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Technique of Failure Analysis - ASM PDF
Technique of Failure Analysis - ASM PDF
Technique of Failure Analysis - ASM PDF
Techniques of
Failure Analysis
Investigative Techniques
While not all failures require the same degree of effort needed to in-
vestigate a product litigation matter, it is imperative that the investiga-
tor follow a specific plan during the analysis. The use of checklists and
4 Understanding How Components Fail
When the knot is tied, the lace is pulled tightest at the upper eyelets;
therefore, the service stress is highest at this location.
Most of the sliding motion during tightening occurs at the lace as it goes
through the upper eyelets. Therefore, the metal eyelets tend to wear, or
abrade, the fibers of the lace.
Since the shoelace presumably has uniform mechanical properties along
its length, it will eventually wearand ultimately tear, or fractureat
the location where conditions are most severe, that is, at an upper eyelet.
will fail at the location of greatest wear and tear. Metal parts fracture
in a much more complex version of the weakest-link principle: the
weakest location in a part will not originate a fracture if the stress is be-
low the strength at that location. On the other hand, a high-strength lo-
cation in a part may suffer fracture if the stress is concentrated at that lo-
cation. The point is that stress and strength are inseparably intertwined
and must be considered together.
Other locations of normal fracture in metal parts are at geometric
stress concentrations, such as the first engaged thread of a bolt within a
nut or other tapped hole, or at a sharp-cornered fillet in a rotating shaft,
or at the root fillet of a gear tooth. These represent some of the normal
locations of fatigue fractures that may occur after long service. Frac-
tures caused by abnormal events, such as accidents, may occur at loca-
tions other than those noted because of the unpredictable forces in an
accident. The insidious problem with notches is that they concentrate
the stress at specific locations; thus, the metal strength at a given loca-
tion may not be able to survive the geometrical form that concentrates
the stress at that location, no matter how high the strength level.
1. Surface of Fracture. What is the fracture mode? The fracture surface can
tell a story if enough careful attention is given to it in conjunction with
other information to be learned. One must not make snap judgments
about the fracture; all information must be evaluated before making a de-
cision that is crucial. Examination of all regions of the part will be neces-
sary before this can be answered.
a. Is the origin (or origins) of the fracture visible? If so, is it (are they) lo-
cated at the surface or below the surface? The location of the origin(s)
depends on the relative stress and strength gradients, which will be dis-
cussed later.
b. What is the relation of the fracture direction to the normal or expected
fracture directions? The direction of a fracture usually has a specific re-
lation to the direction of the stress that caused the fracture to occur.
c. How many fracture origins are there? The answer concerns the relative
magnitude of the actual stress to the actual strength of the part at the lo-
cations of failure.
d. Is there evidence of corrosion, paint, or some other foreign material on
the fracture surface? This may indicate the presence of a preexisting
crack, prior to fracture.
e. Was the stress unidirectional or was it reversed in direction? If the part
is thought to be stressed in only one direction but the fracture indicates
that it was stressed also in other directions, the assumed operation of
the mechanism is not completely correct.
2. Surface of Part
a. What is the contact pattern on the surface of the part? This knowledge
is extremely important, because these witness marks of contact with
the mating parts reveal how the part was loaded in service. These
marks may be only slight polishing, or they may be severe wear or in-
dentations from heavy contact with other parts of the assembly or from
outside the assembly. The mating parts usually have corresponding
Techniques of Failure Analysis 7
a. What chemical reactions could have taken place with the part during
its history? These include the many varieties of corrosion and possi-
ble exposure to hydrogen (such as during acid pickling, electroplating,
and certain types of service). Hydrogen exposure can, under certain
conditions, result in fracture due to hydrogen embrittlement or forma-
tion of blisters on the surface. Another situation sometimes encoun-
tered is stress-corrosion cracking, in which exposure to a critical corro-
sive environment can cause cracking while the surface of the part
carries a tensile stressapplied and/or residual.
b. To what thermal conditions has the part been subjected during its exis-
tence? This can involve abnormally high temperatures, which may
cause melting and/or heat treatment of a very small area of the surface.
Such accidental and uncontrolled heat treatment can have disastrous
results. Problems frequently arise as a result of localized electrical arc-
ing, grinding damage, adhesive wear, or other instances where fric-
tional heat is encountered. Similarly, relatively low temperatures for
the metal can result in brittle fracture of normally ductile metals with
no change in microstructure. Also, low temperatures may initiate un-
controlled phase changes that may cause problems.
Summary
References
1. Failure Analysis and Prevention, Vol 11, ASM Handbook, ASM Interna-
tional, 1986, p 1546
2. C.E. Witherell, Mechanical Failure Avoidance: Strategies and Tech-
niques, McGraw Hill, Inc., 1994, p 3165
Selected References
B.E. Boardman, Failure AnalysisHow to Choose the Right Tool,
Scanning Electron Microsc., Vol 1, SEM Inc., 1979
B.M. Strauss and W.H. Cullen, Jr., Ed., Fractography in Failure Analy-
sis, American Society for Testing and Materials, STP 645, 1978
Case Histories in Failure Analysis, American Society for Metals, 1979
C.R. Brooks and A. Choudhury, Metallurgical Failure Analysis,
McGraw Hill, Inc., 1993
F.R. Hutchings and P.M. Unterweiser, Ed., Failure Analysis: The British
Engine Technical Reports, American Society for Metals, 1981
J.L. McCall and P.M. French, Ed., Metallography in Failure Analysis,
Plenum Press, 1978
K.A. Esaklul, Ed., Handbook of Case Histories in Failure Analysis, Vol
1, ASM International, 1992
K.A. Esaklul, Ed., Handbook of Case Histories in Failure Analysis, Vol
2, ASM International, 1993
P.F. Timmons, Solutions to Equipment Failure, ASM International,
1999 P.P. Tung, S.P. Agrawal, A. Kumar, and M. Katcher, Ed., Frac-
ture and Failure: Analyses, Mechanisms and Applications, Mate-
rials/Metalworking Technology Series, American Society for Metals,
1981
R.C. Anderson, Visual Examination, Vol 1, Inspection of Metals, Ameri-
can Society for Metals, 1983
R.D. Barer and B.F. Peters, Why Metals Fail, Gordon & Breach Science
Publishers, 1970
V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures, 2nd
ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1987
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