CABLE STRUCTURES

Cables form tensile beams and membranes, or assist beams,

columns, surface structures or other member types as inclined
stays or suspended members. Today, the principle is applied to
cranes, ships, television towers, bridges, roof structures, the
composite tensile cladding systems of glass and stainless steel,
and to entire buildings.

In cable structures, tensile members, such as ropes, strands,

rods, W-shapes , chains, or other member types, are main load-
bearing elements; they can be an integral part of a structural
system and can give primary support to linear members,
surfaces, and volumes from above or below, as well as brace
buildings against lateral forces; cables have low bending and
torsional stiffness compared to their axial tensile stiffness.
In traditional gravity-type structures the inherent massiveness of
material transmits a feeling of stability and protection.

In contrast, tensile structures seem to be weightless and to float in

the air; their stability is dependent on induced tension and on an
intricate, curved three-dimensional geometry in which the skin is
pre-stretched.

These antigravity structures require a new aesthetics; now the

curve rather than the straight line, is the generator of space. The
aesthetics is closely related to biological structures and natural
forms there is no real historical precedent for the complex forms
of membrane structures.

Fabric structures are forms in tension as nearly weightless

structures they are pure, essential, and minimal. Spatial, curved
geometry, together with induced tension is necessary for structural
integrity.
The basic types of cable-supported structures are as follows:
Single-layer, cable-suspended structures: single-curvature and dish-shaped
(synclastic) hanging roofs
Prestressed tensile membranes and cablenets (see Ch. 12.5)
edge-supported saddle roofs
mast-supported conical saddle roofs
arch-supported saddle roofs
air-supported structures; air-inflated structures (air members)
Cable-supported structures
cable-supported beams and arched beams
cable-stayed bridges
cable-stayed roof structures
Tensegrity structures
planar open and closed tensegrity systems: cable beams, cable trusses,
cable frames
spatial, open tensegrity systems: cable domes
spatial, closed tensegrity systems: polyhedral twist units
Hybrid structures: combinations of the preceding systems
Some historically important
cable structures
Suspended Theater Roof, 1824, Friedrich Schnirch
Bollman Iron Truss Bridge, Savage, MD, 1869, Wendel Bollman
Tower Bridge, London, 1894
different cables
for different
load cases
19th century examples
Experiments with structure,
Russian Constructivism
Pavilion, Chicago, 1933, Bennett & Associates
Dymaxion House, 1923, Buckminster Fuller
Shabolovka tower, Vladimir Shukhov, 1922, Moscow
proposal Palazzo del Congress, Venice, 1969, Louis Kahn
Golden Gate Bridge (one 2224 ft), San
Francisco, 1936, C.H. Purcell
Kenneth Snelson, Needle Tower, 1968,
Hirshorn Museum, Washington; this 60-ft
high (18 m) tower explores the spatial
interaction of tension and compression.

A network of continuous cables is

prestressed into shape by discontinuous
compression struts which never touch
each other. Buckminster Fuller explained
tensegrity as tensile integrity, as
islands of compression in a sea of
tension
Examples of cable structures
The 22-story, 100-m high, BMW Building in Munich,
Germany (1972, Karl Schwanzer) consists of four suspended
cylinders. Here, four central prestressed suspended huge
concrete hangers are supported by a post - tensioned bracket
cross at the top that cantilevers from the concrete core.
Secondary perimeter columns are carried in tension or
compression by story-high radial cantilevers at the
mechanical floor level. Cast aluminum cladding is used as
skin.
Westcoast Transmission Tower, Vancouver, Canada, 1969
Hospital tower of the University of Cologne, Germany, Leonard Struct. Eng.
German Museum of Technology, Berlin, 2001, Helge Pitz and Ulrich Wolff Architects
Lookout Tower Killesberg (40 m), Stuttgart, 2001, Schlaich
Lufthansa Hangar (153 m), Munich, 1992, Buechl + Angerer
TU Munich
Incheon International Airport, Seoul
proposal Shanghai-Pudong Museum, von Gerkan, Marg and Partner
Temporary American Center, Paris,
1991, Nasrin Seraji
Newark air terminal C, USA
World Trade Center, Amsterdam, 2003 (?), Kohn, Pedersen & Fox
Examples of cable-supported columns
World Trade Center, Amsterdam, 2003 (?), Kohn,
Pedersen & Fox
project by Eric Owen Moss Architects (EOMA)
Luxembourg, 2007
Olympic Stadium, Munich, Germany, 1972, Frei Otto, Leonhardt-Andrae
CABLE STRUCTURES
Single-layer, simply suspended cable roofs
Single-curvature and dish-shaped (synclastic) hanging roofs

Prestressed tensile membranes and cable nets (see Surface Structures)

Edge-supported saddle roofs
Mast-supported conical saddle roofs
Arch-supported saddle roofs
Air supported structures and air-inflated structures (air members)

Cable-supported structures
cable-supported beams and arched beams
cable-stayed bridges
cable-stayed roof structures

Tensegrity structures
Planar open and closed tensegrity systems: cable beams, cable trusses, cable frames
Spatial open tensegrity systems: cable domes
Spatial closed tensegrity systems: polyhedral twist units

Hybrid structures
Combination of the above systems
In cable-suspended structures the cables form the roof
surface structure, whereas in cable-supported
structures cables give support to other members.

Tensile structures such as tensile membranes and

tensegrity structures are pretensioned structures so
they can resist compression forces, however, guyed
structures may also be prestressed structures.
 Introduction
Most tensile structures are very flexible in comparison to conventional
structures. This is particularly true for the current, fashionable, minimal
structures, where all the members want to be under axial forces. Here,
repetitive members with pinned joints are tied together and stabilized by
cables or rods. Not only the low stiffness of cables, but also the nature of
hinged frame construction, make them vulnerable to lateral and vertical
movements. To acquire the necessary stiffness, special construction
techniques have been developed, such as spatial networks, as well as the
prestressing of tension members so that they remain in tension under any
loading conditions.

Because of the lightweight and flexible nature of cable-stayed roof structures

they may be especially vulnerable with respect to vertical stiffness, wind
uplift, lateral stability, and dynamic effects; redundancy must also be
considered in case of tie failure. Temperature effects are critical when the
structure is exposed to environmental changes. The movement of the
exposed structure must be compatible with the enclosure. In the partially
exposed structure, differential movement within the structure must be
considered; slotted connections may be used to relieve thermal
movement.
The deformation of a cable under its loads takes the shape of a funicular
curve that is produced by only axial forces since a cable has negligible
bending strength: polygonal and curved shapes (e.g. catenary shapes,
parabolic shapes, circular shapes)
The geometry of the loaded cable depends on the type of loading.
Because typical computer programs only consider linear behavior that is
small deflection theory, the cable geometry should not change too much
under loading; it is important to define the cable geometry to be close to
what is expected after the structure is loaded. For that reason it may be
necessary to correct the cable geometry after one or more preliminary runs
that determine the shape of the cable under the P-Delta load combination
(e.g. dead and live loads for the typical gravity load case). However, keep in
mind that for designing the cables, for example, in cable beams, gravity
cannot act by itself since then the members have to be designed as
compression members! Consider load combinations of gravity, wind loads,
pre-stress, and temperature decrease of the cables, which produces
shortening and causes significant axial forces. If the stretching of the cable is
large it may not be possible to obtain meaningful results with a P-Delta load
combination. The P-Delta effect can be a very important contributor to the
stiffness of cable structures.
 WHY IS IT NONLINEAR?

Linear Elastic Theory approximates the length change of a bar by the dot product of the
direction vector and the displacement. But in this situation, you can see from the figure
above, that they are perpendicular to each other therefore dot product = 0. This would
mean that the bar did not change length, which from observation is untrue. It is therefore
necessary to use nonlinear analysis.

The Effects of Prestress

The geometry of the structure itself is unstable as opposed to a structure shown at the
right. The effects of prestress on the structure make it stronger. It is now able to counter
the external forces.

The sum of the forces : 2T*(2d/L) = P

P = (4T/L)d
Modeling of Cables

Cable structures are flexible structures where the effect of large deflections on
the magnitude of the member forces must be considered. Cable elements are
tension-only members, where the axial forces are applied to the deflected
shape. You can not just apply, for instance transverse loads, to a suspended
cable with small moments of inertia using a linear analysis, all you get is a
large deflection with no increase in axial forces because the change in
geometry occurs after all the loads have been applied.

To take the effect of large deflections into account, a P-Delta analysis that is a
non-linear analysis has to be performed. Here the geometry change due to the
deflections, , and the effect of the applied loads, P, along the deformed
geometry is called the P- effect. The P-Delta effect only affects transverse
stiffness, not axial stiffness. Therefore, frame elements representing a cable
can carry compression as well as tension; this type of behavior is generally
unrealistic. You should review the analysis results to make sure that this does
not occur.
In SAP use cable elements for modeling. First define the material
properties then model cable behavior by providing for each frame
element section properties with small but realistic bending and
torsional stiffness (e.g. use 1-in. dia. steel rods or a small value such
as 1.0, for the moment of inertia). Do not use moment end-releases
because otherwise the structure may be unstable; disregard
moments and shear. Apply concentrated loads only at the end nodes
of the elements, where the cable kinks occur. For uniform loads
sufficient frame elements are needed to form a polygon composed of
frame elements. SAP provides for the modeling of curved cables,
Keep as Single Object or Break in Multiple Equal Length Objects.

Tensile structures (e.g. cable beams, tensile membranes) may have to

be prestressed by applying external prestress forces, or temperature
forces.
To perform the P-DELTA ANALYSIS in SAP, unlock the
model after you have performed the linear analysis. Click
Define > Analysis Cases > Modify/Show Case > in the
Analysis Type area select the Nonlinear option. In the Other
Parameters area, check the Modify/Show button for Results
Saved and select Multiple States, then check the
Modify/Show button for the Nonlinear Parameters edit box >
in that form select the P-Delta with Large Displacements
option in the Geometric Nonlinearity Parameters area then
click the OK buttons and proceed with analysis as before. In
other words, click Analyze > Set Analysis Options > select
XZ Plane > click OK > click Run Analysis > click Run Now
(i.e. click Run Analysis button). Notice, the educational
version of SAP will run only the small displacement case
with P-Delta.
Cables refer to flexible tension members consisting of rods or one, or
more groups of wires,
rods, plates, W-sections, tubes, etc.
strands
ropes

Wires are laid helically around a center wire to produce a strand, while
ropes are formed by strands laid helically around a core (e.g. wire rope or
steel strand).

STRAND Z-lock CABLE WIRE ROPE

An assembly of wires Assembly of strands
Around a central core
Steel strand and wire rope are inherently redundant members
since they consist of individual wires. The minimum ultimate
tensile strength Fu of strands and ropes is in the range of
200 to 220 ksi (1379 to 1517 MPa) depending on the coating
class (and 270 ksi =1862 MPa for prestressing strand). The
strand has more metallic area than the rope of the same
diameter and hence is stronger and stiffer. The minimum
modulus of elasticity of wire rope is 20,000 ksi (138,000 MPa)
and 24,000 ksi = 165,000 MPa for strands of nominal
diameters up to 2 9/16 in. (65 mm) and 23,000 ksi (159,000
MPa) for the larger diameters.

The cable capacity can be obtained from the manufacturer's

catalogues, but for rough preliminary design purposes of
cable sizes assume a metallic cable area As of roughly 60
percent of its nominal gross area An for ropes and 75 percent
for strands. The ultimate tensile force is, Pu = P = 2.2P.
Hence the required nominal cross-sectional cable area as
based on 67 percent increase of the required gross area An
for ropes and 33 percent for strand, is
 SINGLE-LAYER, SIMPLY
SUSPENDED CABLE ROOFS
SINGLE-CURVATURE and DISH-SHAPED,
SYNCLASIC, HANGING ROOFS

Simply suspended or hanging roofs include cable roofs of single

curvature and synclastic shape, that is cylindrical roofs with parallel cable
arrangement, and polygonal dishes with radial cable pattern or cable nets.
The simply suspended cables may be of the single-plane, double-flange,
or double-layer type.

The concept of simply suspended roofs has surely been influenced by

suspension bridge construction. Most buildings using the suspended roof
concept are either rectangular or round; in other words, the cable
arrangement is either parallel or radial. However, in free-form buildings,
the roof geometry is not a simple inverted cylinder or dish and the cable
layout is irregular.
In the typical suspended roof the cables (or other member types such as W-
sections, metal sheets, prestressed concrete strips) are integrated with the
roof structure. Here, one distinguishes whether single- or double-layer cable
systems are used. Simple, single-layer, suspended cable roofs must be
stabilized by heavyweight or rigid members. Sometimes, prestressed
suspended concrete shells are used where during erection they act as simple
suspended cable systems, while in the final state they behave like inverted
prestressed concrete shells. In simple, double-layer cable structures, such as
the typical bicycle wheel roof, stability is achieved by secondary cables
prestressing the main suspended cables.

The suspended cable adjusts its shape under load action so it can respond in
tension. It is helpful to visualize the deflected shape of the cable (i.e. cable
profile) as the shape of the moment diagram of an equivalent, simply
supported beam carrying the same loads as the cable. The moment analogy
method is useful since the magnitude of the moment, Mmax, can be readily
obtained from handbooks. Hence, the horizontal thrust force, H, at the reaction
for a simple suspended cable with supports at the same level and cable sag, f,
is
H = Mmax /f
Paper factory Burgo, Mantua, 1962, Pier Luigi Nervi
Maison de la Culture, Firminy, 1965,
Le Corbusier
Braga Stadium, Braga, Portugal, 2004, Eduardo
Souto de Moura , AFA Associados with Arup
Trade Fair Hannover, Hall 9, von Gerkan
Marg and Partners, 1997, Schlaich
Trade Fair Center, Stuttgart, 2007,
Wulf & Partners
Suspended roof, Hohenems,
Vorarlberg, Austria
 Portuguese
Pavilion, Expo 98,
Lisbon, Alvaro Siza
Lufthansa-
maintanance hangar
V, Frankfurt, Germany,
1972, ABB Architects,
Dyckerhoff and
Widmann
The David L. Lawrence Convention Center, Pittsburgh, PA, 2003, R. Vinoly
 Tmax
V
H
o
f = 9.33'
H
30'

14' L = 140 14'

EXAMPLE 11.1: Suspension roof
A typical cable of a single-layer suspension roof (Fig. 11.4) is investigated
for preliminary design purposes. The cables are spaced 6-ft centers and
span 140 ft and a sag-to-span ratio of 1:15 is assumed at the beginning of
the investigation. Dead and live loads are 20 and 30 psf (1.44 kPa or kN/m2)
respectively; temperature change is 500F. Run the static linear analysis first
and then run the static nonlinear analysis with P-Delta (but not using the
large displacement option in the SAP educational version) to take into
account the large cable displacements that is the change of cable geometry.
Try 2 -in-diameter high-strength low-alloy steel rods A572 (Fy = 50 ksi =
345 MPa , Fu = 65 ksi = 448 MPa).
The initial cable sag is assumed as
n = f/L = 1/15 or f = 140/15 = 9.33 ft
First, the geometry input for modeling the suspended cables must be
determined. The radius, R, for the shallow arc is
R = (4h2 + L2)/8h = (4(9.33)2 + 1402)/8(9.33) = 267.26 ft
The location of the span L as related to the center of the circle is defined by
the radial angle o (roll down angle); this angle also represents the slope of
the curvature at the reactions.

sin o= (L/2)/R =70/267.26 = 0.262, o = 15.180

The uniform load is assumed on the horizontal projection of the roof for this
preliminary manual check of the SAP results. Hence, a typical interior cable
must support
w = wD + wL = 6(0.020 + 0.030) = 0.12 + 0.18 = 0.3 k/ft
The vertical reactions are equal to each other because of symmetry and are
equal to
V = wL/2 = 0.3(140)/2 = 21 k
The minimum horizontal cable force at mid-span or the thrust force, H, at the
reaction is
H = Mmax /f = wL2 /8f = 0.3(140)2/8(9.33) = 78.78 k
The lateral thrust force according to SAP is 79.17 k as based on linear analysis
and 73.47 k as based on P-Delta analysis. The maximum cable force, Tmax, can
be determined according to Pythagoras' theorem at the critical reaction as
Tmax = 81.53 k
Or, treating the shallow cable as a circular arc, yields the following approximate
cable force of
T pR = 0.3 (267.26) = 80.18 k
Notice that there is only about 3.5% difference between the largest (Tmax) and
smallest (H) tensile force; the difference decreases as the cable profile becomes
flatter.
The SAP result of the linear analysis is 81.93 k but when performing the
nonlinear analysis that is P-Delta analysis, the maximum cable force is 76.39 k
reflecting the decrease of cable force with increase of cable sag due to large
cable displacement.
The required gross area, AD, for threaded steel rods is

AD P/0.33Fu 81.53/0.33(65) = 3.80 in2 (4.8)

where, AD = d2/4 = 3.80 or d 2.20 in

Try 2 -in-diameter steel rod.

The increase or decrease in cable length due to change in temperature is

determined as based on the span, L, rather than the cable length, l, since the
difference between the two for the shallow sag-to-span ratio is negligible,

l = (T)l 6.5(10)-6(50)140(12) = 0.55 in

Note that the influence of temperature at this scale is relatively small as also
indicated by SAP. Keep in mind that a decrease in temperature will cause the
cable to shorten and reduce the sag, thus increasing the maximum cable
force.
TRADE FAIR HALL 26, HANOVER,
1996, HERZOG ARCH, SCHLAICH
 R = 207 ft

40

53'

45'

15' 213'
30' 198' 30'

Suspended Roof Structure

 150'

53.35'
63'

45'
15' 208.70'
30' 193.70' 30'
Dulles Airport, Washington, 1962, Eero Saarinen/ Fred Severud, 161-ft (49 m)
suspended tensile vault
AWD-Dome
(Stadthalle), Bremen,
Germany, 1964,
Klumpp, Dyckerhoff &
Widmann AG
 PRESTRESSED TENSILE
MEMBRANES
and CABLE NETS

edge-supported saddle roofs

arch-supported saddle roofs
MAST-SUPPORTED CONICAL SADDLE ROOFS
anticlastic surface structures tensioned by cables and masts

HYBRID SURFACE STRUCTURES

Olympic Stadium, 1964, Tokyo, Kenzo Tange/ Y. Tsuboi
Jaber Al Ahmad Stadium Kuwait, Kuwait, 2005, Weidleplan, Schlaich Bergemann
Olympic Stadium, Munich, Germany, 1972, Gnther Behnisch architect +
Frei Otto, Leonhardt-Andrae
Olympic Stadium, Munich, Germany, 1972, Frei Otto, Leonhardt-Andrae
Haj Terminal, King Abdul Aziz International Airport, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, 1982, SOM
 CABLE-SUPPORTED STRUCTURES

Cable-Supported Beams and Arched Beams

In contrast to cable-stayed roof structures, where cables give support to
the roof framing from above, here the many possibilities of supporting
framework from below are briefly investigated.

The conventional king-post and queen- post trusses, which represent

single-strut and double-strut cable-supported beams, are familiar.
These systems form composite truss-like structures with steel or wood
compression members as top chords, steel tension rods as bottom
chords, and compression struts as web members.

Single-strut, cable-supported beams can also be overlapped in plane or

spatially .

Subtensioned structures range from simple parallel to two-way and

complex spatial systems, which however, are beyond the scope of this
context.
Golden Gate Bridge (one 2224 ft), San
Francisco, 1936, C.H. Purcell
 Akashi-Kaikyo-Bridge,
Japan, 1998, 1990 m span
curved suspension bridge, Bochum,
Germany, 2003, von Gerkan Marg
Burgo Paper Mill,
Mantua, Italy, 1963,
Pier Luigi Nervi
Airport hangar Biala Podlaska, Poland
Milleneum Bridge,
London, 2000, Foster,
Arup
Old Federal Reserve Bank Building, Minneapolis, 1973, Gunnar Birkerts, 273-ft (83
m) span truss at top
Cable-supported
structures
German Museum of
Technology Berlin,
2001, Helge Pitz and
Ulrich Wolff Architects
Auditorium of the Technical University, Munich, Germany
Wilkhahn Factory, Bad Muender, Germany,
Herzog Arch., 1992
Integrated urban buildings, Linkstr. Potsdamer Platz,Berlin, 1998, Richard Rogers
Mercedes-Benz Center am Salzufer, Berlin, 2000,
Lamm, Weber, Donath und Partner
Cable supported bridge, Berlin
Shopping Center, Stuttgart
Shopping street in Wolfsburg, Germany
Shopping street in Bauzen, Germany
Surrey Central City Galleria roof,,Surrey, British Columbia, 2002, Bing Thom
Architects, StructureCraft
Concord Sales Pavilion, Vancouver,2000, Busby + Associates Architects,
StructureCraft
Debis Theater, Marlene Dietrich Platz, Berlin, 1998, Germany, Renzo Piano
World Trade Center, Amsterdam, 2003 (?), Kohn,
Pedersen & Fox
Bus shelter, Schweinfurt, Germany
StructureCraft, Vancouver, Canada
a

Cable-Supported Beams
Lehrter Bahnhof, Berlin, 2006, von Gerkan, Marg and Partners
 The parabolic spatial roof arch
structure with its 42-m cantilevers
is supported on only two
monumental conical concrete-filled
steel pipe columns spaced at 124
m. The columns taper from a
maximum width of 4.5 m at roughly
2/3 of their height to 1.3 m at their
bases and capitals, and they are
tied at the 4th and 7th floors into
the structure for reasons of lateral
stability.

The glass walls are supported

laterally by 2.6-m deep free-
standing vertical cable trusses
which also act as tie-downs for
the spatial roof truss.

Tokyo International Forum, Tokyo, Japan, 1996, Rafael Vinoly Arch. and
Kunio Watanabe Eng
The parabolic spatial arch structure with its 42-m cantilevers is supported on only two monumental
conical concrete-filled steel pipe columns spaced at 124 m. The main span of the roof structure (which
is about 12 m deep at midspan) consists of a pair of 1.2 m tubular inclined steel arches that span
124 m between the columns and curve up in half-arches in the cantilever portion. A series of 16
 Cable-Supported Arches
When arches are braced or prestressed by tensile elements, they are
stabilized against buckling, and deformations due to various loading
conditions and the corresponding moments are minimized, which in
turn results in reduction of the arch cross-section. The stabilization of
the arch through bracing can be done in various ways.

Typical examples of braced arches with non-prestressed web members are

shown in Fig. 7.15. The most basic braced arch is the tied arch (b).
Arches may be supported by a single or multiple compression struts or
flying columns (c, d)). Slender arches may also be braced against
buckling with radial ties at center span (e) as known from the principle
of the bicycle wheel, where the thin wire spokes of the bicycle wheel are
prestressed with sufficient force so that they do not carry compression
and buckle due to external loads; the uniform radial tension produces
compression in the outer circular rim (ring) of the wheel and tension in
the inner ring. However, in the given case, the diagonal members are
not prestressed. Here, the three members at center-span are struts.
Kempinski Hotel, Munich,
Germany, 1997, H. Jahn/Schlaich:
the elegance and lightness of the the
40-m (135-ft) span glass and steel
lattice roof is articulated through the
transparency of roof skin and the
almost non-existence of the diagonal
arches which are cable- supported
by a single post at their
intersection at center span. This
new technology features construction
with its own aesthetics reflecting a
play between artistic, architectural
mathematical, and engineering
worlds. The depth of the box arches
is reduced by the central
compression strut (flying column)
carried by the suspended tension
rods. The arches, in turn, are
supported by tubular trusses on each
side, which separate the roof from
the buildings.
Museum Courtyard Roof (1989), Hamburg, glass-covered grid shell over L-shaped
courtyard, Architect von Gerkan Marg und Partner
 4'
a

4'
4'
b

4'
4'
4'
c
40'

Cable-Supported Arched Beams

 the Living Bridge, Limerick University ,
Ireland, 2007, Wilkinson Eyre Architects
Kansai International Airport,
Renzo Piano, 1994
Munich Airport Center, Munich, Germany, 1997, Helmut Jahn Arch.: the open public atrium as
transition, building blocks form walled boundaries to a square which is covered by a transparent roof
hanging from stayed cables, with a minimum of structure that gives a strong identity to space - the
new technology features construction with its own aesthetics reflecting a play between artistic,
architectural mathematical, and engineering worlds.
Lehrter Bahnhof, Berlin, 2002, Gerkan, Marg & Partner, Mero
 2.68'
C.

10'

30 deg
60 deg Bh
17.32'
Bv
10'
30 deg

a. Ah
20' 17.32'
Av

2.68'

7.32'
5.86'

17.32'

4.29'

10' 27.32'
b.
 Mmax

k
.10
10
7.70 k
Mmin
5.86'

4.29'

10' 27.32'
Waterloo Terminal, London, 1993, Nicholas Grimshaw
+ Anthony Hunt
PRESTRESSING TENSILE WEBS

To model tensile webs of arches, the web members may have to be

prestressed by applying external prestress forces, or temperature
forces.

With respect to external prestress forces, run the structure as if it were, say
a trussed arch, and determine the compression forces in the web members,
which it naturally cannot support. Then, as a new loading case, apply an
external force, which causes enough tension in the compression member so
that never compression can occur.

With respect to temperature forces, run the structure without prestressing

it, then determine the maximum compression force in the cable members
which should not exist, then apply a negative thermal force (i.e.
temperature decrease causes shortening) to all those members thereby pre-
stressing them, so that they all will be in tension.

To perform the thermal analysis in SAP, select the frame element, then click
Assign, then Frame/Cable Loads, and then Temperature; in the Frame
Temperature Loading dialog box select first Load Case, then Type (i.e.
temperature for uniform constant temperature difference).
 10'

a d
6'

12'

b e
c f
10'

L = 40'
A

B C

D E
 Cable-stayed bridge systems

consist of the towers, cable stays, and deck structure. The stays can
give support to the deck structure only at a few points, using one,
two, three, or four cables, or the stays can be closely spaced thereby
reducing the beam moments and allowing much larger spans.
Typical multiple stays can be arranged in a fan-type fashion by
letting them start all together at the top of the tower and then spread
out. They can be arranged in a harp-type manner, where they are
arranged parallel across the height of the tower. The stay
configuration may also fall between the fan-harp types. Furthermore,
the stay configurations are not always symmetrical as indicated. In
the transverse direction, the stays may be arranged in one vertical
plane at the center or off center, in two vertical planes along the edge
of the roadway, in diagonal planes descending from a common point
to the edge deck girders, or the stays may be arranged in some other
spatial manner. In bridge design generally cables are used because
of the low live-to-dead load ratio.
Marcaibo Bridge, Venezuela ,
1962, Riccardo Morandi
Oberkassel Rhine Bridge,
Germany, 1973
Friedrich-Ebert-
Bridge, Bonn,
Germany, 1967
3rd Orinoco Brcke, Venezuela, 2010, Harrer Ingenieure GmbH
New Mississippi River Bridge
Record-breaking cable stayed road bridge
Currently under detailed design
Advanced 3D nonlinear, dynamic and staged construction analyses with LUSAS Bridge
When built, the New Mississippi River Bridge will be a record-breaking, cable-stayed structure linking the States of Illinois and
Missouri in the USA, helping to relieve traffic on other bridges across the river. The designer, Modjeski and Masters, was
chosen by the Illinois and Missouri Departments of Transportation to perform both the bridge-type study and to provide
preliminary and final design for the proposed bridge.

Facts and figures

At 222 feet (68m) in width, the Mississippi River Bridge will be the worlds widest cable-stayed structure.
It will carry eight traffic lanes with shoulders that provide for four additional lanes in the future.
The total length of the bridge is approximately 3,150 feet (961m).
The main span of 2,000 feet (610m) will be the longest clear span across the Mississippi River, the longest cable-stayed span
in the Western hemisphere and the fifth-longest cable-stayed span in the world.
Two 510 foot (155m) high single pylon towers will soar 435 feet (133m) above the roadway.
It will be the first major cable-stayed bridge to use three planes of cables in the main span.
Speyer Rhine Bridge,
Germany, 1975
Alamillo Bridge,
Sevilla, Spain,1992,
Santiago Calatrava
Three bridges over the Hoofdvaart Haarlemmermeer, the
Netherland, 2004, Santiago Calatrava
Erasmus Bridge, Rotterdam, 1996, architect Ben Van Berkel
Bangkok
Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge,
Boston, 2003
Bridge, Hoofddorp, Netherlands,
2004, Santiago Calatrava
Willemsbridge, Rotterdam, 1981, is a double suspension bridge, C.Veeling
Pedestrian Bridge Bad Homburg, 2002,
Architect Schlaich
Miho Museum Bridge, Shiga,
Japan,1996, I.M. Pei, Leslie e.
Robertrson
Ruck-a-chucky Bridge, Myron Goldsmith/ SOM, T.Y. Lin
 a b

c e d

Cable-Stayed Bridges
 CABLE STAYED ROOF
STRUCTURES

Cable-stayed, double-cantilever roofs for central spinal buildings

Cable-stayed, single-cantilever roofs as used for hangars and

grandstands

Cable-stayed beam structures supported by masts from the outside

Spatially guyed, multidirectional composite roof structures

Fiumicino Airport (Alitalia Hangar) , Rome International Airport, Rome, 1970,
Riccardo Morandi
Ice Hockey Rink, Squaw
Valley, CA, 1960, Corlett &
Spackman
Lufthansa Hangar (153 m), Munich, 1992, Buechl + Angerer
INMOS microprocessor factory, Newport, Gwent , 1987, Richard Rogers
& Partners, Hunt
Convention Center Trade Fair Hanover, 1989, H. Storch & W. Ehlers
Fleetguard Factory, Quimper, France, 1981, Richard Rogers
Waking Pool, 1989, F. Browns
The University of Chicago Gerald Ratner
Athletic Center, Cesar Pelli, 2002
HYDRAULIC JACKING SYSTEM USED TO TENSION CABLES
 W14 x 26

P5
P8
a

W14 x 43
P5

P8
b

W14 x 30

P6
P8
c

Cable-Stayed Roof
d W14 x 22
P10 Structures
Patcenter, Princeton, 1984, Richard Rogers
Peter Rice of Ove Arup & Partners
The principle of a central support with large free spaces on either side was
established after early discussions with the architect. The structural frame has
four separate elements. These are the tension support element, which consists of
a compression A-frame with hangers supporting a horizontal roof beam on either
side. This horizontal roof beam spans 25 m and the suspension system is placed
at 9 m centres. The A-frame sits on the second element, which is a portal frame
designed to resist the horizontal load and the vertical asymmetric load transmitted
to it by the A-frame. The third component in the system is the tie-down columns
which support the two suspended beams and resist uplift. These beams will
themselves resist uplift under wind load through the tension support members
and the beam acting together as an uplift beam. The fourth component is the
suspended platforms for the services capsules and the longitundinal bracing. The
structural solution attempted to achieve four aims:

1. All the horizontal forces associated with the vertical support system are
resolved at roof level. This means that only the external horizontal loads (wind
loads) are transferred to ground level, and this is done through the central portal,
so there is the minimum interruption to flow of space across the centre of the
plan. This is all that is required even when vertical loads on one side {such as
drifting snow loads) give large asymmetric horizontal forces in upper triangular
frame.
2. The uplift loads of wind are separately catered for to ensure that the roof
would be truly lightweight. The uplift beam and the suspension system work
together.
3. The stability of the support frame normal to its plane avoids direct stabilising
members to the ground. The stability is provided by ensuring that the way the
compression members of the A-frame rotate out of plane produces restoring
forces on the frame.

4. The bulk of the steel weight is in standard steel construction, with only some
special visible external elements being designed in non- conventional rods and
pin-ended columns. This is important in the environment of the American
construction industry which penalises non- conventional construction heavily.
The early sketches did not have the suspended plant room capsules. This meant
that although the A-frame was basically stable geometrically, it felt unsafe
visually. By using the hangers of suspended platforms to stabilise top of the A-
frame, the frame was stiffened, and the assembly felt visually more stable.
Also in the early sketches of the tension support system, a symmetrical
arrangement of supports was used. It was found in the detailed analysis that
these did not remain in tension in all load cases. To solve this the geometry was
changed to that which is now to be built.
Bangkok
Ice Rink Roof, Munich, 1984, Architect Ackermann und Partner,
Schlaich Bergermann
City Manchester Soccer Stadium,
Manchester, UK, 2003, ARUP
Architects and Engineers
The most visible features of the stadium are the 12
support masts (shown in blue, above). Tensile forces
are maintained in the cable net under
all loading conditions.
Millenium Dome (365 m), London, 1999, Rogers + Happold
 TENSEGRITY
tensile integrity

TENSEGRITY TRIPOD
 TENSEGRITY STRUCTURES

Buckminster Fuller described tensegrity as, small islands of compression in a

sea of tension. Ideal tensegrity structures are self-stressed systems, where few
non-touching straight compression struts are suspended in a continuous cable
network of tension members.

Tensegrity structures may be organized as

Closed tensegrity structures: sculptures

Open tensegrity structures
planar open tensegrity structures:
cable beams, cable trusses, cable frames
spatial open tensegrity structures:
flat or bent roof structures: e.g. tensegrity domes
Tensegrity structures may form open or closed systems. In closed systems
discontinuous diagonal struts, which do not touch each other, overlap in any
projection and stabilize the structure without external help that is supports. A basic
example is the polyhedral twist unit which are generated by rotating the base
polygons; the edges are formed by tension cables and the compression struts are
contained within the body. Kenneth Snelson called his famous twist unit, X Piece
(1968), because it forms an X in elevation. This unit is often considered as the
fundamental basis of the tensegrity principle and has inspired subsequent
generations of designers.

The tensegrity sculptures by Kenneth Snelson are famous examples of the

principle as demonstrated by the, Needle Tower at the Hirshorn Museum in
Washington, DC where the compression struts do not touch. Here, the tower is
created by adding twist units with triangular basis, where the triangular module is
decreased with height in addition to changing the direction of twist. Closed
tensegrity structures have not found any practical application in building
construction till now.
Twist unit: X Piece
Kenneth Snelson, Needle Tower, 1968,
Hirshorn Museum, Washington; this 60-ft
high (18 m) tower explores the spatial
interaction of tension and compression.

A network of continuous cables is

prestressed into shape by discontinuous
compression struts which never touch
each other. Buckminster Fuller explained
tensegrity as tensile integrity, as
islands of compression in a sea of
tension
Tensegrity sculptures by K. Snelson
SPHRERICAL ASSEMBLY OF TENSEGRITY TRIPODS
DOUBLE - LAYER TENSEGRITY DOME
The Skylon tower (172.8 m)
at the Festival of Britain,
London, 1951, Hidalgo Moya,
Philip Powell Arch
 Warnowturm Rostock,
Rostock, Germany, 2003,
Gerkan, Marg & Partner
In contrast, open tensegrity structures are stabilized at the
supports. Therefore, no diagonal compression members are required and
shorter struts can be used.

Open tensegrity structures can form planar or spatial structures.

Examples of planar systems include: cable beams, cable trusses, cable

frames as shown in Fig.s 11.18a, 11.19 and 11.22. These structures can also
form spatial units as shown in Fig.s 11.18c and Fig.11.21.

Examples of spatial systems include: flat or bent roof structures.

Examples of the spatial open tensegrity systems are the tensegrity domes.

David Geiger invented a new generation of low-profile domes, which he called

cable domes. He derived the concept from Buckminster Fullers aspension
(ascending suspension) tensegrity domes.
 Planar open tensegrity structures

4'
4'
P

12'
a

4' 4'
c

12'
b
Cable Beams

4' 2' 4'

12'
-in. rod

c
P1.5

8' 40' 8'

P2

P3
P2

Cable frames

a. b. c. d. e.
Cable-Supported Columns (spatial units)
Spatial open tensegrity structures

Fullers tensegrity dome

FULLERS TENSEGRITY DOME GEIGERS CABLE DOME

David Geiger invented a new generation of low-profile domes after his air
domes, which he called cable domes. He derived the concept from
Buckminster Fullers aspension (ascending suspension) tensegrity domes,
which are triangle based and consist of discontinuous radial trusses tied
together by ascending concentric tension rings; but the roof was not
conceived as made of fabric.
Geigers prestressed domes, in contrast, appear in plan like simple, radial
Schwedler domes with concentric tension hoops. His domes consist of
radioconcentric spatial cable network and vertical compression struts. In other
words, radial cable trusses interact with concentric floating tension rings
(attached to the bottom of the posts) that step upward toward the crown in
accordance with Fullers aspension effect. The trusses get progressively
thinner toward the center, similar to a pair of cantilever trusses not touching
each other; the heaviest member occur at the perimeter of the span. In section,
the radial trusses appear as planar and the missing bottom chords give the
feeling of instability, which however, is not the case since they are replaced by
the hoop cables that the the cables together.
The cable dome concept can also be perceived as ridge cables radiating from
the central tension ring to the perimeter compression ring. They are held up
by the short compression struts, which in turn, are supported by the
concentric hoop (or ring) cables and are braced by the intermediate tension
diagonals, as well as by the radial cables. A typical diagonal cable is attached
to the top of a post and to the bottom of the next post.
The pie-shaped fabric panels span from ridge cable to ridge cable and then
are tensioned by the valley cables, thus being shaped into anticlastic
surfaces; they contribute to the overall stiffness of the dome. The maximum
radial cable spacing is limited by the strength of the fabric and detail
considerations. The number of tension hoop is a function of the dome span.
The sequence of erection of the roof network, which is done without
scaffolding, is critical, that is, the stressing sequence of the posttensioned
roof cables to pull the dome up into place.
Olympic Fencing and Gymnastics Arenas,
Seoul, 1989, Geiger
Olympic Fencing and Gymnastics Arenas, Seoul, 1989, Geiger
The first tensegrity domes built were the gymnastics and fencing stadiums
for the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea. The 393-ft span dome
for the gymnastics stadium required three tension hoops and has a
structural weight of merely 2 psf.
The 688-ft span Florida Suncoast Dome in St. Petersburg (1989) is one of the
largest cable domes in the world. The dome is a four-hoop structure with 24
cable trusses and has a structural weight of only 5 psf. The dome weight is 8
psf, which includes the steel cables, posts, center tension ring, the catwalks
supported by the hoop cables, lighting, and fabric panels.
The translucent fabric consists of the outer Teflon-coated fiberglass
membrane, the inner vinyl-coated polyester fabric, and an 8-in. thick layer of
fiberglass insulation sandwiched between them. The dome has a 6o tilt and
rests on all-precast, prestressed concrete stadium structure,
Georgia Dome, Atlanta, 1995,
Weidlinger, Structures such as the
Hypar-Tensegrity Dome, 234 m x 186 m
Georgia Dome, Atlanta, 1992, HYPAR TENSEGRITY DOME
The worlds largest cable dome is currently Atlantas Georgia Dome (1992),
designed by engineer Mattys Levy of Weidlinger Associates. Levy developed
for this enormous 770- x 610-ft oval roof the hypar tensegrity dome, which
required three concentric tension hoops. He used the name because the
triangular-shaped roof panels form diamonds that are saddle shaped.
In contrast to Geigers radial configuration primarily for round cable domes,
Levy used triangular geometry, which works well for noncircular structures
and offers more redundancy, but also results in a more complex design and
erection process. An elliptical roof differs from a circular one in that the
tension along the hoops is not constant under uniform gravity load action.
Furthermore, while in radial cable domes, the unbalanced loads are resisted
first by the radial trusses and then distributed through deflection of the
network, in triangulated tensegrity domes, loads are distributed more evenly.
The oval plan configuration of the roof consists of two radial circular
segments at the ends, with a planar, 184-ft long tension cable truss at the long
axis that pulls the roofs two foci together. The reinforced-concrete
compression ring beam is a hollow box girder 26 ft wide and 5 ft deep that
rests on Teflon bearing pads on top of the concrete columns to accommodate
movements.
The Teflon-coated fiberglass membrane, consisting of the fused diamond-
shaped fabric panels approximately 1/16 in. thick, is supported by the cable
network but works independently of it (i.e. filler panels); it acts solely as a
roof membrane but does contribute to the dome stiffness. The total dead load
of the roof is 8 psf.
The roof erection, using simultaneous lift of the entire giant roof network from
the stadium floor to a height of 250 ft, was an impressive achievement of
Birdair, Inc.
 CABLE-BEAMS and CABLE-SUPPORTED COLUMNS

Tensile structures such as cable beams, guyed structures, tensile

membranes, tensegrity structures, etc. are pre-stressed so they can
resist compression forces which can be done by applying external pre-
stress forces and loads due temperature decrease.

Cable beams, which include cable trusses, represent the most simple case
of the family of pretensioned cable systems that includes cable nets
and tensegrity structures. Visualize a single suspended (concave)
cable, the primary cable, to be stabilized by a secondary arched
(convex) cable or prestressing cable. This secondary cable can be
placed on top of the primary cable by employing compression struts,
thus forming a lens-shaped beam (Fig. 9.4A), or it can be located below
the primary cable (either by touching or being separated at center) by
connecting the two cables with tension ties or diagonals. A combination
of the two cable configurations yields a convex-concave cable beam.

Cable beams can form simple span or multi-span structures; they also can
be cantilevers. They can be arranged in a parallel or radial fashion, or in
a rectangular or triangular grid-work for various roof forms, or they can
be used as single beams for any other application.
Shanghai-Pudong International Airport, 2001, Paul Andreu principal architect,
Coyne et Bellier structural engineers
Petersbogen shopping center,
Leipzig, 2001, HPP Hentrich-
Petschnigg
Cologne/Bonn Airport,
Germany, 2000, Helmut
Jahn Arch., Ove Arup USA
Struct. Eng.
Suspended glass skins form a composite system of glass and stainless steel.
Here, glass panels are glued together with silicone and supported by
lightweight cable beams.
Typically, the lateral wind pressure is carried by the glass panels in bending to
the suspended vertical cable support structures that act as beams. The tensile
beams are laterally stabilized by the glass or braced by stainless steel rods.
The dead loads are usually transferred from the glass panels to vertical tension
rods, or each panel is hung directly from the next panel above; in other words,
the upper panels carry the deadweight of the lower panels in tension.
The structural and thermal movements in the glass wall are taken up by the
resiliency of the glass-to-glass silicone joints and, for example, by ball-jointed
metal links at the glass-to-truss connections, thereby preventing stress
concentrations and bending of the glass at the corners.
 World Trade Center,
Amsterdam, 2003, Kohn,
Pedersen & Fox
Underground shopping Xidan Beidajie, Xichangan Jie, Beijing
Utica Memorial Auditorium, Utica, New York, 1965, Lev Zetlin
Sony Center, Potzdamer Platz, Berlin, 2000, Helmut Jahn Arch., Ove Arup
Sony Center, Potzdamer Platz,
Berlin, 2000, Helmut Jahn
Arch., Ove Arup USA Struct.
Eng
a

Cable Beams
Newark air terminal C, USA
MUDAM, Museum of Modern Art, Luxembourg, 2006, I.M. Pei
Chongqing shopping center
Shopping Center Dalian, China
World Trade Center, Amsterdam, 2003 (?), Kohn, Pedersen & Fox
 -in. rod
P1.5

P2

P3
P2

a. b. c. d. e.

Cable-Supported Columns
 Tensegrity Frames

Typical planar tensegrity frames are shown in Fig. 11.21, where suspended
cables are connected to a second set of cables of reverse curvature to form
pretensioned cable trusses, which remain in tension under any loading
condition. In other words, visualize a single suspended (concave) cable, the
primary cable, to be stabilized by a secondary arched (convex) cable or
prestressing cable. This secondary cable can be placed on top of the
primary cable by employing compression struts, thus forming a lens-shaped
beam (Fig. 11.10a), or it can be located below the primary cable (either by
touching or being separated at center) by connecting the two cables with
tension ties or diagonals (c). A combination of the two cable configurations
yields a convex-concave cable beam (b).

The use of the dual-cable approach not only causes the single flexible cable to
be more stable with respect to fluttering, but also results in higher strength and
stiffness. The stiffness of the cable beam depends on the curvature of the
cables, cable size, level of pretension, and support conditions. The cable
beam is highly indeterminate from a force flow point of view; it cannot be
considered a rigid beam with a linear behavior in the elastic range. The
sharing of the loads between the cables, that is, finding the proportion of the
load carried by each cable, is an extremely difficult problem.
In the first loading stage, prestress forces are induced into the beam structure. The initial
tension (i.e. prestress force minus compression due to cable and spreader weight) in the
arched cable should always be larger than the compression forces that are induced by the
superimposed loads due to the roofing deck and live load; this is to prevent the convex cable
and web ties from becoming slack.
Let us assume that under full loading stage all the loads, w, are carried by the suspended
cables and that the forces in the arched cables are zero. Therefore, when the superimposed
loads are removed, equivalent minimum prestress loads of, w/2, are required to satisfy the
assumed condition, which in turn is based on equal cross-sectional areas of cables and equal
cable sags so that the suspended and arched cables carry the same loads.
Naturally, the equivalent prestress load cannot be zero under maximum loading conditions
since its magnitude is not just a function of strength as based on static loading and initial
cable geometry, but also of dynamic loading including damping (i.e. natural period), stiffness,
and considerations of the erection process. The determination of prestress forces requires a
complex process of analysis, which is beyond the scope of this introductory discussion. It is
assumed for rough preliminary approximation purposes that the final equivalent prestress
loads are equal to, w/2 (often designers us final prestress loads at lest equal to live loads,
wL).
It is surely overly conservative to assume all the loads to be supported by the
suspended cable, while the secondary cables only function is to damp the vibration of
the primary cable. Because of the small sag-to-span ratio of cable beams, it is reasonable to
treat the maximum cable force, T, as equal to the horizontal thrust force, H, for preliminary
design purposes.
8'
c
a

40'
P

8'

12' 4' 2' 4' 12' 4' 4' 12' 4' 4'