The World of Energy

Chapter 6 Coal

6.1. Main Characteristic of Coal

Ch. 6 - 1
Coal

http://buildingsdatabook.eren.doe.gov/default.asp?id=fow&num=30

Ch. 6 - 2
Main Features of Coal
Major fuel source in the world provides more energy
than oil or gas

Abundant but dirty and inefficient

Less energy (1/2) per pound than oil/gas and much

more polluting

Liquid synthetic fuels can be made from coal

Different types of coal with different heat values

Converting coal to energy is energy expensive

Ch. 6 - 3
Coal

Ch. 6 - 4
What Makes Coal unclean?

Coal is mostly carbon C+O2CO2

Coal contains sulphur S+O2SO2
Coal contains ash = particulate deposition
Coal contains other materials, (As, Cl, Hg, Ni, Pb)
Combustion produces NOx (Acid Rain, Greenhouse
gas*, Health effects)

* N2O has 200 300 times the global warming effect of CO2

Ch. 6 - 5
Coal Pollutants

3000 10
Coal
Fuel Oil
2500
Natural Gas
5

2000 0
NOx lb/MWhe
1500

1000
20
15
500 10
5
0 0
CO2 lb/MWhe SO2 lb/MWhe

Ch. 6 - 6
Efficiency of Burning Coal

When coal is burned, CO2 is released as an

intrinsic byproduct
C + O2 CO2
Compared to gas and petroleum, coal releases
the most CO2, a greenhouse gas
Must enhance the efficiency of coal combustion
and heat transfer to obtain maximum energy
and minimum pollution
Some technologies convert coal to gaseous or
liquid products since it is easier to transport
and burns more cleanly

Ch. 6 - 7
Coal Conversion
Coal Gasification
Step 1: Treat heated, crushed coal with superheated steam:
C + H2O CO + H2
coal gas
Step 2: CO reacts with H2 to produce methane and water:
CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2O

Or reacts with water:

CO + H2O CO2 + H2
Unreacted CO and H2 are recycled

Coal Gasification
Use processes sequentially
Optimize to obtain maximum yield of methane
Mixture of gases obtained called synthesis gas or syngas

Ch. 6 - 8
Coal Conversion

Coal Liquefaction
Break down coal, add hydrogen produce petroleum-like liquid
Use catalysts
SASOL heat coal to 600 800oC
Mixture of methane, hydrogen and carbon obtained
Through heated region with air and steam
Product gas: 10% CH4, 20% CO, 30% CO2 and 40% H2
Reacts under pressure of 2 x 106 Pa in presence of iron
catalyst, releasing heat and producing liquid product Fischer-
Tropsch Process
Advantages of conversion:
Liquid convenient to store, transport and use
Cleaner
Disadvantages:
Energy needed for conversion
Formation of ash and gaseous byproducts
Amount of CO2 formed the same as for coal

Ch. 6 - 9
The World of Energy
Chapter 6 Coal

6.2. Origin & Formation of Coal

Ch. 6 - 10
 Coal
Swamp

Formation in swamps

Many types, classified

according to rank and sulfur Peat

content Sea level rises

rank = %age of carbon and
heat value on combustion
Low sulfur content = less air
pollution

Compaction

Ch. 6 - 11
Coal Formation

Ch. 6 - 12
Coal Types & Formation

Ch. 6 - 13
Coal Formation & Types
Plant material died, buried under water in swamps and bogs
anaerobic conditions
Extended time periods compressed, converted to porous,
brown organic material known as peat
Buried deeper, more pressure harder material called lignite
Higher pressure, increased temperature lignite converted
into various grades of bituminous coal (soft coal)
Geological changes mountains very high pressure and
temp anthracite
Each transformation volatile compounds and water released
Quality increases as carbon content increases
Coal is composed of hydrocarbons as well as small amounts
of oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S) and polycyclic
aromatic compounds
Sulfur and ash will vary depending on the source
Anthracite is most desirable, scarce

Ch. 6 - 14
Types of Coal

Anthracite 86-98% Carbon --15,000 BTU/lb

Small segment of Coal Market Near
Pennsylvania
Bituminous 45-86% Carbon -- 10,500-15,000
BTU/lb
Most U.S. Coal Electricity Coke Industrial
Steam
Sub-bituminous 35-45% Carbon --8,300-13,000
BTU/lb
Western States and Alaska (PRB) Lower in
Sulfur
Lignite 25-35% Carbon 4,000-8,300 BTU/lb
Young Coal, Brown Coal

Ch. 6 - 15
 Composition of Coal Types

Coal Rank Lignite Sub-bitu- Bitumi- Anthra-

minous nous cite

Moisture % 37 22 9 4

Carbon % 41 54 65 80

Ash % 6 4 11 10

Sulfur % 0.9 0.5 2.8 .8

Ch. 6 - 16
 Coal vs. Natural Gas
Coal
Best Long Term Economic
Option
In reality only 4% of the
new large power plants in
the last 12 years were
coal.
In order to regain public
support, new technologies
need to be perused.
Advanced Pulverized
Coal (PC)
Integrated Gasification
Combined Cycle (IGCC)
FutureGen
Fluidized Bed
Combustion (FBC)
Natural Gas
Has been the best
compromise for Energy
Companies and
Environmentalists in the
1990s.
If continued the next few
decades will see, for the
first time, the US depend
on foreign nations for its
fuel used for production
of electricity.
Capital Investment is
about half $500/ kW
compared to coals
$1,000 conventional Coal
plant.
Less CO2 due to fewer C-
C bonds
Ch. 6 - 17
The World of Energy
Chapter 6 Coal

6.3. Reserve, Resources, Production &

Consumption

Ch. 6 - 18
World Coal Reserve Distribution

Ch. 6 - 19
Proved Coal Reserves at end 2005

Ch. 6 - 20
Coal production - Coal consumption

Ch. 6 - 21
Coal Production & Consumption

Ch. 6 - 22
The World of Energy
Chapter 6 Coal

6.4. Electricity & Power Generation from Coal

Ch. 6 - 23
New Technologies for Using Coal

Coal Gasification

Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)

Coal Hydrogenation or Liquefaction

Fluidized Bed Combustion

Parallel Power Combined Cycles

Magnetohydrodynamics

Ch. 6 - 24
Coal Generation Technologies

Pulverized Coal
Fluid Bed Combustion
Integrated Coal Gasification Combined Cycle

Ch. 6 - 25
Electric Generation from Coal

Conventional Combustion
Pulverized Coal
Circulating Fluidized Bed
Others

Gasification
Integrated Gasification Combined
Cycle (IGCC)

Ch. 6 - 26
Coal Combustion Technologies

PULVERIZED FLUIDIZED
Technology COAL BED

Subcritical Pressurized fluidized bed

Existing

combustion (PFBC)
Supercritical

Ultrasupercritical
Gas
Technology

clean-up
Future

Steam turbines
Gas turbines

Electricity Electricity

Ch. 6 - 27
Coal Power Plants Technology Application

Accounts for Most of the 86,213 MW Announced New Coal Projects

3%
18%

PC
CFB
IGCC
15%
64% Unknown

143 Projects as of 6/06

Ch. 6 - 28
The World of Energy
Chapter 6 Coal

6.5. Coal Fired Power Plant

Ch. 6 - 29
Basic Idea of a Power Plant

Steam

Spinning
turbine blades
Boiling water and generator

Ch. 6 - 30
Typical Coal-Fired Power Plant

Ch. 6 - 31
Coal Boiler Schematic

Ch. 6 - 32
Coal-Fired Power Plant Characteristics

Pulverized Coal: Can exceed 1000 MW

Circulating Fluidized-Bed: Up to 350 MW
IGCC (coal feedstock): 250 MW
IGCC (refinery feedstock): 550 MW
Costs Vary with Type of Coal Burned
Historically Used for Base Load
Operation in U.S.

Ch. 6 - 33
Pulverized Coal Boiler Technology

Subcritical Cycles
Mature Technology
Thermal Efficiency ~ 36% (HHV)
Little Opportunity for Improvement in Efficiency
Supercritical Cycles
Mature Technology
Thermal Efficiency ~ 39% (HHV)

Ch. 6 - 34
Supercritical & Ultrasupercritical Boilers

Ch. 6 - 35
Subcritical vs. Supercritical Steam Boilers

Subcritical Supercritical
Heatrate Efficiency 34-37% HHV 36-44% HHV

Boiler Capital Cost Base 0-9% Higher

Plant Capital Cost Base 1-6% Higher

Non-Fuel O&M Base 0-2% Higher

Fuel Cost Base Lower

Controlled Emissions Base Lower- Higher

Efficiency

US Operating Units 1,338 Units 117 Units

Source: Supercritical Plant Overview Ron Ott, Black & Veatch 2/04

Ch. 6 - 36
Pulverized Coal Technology

Conditions Net Energy Heatrate

Efficiency HHV
Subcritical 2,400 psig 35% 9,751 Btu/kWh

Supercritical 3,500 psig 37% 9,300 Btu/kWh

Advanced ->4,710 psig 42% 8,126 Btu/kWh

Supercritical
Ultra- 5,500 psig 44% 7,757 Btu/kWh
Supercritical

Source: Supercritical Plant Overview Ron Ott, Black & Veatch 2/04

Ch. 6 - 37
Increasing Efficiency with Coal

Ch. 6 - 38
http://www.worldcoal.org/pages/content/index.asp?PageID=24
Circulating Fluidized-Bed (CFB) Technology

Technology is Proven & Mature up to 350

MW
Thermal Efficiency ~ 36% (HHV)

Suppliers Proposing Units >350 MW

Supercritical Cycles for Improved

Efficiency and Reduced Emissions are
Under Development

Same Boiler Can Burn Wide Variety of

Coal

SO2/NOX Control Internal to CFB

Ch. 6 - 39
Current Economics of New Coal Power Plant

Ch. 6 - 40
Electrical Generation Costs

Direct Capital Busbar Cost,

Description
Cost, $/kW /kWh
Coal Combustion 1,200 - 1,400 5.0

Coal IGCC 1,400 1,825 5.5

NGCC 450 700 7.5*

Biomass 2,000 - 2,750 8.0*

Wind 1,300 - 1,500 6.0

Solar 4,000 5,000 11.5

* Highly fuel cost dependent

Ch. 6 - 41
Capital Cost Range for New Coal Installations

Technology Type $/kW*

Pulverized Coal 1,600 2,000

Circulating Fluidized-Bed 1,700 2,100

IGCC 1,600 1,800

(projected)

* Includes Allowance for Owner Costs

Ch. 6 - 42
The World of Energy
Chapter 6 Coal

6.6. Pulverized Coal Boiler (PCB)

Ch. 6 - 43
Pulverized Coal Combustion

Dominate coal generation

technology
Two types: subcritical &
supercritical
Most energy efficient coal
technology in US today
80 announced new coal
projects Low technology risk,
competitive cost
Advancements in materials,
controls and temperature
mixing led to improved
performance and reliability

Ch. 6 - 44
Conventional Pulverized Coal Power Plant

http://www.worldcoal.org/pages/content/index.asp?PageID=108

Ch. 6 - 45
Modern Coal Power Plant Waste Disposal

http://www.ornl.gov/sci/fossil/NewFiles/feaz277.jpg

Ch. 6 - 46
Pulverized Coal Boiler Layout

Source: Supercritical Boiler Technology Matures Richardson et al 2004 (Hatachi)

Ch. 6 - 47
The World of Energy
Chapter 6 Coal

6.7. Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) Boilers

Ch. 6 - 48
Fluid Bed Combustion
Conventional technology
104 Boilers-8,900 MW in operation
33 Projects- 13,347 MW of announced projects
Up to 320 MW size range offered
Greater fuel flexibility(waste coals, pet coke, fuels,..)
Lower heatrate efficiency vs. pulverized coal
Inherent low NOx rates from lower combustion
temperatures (0.370.07#NOx/MMBtu)

Ch. 6 - 49
Fluid Bed Combustion Technology Changes

Fluid Bed Size

Boiler size designs have been
expanding increasing unit output (up to
320 MW)
Improved sulfur capture performance
Improved mixing to lower Ca:S ratios
and increased bed capture rate (up to
97%)
Some designs added FGD controls to
further decrease emissions (0.13-
0.15#SO2/MMBtu)

Ch. 6 - 50
Fluidized Bed Coal Combustion Technology

Sizes Have Been Increasing

1981 Great Lakes

1986 Scott Paper 1x65MW

1987 Ultrasystems 15-43MW

1988 Shawnee (Repower) 1x150 MW

1989 Thames/Shady Point 75 MW

1990 TNP One 2x155 MW

1993 Warrior Run 210 MW

1996 Provence, KEPCO 220-250MW

1998 Red Hills 2x250 MW

2001 Enel 320 MW

Ch. 6 - 51
Typical Circulating Fluidized-Bed Power Plant

Fuel Gas
1500-1700 F

1500-1700F

15-16 ru sec
Furnace Cyclone
Air
Backpass Fuel
x 0
Limestone
x 0 Air

Ch. 6 - 52
Fluidized Bed

Ch. 6 - 53
Fluidized Bed Combustion Detail

http://envfor.nic.in/cpcb/newsletter/coal/ccombs.html

Ch. 6 - 54
Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combined Cycle

Ch. 6 - 55
Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion

http://envfor.nic.in/cpcb/newsletter/coal/ccombs.html

Ch. 6 - 56
Circulating Fluidized Bed, CFB, firing principles

Steam drum

Steam outlet

Combustion chamber
Economizer
Solids separator
Feed water inlet

Air heater
Fuel

Limestone

Dust collector

Fly ash
Induced draft fan
Bottom ash Secondary air fan

Primary air fan

To ash silos

Ch. 6 - 57
 Circulating Fluidized Bed, CFB Development

UNIT CAPACITY (MWe)

600

550

500

450

400

350 FIRST GENERATION

300 DESIGN

250

200

150

100

50

0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Ch. 6 - 58
Circulating Fluidized Bed, CFB, FW max. operation

Integrated
steam cooled
separators

Regenerative
air preheater

INTREX
superheaters

MODERN CFB TECHNOLOGY, 3 x 262 MW 195.5/180.7 kg/s, 169.7/39.4 bar, 565/565 deg. C
Turow, Poland
Ch. 6 - 59
The World of Energy
Chapter 6 Coal

6.8. Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle

(IGCC) Boilers

Ch. 6 - 60
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)

Source: US Dept. of Energy/National Energy Technology Labs (NETL)

Ch. 6 - 61
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle

Air vs. oxygen blown gasifiers potential to save Air

separation unit costs, reduce onsite power
consumption
Dry vs. slurry fuel feed Improve energy efficiency
by 2.6%
Hot syngas clean-up Improve energy efficiency 1.0-
1.5%
Improve gasifier reliability to save redundancy
Gas turbine advancements new turbine classes (FB-
>H 2.2% improvement), hydrogen rich fuel
combustion for carbon regulation world
Shift reactor technology to maximize syngas CO2
capture and hydrogen production for carbon
regulation
Syngas mercury capture

Ch. 6 - 62
Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Technology

Technology is Proven, Not Mature

Complexity Much Greater than
Pulverized Coal
Economies of Scale are Very Important
Economics Improve with Rise in Natural Gas Prices,
Especially for Use in Existing Low Capacity Factor
Combined-Cycle Plants

Ch. 6 - 63
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle

117 plants with 385 Gasifiers in operation in 2004.

These facilities produce mostly chemicals (37%), gas
(36%) or power (19%)
Multiple Gasification process technologies
Entrained flow (Shell, GE (Texaco)- Polk Co, Conoco-
Phillips (Dow/Destec)- Wabash River)
Fixed bed (Lurgi, EPIC)- Dakota Gasification Corp
Fluidized bed (Southern Co- Staunton, KRW-Pinon Pine)
Current IGCC power technology applications focus on
producing CO rich syngas that can be burned in
turbines.
Future IGCC technologies maybe developed to produce
hydrogen rich syngas with maximum carbon capture
(aka zero emission IGCC).
24 Proposed IGCC power projects15,101 MW

Ch. 6 - 64
IGCC Overview

Ch. 6 - 65
Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle (IGCC)

Compressed Air
Air
Nitrogen Diluent
Air Separation (NOX control)
Unit (ASU) Volatile Pure
Mercury Sulfur

Oxygen Slag 95+% 98+%

Removal Removal

Gasification Gas Clean-Up Combined-Cycle

Block Block Power
Crude Clean
Syngas Syngas

Wastewater
Coal (or Water
other
CO2 Capture Electricity
Carbon
(ready for sequestration)
Source)

Contaminants
Removed
Pre-Combustion

Ch. 6 - 66
IGCC Process Schematic

Ch. 6 - 67
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle

http://envfor.nic.in/cpcb/newsletter/coal/ccombs.html

Ch. 6 - 68
The World of Energy
Chapter 6 Coal

6.9 Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combined Cycle (PFBC)

Boilers

Ch. 6 - 69
Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion

Combined Cycle (PFBC)

http://envfor.nic.in/cpcb/newsletter/coal/ccombs.html

Ch. 6 - 70
The World of Energy
Chapter 6 Coal

6.10. Advanced Clean Coal Technology

Ch. 6 - 71
Clean Coal Technologies

Pulverized Coal with Back-End

Emission Controls (PC)
Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB)
Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle
(IGCC)
Generally Characterized by Type of
Combustion

Ch. 6 - 72
Clean Coal Technology Approach

Burn it dirty, then clean it up

Burn it and clean it together
Clean it then burn it

Ch. 6 - 73
Burn it dirty then clean it up

Many conventional PF stations (with Low NOx

burners) have Flue Gas Desulphurization fitted:
eg. in the UK, Drax, Ratcliffe

Other FGD plants are being constructed:

eg. West Burton, Cottam, Eggborough

More have applied for planning permission: eg.

Aberthaw, Rugely, Fiddlers Ferry, Ferrybridge, Longannet

Using Supercritical steam conditions, the efficiency of

PF stations (with Low NOx burners and FGD fitted)
rises from 36% to 45%, eg.
Meri Pori (Finland)
lborg Unit 3 (Denmark)
Matsura Unit 2 (Japan)
Mistumi Unit 1 (Japan

Ch. 6 - 74
 Reheat Steam Turbine
Steam Temperature Pressure

HP Suphr 568oC 166.5 bar

Reheat 568oC 41.3 bar

S

Feed Limestone
V

CW Heating
VV
Air

Coal as PF

Bottom Ash PFA Gypsum

Boiler Precipitator FGD
Ch. 6 - 75
 Reheat Steam Turbine

Steam Temperature Pressure

HP Suphr 580oC 290 bar

Reheat 580oC 74 bar

S

Feed Limestone
V

CW Heating
VV
Air

Coal as PF

Bottom Ash PFA Gypsum

Supercritical Boiler Precipitator FGD
Ch. 6 - 76
Burn it and clean it together

Limestone added to the coal in fluidised

bed boilers allows simultaneous
combustion and desulphurisation

Circulating fluidised bed combustion

(CFBC) provides good carbon utilisation

CFBC is good for difficult coals, eg.

Lignite

Ch. 6 - 77
 Steam Turbine

Steam Temperature Pressure

HP Suphr 565oC 169.7 bar

S

Reheat 565oC 39.4 bar

Feed
V
V

CW Heating
V Cyclone
Separator

Lump Coal
and Limestone Dust
Bottom Ash
Air
Fluidised Bed Boiler Baghouse

Ch. 6 - 78
Clean it up then burn it

Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC)

first turns the coal into a gas (mostly CO and
H2), then cleans it of mercury, sulphur, and CO2
if required.

Plants are operating successfully in Spain, the

Netherlands, Poland and USA

2 new IGCC projects are planned in UK

Ch. 6 - 79
 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
ASU Gasification Heat Recovery Gas
Plant Treatment
Feedstock Water
Oxygen Stea Saturator
m
Sulphur
Removal
2H2S+O2 2H2O + 2S
Air
Nitrogen
Sulphur
2C+ O2 2CO Boiler Feedwater
2H2O 2H2+ O2 Heat Recovery Steam Generator
H2+ S H2S Frit Gas Turbine

S
Steam Turbine Combined Cycle
Boiler Feedwater Gas Turbine
S

Ch. 6 - 80
Coal Clean Future Technology

Burn it dirty then clean it up, PF

Using Ultra-Supercritical steam conditions
(>250 bar, >620C)
The efficiency of PF stations rises still further.
Materials (eg. nickel superalloys) are being developed to
take steam temperatures up to 700C, whence 50 52%
efficiency is predicted

Oxy-fuelling is being considered, but the technology is

in its infancy

Ch. 6 - 81
 Reheat Steam Turbine
S

Feed Limestone
V

CW Heating
VV
Oxygen

Coal as PF
CO2
Air

Bottom Ash Cryogenic

Cryogenic Air PFA Gypsum
Separation
Separation Unit Supercritical Boiler Precipitator FGD Unit

Ch. 6 - 82
Coal Clean Future Technology

Burn it and clean it up together, CFBC

Using Supercritical steam conditions

(>250 bar, >620C)
In a once-through CFBC boiler the efficiency rises
still further

Emissions reduce consequently

Ch. 6 - 83
Coal Clean Future Technology

Ch. 6 - 84
Coal Clean Future Technology

Clean it up then burn it, GCC

By further processing of the gas, the proportion of
hydrogen and CO2 can be increased

Ideal conditions now exist (low temperature, high

concentration and pressure) to wash out the CO2

No technological developments are needed

Ch. 6 - 85
 ASU Gasification Heat Recovery Gas
Plant Treatment
Feedstock CO+ H2O H2+ CO2
Oxygen Stea
m
Water
Saturator CO2

Air
Sulphur
Nitrogen Shift 2H2S+O2 2H2O + 2S
Sulphur and
2C+ O2 2CO Boiler Feedwater CO2 Removal
2H2O 2H2+ O2 Heat Recovery Steam Generator
H2+ S H2S Frit Gas Turbine

S
Steam Turbine Combined Cycle
Boiler Feedwater Gas Turbine
S

Ch. 6 - 86
 Coal Conversion Technologies
INTEGRATED GASIFICATION COMBINED
CYCLE
Coal / biomass

Syngas Feedstock for liquid fuels and

Gasifier chemicals

Future
Technology Gas clean-up

Heating or industrial
Syngas processes

Combined Cycle gas

Steam
turbine Steam turbine

Electricity Electricity

Ch. 6 - 87