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Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschools
ofcriticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

LiteraryTheoryandSchoolsofCriticism
Introduction

Averybasicwayofthinkingaboutliterarytheoryisthattheseideasactasdifferentlenses
criticsusetoviewandtalkaboutart,literature,andevenculture.Thesedifferentlenses
allowcriticstoconsiderworksofartbasedoncertainassumptionswithinthatschoolof
theory.Thedifferentlensesalsoallowcriticstofocusonparticularaspectsofaworkthey
considerimportant.

Forexample,ifacriticisworkingwithcertainMarxisttheories,s/hemightfocusonhow
thecharactersinastoryinteractbasedontheireconomicsituation.Ifacriticisworking
withpostcolonialtheories,s/hemightconsiderthesamestorybutlookathowcharacters
fromcolonialpowers(Britain,France,andevenAmerica)treatcharactersfrom,say,
AfricaortheCaribbean.Hopefully,afterreadingthroughandworkingwiththeresources
inthisareaoftheOWL,literarytheorywillbecomealittleeasiertounderstandanduse.

Disclaimer

Pleasenotethattheschoolsofliterarycriticismandtheirexplanationsincludedhereare
bynomeanstheonlywaysofdistinguishingtheseseparateareasoftheory.Indeed,many
criticsusetoolsfromtwoormoreschoolsintheirwork.Somewoulddefinedifferentlyor
greatlyexpandthe(very)generalstatementsgivenhere.Ourexplanationsaremeantonly
asstartingplacesforyourowninvestigationintoliterarytheory.Weencourageyoutouse
thelistofscholarsandworksprovidedforeachschooltofurtheryourunderstandingof
thesetheories.

Wealsorecommendthefollowingsecondarysourcesforstudyofliterarytheory:

TheCriticalTradition:ClassicalTextsandContemporaryTrends,1998,editedby
DavidH.Richter
CriticalTheoryToday:AUserFriendlyGuide,1999,byLoisTyson
BeginningTheory,2002,byPeterBarry
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Althoughphilosophers,critics,educatorsandauthorshavebeenwritingaboutwriting
sinceancienttimes,contemporaryschoolsofliterarytheoryhavecoheredfromthese
discussionsandnowinfluencehowscholarslookatandwriteaboutliterature.The
followingsectionsoverviewthesemovementsincriticaltheory.Thoughthetimeline
belowroughlyfollowsachronologicalorder,wehaveplacedsomeschoolsclosertogether
becausetheyaresocloselyaligned.

Timeline(mostoftheseoverlap)

MoralCriticism,DramaticConstruction(~360BCpresent)
Formalism,NewCriticism,NeoAristotelianCriticism(1930spresent)
PsychoanalyticCriticism,JungianCriticism(1930spresent)
MarxistCriticism(1930spresent)
ReaderResponseCriticism(1960spresent)
Structuralism/Semiotics(1920spresent)
PostStructuralism/Deconstruction(1966present)
NewHistoricism/CulturalStudies(1980spresent)
PostColonialCriticism(1990spresent)
FeministCriticism(1960spresent)
Gender/QueerStudies(1970spresent)

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschools
ofcriticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

MoralCriticismandDramatic
Construction(~360BCpresent)
Plato

InBookXofhisRepublic,Platomayhavegivenusthefirstvolleyofdetailedand
lengthyliterarycriticism.ThedialogbetweenSocratesandtwoofhisassociatesshows
theparticipantsofthisdiscussionconcludingthatartmustplayalimitedandverystrict
roleintheperfectGreekRepublic.Richterprovidesanicesummaryofthispoint:"...poets
maystayasservantsofthestateiftheyteachpietyandvirtue,butthepleasuresofartare
condemnedasinherentlycorruptingtocitizens..."(19).

OnereasonPlatoincludedtheseideasinhisSocraticdialogbecausehebelievedthatart
wasamediocrereproductionofnature:"...whatartistsdo...isholdthemirroruptonature:
Theycopytheappearancesofmen,animals,andobjectsinthephysicalworld...andthe
intelligencethatwentintoitscreationneedinvolvenothingmorethanconjecture"
(Richter19).Soinshort,ifartdoesnotteachmoralityandethics,thenitisdamagingto
itsaudience,andforPlatothisdamagedhisRepublic.

Giventhiscontroversialapproachtoart,it'seasytoseewhyPlato'spositionhasanimpact
onliteratureandliterarycriticismeventoday(thoughscholarswhocritiqueworkbasedon
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whetherornotthestoryteachesamoralarefewvirtuemayhaveanimpactonchildren's
literature,however).

Aristotle

InPoetics,Aristotlebreakswithhisteacher(Plato)intheconsiderationofart.Aristotle
considerspoetry(andrhetoric),aproductivescience,whereashethoughtlogicand
physicstobetheoreticalsciences,andethicsandpoliticspracticalsciences(Richter38).
BecauseAristotlesawpoetryanddramaasmeanstoanend(forexample,anaudience's
enjoyment)heestablishedsomebasicguidelinesforauthorstofollowtoachievecertain
objectives.

Tohelpauthorsachievetheirobjectives,Aristotledevelopedelementsoforganizationand
methodsforwritingeffectivepoetryanddramaknownastheprinciplesofdramatic
construction(Richter39).Aristotlebelievedthatelementslike"...language,rhythm,and
harmony..."aswellas"...plot,character,thought,diction,song,andspectacle..."influence
theaudience'skatharsis(pityandfear)orsatisfactionwiththework(Richter39).Andso
hereweseeoneoftheearliestattemptstoexplainwhatmakesaneffectiveorineffective
workofliterature.

LikePlato,Aristotle'sviewsonartheavilyinfluenceWesternthought.Thedebate
betweenPlatonistsandAristotelianscontinued"...intheNeoplatonistsofthesecond
centuryAD,theCambridgePlatonistsofthelatterseventeenthcentury,andtheidealists
oftheromanticmovement"(Richter17).Eventoday,thedebatecontinues,andthisdebate
isnomoreevidentthaninsomeofthediscussionsbetweenadherentstotheschoolsof
criticismcontainedinthisresource.

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschools
ofcriticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

Formalism(1930spresent)
FormFollowsFunction:RussianFormalism,NewCriticism,NeoAristotelianism

Formalistsdisagreedaboutwhatspecificelementsmakealiterarywork"good"or"bad"
butgenerally,Formalismmaintainsthataliteraryworkcontainscertainintrinsicfeatures,
andthetheory"...definedandaddressedthespecificallyliteraryqualitiesinthetext"
(Richter699).Therefore,it'seasytoseeFormalism'srelationtoAristotle'stheoriesof
dramaticconstruction.

Formalismattemptstotreateachworkasitsowndistinctpiece,freefromitsenvironment,
era,andevenauthor.Thispointofviewdevelopedinreactionto"...formsof'extrinsic'
criticismthatviewedthetextaseithertheproductofsocialandhistoricalforcesora
documentmakinganethicalstatement"(699).Formalistsassumethatthekeysto
understandingatextexistwithin"thetextitself,"(..."thebattlecryoftheNewCritical
effort..."andthusfocusagreatdealon,youguessedit,form(Tyson118).
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Forthemostpart,Formalismisnolongerusedintheacademy.However,NewCritical
theoriesarestillusedinsecondaryandcollegelevelinstructioninliteratureandeven
writing(Tyson115).

Typicalquestions:

Howdoestheworkuseimagerytodevelopitsownsymbols?(i.e.makingacertain
roadstandfordeathbyconstantassociation)
Whatisthequalityofthework'sorganicunity"...theworkingtogetherofallthe
partstomakeaninseparablewhole..."(Tyson121)?Inotherwords,doeshowthe
workisputtogetherreflectwhatitis?
Howarethevariouspartsoftheworkinterconnected?
Howdoparadox,irony,ambiguity,andtensionworkinthetext?
Howdothesepartsandtheircollectivewholecontributetoornotcontributetothe
aestheticqualityofthework?
Howdoestheauthorresolveapparentcontradictionswithinthework?
Whatdoestheformoftheworksayaboutitscontent?
Isthereacentralorfocalpassagethatcanbesaidtosumuptheentiretyofthe
work?
Howdotherhythmsand/orrhymeschemesofapoemcontributetothemeaningor
effectofthepiece?

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

RussianFormalism

VictorShklovsky
RomanJakobson
VictorErlichRussianFormalism:HistoryDoctrine,1955
YuriTynyanov

NewCriticism

JohnCroweRansomTheNewCriticism,1938
I.A.Richards
WilliamEmpson
T.S.Eliot
AllenTate
CleanthBrooks

NeoAristotelianism(ChicagoSchoolofCriticism)

R.S.CraneCriticsandCriticism:AncientandModern,1952
ElderOlson
NormanMaclean
W.R.Keast
WayneC.BoothTheRhetoricofFiction,1961

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins.
Summary:

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Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschools
ofcriticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

PsychoanalyticCriticism(1930spresent)
SigmundFreud

PsychoanalyticcriticismbuildsonFreudiantheoriesofpsychology.Whilewedon'thave
theroomheretodiscussallofFreud'swork,ageneraloverviewisnecessarytoexplain
psychoanalyticliterarycriticism.

TheUnconscious,theDesires,andtheDefenses

Freudbeganhispsychoanalyticworkinthe1880swhileattemptingtotreatbehavioral
disordersinhisViennesepatients.Hedubbedthedisorders'hysteria'andbegantreating
thembylisteningtohispatientstalkthroughtheirproblems.Basedonthiswork,Freud
assertedthatpeople'sbehaviorisaffectedbytheirunconscious:"...thenotionthathuman
beingsaremotivated,evendriven,bydesires,fears,needs,andconflictsofwhichtheyare
unaware..."(Tyson1415).

Freudbelievedthatourunconsciouswasinfluencedbychildhoodevents.Freudorganized
theseeventsintodevelopmentalstagesinvolvingrelationshipswithparentsanddrivesof
desireandpleasurewherechildrenfocus"...ondifferentpartsofthebody...startingwith
themouth...shiftingtotheoral,anal,andphallicphases..."(Richter1015).Thesestages
reflectbaselevelsofdesire,buttheyalsoinvolvefearofloss(lossofgenitals,lossof
affectionfromparents,lossoflife)andrepression:"...theexpungingfromconsciousness
oftheseunhappypsychologicalevents"(Tyson15).

Tysonremindsus,however,that"...repressiondoesn'teliminateourpainfulexperiences
andemotions...weunconsciouslybehaveinwaysthatwillallowusto'playout'...our
conflictedfeelingsaboutthepainfulexperiencesandemotionswerepress"(15).Tokeep
allofthisconflictburiedinourunconscious,Freudarguedthatwedevelopdefenses:
selectiveperception,selectivememory,denial,displacement,projection,regression,fear
ofintimacy,andfearofdeath,amongothers.

Id,Ego,andSuperego

Freudmaintainedthatourdesiresandourunconsciousconflictsgiverisetothreeareasof
themindthatwrestlefordominanceaswegrowfrominfancy,tochildhood,toadulthood:

id"...thelocationofthedrives"orlibido
ego"...oneofthemajordefensesagainstthepowerofthedrives..."andhomeof
thedefenseslistedabove
superegotheareaoftheunconsciousthathousesJudgment(ofselfandothers)and
"...whichbeginstoformduringchildhoodasaresultoftheOedipuscomplex"
(Richter10151016)

OedipusComplex

FreudbelievedthattheOedipuscomplexwas"...oneofthemostpowerfullydeterminative
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elementsinthegrowthofthechild"(Richter1016).Essentially,theOedipuscomplex
involveschildren'sneedfortheirparentsandtheconflictthatarisesaschildrenmature
andrealizetheyarenottheabsolutefocusoftheirmother'sattention:"theOedipus
complexbeginsinalatephaseofinfantilesexuality,betweenthechild'sthirdandsixth
year,andittakesadifferentforminmalesthanitdoesinfemales"(Richter1016).

Freudarguedthatbothboysandgirlswishtopossesstheirmothers,butastheygrow
older"...theybegintosensethattheirclaimtoexclusiveattentionisthwartedbythe
mother'sattentiontothefather..."(1016).Children,Freudmaintained,connectthis
conflictofattentiontotheintimaterelationsbetweenmotherandfather,relationsfrom
whichthechildrenareexcluded.Freudbelievedthat"theresultisamurderousrage
againstthefather...andadesiretopossessthemother"(1016).

Freudpointedout,however,that"...theOedipuscomplexdiffersinboysandgirls...the
functioningoftherelatedcastrationcomplex"(1016).Inshort,Freudthoughtthat
"...duringtheOedipalrivalry[betweenboysandtheirfathers],boysfantasizedthat
punishmentfortheirragewilltaketheformof..."castration(1016).Whenboys
effectivelyworkthroughthisanxiety,Freudargued,"...theboylearnstoidentifywiththe
fatherinthehopeofsomedaypossessingawomanlikehismother.Ingirls,thecastration
complexdoesnottaketheformofanxiety...theresultisafrustratedrageinwhichthegirl
shiftshersexualdesirefromthemothertothefather"(1016).

Freudbelievedthateventually,thegirl'sspurnedadvancedtowardthefathergivewaytoa
desiretopossessamanlikeherfatherlaterinlife.Freudbelievedthattheimpactofthe
unconscious,id,ego,superego,thedefenses,andtheOedipuscomplexeswasinescapable
andthattheseelementsofthemindinfluenceallourbehavior(andevenourdreams)as
adultsofcoursethisbehaviorinvolveswhatwewrite.

FreudandLiterature

Sowhatdoesallofthispsychologicalbusinesshavetodowithliteratureandthestudyof
literature?Putsimply,somecriticsbelievethatwecan"...readpsychoanalytically...tosee
whichconceptsareoperatinginthetextinsuchawayastoenrichourunderstandingof
theworkand,ifweplantowriteapaperaboutit,toyieldameaningful,coherent
psychoanalyticinterpretation"(Tyson29).Tysonprovidessomeinsightfulandapplicable
questionstohelpguideourunderstandingofpsychoanalyticcriticism.

Typicalquestions:

Howdotheoperationsofrepressionstructureorinformthework?
Arethereanyoedipaldynamicsoranyotherfamilydynamicsareworkhere?
Howcancharacters'behavior,narrativeevents,and/orimagesbeexplainedinterms
ofpsychoanalyticconceptsofanykind(forexample...fearorfascinationwithdeath,
sexualitywhichincludesloveandromanceaswellassexualbehaviorasa
primaryindicatorofpsychologicalidentityortheoperationsofegoidsuperego)?
Whatdoestheworksuggestaboutthepsychologicalbeingofitsauthor?
Whatmightagiveninterpretationofaliteraryworksuggestaboutthepsychological
motivesofthereader?
Arethereprominentwordsinthepiecethatcouldhavedifferentorhidden
meanings?Couldtherebeasubconsciousreasonfortheauthorusingthese
"problemwords"?

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Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

HaroldBloomATheoryofPoetry,1973PoetryandRepression:Revisionism
fromBlaketoStevens,1976
PeterBrooks
JacqueLacanTheEgoinFreud'sTheoryandintheTechniqueofPsychoanalysis,
1988"TheAgencyoftheLetterintheUnconsciousorReasonSinceFreud"(from
crits:ASelection,1957)
JaneGallopReadingLacan,1985
JuliaKristevaRevolutioninPoeticLanguage,1984
MarshallAlcornChangingtheSubjectinEnglishClass:Discourseandthe
ConstructionsofDesire,2002

CarlJung

JungiancriticismattemptstoexploretheconnectionbetweenliteratureandwhatCarl
Jung(astudentofFreud)calledthecollectiveunconsciousofthehumanrace:"...racial
memory,throughwhichthespiritofthewholehumanspeciesmanifestsitself"(Richter
504).Jungiancriticism,closelyrelatedtoFreudiantheorybecauseofitsconnectionto
psychoanalysis,assumesthatallstoriesandsymbolsarebasedonmythicmodelsfrom
mankindspast.

Basedonthesecommonalities,Jungdevelopedarchetypalmyths,theSyzygy:"...a
quaternioncomposingawhole,theunifiedselfofwhichpeopleareinsearch"(Richter
505).ThesearchetypesaretheShadow,theAnima,theAnimus,andtheSpirit:
"...beneath...[theShadow]istheAnima,thefemininesideofthemaleSelf,andthe
Animus,thecorrespondingmasculinesideofthefemaleSelf"(Richter505).

Inliteraryanalysis,aJungiancriticwouldlookforarchetypes(alsoseethediscussionof
NorthropFryeintheStructuralismsection)increativeworks:"Jungiancriticismis
generallyinvolvedwithasearchfortheembodimentofthesesymbolswithinparticular
worksofart."(Richter505).Whendealingwiththissortofcriticism,itisoftenusefulto
keepahandbookofmythologyandadictionaryofsymbolsonhand.

Typicalquestions:

Whatconnectionscanwemakebetweenelementsofthetextandthearchetypes?
(Mask,Shadow,Anima,Animus)
Howdothecharactersinthetextmirrorthearchetypalfigures?(GreatMotheror
nurturingMother,Whore,destroyingCrone,Lover,DestroyingAngel)
Howdoesthetextmirrorthearchetypalnarrativepatterns?(Quest,NightSea
Journey)
Howsymbolicistheimageryinthework?
Howdoestheprotagonistreflecttheheroofmyth?
Doestheheroembarkonajourneyineitheraphysicalorspiritualsense?
Isthereajourneytoanunderworldorlandofthedead?
Whattrialsorordealsdoestheprotagonistface?Whatistherewardforovercoming
them?

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
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theory:

MaudBodkinArchetypalPatternsinPoetry,1934
CarlJungTheArchetypesandtheCollectiveUnconscious.Vol.9,Part1of
CollectedWorks.2nded.Trans.R.F.C.Hull,1968
BettinaKnappMusic,ArchetypeandtheWriter:AJungianView,1988
RicahrdSuggJungianLiteraryCriticism,1993

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschools
ofcriticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

MarxistCriticism(1930spresent)
WhomDoesitBenefit?

BasedonthetheoriesofKarlMarx(andsoinfluencedbyphilosopherGeorgWilhelm
FriedrichHegel),thisschoolconcernsitselfwithclassdifferences,economicand
otherwise,aswellastheimplicationsandcomplicationsofthecapitalistsystem:
"Marxismattemptstorevealthewaysinwhichoursocioeconomicsystemistheultimate
sourceofourexperience"(Tyson277).

TheoristsworkingintheMarxisttradition,therefore,areinterestedinansweringthe
overarchingquestion,whomdoesit[thework,theeffort,thepolicy,theroad,etc.]
benefit?Theelite?Themiddleclass?AndMarxistscriticsarealsointerestedinhowthe
lowerorworkingclassesareoppressedineverydaylifeandinliterature.

TheMaterialDialectic

TheMarxistschoolfollowsaprocessofthinkingcalledthematerialdialectic.Thisbelief
systemmaintainsthat"...whatdriveshistoricalchangearethematerialrealitiesofthe
economicbaseofsociety,ratherthantheideologicalsuperstructureofpolitics,law,
philosophy,religion,andartthatisbuiltuponthateconomicbase"(Richter1088).

Marxassertsthat"...stablesocietiesdevelopsitesofresistance:contradictionsbuildinto
thesocialsystemthatultimatelyleadtosocialrevolutionandthedevelopmentofanew
societyupontheold"(1088).Thiscycleofcontradiction,tension,andrevolutionmust
continue:therewillalwaysbeconflictbetweentheupper,middle,andlower(working)
classesandthisconflictwillbereflectedinliteratureandotherformsofexpressionart,
music,movies,etc.

TheRevolution

Thecontinuingconflictbetweentheclasseswillleadtoupheavalandrevolutionby
oppressedpeoplesandformthegroundworkforaneworderofsocietyandeconomics
wherecapitalismisabolished.AccordingtoMarx,therevolutionwillbeledbythe
workingclass(othersthinkpeasantswillleadtheuprising)undertheguidanceof
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intellectuals.Oncetheeliteandmiddleclassareoverthrown,theintellectualswill
composeanequalsocietywhereeveryoneownseverything(socialismnottobeconfused
withSovietorMaoistCommunism).

Thoughastaggeringnumberofdifferentnuancesexistwithinthisschoolofliterary
theory,Marxistcriticsgenerallyworkinareascoveredbythefollowingquestions.

Typicalquestions:

Whomdoesitbenefitiftheworkoreffortisaccepted/successful/believed,etc.?
Whatisthesocialclassoftheauthor?
Whichclassdoestheworkclaimtorepresent?
Whatvaluesdoesitreinforce?
Whatvaluesdoesitsubvert?
Whatconflictcanbeseenbetweenthevaluestheworkchampionsandthoseit
portrays?
Whatsocialclassesdothecharactersrepresent?
Howdocharactersfromdifferentclassesinteractorconflict?

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

KarlMarx(withFriedrichEngels)TheCommunistManifesto,1848DasKapital,
1867"ConsciousnessDerivedfromMaterialConditions"fromTheGerman
Ideology,1932"OnGreekArtinItsTime"fromAContributiontotheCritiqueof
PoliticalEconomy,1859
LeonTrotsky"LiteratureandRevolution,"1923
GeorgLukcs"TheIdeologyofModernism,"1956
WalterBenjamin"TheWorkofArtintheAgeofMechanicalReproduction,"
1936
TheodorW.Adorno
LouisAlthusserReadingCapital,1965
TerryEagletonMarxismandLiteraryCriticism,CriticismandIdeology,1976
FredericJamesonMarxismandForm,ThePoliticalUnconscious,1971
JrgenHabermasThePhilosophicalDiscourseofModernity,1990

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschools
ofcriticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

ReaderResponseCriticism(1960s
present)
WhatDoYouThink?

Atitsmostbasiclevel,readerresponsecriticismconsidersreaders'reactionstoliterature
asvitaltointerpretingthemeaningofthetext.However,readerresponsecriticismcan
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takeanumberofdifferentapproaches.Acriticdeployingreaderresponsetheorycanusea
psychoanalyticlens,afeministslens,orevenastructuralistlens.Whatthesedifferent
lenseshaveincommonwhenusingareaderresponseapproachistheymaintain"...that
whatatextiscannotbeseparatedfromwhatitdoes"(Tyson154).

Tysonexplainsthat"...readerresponsetheoristssharetwobeliefs:1)thattheroleofthe
readercannotbeomittedfromourunderstandingofliteratureand2)thatreadersdonot
passivelyconsumethemeaningpresentedtothembyanobjectiveliterarytextratherthey
activelymakethemeaningtheyfindinliterature"(154).Inthisway,readerresponse
theorysharescommongroundwithsomeofthedeconstructionistsdiscussedinthePost
structuralareawhentheytalkabout"thedeathoftheauthor,"orherdisplacementasthe
(author)itarianfigureinthetext.

Typicalquestions:

Howdoestheinteractionoftextandreadercreatemeaning?
Whatdoesaphrasebyphraseanalysisofashortliterarytext,orakeyportionofa
longertext,tellusaboutthereadingexperienceprestructuredby(builtinto)that
text?
Dothesounds/shapesofthewordsastheyappearonthepageorhowtheyare
spokenbythereaderenhanceorchangethemeaningoftheword/work?
Howmightweinterpretaliterarytexttoshowthatthereader'sresponseis,oris
analogousto,thetopicofthestory?
Whatdoesthebodyofcriticismpublishedaboutaliterarytextsuggestaboutthe
criticswhointerpretedthattextand/oraboutthereadingexperienceproducedby
thattext?(Tyson191)

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

PeterRabinowitzBeforeReading,1987
StanleyFishIsThereaTextinThisClass?TheAuthorityofInterpretive
Communities,1980
ElizabethFreundTheReturnoftheReader:ReaderResponseCriticism,1987
DavidBleich
NormanHollandTheDynamicsofLiteraryResponse,1968
LouiseRosenblatt
WolfgangIserTheImpliedReader:PatternsofCommunicationinProseFiction
fromBunyantoBeckett,1974
HansRoberJauss

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschools
ofcriticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

StructuralismandSemiotics(1920s
present)
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Note:Structuralism,semiotics,andpoststructuralismaresomeofthemostcomplex
literarytheoriestounderstand.Pleasebepatient.

LinguisticRoots

Thestructuralistschoolemergesfromtheoriesoflanguageandlinguistics,anditlooksfor
underlyingelementsincultureandliteraturethatcanbeconnectedsothatcriticscan
developgeneralconclusionsabouttheindividualworksandthesystemsfromwhichthey
emerge.Infact,structuralismmaintainsthat"...practicallyeverythingwedothatis
specificallyhumanisexpressedinlanguage"(Richter809).Structuralistsbelievethat
theselanguagesymbolsextendfarbeyondwrittenororalcommunication.

Forexample,codesthatrepresentallsortsofthingspermeateeverythingwedo:"the
performanceofmusicrequirescomplexnotation...oureconomicliferestsuponthe
exchangeoflaborandgoodsforsymbols,suchascash,checks,stock,and
certificates...sociallifedependsonthemeaningfulgesturesandsignalsof'bodylanguage'
andrevolvesaroundtheexchangeofsmall,symbolicfavors:drinks,parties,dinners"
(Richter809).

PatternsandExperience

Structuralistsassertthat,sincelanguageexistsinpatterns,certainunderlyingelementsare
commontoallhumanexperiences.Structuralistsbelievewecanobservethese
experiencesthroughpatterns:"...ifyouexaminethephysicalstructuresofallbuildings
builtinurbanAmericain1850todiscovertheunderlyingprinciplesthatgoverntheir
composition,forexample,principlesofmechanicalconstructionorofartisticform..."you
areusingastructuralistlens(Tyson197).

Moreover,"youarealsoengagedinstructuralistactivityifyouexaminethestructureofa
singlebuildingtodiscoverhowitscompositiondemonstratesunderlyingprinciplesofa
structuralsystem.Inthefirstexample...you'regeneratingastructuralsystemof
classificationinthesecond,you'redemonstratingthatanindividualitembelongstoa
particularstructuralclass"(Tyson197).

StructuralisminLiteraryTheory

Structuralismisusedinliterarytheory,forexample,"...ifyouexaminethestructureofa
largenumberofshortstoriestodiscovertheunderlyingprinciplesthatgoverntheir
composition...principlesofnarrativeprogression...orofcharacterization...youarealso
engagedinstructuralistactivityifyoudescribethestructureofasingleliteraryworkto
discoverhowitscompositiondemonstratestheunderlyingprinciplesofagivenstructural
system"(Tyson197198).

NorthropFrye,however,takesadifferentapproachtostructuralismbyexploringwaysin
whichgenresofWesternliteraturefallintohisfourmythoi(alsoseeJungiancriticismin
theFreudianLiteraryCriticismresource):

1. theoryofmodes,orhistoricalcriticism(tragic,comic,andthematic)
2. theoryofsymbols,orethicalcriticism(literal/descriptive,formal,mythical,and
anagogic)
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3. theoryofmyths,orarchetypalcriticism(comedy,romance,tragedy,irony/satire)
4. theoryofgenres,orrhetoricalcriticism(epos,prose,drama,lyric)(Tyson240).

PeirceandSaussure

Twoimportanttheoristsformtheframework(hah)ofstructuralism:CharlesSanders
PeirceandFerdinanddeSaussure.Peircegavestructuralismthreeimportantideasfor
analyzingthesignsystemsthatpermeateanddefineourexperiences:

1. "iconicsigns,inwhichthesignifierresemblesthethingsignified(suchasthestick
figuresonwashroomdoorsthatsignify'Men'or'Women'
2. indexes,inwhichthesignifierisareliableindicatorofthepresenceofthesignified
(likefireandsmoke)
3. truesymbols,inwhichthesignifier'srelationtothethingsignifiediscompletely
arbitraryandconventional[justasthesound/kat/orthewrittenwordcatare
conventionalsignsforthefamiliarfeline]"(Richter810).

Theseelementsbecomeveryimportantwhenwemoveintodeconstructioninthe
Postmodernismresource.Peircealsoinfluencedthesemioticschoolofstructuralisttheory
thatusessignsystems.

SignSystems

Thedisciplineofsemioticsplaysanimportantroleinstructuralistliterarytheoryand
culturalstudies.Semioticians"...appl[y]structuralistinsightstothestudyof...sign
systems...anonlinguisticobjectorbehavior...thatcanbeanalyzedasifitwerea
language"(Tyson205).Specifically,"...semioticsexaminesthewaysnonlinguistic
objectsandbehaviors'tell'ussomething.

Forexample,thepictureoftherecliningblondbeautyintheskintight,blackvelvetdress
onthebillboard...'tells'usthatthosewhodrinkthiswhiskey(presumablymale)willbe
attractiveto...beautifulwomenliketheonedisplayedhere"(Tyson205).Lastly,Richter
states,"semioticstakesofffromPeirceforwhomlanguageisoneofnumeroussign
systemsandstructuralismtakesofffromSaussure,forwhomlanguagewasthesign
systemparexcellence"(810).

Typicalquestions:

Usingaspecificstructuralistframework(likeFrye'smythoi)...howshouldthetext
beclassifiedintermsofitsgenre?Inotherwords,whatpatternsexistwithinthetext
thatmakeitapartofotherworkslikeit?
Usingaspecificstructuralistframework...analyzethetext'snarrative
operations...canyouspeculateabouttherelationshipbetweenthe...[text]...andthe
culturefromwhichthetextemerged?Inotherwords,whatpatternsexistwithinthe
textthatmakeitaproductofalargerculture?
Whatpatternsexistwithinthetextthatconnectittothelarger"human"experience?
Inotherwords,canweconnectpatternsandelementswithinthetexttoothertexts
fromotherculturestomapsimilaritiesthattellusmoreaboutthecommonhuman
experience?Thisisaliberalhumanistmovethatassumesthatsinceweareall
human,weallsharebasichumancommonalities
Whatrulesorcodesofinterpretationmustbeinternalizedinorderto'makesense'of
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thetext?
Whatarethesemioticsofagivencategoryofculturalphenomena,or'text,'suchas
highschoolfootballgames,televisionand/ormagazineadsforaparticularbrandof
perfume...orevenmediacoverageofanhistoricalevent?(Tyson225)

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

CharlesSandersPeirce
FerdinanddeSaussureCourseinGeneralLinguistics,1923
ClaudeLviStraussTheElementaryStructureofKinship,1949"TheStructural
StudyofMyth,"1955
NorthropFryeAnatomyofCriticism:FourEssays,1957
NoamChomskySyntacticStructures,1957AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax,1965
RolandBarthesCriticalEssays,1964Mythologies,1957S/Z,1970Image,
Music,Text,1977
UmbertoEcoTheRoleoftheReader,1979

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschools
ofcriticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

PostStructuralism,Deconstruction,
Postmodernism(1966present)
Note:Structuralism,semiotics,andpoststructuralismaresomeofthemostcomplex
literarytheoriestounderstand.Pleasebepatient.

TheCenterCannotHold

Thisapproachconcernsitselfwiththewaysandplaceswheresystems,frameworks,
definitions,andcertaintiesbreakdown.Poststructuralismmaintainsthatframeworksand
systems,forexamplethestructuralistsystemsexplainedintheStructuralistarea,are
merelyfictitiousconstructsandthattheycannotbetrustedtodevelopmeaningortogive
order.Infact,theveryactofseekingorderorasingularTruth(withacapitalT)isabsurd
becausethereexistsnounifiedtruth.

Poststructuralismholdsthattherearemanytruths,thatframeworksmustbleed,andthat
structuresmustbecomeunstableordecentered.Moreover,poststructuralismisalso
concernedwiththepowerstructuresorhegemoniesandpowerandhowtheseelements
contributetoand/ormaintainstructurestoenforcehierarchy.Therefore,poststructural
theorycarriesimplicationsfarbeyondliterarycriticism.

WhatDoesYourMeaningMean?

Byquestioningtheprocessofdevelopingmeaning,poststructuraltheorystrikesatthe
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veryheartofphilosophyandrealityandthrowsknowledgemakingintowhatJacques
Derridacalled"freeplay":"Theconceptofcenteredstructure...iscontradictorily
coherent...theconceptofcenteredstructureisinfacttheconceptofafreeplaywhichis
constituteduponafundamentalimmobilityandareassuringcertitude,whichisitself
beyondthereachofthefreeplay"(qtd.inRichter,878879).

Derridafirstpositedtheseideasin1966atJohnsHopkinsUniversity,whenhedelivered
Structure,Sign,andPlayintheDiscourseoftheHumanSciences:"Perhapssomething
hasoccurredinthehistoryoftheconceptofstructurethatcouldbecalledan'event,'ifthis
loadedworddidnotentailameaningwhichitispreciselythefunctionofstructuralor
structuralistthoughttoreduceortosuspect.Butletmeusethetermeventanyway,
employingitwithcautionandasifinquotationmarks.Inthissense,thiseventwillhave
theexteriorformofaruptureandaredoubling(qtd.inRichter,878).Inhispresentation,
Derridachallengedstructuralism'smostbasicideas.

CanLanguageDoThat?

PoststructuraltheorycanbetiedtoamoveagainstModernist/Enlightenmentideas
(philosophers:ImmanuelKant,RneDescartes,JohnLocke,etc.)andWesternreligious
beliefs(neoPlatonism,Catholicism,etc.).Anearlypioneerofthisresistancewas
philosopherFriedrichNietzsche.Inhisessay,OnTruthandLiesinanExtramoral
Sense(1873),Nietzscherejectseventheverybasisofourknowledgemaking,language,
asareliablesystemofcommunication:Thevariouslanguages,juxtaposed,showthat
wordsareneverconcernedwithtruth,neverwithadequateexpression...(248).

Belowisanexample,adaptedfromtheTysontext,ofsomelanguagefreeplayanda
simpleformofdeconstruction:

Time(noun)flies(verb)likeanarrow(adverbclause)=Timepassesquickly.

Time(verb)flies(object)likeanarrow(adverbclause)=Getoutyourstopwatchandtime
thespeedoffliesasyouwouldtimeanarrow'sflight.

Timeflies(noun)like(verb)anarrow(object)=Timefliesarefondofarrows(oratleast
ofoneparticulararrow).

So,poststructuralistsassertthatifwecannottrustlanguagesystemstoconveytruth,the
verybasesoftruthareunreliableandtheuniverseoratleasttheuniversewehave
constructedbecomesunraveledordecentered.Nietzscheuseslanguageslipasabaseto
moveintotheslipandshiftoftruthasawhole:Whatistruth?truthsareanillusion
aboutwhichithasbeenforgottenthattheyareillusions...(OnTruthandLies250).

ThisreturnsustothediscussionintheStructuralistarearegardingsigns,signifiers,and
signified.Essentially,poststructuralismholdsthatwecannottrustthesign=signifier+
signifiedformula,thatthereisabreakdownofcertaintybetweensign/signifier,which
leaveslanguagesystemshopelesslyinadequateforrelayingmeaningsothatweare
(returningtoDerrida)ineternalfreeplayorinstability.

What'sLeft?

Importanttonote,however,isthatdeconstructionisnotjustabouttearingdownthisisa
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commonmisconception.Derrida,in"SignatureEventContext,"addressedthislimited
viewofpoststructuraltheory:"Deconstructioncannotlimitorproceedimmediatelytoa
neutralization:itmustpracticeanoverturningoftheclassicaloppositionandageneral
displacementofthesystem.Itisonlyonthisconditionthatdeconstructionwillprovide
itselfthemeanswithwhichtointerveneinthefieldofoppositionsthatitcriticizes,which
isalsoafieldofnondiscursiveforces"(328).

Derridaremindsusthatthroughdeconstructionwecanidentifytheinbetweensandthe
marginalizedtobegininterstitialknowledgebuilding.

ModernismvsPostmodernism

Withtheresistancetotraditionalformsofknowledgemaking(science,religion,
language),inquiry,communication,andbuildingmeaningtakeondifferentformstothe
poststructuralist.WecanlookatthisdifferenceasasplitbetweenModernismand
Postmodernism.Thetablebelow,excerptedfromtheoristIhabHassan'sThe
DismembermentofOrpheus(1998),offersusawaytomakesenseofsomedifferences
betweenmodernism,dominatedbyEnlightenmentideas,andpostmodernism,aspaceof
freeplayanddiscourse.

Keepinmindthateventheauthor,Hassan,"...isquicktopointouthowthedichotomies
arethemselvesinsecure,equivocal"(Harvey42).Thoughpoststructuralismis
uncomfortablewithbinaries,Hassanprovidesuswithsomeinterestingcontraststo
consider:

ModernismvsPostmodernism
Modernism Postmodernism
romanticism/symbolism paraphysics/Dadaism
form(conjunctive,closed) antiform(disjunctive,open)
purpose play
design chance
hierarchy anarchy
mastery/logos exhaustion/silence
artobject/finishedwork/logos process/performance/antithesis
centering absence
genre/boundary text/intertext
semantics rhetoric
metaphor metonymy
root/depth rhizome/surface
signified signifier
narrative/grandehistoire antinarrative/petitehistoire
genital/phallic polymorphous/androgynous
paranoia schizophrenia
origin/cause differencedifference/trace
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GodtheFather TheHolyGhost
determinacy interdeterminacy
transcendence immanence

PostStructuralismandLiterature

Ifwearequestioning/resistingthemethodsweusetobuildknowledge(science,religion,
language),thentraditionalliterarynotionsarealsothrownintofreeplay.Theseincludethe
narrativeandtheauthor:

Narrative

Thenarrativeisafictionthatlocksreadersintointerpretingtextinasingle,chronological
mannerthatdoesnotreflectourexperiences.Postmoderntextsmaynotadhereto
traditionalnotionsofnarrative.Forexample,inhisseminalwork,NakedLunch,William
S.Burroughsexplodesthetraditionalnarrativestructureandcritiquesalmosteverything
Modern:moderngovernment,modernmedicine,modernlawenforcement.Other
examplesofauthorsplayingwithnarrativeincludeJohnFowlesinthefinalsectionsof
TheFrenchLieutenant'sWoman,Fowlesstepsoutsidehisnarrativetospeakwiththe
readerdirectly.

Moreover,grandnarrativesareresisted.Forexample,thebeliefthatthroughsciencethe
humanracewillimproveisquestioned.Inaddition,metaphysicsisquestioned.Instead,
postmodernknowledgebuildingislocal,situated,slippery,andselfcritical(i.e.it
questionsitselfanditsrole).Becausepoststructuralworkisselfcritical,poststructural
criticsevenlookforwaystextscontradictthemselves(seetypicalquestionsbelow).

Author

Theauthorisdisplacedasabsoluteauthor(ity),andthereaderplaysaroleininterpreting
thetextanddevelopingmeaning(asbestaspossible)fromthetext.InTheDeathofthe
Author,RolandBarthesarguesthattheideaofsingularauthorshipisarecent
phenomenon.BarthesexplainsthatthedeathoftheauthorshattersModernistnotionsof
authorityandknowledgebuilding(145).

Lastly,hestatesthatoncetheauthorisdeadandtheModernistideaofsingularnarrative
(andthusauthority)isoverturned,textsbecomeplural,andtheinterpretationoftexts
becomesacollaborativeprocessbetweenauthorandaudience:...atextismadeof
multiplewritings,drawnfrommanyculturesandenteringintomutualrelationsof
dialogue...butthereisoneplacewherethismultiplicityisfocusedandthatplaceisthe
reader(148).Barthesendshisessaybyempoweringthereader:Classicalcriticismhas
neverpaidanyattentiontothereader...thewriteristheonlypersoninliteratureitis
necessarytooverthrowthemyth:thebirthofthereadermustbeatthecostofthedeathof
theAuthor(148).

Typicalquestions:

Howislanguagethrownintofreeplayorquestionedinthework?Forexample,note
howAnthonyBurgessplayswithlanguage(RussianvsEnglish)inAClockwork
Orange,orhowBurroughsplayswithnamesandlanguageinNakedLunch.
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Howdoestheworkundermineorcontradictgenerallyacceptedtruths?
Howdoestheauthor(oracharacter)omit,change,orreconstructmemoryand
identity?
Howdoesaworkfulfillormoveoutsidetheestablishedconventionsofitsgenre?
Howdoestheworkdealwiththeseparation(orlackthereof)betweenwriter,work,
andreader?
Whatideologydoesthetextseemtopromote?
Whatisleftoutofthetextthatifincludedmightunderminethegoalofthework?
Ifwechangedthepointofviewofthetextsayfromonecharactertoanother,or
multiplecharactershowwouldthestorychange?Whosestoryisnottoldinthe
text?Whoisleftoutandwhymighttheauthorhaveomittedthischaracter'stale?

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

Theorists

ImmanuelKant"AnAnswertotheQuestion:WhatisEnlightenment?",1784(asa
baselinetounderstandwhatNietzschewasresisting)
FriedrichNietzscheOnTruthandLiesinanExtramoralSense,"1873TheGay
Science,1882ThusSpokeZarathustra,ABookforAllandNone,1885
JacquesDerrida"StructureSignandPlayintheDiscourseofHumanSciences,"
1966OfGrammatology,1967"SignatureEvenContext,"1972
RolandBarthes"TheDeathoftheAuthor,"1967
DeleuzeandGuattari"Rhizome,"1976
JeanFranoisLyotardThePostmodernCondition,1979
MicheleFoucaultTheFoucaultReader,1984
StephenToulminCosmopolis,1990
MartinHeideggerBasicWritings,1993
PaulCilliersComplexityandPostmodernity,1998
IhabHassanTheDismembermentofOrpheus,1998FromPostmodernismto
Postmodernity:TheLocal/GlobalContext,2001

PostmodernLiterature

WilliamS.BurroughsNakedLunch,1959
AngelaCarterBurningYourBoats,storiesfrom19621993(firstpublishedasa
collectionin1995)
KathyAckerBloodandGutsinHighSchool,1978
PaulAusterCityofGlass(volumeoneoftheNewYorkCityTrilogy),1985(asa
graphicnovelpublishedbyNeonLit,adivisionofAvonBooks,1994)
LynneTillmanHauntedHouses,1987
DavidWojnarowiczTheWaterfrontJournals,1996

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschools
ofcriticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/owlprint/722/ 17/25
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NewHistoricism,CulturalStudies(1980s
present)
It'sAllRelative...

Thisschool,influencedbystructuralistandpoststructuralisttheories,seekstoreconnecta
workwiththetimeperiodinwhichitwasproducedandidentifyitwiththeculturaland
politicalmovementsofthetime(MichelFoucault'sconceptofpistme).New
Historicismassumesthateveryworkisaproductofthehistoricmomentthatcreatedit.
Specifically,NewHistoricismis"...apracticethathasdevelopedoutofcontemporary
theory,particularlythestructuralistrealizationthatallhumansystemsaresymbolicand
subjecttotherulesoflanguage,andthedeconstructiverealizationthatthereisnowayof
positioningoneselfasanobserveroutsidetheclosedcircleoftextuality"(Richter1205).

AhelpfulwayofconsideringNewHistoricaltheory,Tysonexplains,istothinkaboutthe
retellingofhistoryitself:"...questionsaskedbytraditionalhistoriansandbynew
historicistsarequitedifferent...traditionalhistoriansask,'Whathappened?'and'Whatdoes
theeventtellusabouthistory?'Incontrast,newhistoricistsask,'Howhastheeventbeen
interpreted?'and'Whatdotheinterpretationstellusabouttheinterpreters?'"(278).So
NewHistoricismresiststhenotionthat"...historyisaseriesofeventsthathavealinear,
causalrelationship:eventAcausedeventBeventBcausedeventCandsoon"(Tyson
278).

Newhistoricistsdonotbelievethatwecanlookathistoryobjectively,butratherthatwe
interpreteventsasproductsofourtimeandcultureandthat"...wedon'thaveclearaccess
toanybutthemostbasicfactsofhistory...ourunderstandingofwhatsuchfacts
mean...is...strictlyamatterofinterpretation,notfact"(279).Moreover,NewHistoricism
holdsthatwearehopelesslysubjectiveinterpretersofwhatweobserve.

Typicalquestions:

Whatlanguage/characters/eventspresentintheworkreflectthecurrenteventsof
theauthorsday?
Aretherewordsinthetextthathavechangedtheirmeaningfromthetimeofthe
writing?
Howaresucheventsinterpretedandpresented?
Howareevents'interpretationandpresentationaproductofthecultureofthe
author?
Doesthework'spresentationsupportorcondemntheevent?
Canitbeseentodoboth?
Howdoesthisportrayalcriticizetheleadingpoliticalfiguresormovementsofthe
day?
Howdoestheliterarytextfunctionaspartofacontinuumwithother
historical/culturaltextsfromthesameperiod...?
Howcanweusealiteraryworkto"map"theinterplayofbothtraditionaland
subversivediscoursescirculatinginthecultureinwhichthatworkemergedand/or
theculturesinwhichtheworkhasbeeninterpreted?
Howdoestheworkconsidertraditionallymarginalizedpopulations?

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Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

MichelFoucaultTheOrderofThings:AnArcheologyoftheHumanSciences,
1970Language,Countermemory,Practice,1977
CliffordGeertzTheInterpretationofCultures,1973"DeepPlay:Notesonthe
BalineseCockfight,"1992
HaydenWhiteMetahistory,1974"ThePoliticsofHistoricalInterpretation:
DisciplineandDeSublimation,"1982
StephenGreenblattRenaissanceSelfFashioning:FromMoretoShakespeare,
1980
PierreBourdieuOutlineofaTheoryofPractice,1977HomoAcademicus,1984
TheFieldofCulturalProduction,1993

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschools
ofcriticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

PostColonialCriticism(1990spresent)
HistoryisWrittenbytheVictors

Postcolonialcriticismissimilartoculturalstudies,butitassumesauniqueperspectiveon
literatureandpoliticsthatwarrantsaseparatediscussion.Specifically,postcolonialcritics
areconcernedwithliteratureproducedbycolonialpowersandworksproducedbythose
whowere/arecolonized.Postcolonialtheorylooksatissuesofpower,economics,
politics,religion,andcultureandhowtheseelementsworkinrelationtocolonial
hegemony(westerncolonizerscontrollingthecolonized).

Therefore,apostcolonialcriticmightbeinterestedinworkssuchasDanielDefoe's
RobinsonCrusoewherecolonial"...ideology[is]manifestinCrusoe'scolonialistattitude
towardthelanduponwhichhe'sshipwreckedandtowardtheblackmanhe'colonizes'and
namesFriday"(Tyson377).Inaddition,postcolonialtheorymightpointoutthat
"...despiteHeartofDarkness's(JosephConrad)obviousanticolonistagenda,thenovel
pointstothecolonizedpopulationasthestandardofsavagerytowhichEuropeansare
contrasted"(Tyson375).Postcolonialcriticismalsotakestheformofliteraturecomposed
byauthorsthatcritiqueEurocentrichegemony.

AUniquePerspectiveonEmpire

SeminalpostcolonialwriterssuchasNigerianauthorChinuaAchebeandKenyanauthor
NgugiwaThiong'ohavewrittenanumberofstoriesrecountingthesufferingofcolonized
people.Forexample,inThingsFallApart,Achebedetailsthestrifeanddevastationthat
occurredwhenBritishcolonistsbeganmovinginlandfromtheNigeriancoast.

RatherthanglorifyingtheexploratorynatureofEuropeancolonistsastheyexpandedtheir
sphereofinfluence,Achebenarratesthedestructiveeventsthatledtothedeathand
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enslavementofthousandsofNigerianswhentheBritishimposedtheirImperial
government.Inturn,Achebepointsoutthenegativeeffects(andshiftingideasofidentity
andculture)causedbytheimpositionofwesternreligionandeconomicsonNigerians
duringcolonialrule.

Power,Hegemony,andLiterature

Postcolonialcriticismalsoquestionstheroleofthewesternliterarycanonandwestern
historyasdominantformsofknowledgemaking.Theterms"firstworld,""secondworld,"
"thirdworld"and"fourthworld"nationsarecritiquedbypostcolonialcriticsbecausethey
reinforcethedominantpositionsofwesternculturespopulatingfirstworldstatus.This
critiqueincludestheliterarycanonandhistorieswrittenfromtheperspectiveoffirst
worldcultures.So,forexample,apostcolonialcriticmightquestiontheworksincluded
in"thecanon"becausethecanondoesnotcontainworksbyauthorsoutsidewestern
culture.

Moreover,theauthorsincludedinthecanonoftenreinforcecolonialhegemonicideology,
suchasJosephConrad'sHeartofDarkness.WesterncriticsmightconsiderHeartof
Darknessaneffectivecritiqueofcolonialbehavior.Butpostcolonialtheoristsandauthors
mightdisagreewiththisperspective:"...asChinuaAchebeobserves,thenovel's
condemnationofEuropeanisbasedonadefinitionofAfricansassavages:beneaththeir
veneerofcivilization,theEuropeansare,thenoveltellsus,asbarbaricastheAfricans.
Andindeed,Achebenotes,thenovelportraysAfricansasaprehistoricmassoffrenzied,
howling,incomprehensiblebarbarians..."(Tyson374375).

Typicalquestions:

Howdoestheliterarytext,explicitlyorallegorically,representvariousaspectsof
colonialoppression?
Whatdoesthetextrevealabouttheproblematicsofpostcolonialidentity,including
therelationshipbetweenpersonalandculturalidentityandsuchissuesasdouble
consciousnessandhybridity?
Whatperson(s)orgroupsdoestheworkidentifyas"other"orstranger?Howare
suchpersons/groupsdescribedandtreated?
Whatdoesthetextrevealaboutthepoliticsand/orpsychologyofanticolonialist
resistance?
Whatdoesthetextrevealabouttheoperationsofculturaldifferencethewaysin
whichrace,religion,class,gender,sexualorientation,culturalbeliefs,andcustoms
combinetoformindividualidentityinshapingourperceptionsofourselves,
others,andtheworldinwhichwelive?
Howdoesthetextrespondtoorcommentuponthecharacters,themes,or
assumptionsofacanonized(colonialist)work?
Aretheremeaningfulsimilaritiesamongtheliteraturesofdifferentpostcolonial
populations?
HowdoesaliterarytextintheWesterncanonreinforceorunderminecolonialist
ideologythroughitsrepresentationofcolonializationand/oritsinappropriate
silenceaboutcolonizedpeoples?(Tyson378379)

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

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Criticism

EdwardSaidOrientalism,1978CultureandImperialism,1994
KamauBrathwaiteTheHistoryoftheVoice,1979
GayatriSpivakInOtherWorlds:EssaysinCulturalPolitics,1987
DominickLaCapraTheBoundsofRace:PerspectivesonHegemonyand
Resistance,1991
HomiBhabhaTheLocationofCulture,1994

Literatureandnonfiction

ChinuaAchebeThingsFallApart,1958
NgugiwaThiong'oTheRiverBetween,1965
SembeneOusmanGod'sBitsofWood,1962
RuthPrawerJhabvalaHeatandDust,1975
BuchiEmechetaTheJoysofMotherhood,1979
KeriHulmeTheBonePeople,1983
RobertsonDaviesWhat'sBredintheBone,1985
KazuoIshiguroTheRemainsoftheDay,1988
BharatiMukherjeeJasmine,1989
JillKerConwayTheRoadfromCoorain,1989
HelenaNorbergHodgeAncientFutures:LearningfromLadakh,1991
MichaelOndaatjeTheEnglishPatient,1992
GitaMehtaARiverSutra,1993
ArundhatiRoyTheGodofSmallThings,1997
PatrickChamoiseauTexaco,1997

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschools
ofcriticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

FeministCriticism(1960spresent)
S/he

Feministcriticismisconcernedwith"...thewaysinwhichliterature(andothercultural
productions)reinforceorunderminetheeconomic,political,social,andpsychological
oppressionofwomen"(Tyson).Thisschooloftheorylooksathowaspectsofourculture
areinherentlypatriarchal(maledominated)and"...thiscritiquestrivestoexposethe
explicitandimplicitmisogynyinmalewritingaboutwomen"(Richter1346).This
misogyny,Tysonremindsus,canextendintodiverseareasofourculture:"Perhapsthe
mostchillingexample...isfoundintheworldofmodernmedicine,wheredrugsprescribed
forbothsexesoftenhavebeentestedonmalesubjectsonly"(83).

Feministcriticismisalsoconcernedwithlessobviousformsofmarginalizationsuchas
theexclusionofwomenwritersfromthetraditionalliterarycanon:"...unlessthecriticalor
historicalpointofviewisfeminist,thereisatendencytounderrepresentthecontribution
ofwomenwriters"(Tyson8283).
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CommonSpaceinFeministTheories

Thoughanumberofdifferentapproachesexistinfeministcriticism,thereexistsome
areasofcommonality.ThislistisexcerptedfromTyson:

1. Womenareoppressedbypatriarchyeconomically,politically,socially,and
psychologicallypatriarchalideologyistheprimarymeansbywhichtheyarekept
so
2. Ineverydomainwherepatriarchyreigns,womanisother:sheismarginalized,
definedonlybyherdifferencefrommalenormsandvalues
3. Allofwestern(AngloEuropean)civilizationisdeeplyrootedinpatriarchal
ideology,forexample,inthebiblicalportrayalofEveastheoriginofsinanddeath
intheworld
4. Whilebiologydeterminesoursex(maleorfemale),culturedeterminesourgender
(masculineorfeminine)
5. Allfeministactivity,includingfeministtheoryandliterarycriticism,hasasits
ultimategoaltochangetheworldbypromptinggenderequality
6. Genderissuesplayapartineveryaspectofhumanproductionandexperience,
includingtheproductionandexperienceofliterature,whetherweareconsciously
awareoftheseissuesornot(91).

Feministcriticismhas,inmanyways,followedwhatsometheoristscallthethreewaves
offeminism:

1. FirstWaveFeminismlate1700searly1900's:writerslikeMaryWollstonecraft
(AVindicationoftheRightsofWomen,1792)highlighttheinequalitiesbetweenthe
sexes.ActivistslikeSusanB.AnthonyandVictoriaWoodhullcontributetothe
women'ssuffragemovement,whichleadstoNationalUniversalSuffragein1920
withthepassingoftheNineteenthAmendment
2. SecondWaveFeminismearly1960slate1970s:buildingonmoreequalworking
conditionsnecessaryinAmericaduringWorldWarII,movementssuchasthe
NationalOrganizationforWomen(NOW),formedin1966,coherefeminist
politicalactivism.WriterslikeSimonedeBeauvoir(Ledeuximesexe,1972)and
ElaineShowalterestablishedthegroundworkforthedisseminationoffeminist
theoriesdovetailedwiththeAmericanCivilRightsmovement
3. ThirdWaveFeminismearly1990spresent:resistingtheperceivedessentialist
(overgeneralized,oversimplified)ideologiesandawhite,heterosexual,middle
classfocusofsecondwavefeminism,thirdwavefeminismborrowsfrompost
structuralandcontemporarygenderandracetheories(seebelow)toexpandon
marginalizedpopulations'experiences.WriterslikeAliceWalkerworkto
"...reconcileit[feminism]withtheconcernsoftheblackcommunity...[and]the
survivalandwholenessofherpeople,menandwomenboth,andforthepromotion
ofdialogandcommunityaswellasforthevalorizationofwomenandofallthe
varietiesofworkwomenperform"(Tyson97).

Typicalquestions:

Howistherelationshipbetweenmenandwomenportrayed?
Whatarethepowerrelationshipsbetweenmenandwomen(orcharactersassuming
male/femaleroles)?
Howaremaleandfemalerolesdefined?
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Whatconstitutesmasculinityandfemininity?
Howdocharactersembodythesetraits?
Docharacterstakeontraitsfromoppositegenders?Howso?Howdoesthischange
othersreactionstothem?
Whatdoestheworkrevealabouttheoperations(economically,politically,socially,
orpsychologically)ofpatriarchy?
Whatdoestheworkimplyaboutthepossibilitiesofsisterhoodasamodeof
resistingpatriarchy?
Whatdoestheworksayaboutwomen'screativity?
Whatdoesthehistoryofthework'sreceptionbythepublicandbythecriticstellus
abouttheoperationofpatriarchy?
Whatroletheworkplayintermsofwomen'sliteraryhistoryandliterarytradition?
(Tyson)

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

MaryWollstonecraftAVindicationoftheRightsofWomen,1792
SimonedeBeauvoirLedeuximesexe,1972
JuliaKristevaAboutChineseWomen,1977
ElaineShowalterALiteratureofTheirOwn,1977"TowardaFeministPoetics,"
1979
DeborahE.McDowell"NewDirectionsforBlackFeministCriticism,"1980
AliceWalkerInSearchofOurMother'sGardens,1983
LillianS.Robinson"TreasonoutText:FeministChallengestotheLiterary
Canon,"1983
CamilePagliaSexualPersonae:TheAndrogyneinLiteratureandArt,1990

Contributors:AllenBrizee,J.CaseTompkins.
Summary:

Thisresourcewillhelpyoubegintheprocessofunderstandingliterarytheoryandschools
ofcriticismandhowtheyareusedintheacademy.

GenderStudiesandQueerTheory(1970s
present)
Gender(s),Power,andMarginalization

Genderstudiesandqueertheoryexploreissuesofsexuality,power,andmarginalized
populations(womanasother)inliteratureandculture.Muchoftheworkingenderstudies
andqueertheory,whileinfluencedbyfeministcriticism,emergesfrompoststructural
interestinfragmented,decenteredknowledgebuilding(Nietzsche,Derrida,Foucault),
language(thebreakdownofsignsignifier),andpsychoanalysis(Lacan).

Aprimaryconcerningenderstudiesandqueertheoryisthemannerinwhichgenderand
sexualityisdiscussed:"Effectiveasthiswork[feminism]wasinchangingwhatteachers
taughtandwhatthestudentsread,therewasasenseonthepartofsomefeministcritics

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that...itwasstilltheoldgamethatwasbeingplayed,whenwhatitneededwasanewgame
entirely.Theargumentposedwasthatinordertocounterpatriarchy,itwasnecessarynot
merelytothinkaboutnewtexts,buttothinkabouttheminradicallynewways"(Richter
1432).

Therefore,acriticworkingingenderstudiesandqueertheorymightevenbe
uncomfortablewiththebinaryestablishedbymanyfeministscholarsbetweenmasculine
andfeminine:"Cixous(followingDerridainOfGrammatology)setsupaseriesofbinary
oppositions(active/passive,sun/moon...father/mother,logos/pathos).Eachpaircanbe
analyzedasahierarchyinwhichtheformertermrepresentsthepositiveandmasculine
andthelatterthenegativeandfeminineprinciple"(Richter14331434).

InBetweens

Manycriticsworkingwithgenderandqueertheoryareinterestedinthebreakdownof
binariessuchasmaleandfemale,theinbetweens(alsofollowingDerrida'sinterstitial
knowledgebuilding).Forexample,genderstudiesandqueertheorymaintainsthatcultural
definitionsofsexualityandwhatitmeanstobemaleandfemaleareinflux:"...the
distinctionbetween"masculine"and"feminine"activitiesandbehaviorisconstantly
changing,sothatwomenwhowearbaseballcapsandfatigues...canbeperceivedasmore
piquantlysexybysomeheterosexualmenthanthosewomenwhowearwhitefrocksand
glovesandlookdowndemurely"(Richter1437).

Moreover,Richterremindsusthataswelearnmoreaboutourgeneticstructure,the
biologyofmale/femalebecomesincreasinglycomplexandmurky:"eventhephysical
dualismofsexualgeneticstructuresandbodilypartsbreaksdownwhenoneconsiders
thoseinstancesXXYsyndromes,naturalsexualbimorphisms,aswellassurgical
transsexualsthatdefyattemptsatbinaryclassification"(1437).

Typicalquestions:

Whatelementsofthetextcanbeperceivedasbeingmasculine(active,powerful)
andfeminine(passive,marginalized)andhowdothecharacterssupportthese
traditionalroles?
Whatsortofsupport(ifany)isgiventoelementsorcharacterswhoquestionthe
masculine/femininebinary?Whathappenstothoseelements/characters?
Whatelementsinthetextexistinthemiddle,betweentheperceived
masculine/femininebinary?Inotherwords,whatelementsexhibittraitsofboth
(bisexual)?
Howdoestheauthorpresentthetext?Isitatraditionalnarrative?Isitsecureand
forceful?Orisitmorehesitantorevencollaborative?
Whatarethepolitics(ideologicalagendas)ofspecificgay,lesbian,orqueerworks,
andhowarethosepoliticsrevealedin...thework'sthematiccontentorportrayalsof
itscharacters?
Whatarethepoetics(literarydevicesandstrategies)ofaspecificlesbian,gay,or
queerworks?
Whatdoestheworkcontributetoourknowledgeofqueer,gay,orlesbian
experienceandhistory,includingliteraryhistory?
Howisqueer,gay,orlesbianexperiencecodedintextsthatarebywriterswhoare
apparentlyhomosexual?
Whatdoestheworkrevealabouttheoperations(socially,politically,
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psychologically)homophobic?
Howdoestheliterarytextillustratetheproblematicsofsexualityandsexual
"identity,"thatisthewaysinwhichhumansexualitydoesnotfallneatlyintothe
separatecategoriesdefinedbythewordshomosexualandheterosexual?

Hereisalistofscholarsweencourageyoutoexploretofurtheryourunderstandingofthis
theory:

LuceIrigaraySpeculumoftheOtherWoman,1974
HlneCixous"TheLaughoftheMedussa,"1976
LauraMulvey"VisualPleasureandNarrativeCinema,"1975"Afterthoughtson
VisualPleasureandNarrativeCinema,"1981
MicheleFoucaultTheHistoryofSexuality,VolumeI,1980
EveKosofskySedgwickEpistemologyoftheCloset,1994
LeeEdelman"Homographies,"1989
MichaelWarner
JudithButler"ImitationandGenderInsubordination,"1991

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