific project examined the role that parent involvement has on
childrens performance through the use of a questionnaire. Epstein (1997) discussed how children
learn and grow through three overlapping spheres of influence: family, school, and community. He
also presented six major types of parental involvement to be among the most useful tools
developed in the field, thus far for defining parental involvement practices. In this study, 120
students were involved and by using the appropriate, behavioural measurement, a richer picture of
all the parents could finally be reached. Consequently, the relationships between family
involvement and student performance were certainly examined.
The aims of the study and research questions

Cohen and Manion (1994) identify the first stage in the research process as being identification
and formulation of the problem. There may not always be a problem as such as the focus for
research, but in this instance there is. The purpose of the study was to investigate the role of
parental involvement in the development of students motivation in secondary schools. Being in
the position of a student too in the previous years, the researcher felt the internal need to carry out
this study. Therefore, it was rather important not only to uncover the parental support, but also to
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expose the notion of motivation that leads students to exceptional results. Against this background,
this study was set out to respond to the three following research questions:
- Is parents dependency-oriented psychological control related to student motivation?
- Is parents achievement-oriented psychological control related to student motivation?
- Is parental autonomy support associated with student orientation?
To elucidate the processes involved in associations between perceived parental psychological
control and student motivation, Soenens, Vansteenkiste, and Luyten (2010) clearly distinguished
between two domain-specific expressions of psychological control, that is, dependency-oriented
psychological control (DPC) and achievement-oriented psychological control (APC). DPC
involves the use of pressure to make children remain within close physical and emotional
proximity. Parents scoring high on DPC use psychologically controlling tactics when children
distance themselves too much from the parents. In contrast, APC involves the use of pressure to
push children to excel in performance-relevant situations. Parents high on APC engage in intrusive
tactics when their children do not set high standards for achievement or fail to achieve those
standards. Dependency involves accordingly strong fears of separation and abandonment, a
tendency to cling to others to obtain reassurance or a sense of security. A self-critical orientation
also involves the setting of excessively high standards for performance and a tendency to engage
in harsh self-scrutiny when faced with failure (Soenens et al., 2005). These specific pathways were
empirically corroborated, such that dependency and self-criticism were found to mediate at least
partially the initial associations between DPC and APC and student motivation.
Theoretical background
Any discussion of motivation should begin with the definition of its subject matter. While the
literature is broad, the voices of Brophy, Deci, and Dweck have been instrumental to the
development of key definitions of motivation as it relates to education. One may expect the
motivational theories to be the perfect place to look for a generally agreed upon definition.
However, the field of motivation is characterized by an abundance of different theoretical
frameworks and models that make it difficult, if not impossible, to identify similarities and
differences (Campbell et al., 1970; Chiesa, 1994). For example, in 1961, Madsen summarized 20
theories of motivation. In 1992, Ford analyzed 32 major theories. Clark (1998) also reviewed over
40 research-based theories of motivation. However, the number of proposed definitions by far
surpasses the number of theories. Therefore, Kleinginna and Kleinginna (1981) listed 98
definitions of motivation from which they synthesized their own physiological definition with
emphasis on process-restrictive, vector, and phenomenological aspects. In addition, Vroom
(1964) proposed that the concept of motivation has to do with the choices made by persons or
lower organisms among alternative forms of voluntary activity. Pinder (1998) also views the
motivation to work as A set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an
individuals being, to initiate work-related behaviour and to determine its form, direction, intensity
or duration. In psychology, lastly, motivation is a force that energizes and directs behaviour
toward a goal (Paul Eggen & Don Kauchak, 1994).
Motives seem to serve three important functions: 1) energizing us, 2) directing us and 3) helping
us to select the behaviour most appropriate for achieving our goals (Don Hamachek, 1989). As it
can be seen, motivation is an inner state that arouses individuals desire for a goal and maintains
their efforts in a certain direction and time. Motivation in other words is identified as a
fundamental aspect of learning (Brewer & Burgess, 2005), while often being separated into two
types: intrinsic and extrinsic one. Incidentally, Marshal (1987) viewed students motivation as a
force beneficial to the learner. Ames (1990) also stated that motivation to learning is dependent on
long-term, quality attachment in learning and pledge to the process of learning. Therefore,
motivation theorists believe that motivation is involved in the performance of all learned
responses. It goes without saying that student motivation is an essential element that is necessary
for quality education. But how are students motivated? They pay attention, they begin working on
tasks immediately, they ask questions and volunteer answers, and they appear to be happy and
eager (Palmer, 2007). Basically, very little if any learning, can occur unless students are motivated
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on a consistent basis. In that sense, the ingredients impacting student motivation are: student,
teacher, content, method/process, and environment. Motivation is also optimized when students
are exposed to a large number of these motivating experiences and variables on a regular basis.
(Maheshwari et al., 2010). Stressing here, specifically, the familys role on students motivation,
parental involvement was operationally defined in numerous ways. The definitions included
communication between parents and teachers (Deslandes et al., 1997); parents participation in
school activities, such as conferences (Miedel and Reynolds, 1999); and parents help with their
childrens homework (Shumow and Miller, 2001). Lumsden (1994) stated the role of the
significant others (parents and home environment) in students motivation as a main factor which
shapes the initial constellation of students attitudes they develop toward learning. However,
another means for influencing student motivation is psychological control. Psychological control
refers to the use of emotional exploitation to induce desirable conduct (Barber, 1996), as when
parents induce shame and guilt to impede a specific behavior in their child. Psychological control
is generally perceived as a poor parental practice to induce motivation because it is associated with
negative emotional outcomes (Barber, Stolz, & Olsen, 2005; Pettit & Laird, 2002). Most recent
parenting study suggested that psychological control should be separated into two general
orientations dependency and achievement in order to comprehend the complex effects of
intrusive parenting (Soenens, Vansteenkiste, & Luyten, 2010). Furthermore, the involvement of
parents in their childrens motivation development is associated with higher academic
achievement, greater problem solving skills, greater school enjoyment, better school attendance
and fewer behavioural problems (Melhuish et al., 2001). The present study built upon existing
research that has identified different types of parental involvement in the secondary education.
Research methodology
This research approach, focused exclusively on lower secondary education, used quantitative
data and was based on the positivist paradigm. A paradigm is an interpretive framework or a set of
beliefs that guide action. Paradigm comes from the Greek paradeiknyai and connotes the ideas
of a mental picture or pattern of thought (Shtarkshall, 2004). It is a "net of epistemological and
ontological premises which regardless of ultimate truth or falsity becomes partially self
validating". Positivism predominates in science and assumes that science quantitatively measures
independent facts about a single apprehensible reality (Healy & Perry, 2000). In other words, the
data and its analysis are value-free and data do not change because they are being observed. That
is, researchers view the world through a one-way mirror (Healy & Perry, 2000). In its broadest
sense, positivism is a rejection of metaphysics. It is a position that holds that the goal of
knowledge is simply to describe the phenomena that we experience. Quantitative research is also
defined as social research that employs empirical methods and empirical statements.
It is stated that an empirical statement is defined as a descriptive statement about what is the
case in the real world rather than what ought to be the case. Typically, empirical statements
are expressed in numerical terms (Cohen, 1980). Moreover, (Creswell, 1994) has given a very
concise definition of quantitative research as a type of research that is `explaining phenomena by
collecting numerical data that are analyzed using mathematically based methods. It is understood
then that in quantitative research we collect numerical data. It refers to the use of mathematically
based methods, in particular statistics, to analyze the data. In short, quantitative research generally
focuses on measuring social reality. Quantitative research and questions are searching for
quantities in something and to establish research numerically.
Research tool
In the present study a multiple choice, closed questions type of questionnaire was used as a
gathering tool. At this point, it is necessary to refer that this questionnaire constitutes Botsaris
(2008) scientific work and it is her own tool- not presented here because it would exceed the page
limit of the article, still it can be provided if you contact the author via e-mail. More precisely, it
was standardized to the Greek reality and reflected pupils thoughts and attitudes towards the
existing educational system. Also, the specific questionnaire was based on Perception of Parents
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Scale (POPS) (Robbins, 1994) as well as on Dependency-oriented Psychological Control and

Achievement-oriented Psychological Control Scale (Soenens et al., 2010). The scales were
completed by children to describe their mothers and their fathers (24 questions). In this way, it was
possible to highlight the support of self-reliance, the exercise of psychological pressure and the
unconditional acceptance separately from the father and from the mother in the sector of
achievement. Moreover, the questionnaire of Skaalvik (1997) presented the objectives of students
concerning the school and the learning (44 questions). The objective could be the work of learning,
the demonstration of superiority, the evasion of negative comments or even the evasion of work.
At the same time, a view of students for their teachers (9 questions) was available, but the specific
option was not further analysed, as it was not applied to the research questions of the specific
study. Last but not least, in the last page of the questionnaire, demographic elements could be
found, like sex and age of the students, the school they study at, the educational level of parents
and the grades students received at mathematics or Greek literature. Parents job came as an
optional choice.
Data collection and procedure

After visiting 3 junior high schools in Athens, our sample was 120 students (82 Greeks and 38
immigrants from other nationalities) out of 140, as 12 were used in piloting the questionnaire and 8
were absent that day. The average age of the participants was 14.50 years. Overall, there was a
nice climate in general when collecting our data and four trustworthy colleagues were chosen to
read my questionnaire at first. Teachers also proved to be sensitive concerning this research in any
occasion. To be more specific, not only did they interrupt their lesson to give space in the
completion of the questionnaires, but they also highlighted the importance of the study to the
students. The response of these children was really impressive, especially after being told that the
ethical principles of anonymity and confidentiality could have taken for granted. Their parents
were informed too in a presentation held in each school, so we didnt have to ask them for written
authorization as it usually happens. Still, for those missing, a small minority only, we contacted
them on the phone. As a result, a bond of trust enhanced the credibility of my findings and led to
honest replies. On a parallel level, assumptions could be made due to different students age,
nationality and overall grade.
Even though all participants were aware that they have taken part in a survey, at an earlier
stage I had asked for permission from the Greek Ministry of Education (confidential guarantee)
and the headmasters of the three schools. Feedback was available too, to whom they concerned,
after the dissemination of the results (Gray, 2004).
Data codification and analysis

After the collection of all the questionnaires, the data was coded and entered into Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) to ensure completeness and consistency. The Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) is a useful software package for analyzing questionnaire
surveys because it is flexible and easy to use. So, each questionnaire item was rated on a 4-point
Likert scale, absolutely agree, rather agree, rather disagree, absolutely disagree. A five-point
one for neutral responses wasnt used because people seem to get more and more shy when
responding and have a great chance to do so(Yero ,2003).
A Likert scale (pronounced 'lick-ert') is a type of psychometric response scale often used in
questionnaires and is the most widely used scale in survey research. When responding to a Likert
questionnaire item, respondents actually specify their level of agreement to a statement. The scale
is named after Rensis Likert, who published a report describing its use (Likert, 1932).We show
now students responses after being asked to state their parents educational level. There was one
missing value regarding the fathers educational level. The highest frequencies observed both for
fathers and for mothers were for secondary senior education level, 44 (37%) and 56 (46.7%)
respectively. The number of fathers who graduated secondary junior and then quitted school was
more than twice the number of mothers who did so, i.e. 25 (21%) fathers in contrast to 12 (10%)
mothers. Though the frequencies in the postgraduate level are equal for both parents, mothers
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seem to have a better education as in the three upper levels the cumulative percentage for mothers
is 85% in contrast to 71,4% for fathers. The Achievement-oriented Psychological Control Scale
(APCS; Soenens, Vansteenkiste, & Luyten, 2010), as adapted by Makri-Botsari (2012), for use
with Greek adolescent students, was used to assess adolescents perceptions of parental
psychological control in the domain of achievement, where psychological control is used as a
means to make children comply with excessive parental standards for performance. Participants
rated the 10 items of the scale for mothers and fathers separately (e.g. My mother/My father is less
friendly with me if I perform less than perfectly). Items were rated on a 4-point Likert scale,
ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The responses for mothers and fathers
were combined to create an overall parental psychological control score based on the very high
correlation between maternal and paternal psychological control (r = 0.86) and because these
responses report couple level behaviors. In this study, the Cronbachs alpha for the combined
parental psychological control scale was 0.94. This suggests that the items have relatively high
internal consistency. We should note here that a reliability coefficient of 0.70 or higher is
considered "acceptable" in most social science research situations. Unconditionality of acceptance
by mothers and fathers was assessed with a 5-item scale developed by Makri-Botsari (2012). This
scale taps the extent to which students feel their mothers and fathers treat them as a person of
worth and give them love and affection, even when they do not meet all of their expectations
and/or do not have a high school-achievement (Makri-Botsari, 2001a, 2001b). As for the APCS,
the responses for mothers and fathers were combined to create an overall parental unconditional
acceptance score based again on the very high correlation between maternal and paternal
unconditional acceptance (r = 0.66) and because these responses report also couple level
behaviors. In this study, the Cronbachs alpha for the combined parental unconditional acceptance
scale was 0.90. Achievement goal orientations were assessed by a Greek version (Makri-Botsari,
2012) of Skaalviks motivational orientations scale (Skaalvik, 1997). This instrument consists of
four subscales: task orientation (6 items), avoidance orientation (4 items), self-defeating ego
orientation (7 items), and self-enhancing ego orientation (5 items).
Items are answered on a four point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly
agree). Skaalvik reports Cronbachs alphas for the task orientation, self-enhancing ego orientation,
self-defeating ego orientation, and avoidance orientation subscales of 0.81, 0.86, 0.89, and 0.93,
respectively. In the current investigation, these reliabilities were found equal to 0.73, 0.72, 0.73
and 0.65, respectively.
Findings- results
Findings from this study generally support the view that students perceptions about their
parents parental practices are related to their motivational attitudes and beliefs. To illustrate my
point of view, considering the achievement- oriented psychological control at first, both parents
seem to demand great academic results and high school-performance from their children. This fact
automatically decreases the levels of unconditional acceptance. Furthermore, as it pertains to the
hypothesis speculating a positive relation between authoritative parenting and a mastery goal
orientation, the present findings contribute to the literature describing that students who perceived
their parents to be more authoritative, also perceived themselves as being more oriented towards
mastery (Gonzalez et al., 2001, 2002,2005). However, the results of this study also revealed the
absence of one father, most probably because of death or a difficult divorce. According to
Wineburgh (2000), the absenteeism of a father has a severe effect on not only the livelihood of a
child but also his/her cognitive abilities. Children who never meet or have had very little contact
with their fathers at an early age are left wondering about why their father is not a part of their
lives. They begin to think that they are the ones to blame or are always questioning the reasoning
for their absence. The results are truly surprising about dependency-oriented psychological control
as well. Students want their parents to support them, even if they do not meet their expectations all
the time. In any case, if a student believes that his or her parent will be present for school
functions, question how well he or she is doing, maintain regular contact with the teacher and
perhaps make random visits or make random phone calls to the school, then the student may
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believe that doing better than before is easier. At the same time, parents who experience events
like parentchild distance as threatening and who anticipate their childs increasing independence
with feelings of resentment and anxiety, report more psychologically controlling tactics to keep
their child within close physical and emotional boundaries (Hock et al., 2001; Soenens et al.,
2006).Gender is another crucial factor in this research. As it can be clearly seen after the
examination of this factor, girls and boys do not react similarly in general. On the one hand, girls
do not afford pressure but praise for parents love and care at the same time. On the other hand,
boys are less emotion- affected and focused on more demanding tasks. Nevertheless, both of them
are seeking for their parents attention in order to achieve their goals. Moreover, the correlation
between self-defeating and self-enhancing ego orientation existed, but these constructs had
different relations to other variables in the study. On the one hand, self-defeating ego orientation
was associated with high anxiety and was negatively related to achievement and self-perceptions.
Self-enhancing ego orientation on the other hand was positively related to achievement, self-
perceptions, and intrinsic motivation. In other words, students present a higher achievement
orientation (educational effort) and experience greater self-efficacy (sense of competence and
initiative) when their parents interact with them using strategies of positive induction (reasoning
and support), monitoring (keeping track of the childs activities), and autonomy (freedom
granting).All in all, it can be summarized that parents should be both responsive and demanding.
The parents should set clear rules, monitor their childrens behaviour and expect success from their
children but all the while supporting their children and satisfying their psychological needs.
Questioning simultaneously at first whether parents dependency-oriented psychological control is
related to student motivation, the analysis indicated that paternal support and involvement were
positively associated with perceived competence, control understanding and perceptions of
autonomy in students.
This is obvious in the case of achievement-oriented psychological control that responds to the
second research question, where parents do not pressure their children to be dependent but
pressure their children to excel individually. These findings are in line with formulations on the
developmental origins of dependency and self-criticism as well, derived from the theory of Blatt
(2004). As it is observed, here there is also a correlation with the third research question,
demanding if parental autonomy support is associated with student orientation. Similarly, when
parents pressure children to achieve and to live up to high standards, children are likely to develop
a self-critical orientation.
Evaluation- discussion
Two main conclusions can be drawn from this study which focused on whether parental
involvement has an influential role on students motivation at school. The first is that student
motivation is complex, multivariate phenomenons that cannot be ascertained accurately even with
the most sophisticated statistical tools and research designs. However, one may be able to
differentiate between motivated and not-motivated students simply by assessing the affluence level
of their families and the degree their parents are involved in the school. This study has also offered
a more specific view of how Greek secondary school students are motivated or unmotivated by
different parental interventions or insufficient interventions. Studies presented here uncover
important relationships between parent involvement and specific motivational constructs. When
parents are involved, students report more effort, concentration, and attention. Students are more
inherently interested in learning and they experience higher perceived competence. In this regard,
the involvement of parents in the education of their adolescent children should be encouraged and
practiced. In the light of this direction, Hoover-Dempsey et al. (2005) also insinuates that the
involvement of parents in the education of their children is motivated by the parents sense of
efficacy for helping the child to excel at school and their role construction for involvement. The
results of this study strike a significant note for educators too; thus, every teacher has to be a
reflective practitioner and researcher at first in order to improve students lives.
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Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, 12, 165188.
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Email: eftsitota@windowslive.com

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Summary
Preschool age is an important period in a childs life, during which certain behavior can be affected
positively. Behavior which has to do with socialization and individualization. Recently, attention is
particularly paid to the role of the school as means of promoting psycho sociological adequacy and primary
prevention of problems which are related to spiritual welfare. The aim of this project is to show the
usefulness of fairy tale narration, which is applied to preschool children in the kindergarden classroom. In
particular, in the first section of this project (Theoretical), reference is made to the contribution of fairy tale
narration to preschool children. In the second section (specific), the results of a survey are presented, which
was conducted from 9 March to 22 May 2015, and in which 135 kindergarden teachers of the prefecture of
Larissa took part. The surveys purpose was to record the kindergarden teachers opinions in relation to the
usefulness and contribution of fairy tale narration to the spiritual welfare of the child.
Key words: Fairy tale narration, spiritual welfare, preschool age

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Bettelheim, B. (1976). The uses of enchantment: The meaning and importance of fairy.
Collins, L. (2010). Autonomy and authorship: Storytelling in children's picture books.
Nicolopoulou, A. (2011), Children's Storytelling: Toward an Interpretive and
Sociocultural Approach. Storyworlds: A Journal of Narrative Studies.
Thomas, J. (1999), The role of the fairy story in developing a sense of self in young
children with identified emotional and behavioural difficulties. Early Child Development
and Care, 157, 27-50.
Tsitsani, P., Psyllidou, S., Batzios, S. P., Livas, S., Ouranos, M., & Cassimos, D. (2011).
Fairy tales: a compass for children's healthy developmenta qualitative study in a Greek
island. Child: Care, Health and Development.
Tsitsanoudis Mallidis, N (2014). Interdisciplinary approach of then arrative fairytale in
language courses by students of the second grade in a Greekprimary school.
International Research Journal for Quality in Education, Vol. 1 (5), published in
Nov.14, website link is : http://www.shankargargh.org/highercurrissue/3.pdf
Tsitsanoudis Mallidis, N. (2015) (ed.) Greek Language in Childrens Society.
NewYork: Untested Ideas Recearch Center. Posted online:
http://untestedideas.net/book2.php?b_type=lan
Zipes, J. (1988). The Brothers Grimm, London: Routledge.
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Scratch ( edia Lab)
, ,
Arduino.
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Proceedings of the 4th international Conference on Tangible Embedded, and Embodied interaction.
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Cast, A. D., & Burke, P. J. (2002). A Theory of Self-Esteem. Social Forces, 80: 1041-1068.
Coopersmith, S. (1967). The Antecedents of Self-Esteem. San Francisco. CA: Freeman.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Pyszcynski T., Solomon Sh., Greeberg Jeft, Arndt J. & Schimel J.,(2004). Why Do People Need Self-
Esteem? A Theoretical and Empirical Review. Psychological Bulletin, Vol.130, no.3, pp.435-468
Rosenberg, M. (1981). The Self-Concept:Social Product and Social Force. In M. Rosenberg & R. H. Turner
(Eds.), Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives (pp. 593-624). New York: Basic.
Wylie, R. C. (1974). The self-concept. Revised edition . Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press
Yalcin Ozdemi (2014). Parent- Adolescent Conflict and Depression Symptoms of Adolescents:Mediator
Role of Self-Esteem. The Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences, vol. 27, no.3, 211-220
Wiwik Adreani (2013). Emotional Intelligence, Self-Esteem and Academic Achievement :A Case Study of
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Cristini, F., Dallago, L., Nation, M., Santinello, M. and Scacchi, L.(2012), The relations between school
bonding, behavioural and emotional problems : Does school bonding in early adolescence affect later
development, Bollettino di PsicologiaApplicata, 264, 15-25
Cunningham, J.N., (2007), Level of Bonding to School and Perception of the School Environment by
Bullies, Victims, and Bully Victims, The Journal of Early Adolescence, 27, 457-478
Hawkins, D., Guo, J., Hill, K., Battin-Pearson, S. and Abbott, R., (2001), Long term Effects of the Seattle
Social Development Intervention on School Bonding Trajectories, Applied Developmental Science, 5(4),
225-236
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Boekaerts, M. (2001). Context Sensitivity: Activated motivational beliefs, current concerns and emotional
arousal. In S. Volet, & S. Jarvela, S. (Eds) (2001), Motivation InLearning Contexts: Theoretical And
Methodological Implications (pp. 17-31). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Bradley, R.M., Rock, M., & Caldwell, S.L. (1988). Home environment and school performance: A Ten-
Year-Follow-up and Examination of Three Models of Environmental Action.In Child Development Vol. 59,
No. 4, pp. 852-867. N. York: Wiley on behalf of the Society for Research in Child Development
Caplow, Th. (1972). L' enquetesociologique. Paris: Ed. A. Colin, pp. 120-126
Cohen, L., Manion, L., Morrison, K. (2008). . : .
Elliot, S. N., Kratochwill, T. R., Litlefield - Cook, J. L., Travers, J. F. (2008). .
, (.) . , . . : Gutenberg.
Lens, W., Simons, J., &Dewitte, S. (2001). Student motivation and selfregulation as a function of future time
perspective and perceived instrumentality. In S. Volet, & S. Jarvela, S. (Eds) (2001), Motivation in learning
contexts: Theoretical and methodological implications (pp. 233-248). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Mizala, A. &Romaguera, P. (2007). School performance and choice The Chilean experience.The Journal of
Human ResourcesVol. 35, No. 2, pp. 392-417. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press
Mouly, J.G. (1978). Educational Research: The Arts and Science of Investigation. Boston: Allyn and Bacon,
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Nunnally, J. (1978). Psychometry Theory (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
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learning.International Journal of Educational Research, 31, 459-470. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
, . (2007). .: , . 148.
, ., ., . . (2012). ,
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K .-. & , . (2011).
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), 2013. EU LGBT survey: European Union lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender
survey Results at a glance. Retrieved from http://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2013/eu-lgbt-survey-
europeanunion-lesbian-gay-bisexual-and-transgender-survey-results
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophobia (2010)
http://www.class.uh.edu/lgbt/documents/Homophobia.pdf (2010)
http://www.endhomophobia.org/homophobia.htm (2010)
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Burns, A. (2010). Action research: What's in it for teachers and institutions?' International House Journal of
Education and Development, 29, 3-6.
Darling-Hammond, L., & McLaughlin, M. W. (1995). Policies that support professional development in an
era of reform. Phi Delta Kappan, 76 (8), 597604.
Day, C. (2000). Stories of change and professional development: The costs of commitment. In C. Day, A.
Fernandez, T. Hauge & J. Moller (Eds.). The life and work of teachers: International perspectives in
changing times. London: Falmer Press.
Desimone, L. M. (2011). A primer on effective professional development. Phi Delta Kappan, 92, 68-71.
Farrell, T. S. C. (2007). Reflective language teaching: From research to practice. London: Continuum Press
Hargreaves, A. (2000). Four ages of professionalism and professional learning. Teachers and Teaching:
Theory and Practice, 6 (2), 151-182.
Little, J. W. (1997). Excellence in professional development and professional community. Working paper.
Benchmarks for Schools. Washington DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
Richards, J. & Nunan, D. (1990). Second Language Teacher Education. Cambridge: CUP.
Mertler, C. A. (2012b). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (3rd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Rolfe, G., Freshwater, D., & Jasper, M. (2001). Critical Reflection for Nursing and the Helping Professions:
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University Press.
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Teacher self-assessment through the use of portfolio

Definition of self-assessment and the teacher portfolio

Methods for self-assessment

Steps for creating a teacher portfolio

Advantages and disadvantages

Table 1: Research questions 1 and 2

82% familiar with both All of them familiar

91% assess themselves All of them

What is the greatest difficulty in

14h.give and get useful

14a.clarify the program

15h.I don't believe in the

15b.I don't think thinking as an

Limitations of the research- Conclusion

, . (2001). . , 31, 37-

3,14 0,68 3,23 0,62 3,16 0,67 -1,234 .218

/ 3,16 0,68 3,05 0,63 3,13 0,67 1,372 .172

/ 2,96 0,78 3,04 0,66 2,98 0,75 -0,986 .325

2,61 0,73 2,66 0,82 2,62 0,75 -0,528 .597

/ 2,55 0,75 2,63 0,74 2,57 0,75 -0,949 .343

3,43 0,62 3,45 0,65 3,43 0,63 -0,348 .728

3: , .., 2006b, . 110

4: (, .., 2006c, . 62)

5: (Harlen & Elstgeest, 2005, . 255)

Harlen, W., & Elstgeest, J. (2005). Unesco:

Eden, S. (1984). Evaluation of learning material in Internationale Schulbuchforschung, v.6, Hannover

Antoniou, P., and Kyriakides, L. (2013). A Dynamic Integrated Approach to teacher

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