(Javidinejad, Amir) Essentials of Mechanical Stres PDF

Essentials of
Mechanical Stress
Analysis
Amir Javidinejad
Essentials of
Mechanical Stress
Analysis
MECHANICAL and AEROSPACE ENGINEERING
Frank Kreith & Darrell W. Pepper
Series Editors
RECENTLY PUBLISHED TITLES

Air Distribution in Buildings, Essam E. Khalil
Alternative Fuels for Transportation, Edited by Arumugam S. Ramadhas
Computer Techniques in Vibration, Edited by Clarence W. de Silva
Design and Control of Automotive Propulsion Systems,
Zongxuan Sun and Guoming (George) Zhu
Distributed Generation: The Power Paradigm for the New Millennium,
Edited by Anne-Marie Borbely and Jan F. Kreider
Elastic Waves in Composite Media and Structures: With Applications to Ultrasonic
Nondestructive Evaluation, Subhendu K. Datta and Arvind H. Shah
Elastoplasticity Theory, Vlado A. Lubarda
Energy Audit of Building Systems: An Engineering Approach, Moncef Krarti
Energy Conversion, Second Edition, Edited by D. Yogi Goswami and Frank Kreith
Energy Efficiency in the Urban Environment, Heba Allah Essam E. Khalil and
Essam E. Khalil
Energy Management and Conservation Handbook, Second Edition,
Edited by Frank Kreith and D. Yogi Goswami
Essentials of Mechanical Stress Analysis, Amir Javidinejad
The Finite Element Method Using MATLAB, Second Edition, Young W. Kwon and
Hyochoong Bang
Fluid Power Circuits and Controls: Fundamentals and Applications, John S. Cundiff
Fuel Cells: Principles, Design, and Analysis, Shripad Revankar and Pradip Majumdar
Fundamentals of Environmental Discharge Modeling, Lorin R. Davis
Handbook of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Edited by Frank Kreith and
D. Yogi Goswami
Handbook of Hydrogen Energy, Edited by S.A. Sherif, D. Yogi Goswami,
Elias K. Stefanakos, and Aldo Steinfeld
Heat Transfer in Single and Multiphase Systems, Greg F. Naterer
Heating and Cooling of Buildings: Design for Efficiency, Revised Second Edition,
Jan F. Kreider, Peter S. Curtiss, and Ari Rabl
Intelligent Transportation Systems: Smart and Green Infrastructure Design, Second
Edition, Sumit Ghosh and Tony S. Lee
Introduction to Biofuels, David M. Mousdale
Introduction to Precision Machine Design and Error Assessment, Edited by Samir Mekid
Introductory Finite Element Method, Chandrakant S. Desai and Tribikram Kundu
Large Energy Storage Systems Handbook, Edited by Frank S. Barnes and Jonah G. Levine
Machine Elements: Life and Design, Boris M. Klebanov, David M. Barlam, and
Frederic E. Nystrom
Mathematical and Physical Modeling of Materials Processing Operations,
Olusegun Johnson Ilegbusi, Manabu Iguchi, and Walter E. Wahnsiedler
Mechanics of Composite Materials, Autar K. Kaw
Mechanics of Fatigue, Vladimir V. Bolotin
Mechanism Design: Enumeration of Kinematic Structures According to Function,
Lung-Wen Tsai
Mechatronic Systems: Devices, Design, Control, Operation and Monitoring,
Edited by Clarence W. de Silva
The MEMS Handbook, Second Edition (3 volumes), Edited by Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
MEMS: Introduction and Fundamentals
MEMS: Applications
MEMS: Design and Fabrication
Multiphase Flow Handbook, Edited by Clayton T. Crowe
Nanotechnology: Understanding Small Systems, Third Edition, Ben Rogers, Jesse Adams,
Sumita Pennathur
Nuclear Engineering Handbook, Edited by Kenneth D. Kok
Optomechatronics: Fusion of Optical and Mechatronic Engineering, Hyungsuck Cho
Practical Inverse Analysis in Engineering, David M. Trujillo and Henry R. Busby
Pressure Vessels: Design and Practice, Somnath Chattopadhyay
Principles of Solid Mechanics, Rowland Richards, Jr.
Principles of Sustainable Energy Systems, Second Edition, Edited by Frank Kreith with
Susan Krumdieck, Co-Editor
Thermodynamics for Engineers, Kau-Fui Vincent Wong
Vibration and Shock Handbook, Edited by Clarence W. de Silva
Vibration Damping, Control, and Design, Edited by Clarence W. de Silva
Viscoelastic Solids, Roderic S. Lakes
Weatherization and Energy Efficiency Improvement for Existing Homes: An Engineering
Approach, Moncef Krarti
Essentials of
Mechanical Stress
Analysis
Amir Javidinejad
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20140930
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-5848-6 (eBook - PDF)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts
have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers
have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to
copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has
not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmit-
ted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.
com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood
Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and
registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC,
a separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
To my daughters, Sara and Tina
Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................... xiii
About the Author...................................................................................................xv
1 Basics of Material Engineering....................................................................1

1.1 Introduction............................................................................................ 1
1.2 The Fundamental Terms.......................................................................1
1.3 The Material Properties........................................................................8
Problems........................................................................................................... 10
References........................................................................................................ 10
2 Stress and Strain Relationship................................................................... 11

2.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 11
2.2 Stress...................................................................................................... 11
2.3 2-D Stresses on an Inclined Angle..................................................... 12
2.4 Principal Stresses................................................................................. 13
2.5 Mohrs Circle......................................................................................... 14
2.6 Strain...................................................................................................... 19
2.7 Plane Stress and Strain........................................................................ 19
2.8 Principal Strains................................................................................... 20
2.9 Stress Based on the Measured Strains.............................................. 21
2.10 Stress State in Polar Coordinates....................................................... 23
2.11 Stress Field around Circular Holes in Thin Plates.......................... 24
Problems........................................................................................................... 27
References........................................................................................................ 30
3 Stress Due to Pressure Conditions............................................................ 31

3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 31
3.2 Contact Stresses.................................................................................... 31
3.3 Thin-Walled Spherical Pressure Vessels........................................... 37
3.4 Thin-Walled Cylindrical Pressure Vessels....................................... 37
3.5 Thick-Walled Cylinder........................................................................42
Problems...........................................................................................................43
References........................................................................................................ 45
4 Failure Criteria............................................................................................... 47
4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 47
4.2 Material Failure.................................................................................... 47
4.3 Maximum Shear Stress Criterion...................................................... 48
4.4 Maximum Distortion Energy Criterion............................................ 49
4.5 Maximum Normal Stress Criterion................................................... 49
ix
x Contents
4.6 Mohrs Criterion................................................................................... 50

4.7 Factor of Safety Calculations.............................................................. 50
Problems........................................................................................................... 53
References........................................................................................................54
5 Beam Analysis Theory................................................................................. 55

5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 55
5.2 Boundary Conditions and Loading.................................................. 55
5.3 Shear and Moment Diagrams............................................................ 56
5.4 Deflection of the Beams...................................................................... 60
5.5 Bending of the Beams.......................................................................... 71
5.6 Shear of the Beams............................................................................... 72
5.7 Torsion of the Beams........................................................................... 74
5.8 Curved Beam Theory.......................................................................... 75
Problems........................................................................................................... 82
References........................................................................................................84
6 Plate Analysis Theory.................................................................................. 85

6.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 85
6.2 Circular Plates Uniformly Loaded.................................................... 85
6.3 Circular Plates Loaded at the Center................................................ 89
6.4 Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Plates............................................. 93
Problems........................................................................................................... 95
References........................................................................................................ 96
7 Elastic Stability and Buckling.................................................................... 97

7.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 97
7.2 Column Buckling Instability.............................................................. 97
7.3 Column Buckling under Combined Axial and Bending Loads......103
7.4 Multiple Column System Buckling................................................. 105
7.5 Buckling of Plates............................................................................... 107
Problems......................................................................................................... 110
References...................................................................................................... 111
8 Fatigue Analysis.......................................................................................... 113

8.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 113
8.2 Stress-Life SN Curve....................................................................... 113
8.3 Fatigue Crack Growth....................................................................... 116
Problems......................................................................................................... 117
References...................................................................................................... 118
9 Energy Methods........................................................................................... 119

9.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 119
9.2. Strain Energy...................................................................................... 119
9.3 Castiglianos Theory.......................................................................... 121
Contents xi
9.4 Stress Due to Impact by Potential Energy...................................... 124

Problems......................................................................................................... 128
References...................................................................................................... 130
10 Numerical and Finite Element Methods................................................. 131

10.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 131
10.2 Stress on Truss Elements................................................................... 131
10.3 Stress on Beam Members.................................................................. 144
10.4 Accurate Finite Element Analysis of Plates.................................... 151
Problems......................................................................................................... 167
References...................................................................................................... 169
11 Composite Analysis Theory...................................................................... 171

11.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 171
11.2 Orthotropic Lamina........................................................................... 171
11.3 Orthotropic Layers Oriented at an Arbitrary Angle..................... 173
11.4 Analysis of Laminate......................................................................... 176
11.5 Effective Modulus of the Laminate................................................. 185
Problems......................................................................................................... 186
References...................................................................................................... 187
12 Fasteners and Joint Connections.............................................................. 189

12.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 189
12.2 Fastener Connection Failure............................................................. 189
12.3 Welded Connection Failure.............................................................. 193
12.4 Eccentric Loading of Fasteners........................................................ 194
12.5 Intercoupling Loading of Fasteners and Inserts........................... 198
12.6 Fastener Properties............................................................................ 198
Problems......................................................................................................... 199
References...................................................................................................... 200
13 MathCAD Stress Analysis Simulations............................................... 201

13.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 201
13.2 Section Property Calculations.......................................................... 202
13.3 Stress Transformation and Principal Stresses............................... 206
13.4 Hookes Law (Stress and Strain Conversations)............................ 208
13.5 Contact Stresses.................................................................................. 210
13.6 Pressure Vessels................................................................................. 211
13.7 Shear and Moment Diagrams.......................................................... 212
13.8 Curved Beam Theory........................................................................ 215
13.9 Deflection of Circular Plates............................................................. 218
13.10 Deflection of Rectangular Plates...................................................... 224
13.11 Column Buckling............................................................................... 226
13.12 Plate Buckling..................................................................................... 229
xii Contents
13.13 Finite Element of Truss System........................................................ 230

13.14 Composite Laminate Lay-up Analysis............................................234
13.15 Eccentric Loading of the Fasteners.................................................. 240
References...................................................................................................... 242
Preface
This book is written to provide a text for associated topics in stress and
structural analysis for higher-level undergraduates, graduate students, and
practicing stress analysts in mechanical, aerospace, civil, and materials engi-
neering fields. It is written to provide the essential theories needed for prob-
lem solving and stress analysis on structural systems. The study of this book
requires prior knowledge of undergraduate mechanics of material, engi-
neering materials, and engineering mathematics. Both theory and numerical
examples are provided for a better understanding of the concepts.
In todays engineering world, more and more companies are requiring
stress analysts to carry out multidisciplinary subjects of solid mechanics
all at once. Taking that into consideration, this book is designed to cover
the broad collection of topics in the stress analysis field that are essential
for carrying out analysis of structures. It is unique because it gathers topics
together that are otherwise normally presented as individual course topics.
It covers both the analytical and numerical approaches to stress analysis,
as well as isotropic, metallic, and orthotropic composite material analyses.
Chapter 1 of this book covers the fundamentals of engineering materi-
als that are a prerequisite for understanding the concepts of stress analysis.
Chapter 2 elaborates on the basic concepts of stress and strain, covering the
relationship between the two. It focuses on the state of stress and covers prin-
cipal stress calculations. Chapter 3 is designed to show the application of a
polar coordinate system in the analysis of stress and strain. It covers the con-
cepts of stress fields due to line loading, stress concentration, and stresses for
pressure vessels. Chapter 4 introduces the different failure criteria and mar-
gins of safety calculations, while Chapter 5 is written to illustrate beam analy-
sis theory. It elaborates on the concepts of shear and moment diagrams, beam
deflection, bending of beams, beam shear, and beam torsion. Additionally,
this chapter covers the curved-beam analysis theory. Chapter 6 is designed
to cover the fundamentals of plate theory for stress and deflection analysis of
circular and rectangular plates. Chapter 7 covers the topics of elastic instabil-
ity and buckling of columns and plates. Chapter 8 is written to illustrate the
concept of fatigue and stress to life-cycle calculations. Chapter 9 covers the
energy methods applicable for determining deflection and stresses of struc-
tural systems. Chapter 10 introduces the numerical methods and finite ele-
ment techniques used for stress analysis of structures; it covers techniques
for analysis of beams and rods. Accurate finite element modeling is also dis-
cussed. Chapter 11 covers stress analysis methods for composite materials. It
xiii
xiv Preface
covers how lamina and laminate stress analyses are performed. Chapter 12
briefly illustrates fastener and joint connection analysis theory. Chapter 13
provides Mathcad computer worksheets that are developed for stress analy-
sis simulations of the topics covered in Chapters 1 through 12. This chapter is
a very comprehensive collection of simulation codes that can be used for fast
and reliable stress analysis of both metallic and composite sections.
About the Author
Amir Javidinejad received his MS degree from the Georgia Institute of

Technology in Atlanta and his PhD degree in mechanical engineering from
the University of Texas at Arlington. Dr. Javidinejad has extensive practi-
cal experience in structural solid mechanics and finite-element methods
from aerospace, military, and commercial industries as well as from aca-
demia. Dr. Javidinejad has been involved in research in the areas of struc-
tural mechanics of isotropic and composite materials, and his experiences
include static and dynamics simulation of various structures and structural
testing correlations.
xv
1
Basics of Material Engineering
1.1Introduction
Stress analysis theory is based on concepts derived from material behav-
ior. There are several relationships fundamental to the concepts of material
behavior that need to be explored before studying stress analysis theory.
Terms such as Hookes stressstrain behavior, modulus of elasticity of the
material, Poissons ratio effect, shear modulus, ultimate strength, shear
strength, yield strength, stress concentration, and coefficient of thermal
expansion are usually used to define material behavior.
1.2The Fundamental Terms

There are several fundamental terms that are known as the material con-
stants derived from the testing of the materials, normally in tensile tests.
Starting with the definition given by Hookes law, stress and strain are
related to each other by a material constant. Within the linear elastic region
of the material, this relationship is defined by the modulus of elasticity of the
material (E). The modulus of elasticity is defined as the ratio of increment of
unit stress () to increment of the unit deformation ():

E= (unit of psi) (1-1)

For isotropic homogeneous material, strain deformation in an axial direction

is related to the lateral strain deformations in the other two directions. This
relationship is defined by Poissons ratio as
y
v= = z (1-2)
x x
1
2 Essentials of Mechanical Stress Analysis
Similar to the modulus of elasticity, there is a modulus that relates shear

stress to the shearing strain of the material known as the shear modulus (G).
Thus, this shear modulus can be defined as

G= (unit of psi) (1-3)

Because there exists a relationship between the normal strain and the shear
strain of the material, then there must be a relationship between the modu-
lus of elasticity and the shear modulus, which is normally derived as
E
G= (1-4)
2(1 + v)
The ultimate strength of a material is defined as the maximum load sus-

tained by the material per original cross-sectional area of the section under
loading application (Sult). At this loading, material failure is certain.
Shear strength is defined as the maximum load sustained by the material
in the shearing mode per original cross-sectional area of the section under
loading application (Sshr).
The stress value corresponding to the stress where permanent strain is
observed from the stressstrain curve data is known as the yield strength
of the material (Syld). This permanent strain value is usually taken at 0.2 per-
cent of the original gauge length of the specimen being tested for producing
the stressstrain curve. (A straight line is drawn from there to the stress
strain curve, and the stress at that point is defined as the yield strength.)
At locations where there are notches, holes, fillets, or any other abrupt
changes in the geometry, the stress values are higher than the normal stress
distribution in the section under loading. These locations are known as
the stress riser or stress concentration locations. The ratio of the maximum
stress at these locations to the nominal distributed stress at the far field is
defined as the stress concentration factor (Kt), which is independent of the
material.
The stress concentration factors for several geometries with axial and
bending loadings are represented graphically by Figures1.1 through 1.5.
It should be noted that in brittle material the stress concentration causes
material failure if this stress is higher than the materials ultimate strength.
In ductile material, the stress concentrations higher than the yield strength
of the material cause local plastic deformation.
3.5
2.5
P w P
2
Kt
1.5
d
1
2 3
d d d
0.5 kt = 3 3.13 w + 3.66 w 1.53 w
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
d/w
FIGURE 1.1
Plate with transverse hole under axial tension or compression.
3
4
3.5
3
r
2.5
2 P w h P
Kt
1.5
2 3
2r + 0.647 2r + 0.658 2r
1 kt = 3.065 3.37 w w w
0.5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
2r/w
FIGURE 1.2
Plate with two semicircular grooves under axial tension or compression.
Essentials of Mechanical Stress Analysis
3.5
3 r
2.5
M w h M
2
Kt
1.5
2 3
2r 2r 2r
1 kt = 3.065 6.269 w + 7.015 w 2.812 w
0.5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
2r/w
FIGURE 1.3
Plate with two semicircular grooves under bending.
5
6
3.5
3
r
2.5
2 P w h P
Kt
1.5
2 3
1 r 2r 2r
kt = 2.988 7.3 w + 9.742 4.429
w w
0.5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
r/w
FIGURE 1.4
Plate with one semicircular groove under tension or compression.
3.5
3
r
2.5
2 M w h M
Kt
1.5
1 r 2r 2 4.927 2r 3
kt = 2.988 7.735 w + 10.674 w w
0.5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
r/w
FIGURE 1.5
Plate with one semicircular groove under bending.
7
The basics learned in this chapter are essential in carrying out stress
analysis of metallic and composite materials. For analysis of metallic materi-
alssince these materials are generally isotropiconly properties in one
direction are needed; the materials possess the same properties in all and
any directions when the structural member is being analyzed. On the other
hand, for composite materialssince these materials are orthotropicprop-
erties in major material coordinates are required to carry out the stress anal-
ysis of the structural members. In addition, since composites can be built to
possess desired properties in any direction, the analysis may require more
steps to develop the final stresses. Nevertheless, the lamina properties have
to be known to develop the final lay-up properties.
Further, both the metallic and composite materials react to changes in
the surrounding temperature. Thus, the material coefficient of thermal
expansion that defines these changes with respect to the temperature
changes has to be known for structural analysis. In addition, for stress
analysis the material allowable can be knocked down for different tem-
perature conditions. These knock-down factors can be determined from
the available material data usually presented in material handbooks. In
the industry, usually every company has a set of material standards that
are either derived from their own testing or adopted from the government
testing of the commonly known materials. In the next section of this chap-
ter, some of the properties for the commonly available materials used for
structures are presented in tabular form. These values can be used for
reference purposes to develop a general idea of the material properties.
The metallic materials have several different strength levels depending
on the types of alloys they have. Depending on the criticality of the actual
design, the yield or ultimate strength of material can be selected as the
design criteria.
1.3The Material Properties

Table1.1 illustrates typical material properties normally used for carrying
out stress analysis of solids. Table1.2 illustrates typical material properties
normally used for carrying out stress analysis of composite laminates.
TABLE1.1
Engineering Material Properties
Coefficient
Modulus of Modulus of Specific of Thermal Ultimate Tensile Ultimate Shear Yield
Elasticity Rigidity Poissons Weight Expansion Strength Strength 103 Strength
Material 106 psi 106 psi Ratio lb/in3 106/F 103 psi psi 103 psi
Steel
ASTM-A36 29 11.2 .3 .284 6.5 58 36
ASTM-A242 29 11.2 .3 .284 6.5 70 50
ASTM-A441 29 11.2 .3 .284 6.5 67 46
ASTM-A572 29 11.2 .3 .284 6.5 60 42
ASTM-A514 29 11.2 .3 .284 6.5 110 100

Stainless Cold-rolled 28 10.8 .3 .286 9.6 125 75
Stainless Annealed 28 10.8 .3 .286 9.6 95 55
Aluminum
2014-T4 10.6 4.1 .3 .101 12.8 62 38 42
2024-T4 10.6 4.1 .3 .101 12.9 68 41 47
6061-T6 10.0 3.7 .3 .098 13.1 45 30 40
7075-T6 10.4 3.9 .3 .101 12.0 83 48 73
Copper
Annealed 17 6.4 .3 .322 9.4 32 22 10
Hard-drawn 17 6.4 .3 .322 9.4 57 29 53
Titanium
Alloy (6Al&4V) 16.5 .3 .161 5.3 130 120
Plastic
Nylon .4 .4 .041 80 11 6.5
Polyester (TP) .35 .4 .048 75 8
Elastomer .03 .4 .043 6.5
Vinyl .45 .4 .052 75 6
Rubber 10 4 .5 .033 4 2
Glass 9.6 4.1 .2 .079 44 7
Silicon 23.9 .22 .084 1.02
9
TABLE1.2
Composite Lamina Material Properties
Ultimate Ultimate
Tensile Tensile
Modulus Modulus Modulus Poissons Strength Strength Shear
EL ET GLT Ratio Density Long. Transverse Strength
Material 106 psi 106 psi 106 psi vLT lb/in3 103 psi 103 psi 103 psi
IM6/Epoxy 29.4 1.62 1.22 0.32 0.058 508 8.1 14.2

Kevlar/Epoxy 12.6 0.8 0.32 0.34 0.050 186 4.4 7.1
T300/5208 26.3 1.49 1.04 0.28 0.058 218 5.8 9.9
T300/934 21.5 1.4 0.66 0.30 0.054 191 6.2 7.0
AS/3501 20.0 1.3 1.03 0.30 0.058 210 7.5 13.5
AS4/3501-6 20.6 1.49 1.04 0.27 0.057 331 8.3 10.3
S-glass/Epoxy 6.2 1.29 0.65 0.27 0.072 186 7.1 10.0
E-glass/Epoxy 5.7 1.25 0.55 0.28 0.076 157 5.7 12.9
Problems
1. Define in simple terms the stress on a solid body and indicate the units
of stress in the International System of Units (SI) and English systems.
2. Define strain and its relationship with stress in isotropic materials.
3. For metallic material, what is the materials Poissons ratio and what
is a typical value of Poissons ratio for that material?
4. How can one determine the yield strength of a material from the
stress and strain plotted from material tensile tests?
5. Take the average of three metallic materials ultimate tensile strengths
and yield strengths and compare the ultimate to yield values.
6. In general, how do composite materials compare in strength-to-den-
sity ratio to the metallic material?
7. How does the elastic modulus compare to the shear modulus in typ-
ical steel materials? Can this result indicate a relationship?
8. For a flat plate with a circular hole in the middle, is the stress concen-
tration higher in close proximity to the hole or away from the hole?
References
Beer, F.P., Johnston, E.R., DeWolf, J.T., Mechanics of Material, 2002. New York: McGraw
Hill Inc.
Young, W.C., Roarks Formulas for Stress & Strain, 1989. New York: McGraw Hill Inc.
2
Stress and Strain Relationship
2.1Introduction
This chapter establishes the definitions of stress and strain. Further,
Hookes law relating stress to strain is discussed. The determination of
principal stresses and strains is shown, and the application of Mohrs circle
is elaborated. The state of stress in polar coordinates is shown, and the con-
cept of stress concentration around holes in plates is discussed. Numerical
examples are provided to elaborate the concept and theory presented here.
2.2Stress
Stress is defined as an application of a load over a finite area, where the
area is an extension of a three-dimensional (3-D) element. The state of
stress is normally defined in terms of the stresses due to normal and shear
loads acting on a structural body. It can be represented in either Cartesian
or polar coordinate systems; however, preference is given to the Cartesian
system for general-shaped bodies. The state of stress on a body in three-
dimensions is shown by Figure2.1, where x, y, and z are defined as nor-
mal stresses and xy, yx, yz, zy, xz, and zx as the shear stresses present
on a body. When the 3-D element is in equilibrium, the shear components
reduce as follows:
xy = yx yz = zy zx = xz (2-1)
11
yx
yz xy
zy x
xz x
zx
FIGURE 2.1
3-D state of stress.
2.32-D Stresses on an Inclined Angle

The normal and shear stresses acting on a stress element shown by Figure2.2
at any inclined angle are calculated as follows:
x + y x y
= + cos 2 + xy sin 2 (2-2)
2 2
x y
= sin 2 + xy cos 2 (2-3)
2
y
y
yx

xy
x
x x xy x
yx
FIGURE 2.2
2-D state of stress for an inclined angle.
Stress and Strain Relationship 13
where the inclination angle is defined as
2 xy 2 xy
tan 2 = or 2 = tan 1 (2-4)
x y x y

2.4Principal Stresses
To determine the extreme poles of stress (or principal stresses), Equations
(2-2) and (2-3) are differentiated with respect to and set to zero to determine
the principal angle 2. Then the principal angles are substituted back into
Equations (2-2) and (2-3) to determine the principal stresses,
d
= ( x y )sin 2 + 2 xy cos 2 = 0 (2-5)

2 xy 2 xy
tan 2 p = or 2 p = tan 1 (2-6)
x y x y

Substitute Equation (2-6) back into Equation (2-2) and the principal stresses
are shown as
2
x + y x y
1,2 = + 2xy (2-7)
2 2
.
Likewise for maximum shear:
d x y
= 2 cos 2 2 xy sin 2 = 0 (2-8)
2
x y x y
tan 2 s = or 2 s = tan 1 (2-9)
2 xy 2 xy

Substitute Equation (2-9) back into Equation (2-3) and the maximum shear
stresses are
2
x y
1,2 = + 2xy (2-10)
2
y
x + y x y
2 2
max
(x , xy)
2 A
x y
+ xy 2
2 2P
2 1
x
C
B
2s
(y, yx)
FIGURE 2.3
Mohrs circle.
Now that the principal and maximum shear stress relations are developed,
the graphical representation of them can be shown by Mohrs circle. Mohrs
circle is used in the determination of the state of stress of any point at any
plane direction. The construction of the Mohrs circle is shown in Figure2.3
and described in Section 2.5.
2.5Mohrs Circle
Establish the coordinate system with the x axis representing the normal
stresses and the y axis representing the shear stresses. Indicate the center
of the Mohrs circle by taking the average of the normal stress (C). Locate
point A by using the stress element notations shown in Figure2.3. The stress
components in Figure2.3 represent all positive states of stresses. Likewise,
locate point B by its stress components. Draw a circle centered on point C
with diameter AB. Draw the line from point A to point B.
Now the stress state transformation can be determined graphically by
rotating the line AB at the transformation plane angle. The principal stresses
and the maximum shear stress can be determined by rotation of the line AB
at the angles p and s, respectively.
Example 2.1
Element A is located on the top surface of the 1-inch shaft. Stress ele-
ment A would be subjected to a moment (M) and torque (T) due to a
downward load of 1000 lbs. Determine the principal stresses at that shaft
location and draw the Mohrs circle.
y
1 in A
x
3.4 in x
A
y
5 in
1000 lb
M = (3.4)(1000) = 3400 in lb

Mc
=
I
then
(3400)(0.5)
= = 35000 psi ( I = D 4/64).
0.049
T = (5)(1000) = 5000 in lb

Tc
=
J
then
(5000)(0.5)
= = 25510 psi ( J = D 4/32).
0.098
Knowing
2
x + y x y
1,2 = + 2xy
2 2

then the principal stresses are

2
0 + 35000 0 35000 2
1,2 = + ( 25510 ) = 48436 and 13436 psi
2 2
Using Equation (2-6), the principal angle is
2(25510)
2 p = tan 1 , thus p = 27.77
0 35000
Knowing
2
x y
1,2 = + 2xy
2

then the maximum shear stresses are
2
0 35000 2
1,2 = + ( 25500 ) = 30927 psi
2

Using Equation (2-9), the shear angle is
0 35000
2 s = tan 1
2(25510)

thus, s = 17.23 and
0 + 35000
avg = = 17500 psi
2

1 = 30927 psi
(35000,25510)
235.55
2 = 13435 psi 1 = 48435 psi

17500 psi
55.55
34.45
(0, 25510)
2 = 30927 psi
117.78
avg
1, 2
2
1
avg
A x
17.23
A x avg
1, 2
2 1 avg
Example 2.2
For the state of stress shown here, determine the principal stresses and
the maximum shear, and draw the Mohrs circle.
10000 psi
12000 psi
20000 psi x
Knowing
2
x + y x y
1,2 = + 2xy ,
2 2

then the principal stresses are
2
20000 + 10000 20000 10000
1,2 = + 120002
2 2
= 2800 and 2000 psi.

Using Equation (2-6), the principal angle is
2(12000)
2 p = tan 1 , thus p = 33.69.
20000 10000
Knowing,
2
x y
1,2 = + 2xy,
2

then the maximum shear stresses are
2
20000 10000
1,2 = + 120002 = 13000 psi.
2

Using Equation (2-9), the shear angle is
20000 10000
2 s = tan 1 ,
2(12000)

thus, s = 11.31 and
20000 + 10000
avg = = 15000 psi
2
1 = 13000 psi
(20000,12000)
67.38
2 = 2000 psi 15000 psi 1 = 28000 psi

22.62
(10000, 12000)
2 = 13000 psi
2000 psi
15000 psi
28000 psi
13000 psi
33.69
x x11.31
15000 psi
28000 psi
2000 psi
2.6Strain
Strain is defined as the deformation in any direction per length (dL/L). Based
on the generalized Hookes law the corresponding strain in the body shown
by Figure2.1 (where the stresses do not exceed the proportional limit of the
material) can be represented as:
x y
x = z (2-11)
E E E
x y
y = + z (2-12)
E E E
x y z
z = + (2-13)
E E E
xy
xy = (2-14)
G
yz
yz = (2-15)
G
zx
zx = (2-16)
G
The strain due to the thermal expansion (T) can also be added to the
strain Expressions (2-11), (2-12), and (2-13) for a more accurate representation
of total strain.
2.7Plane Stress and Strain

In the case of a thin plate, the stress through the thickness would be zero and
the stressstrain relations reduce to the following expressions (plane stress):
x + y
x = E (2-17)
1 2
y + x
y = E (2-18)
1 2

z = ( x + y ) (2-19)
1
To derive Expressions (2-17) and (2-18), set z = 0 in Equations (2-11) and

(2-12) and solve the two simultaneous equations for x and y. Then to
derive Expression (2-19), substitute the two Expressions (2-17) and (2-18) into
Equation (2-13).
For the case where the longitudinal movement of the body is constrained
in the z direction (z = 0), the stressstrain relations reduce to the following
expressions (plane stain):
z = ( x + y ) (2-20)

1
x = [(1 2 ) x (1 + ) y ] (2-21)
E

1
y = [(1 2 ) y (1 + ) x ] (2-22)
E
To derive Expression (2-20), start by setting Equation (2-13) to zero. To

derive Expressions (2-21) and (2-22), substitute Equation (2-20) into Equations
(2-12) and (2-13), respectively.
2.8Principal Strains
In theory, the strain transformation of a point in a structural body is similar
to stress transformations. Thus, the principal strains can be derived in the
same manner. The principal strains of a point with respect to the two per-
pendicular directions and x and y are as follows:
x + y 1
1,2 = ( x y )2 + 2xy , (2-23)
2 2
whereas the direction of the principal strain would be
xy
tan 2 = . (2-24)
x y

Likewise, the maximum shear strain is shown as
1
= ( x y )2 + 2xy. (2-25)
2 max 2
C B
3 A
2
1
x
FIGURE 2.4
Strain gauges rosette.
2.9Stress Based on the Measured Strains

The stresses at a point on a structural surface can be determined by measure-
ment of the strains at that point. This can be done by mounting strain gages
on the surface of the structure and measuring the strains along any three
line directions at some angle apart. Figure2.4 illustrates such a concept.
The normal strain in the direction of strain gages can be written in terms
of the strain components x, y, and xy as follows:
A = x cos 2 1 + y sin 2 1 + xy sin 1 cos 1 (2-26)

B = x cos 2 2 + y sin 2 2 + xy sin 2 cos 2 (2-27)

C = x cos 2 3 + y sin 2 3 + xy sin 3 cos 3 (2-28)

Example 2.3
The strains at a point are measured using a 45 rosette. The strains mea-
sured are A = 40 , B = 1000 , and C = 400 . Determine the x and y strain
components for normal and shear strains. Calculate the normal stresses in
x and y direction and the shear stress. Also calculate the principal strains.
C
B
x
A
By relations 2-26 through 2-28,
40 = x cos 2 0 + y sin 2 0 + xy sin 0 cos 0 40 = x

1000 = x cos 2 45 + y sin 2 45 + xy sin 45 cos 45 1000 = x (0.5) + y (0.5)

+ xy (0.5)
400 = x cos 2 90 + y sin 2 90 + xy sin 90 cos 90 400 = y

Solving the above relations simultaneously, one would have:
x = 40 , y = 400 and xy = 1560

Using Equations, (2-23) and (2-25) the principal strains are calculated
as following,
x + y 1
1,2 = ( x y )2 + 2xy
2 2
thus,
40 + 400 1
1,2 = (40 400)2 + 15602 = 1020 and 580.5
2 2
1
= ( x y )2 + 2xy,
2 max 2
thus
1
= (40 400)2 + 15602 = 800.5 .
2 max 2
To determine the stresses, use the equations of plane strain: Equations

(2-21) and (2-22). For shear stress, use Equation (2-14).
1
x = [(1 2 ) x (1 + ) y ]
E
1
y = [(1 2 ) y (1 + ) x ]
E
xy
xy =
G
2.10Stress State in Polar Coordinates

To evaluate the state of stress in a polar coordinate system, consider a stress
element in polar coordinates as shown in Figure2.5.
The stresses in polar coordinates in terms of the stresses in the Cartesian
coordinate system can be written as
r = x cos 2 + y sin 2 + 2 xy sin cos (2-29)

= x sin 2 + y cos 2 2 xy sin cos (2-30)

r = ( y x )sin cos + xy (cos 2 sin 2 ) (2-31)

According to the generalized Hookes law, the stressstrain relationship

can be represented as follows in the polar coordinate system:
E
r = ((1 ) r + + z ) (2-32)
(1 + )(1 2 )
E
= ( r + (1 ) + z ) (2-33)
(1 + )(1 2 )
E
z = ( r + + (1 ) z ) (2-34)
(1 + )(1 2 )
r
r = (2-35)
G
y
r

r
r
FIGURE 2.5
Stress element in polar coordinates.
rz
rz = (2-36)
G
z
z = (2-37)
G
To add the thermal expansion effects, the term E12 T can be added to
Expressions (2-32), (2-33), and (2-34).
To develop the plane stress condition expressions, substitute z = 0 into
Equation (2-34) and solve for the expression z in terms of r and . Substitute
this term into Equations (2-32) and (2-33):
r +
r = E (2-38)
1 2
+ r (2-39)
= E
1 2
Likewise, to develop the plane strain condition expression, substitute z =

0 into Equations (2-32) and (2-33). Then solve the two Equations (2-32) and
(2-33) simultaneously for r and . The following expressions are developed
for plane strain in the polar coordinate system:
1
r = [(1 2 ) r (1 + ) ] (2-40)
E
1
= [(1 2 ) (1 + ) r ] (2-41)
E
2.11Stress Field around Circular Holes in Thin Plates

Considering the thin plate shown in Figure2.6 with a small circular hole of
radius r = a, one can derive the stress field distribution using the Airy stress
function as follows.
Starting with the compatibility equation for stress function = (r, ) in
polar coordinates, one would have
4 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2
= + + + + = 0 (2-42)
r 2 r r r 2 2 r 2 r r r 2 2

r=a

FIGURE 2.6
Large thin plate with small circular hole.
The stress components in this polar coordinate system are given by
1 1 2
r = + (2-43)
r r r 2 2
2
= (2-44)
r 2
1 1 2
r = (2-45)
r 2 r r
Assuming a stress function,
= f(r)cos2 (2-46)
and substituting this stress function into Equation (2-42), one would
develop
d2 1 d 4 2 f 1 f 4 f
+ + = 0 (2-47)
dr 2 r dr r 2 r 2 r r r 2

This differential equation would have a solution in the form
1
f (r ) = Ar 2 + Br 4 + C + D (2-48)
r2
where A, B, C, and D are the constants of integration.

This solution would be substituted back into Stress Function (2-46) and the
following boundary conditions applied:
At r = a r = r = 0 (2-49)

At r = , r = (1 + cos 2) (2-50)
2

= (1 cos 2) (2-51)
2

r = sin 2 (2-52)
2
Based on this operation, the constants of the integration for Equation (2-48)
are determined, and they are as follows:
a2 a2
A= , B = 0, C = , D= (2-53)
4 4 2
Thus, Expression (2-46) would have the following final form:
r 2 a 4 a 2
= 2 + cos 2 (2-54)
4 4r 2

By substitution of this stress function into Expressions (2-43), (2-44), and

(2-45), one would have the following expression for stress distribution on a
large plate containing a circular hole:
a2 3a 4 4a 2
r = 1 + 1 + 2 cos 2 (2-55)
2 r2 r4 r

a2 3a 4
= 1+ 2
1 + 4 cos 2 (2-56)
2 r r

3a 4 2 a2
r = 1 4 + 2 sin 2 (2-57)
2 r r

The extreme stress values at r = a at the edge of the circular hole is charac-
terized as

max = 3 at = (2-58)
2
min = at = 0, = (2-59)

indicating a maximum stress of three times the nominal stress, which relates
to a stress concentration factor of k = 3.
Problems
1. For the angled bracket under loading, shown here, with the dimen-
sions as specified, determine the stresses at the base of the bracket
where it is fixed (at point A). Also determine the principal stresses and
draw the Mohrs circle. L = 10 in, M = 10 in, W = 1.5 in, t = 0.5 in, F = 800
lbf.
A
F
W M
L
t
2. For the following stress element shown, determine the principal

stresses and the corresponding Mohrs circle.
600 psi
1000 psi x
400 psi

8000 psi
20000 psi x
5000 psi

860 psi
3500 psi x

4000 psi
3000 psi x

7500 psi
7. For the following structure, determine the principal stresses at loca-

tions A, B, and C.
4200 lb
1 in thick
6 in
A
B
C
12 in 4 in
8. The strain measurement data from the 45-degree rosette shown

below is given as
1 = 800 , 2 = 210 , 1 = 640

Determine the corresponding strains in the x and y directions. Also,

determine the principal strains.
45 45
1 2 3
9. For the 0.05-in. thick rectangular plate with a 0.5-in. diameter hole
at the center, plot the radial and angular stresses starting from hole
edge, at point A, to the plate edge, at point B.
A
3600 psi 10 in 3600 psi
References
Hill Inc.
Timoshenko, S.P., Goodier, J.N., Theory of Elasticity, 1970. New York: McGraw Hill Inc.
Ugural, A.C., Fenster, S.K., Advanced Strength and Applied Elasticity, 1995. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Inc.
3
Stress Due to Pressure Conditions
3.1Introduction
In this chapter, the topics of contact stresses and pressure vessels are dis-
cussed. Contact stress between two elastic bodies is seen in many systems
such as ball bearings, trunnions, and wheels on a railroad track. Maximum
contact stress is directly normal to the plane of the contact area zone and is
shown in this chapter for spheres and cylinders in contact. The next topic
discusses the stresses on the walls of pressure vessels. Both thin-walled and
thick-walled vessels are covered.
3.2Contact Stresses
The application of load over a small finite area between two elastic bodies
pressing against each other is known as contact stress. Consider the sphere
contacting an elastic solid platform as shown in Figure3.1. The contact zone
is in circular form with a radius of a. The sphere has a diameter of d1. The
applied load on the sphere pressing down the sphere to the solid platform is P.
The maximum contact pressure between the sphere and the platform
is known:
P
Pmax = (0.919)
( )
2
3 112 122 (3-1)
d12 E1 + E2

Also, the radius of the contact zone is defined as
1 12 1 22
a = (0.721) 3 Pd1 + (3-2)
E1 E2

31
d1
z
y
2a
FIGURE 3.1
Sphere on elastic solid contact.
where E1 is the elastic modulus of the sphere, E2 is the elastic modulus of

solid platform, 1 is the spheres Poissons ratio, and 2 is the solid platforms
Poissons ratio.
The contact stresses in x, y, and z directions due to the maximum contact
pressure are determined for spherical contacts as follows:
z 1 1
x = y = Pmax 1 tan 1 z (1 + v ) (3-3)

a a (
2 1 + ( za )
2
)
Pmax
z = 2
(3-4)
1 + ( za )

Now consider a sphere contacting another sphere as shown in Figure3.2.

The contact zone is in circular form again with a radius of a. The spheres
have diameters of d1 and d2. The applied load on the spheres pressing the
spheres together is P.
The maximum contact pressure between spheres is known:
P
Pmax = (0.919) 2 2 (3-5)
3 d1 d2 1 12 1 22
+
d1 + d2 E1 E2

Also, the radius of contact zone is defined as
d1 d2 1 12 1 22 (3-6)
a = (0.721) 3 P +
d1 + d2 E1 E2
Stress Due to Pressure Conditions 33
d1
z
y
2a
d2
FIGURE 3.2
Sphere on sphere contact.
where E1 is the elastic modulus of sphere 1, E2 is the elastic modulus of sphere

2, 1 is the Poissons ratio for sphere 1, and 2 is the Poissons ratio for sphere 2.
pressure are determined for spherical contacts as follows:
z 1 1
x = y = Pmax 1 tan1 z (1 + v ) (3-7)

a a (
2 1 + ( za )
2
)
Pmax
z = 2 (3-8)
1 + ( za )

Also, consider a cylinder contacting an elastic solid platform as shown

in Figure3.3. The contact zone is in a rectangular form with a width of b.
The length of the contact zone is L. The cylinder has a diameter of d1. The
applied load on the cylinder pressing down the cylinder to the solid plat-
form is P.
The maximum contact pressure between the cylinder and the platform is
known as follows:
P
(3-9)

Pmax = (0.798)
Ld1 ( 112
E1 +
122
E2 )
d1
y z
x
L
2b
FIGURE 3.3
Cylinder on elastic solid contact.
Also, the width of the contact zone is defined as
Pd1 1 12 1 22
b = (0.798) + (3-10)
L E1 E2

where E1 is the elastic modulus of the cylinder, E2 is the elastic modulus of

the solid platform, 1 is the Poissons ratio for cylinder, and 2 is the Poissons
ratio of the solid platform.
pressure are determined for cylindrical contacts as follows:
2
z z
x = 2 vPmax 1+ (3-11)
b b

2
1 + 2 ( bz ) z
y = Pmax 2
1+( z 2 b (3-12)
b )

Pmax
z = (3-13)
2
1 + ( bz )

d1
y z
x
L
2b
d2
FIGURE 3.4
Cylinder on cylinder contact.
Finally, consider two cylinders contacting each other as shown in

Figure 3.4. The contact zone is in a rectangular form with a width of b
again. The length of the contact zone is L. The cylinders have diameters of
d1 and d2. The applied load on the cylinders pressing the cylinders together
is P.
The maximum contact pressure between the cylinders is known as follows:
P
Pmax = (0.798)
L ( d1d2
d1 + d2 )( 112
E1 +
122
E2 ) (3-14)
Also, the width of the contact zone is defined as
P d1 d2 1 12 1 22
b = (0.798) + (3-15)
L d1 + d2 E1 E2

where E1 is the elastic modulus of cylinder 1, E2 is the elastic modulus of

cylinder 2, 1 is the Poissons ratio for cylinder 1, and 2 is the Poissons ratio
of cylinder 2.

pressure are determined for cylindrical contacts as follows:
2
z z
x = 2 vPmax 1+ (3-16)
b b

2
1 + 2 ( bz ) z
y = Pmax 2 (3-17)
1+( z 2 b
b)

Pmax
z = (3-18)
2
1 + ( bz )

Example 3.1
A railway car with wheels of 31-inch diameter is rolling over a railroad
track. The width of the car wheels is 4 inches. The car is applying a
compression load of 44,000 lbf on the railway. Determine the maximum
contact pressure between the railway and the car wheel. Assume steel
wheels and steel railroad tracks (E = 29 103 psi and = 0.3).
44000 lbf
The maximum contact pressure between the wheel and the railroad
track is determined by Equation (3-5),
P
Pmax = (0.798) 3
Ld1 ( 112
E1 +
122
E2 )

where d1 = 31 in., L = 4 in, and P = 22,000 lbf. Note: P = 44000/2 = 22000
lbf per wheel.
22000
= 1125.5 psi

Pmax = (0.798) 3
(4)(31) ( 1 0.32
29 10 6 +
1 0.32
29 10 6 )
p

p
p

r p
p
FIGURE 3.5
Cross-section of the spherical pressure vessel.
3.3Thin-Walled Spherical Pressure Vessels

Consider a spherical pressure vessel under internal gauge pressure p. Due
to its symmetrical geometry, the normal stresses on the vessel walls in all
directions would be equal. There would be no shear stress on the walls. To
illustrate the state of stress on the surface of this type of vessel, the vessel
can be cut at any cross-section and the free-body diagram can be derived.
Figure3.5 illustrates this free-body diagram.
The force balance is

F = 0 2rt = pr 2
.
(3-19)
Thus by rearranging the terms,
pr 2 pr
= or = (3-20)
2 rt 2t
3.4Thin-Walled Cylindrical Pressure Vessels

Now consider a cylindrical pressure vessel under internal gauge pressure.
There would be two stress components in the plane, as shown in figure 3.6, of
the vessel cross-section, the longitudinal stress long and the hoop stress hoop.
When the vessel is under static equilibrium, the free-body diagram
shown in Figure3.7 can be used to derive the stress component in the lon-
gitudinal direction.
hoop
long
long
hoop
FIGURE 3.6
Cylindrical pressure vessel.
The force balance is

F = 0 long 2 rt = pr 2 (3-21)
Thus, by rearranging the terms,
pr 2 pr
long = or long = (3-22)
2 rt 2t
p
p
p

p
r
p
FIGURE 3.7
Cylindrical vessel cross-section.
This next free-body diagram, shown in figure 3.8, is used to derive the
hoop stress on the vessel wall:

F = 0 hoop 2tdl = p 2 rdl (3-23)
dl
r
p
hoop hoop
FIGURE 3.8
Cylindrical vessel cross-section.
Thus,
p 2 rdl pr
hoop = or hoop = (3-24)
2tdl t
Example 3.2
For a steel air-pressure vessel that is 84 inches long and 35 inches in
diameter with wall thickness of 0.375 inches, determine the longitudi-
nal and hoop stresses on the pressure vessel walls. Compare the stress
results with the steel allowable to determine a safety factor. The internal
air pressure inside the vessel is 200 psi.
hoop
long
long
hoop
Using Equations (3-12) and (3-14), one would have
pr
long =
2t
thus,
200(35)
long = = 9333psi
2(.375)
pr
hoop =
t
thus,
200(35)
hoop = = 18670psi
.375
The steel has a yield strength of 36,000 psi, thus the safety factor is
calculated as
yld = 36000 psi

max = hoop = 18670 psi

Then,
yld 36000
F.S. = = = 1.93
max( hoop ) 18670

Example 3.3
A 2-inch wide steel cylindrical ring is fitted over a 2-inch wide alumi-
num cylindrical ring, as shown by the following figure. At room temper-
ature, the steel ring has an exact inner diameter of 4 inches and is 0.125
inches thick. Also at room temperature, the aluminum ring has an exact
outer diameter of 4 inches and is 0.25 inches thick. The temperature of
the fitting is raised to 130F. Determine the stress on the steel ring and
the pressure exerted on the steel ring by the aluminum ring.
Aluminum
4 in.
Steel
2 in.
It should be noted that because the two rings are originally fitted
exactly over each other and they are at equilibrium at the same tempera-
ture, then the steel cylinders total circumferential elongation is equal to
the aluminum cylinders circumferential elongation after the tempera-
ture is raised.
Now, the change in the circumferential length of the rings over the
original ring circumference is the total strain on the ring. Thus, the cir-
cumferential elongation, elong, can be defined as
elong = 2 r total

The total strain for the steel cylinder is calculated as the strain due
to thermal expansion plus the strain due to the pressure exerted by the
aluminum ring expansion,
total , steel = steel ,T + steel , P

where
Pr
steel
steel ,T = steel T and steel , P = = tsteel
Esteel Esteel
Knowing the steel properties Esteel = 29 106 psi and steel = 6.5
106/F, then
P(2)
total , steel = 6.5 106 (130 75) +
29 106 (0.125)
and the steel rings elongation is
4 P(2)
elong steel = 2 6.5 106 (130 75) +
2 29 106 (0.125)

Similarly, for the aluminum ring, the total strain is
total , AL = AL ,T + AL , P

where
Pr
AL
AL ,T = AL T and AL , P = = tAL .
EAL EAL
Knowing the aluminum properties EAL = 10.9 106 psi and AL = 12.8
106/F, then
P(2)
total , AL = 12.8 106 (130 75) +
10.9 106 (0.25)
and the aluminum rings elongation is
4 P(2)
elong AL = 2 12.8 106 (130 75) +
2 10.9 106 (0.25)

Thus, equating the steel and aluminum rings elongations, one

would have
elong steel = elong AL

4 P(2)
2 6.5 106 (130 75) +
2 29 106 (0.125)
4 P(2)
= 2 12.8 106 (130 75) +
2 10.9 106 (0.25)

Finally, the exerted pressure, P, can be solved from the above equality, P =
269.5 psi, and the stress on the steel ring can be calculated as
P = 269.5psi

Pr 269.5(2)
steel = or steel = = 4312psi
tsteel 0.125
3.5Thick-Walled Cylinder
For thick-walled cylinders under pressure, the stresses depend on the inter-
nal and external pressure and the inner and outer radius of the cylinder. The
stress components would be the stress in the radial direction r and stress in
the tangential direction t. Figure3.9 illustrates the stress components that
would exist in a thick-walled cylinder.
The radial stress component is defined by
r =
po ro2 pi ri2 + ( )(p p ) (3-25)
ri2 ro2
r2 i o
2 2
r r
o i
r
po t t
r
ri
ro
pi
FIGURE 3.9
Thick-walled cylinder under pressure.
and the tangential stress component is defined by
t =
pi ri2 po ro2 + ( )(p p ) (3-26)
ri2 ro2
r2 i o
2 2
r r
o i
At the radial location r = ri, the maximum stresses occur. By substituting

ri for r in Equations (3-15) and (3-16), the maximum values are determined:
r = pi (3-27)

pi (ri2 + ro2 ) 2 po ro2

t = (3-28)
ro2 ri2
Problems
1. A cylindrical vessel with both ends closed has a wall thickness of 0.08
inches, a diameter of 10 inches, and a depth of 25 inches. The vessel is
internally pressurized to 1000 psi. Determine the hoop and longitu-
dinal stresses on the vessel walls if the vessel is made of steel ASTM
A514.
3 in
0.15 in
20 in
0.2 in
2. A compound vessel with an internal diameter of 3 inches is made

out of 0.2-inch thick steel and 0.15-inch thick copper for external and
internal layers, respectively. The vessel is 20 inches long. The vessels
temperature is raised 20F. What is the contact pressure generated
between the two layers of the vessel?
3. For the steel vessel shown here, the physical dimensions are h = 90
feet, r = 9 feet. For this vessel to have an allowable internal pressure
of 20,000 psi, determine the vessels required thickness.
4. An aluminum 7075 thick-walled cylinder 2 inches thick with an

internal radius of 1 inch is pressurized internally to 1000 psi. What
are the tangential and radial stresses on the cylinder wall?
5. A ball bearing made out of steel balls 0.3 inches in diameter is fitted
over a shaft. The shaft is exerting a radial force of 100 lbf on the bear-
ing. If the bearing ring container is also made out of steel, what is the
contact stress on the balls?
References
Hill Inc.
Shigley, J.E., Mischke, C.R., Mechanical Engineering Design, 1989. New York: McGraw
Hill Inc.
Young, W.C., Roarks Formulas for Stress and Strain, 1989. New York: McGraw Hill Inc.
4
Failure Criteria
4.1Introduction
This chapter covers the theory of failure criteria for ductile and brittle
materials. The different criteria are defined and their applications are
elaborated. It is assumed that the reader is familiar with the concept of
the principal stresses since the failure criteria for metallic components
are mainly based on principal stresses. In addition, the topics of safety
factors and stress margin calculations of safety are briefly discussed in
this chapter.
4.2Material Failure
Failure is defined as the inability of a structural component to withhold
applied loading. Failure can be based on one or several factors, but normally
in engineering it is based on stress, strain, deflection, crack length, or the
number of residual life cycles. In metals, failure criteria are typically based
on stress; in composites, failure criteria are based on strain.
For metallic structural components that are made from ductile materials,
which have an elongation capability of more than 5%, the yielding is the
criteria for failing. However, for components made from brittle materials,
which have elongation capability of less than 5%, the fracture is the criteria
for failing.
There are two known yield failure criteria: the maximum shear stress cri-
terion and the maximum distortion energy criterion (von Mises). Also, there
are two known fracture failure criteria: the maximum normal stress criterion
and the Mohrs criterion.
47
4.3Maximum Shear Stress Criterion

The maximum shear stress criterion states that the material has failed when
the shearing stress on the component has reached the yield shear strength of
the material, which is derived from the tensile test of the material specimen.
The yield shear strength is defined as one half of the tensile yield strength
(yld) of the material.
However, structural components are normally under multiaxial loading.
That is, in 2-D plane stress conditions, the maximum shear stress of the com-
ponent is equal to one half of the maximum normal stress or equal to one
half of the difference between the maximum and minimum normal stresses
if the maximum stress is tensile and the minimum stress is compressive.
In more general terms, this criterion states that if the principal stresses of
the component have the same signs, the magnitudes of the principal stresses
have to be less than the yield strength of the material. Similarly, if the prin-
cipal stresses have different signs, then the difference between the principal
stresses has to be less than the material yield strength.
Thus, for same signs:
| 1|< yld and | 2| < yld (4-1)

For different signs:
| 1 2| < yld (4-2)

This is graphically shown by Figure4.1. The state of stress outside of the

shaded area is considered to be in failure state.
yld
yld yld
1
yld
FIGURE 4.1
Maximum shear stress criterion.
Failure Criteria 49
yld
yld yld
1
yld
FIGURE 4.2
Maximum distortion energy criterion.
4.4Maximum Distortion Energy Criterion

The maximum distortion energy criterion indicates that material failure
occurs when the distortion energy of a component reaches the energy for
yielding. That is, for a component to be safe, the following principal stress
relation has to be met:
12 1 2 22 < 2yld (4-3)

Graphically, this von Mises criterion is shown by Figure4.2. Once again,

for the structural component to be safe, the state of stress has to fall within
the shaded region shown.
4.5Maximum Normal Stress Criterion

The maximum normal stress criterion for brittle material states that com-
ponent failure occurs when the principal stresses have reached the ultimate
tensile or compressive strength of the material derived from the tensile test
of the material specimen. That is, for the component to be safe, the state of
stress has to be less than the ultimate strength as shown by Figure4.3. Thus,
| 1|< ult and | 2|< ult (4-4)

ult,ten
ult,com ult,ten
1
ult,com
FIGURE 4.3
Maximum normal stress criterion.
4.6Mohrs Criterion
Mohrs criterion states that the component is safe if, when both principal
stresses are positive, they are less than the ultimate tensile strength:
1 < ult ,ten and 2 < ult ,ten (4-5)

Similarly, it states the component is safe if, when both principal stresses
are negative, their magnitudes are less than the magnitude of the ultimate
compressive strength:
| 1|< | ult , com| and | 2|<| ult , com| (4-6)

When they have opposite signs, they should fall within the shaded region
shown by Figure4.4.
4.7Factor of Safety Calculations

The factor of safety (F.S.) is normally referred to as the ratio of the ultimate
(allowable) strength over the actual stress the component undergoes:
allowable
F.S. = (4-7)
actual
Failure Criteria 51
ult,ten
ult,com ult,ten
1
ult,com
FIGURE 4.4
Mohrs criterion.
The factor of safety based on the failure criteria is the allowable strength,
defined by the shaded regions shown by Figures4.1, 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4, over the
actual state of stress represented by the principal stresses.
Now, to determine the percentage of the safety-ness of a structural com-
ponent under loading, the concept of margin of safety (M.S.) is introduced,
which simply is the following ratio:
allowable
M.S. = 1 (4-8)
( F.S.) actual
In the design of structures, this ratio is calculated to determine the ade-

quacy of the design based on a predetermined factor of safety. Usually, if the
allowable used is the yield strength of the material, a factor of F.S. = 1.5 is
used for margin of safety calculations. Likewise, if the allowable used is the
ultimate strength of the material, a factor of F.S. = 2.0 is used for margin of
safety calculations.
Example 4.1
Reconsider Example 2.2 shown in chapter 2; assume it is made out of
aluminum 6061-T6 (yld = 35000 psi). Using the maximum shear stress
criterion, determine the factor of safety for the component. Also, by
assuming a factor of safety of 1.0, determine the margin of safety for this
component.
10000 psi
12000 psi
20000 psi x
The principal stresses are:
1,2 == 28000 and 2000 psi

1,2 = 13000 psi

The principal stresses are within the shaded region as shown. The fac-
tor of safety is
(1/2) yld (1/2)(35000)

F.S. = = = 1.35
13000
35000
35000 35000
1
35000
Note: Shear allowable is one-half of the material yield strength.

Failure Criteria 53
The margin of safety with use of a 1.0 factor of safety and a maximum
actual stress of 28000 psi is calculated as
allowable
M.S. = 1
( F.S.) actual
35000
M.S. = 1 = 0.25 or 25%
(1)(28000)
Problems
1. Using the maximum shear stress criterion and the maximum distor-
tion energy criterion, determine the factor of safety for the state of
stress shown for a steel ASTM-A36 material.
y
14000 psi
4000 psi
35000 psi x
2. Using the maximum shear stress criterion and the maximum distor-
tion energy criterion, determine the factor of safety for the state of
stress shown for an aluminum 6061-T6 material.
y
10000 psi
3000 psi
21000 psi x
3. Using the maximum distortion energy criterion, determine the factor

of safety for the state of stress shown for an aluminum 2024-T4 material.
10000 psi
24000 psi x
4. Using Mohrs criterion, determine if the material would fail for the
state of stress shown for a steel 6061-T6 material.
26000 psi
9000 psi
36000 psi x
5. The maximum stress seen by a component made out of steel

ASTM-A242 material is 43000 psi. Determine the margin of safety
for yielding for this material.
References
Hill Inc.
Shigley, J.E., Mischke, C.R., Mechanical Engineering Design, 1989. New York: McGraw
Hill Inc.
5
Beam Analysis Theory
5.1Introduction
This chapter covers the theory behind the analysis of the beams under vari-
ous types of loading. Shear and moment diagram construction is elaborated.
The deflection analysis of the beam based on bending curvature theory, by
double integration method, is discussed. The bending, shear, and torsion of
the beams for determination of the stresses are examined here. Although
beam analysis can be a lengthy topic, only the essentials that are needed to
fully perform a stress analysis are presented here.
5.2Boundary Conditions and Loading

Before analyzing beams for either deflection or stress, it is essential to under-
stand the loading and the boundary conditions that typically arise from
the design of structural systems with beams. The typical classifications of
the beam structural systems based on boundary conditions are the simply
supported beam, the fixed beam, the one side fixed and one side simply
supported beams, and the cantilevered beam. Figure5.1 illustrates these dif-
ferent boundary conditions.
Loading on the beams can be classified as concentrated loading, uniformly
distributed loading, gradual increasing or decreasing loading, moment or
couple loading, and torsion loading. Concentrated loading, uniformly dis-
tributed loading, and gradual loading can produce both bending and shear
of the beam. Moment or couple loading can produce bending of the beam.
Torsion loading can produce twisting of the beam.
55
Simply Supported Fixed
Fixed-Simply Supported Cantilevered
FIGURE 5.1
The typical beam boundary conditions.
5.3Shear and Moment Diagrams

With the aim of determining the bending and shear stresses on any beam
structure, the shear and moment diagrams have to be constructed. The
shear and bending moments on a beam at any location along the length
of the beam can be calculated by setting the beam at static equilibrium,
where

F = 0 (5-1)
and

M = 0 (5-2)
To determine the shear, V(x), and bending, M(x), loading at any point
along the length of the beam, simply analyze the state of the beam after
each point of the application of the loading. Figures5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, and 5.6
illustrates an example of a beam free-body diagram (FBD) under loading
with the locations at which the beam needs to be analyzed and marked by
numbers 1 through 4.
The beam is section cut at each location and set to equilibrium for both
shear and moment loading at distance x.
The beam would be analyzed at each segment as illustrated by Figures 5.3,
5.4, 5.5 and 5.6 following.
Beam Analysis Theory 57
y
F
w
1 2 3 4
RA RB
L1
L2
L3
FIGURE 5.2
The FBD of a beam marked for shear and moment analysis. The beam is section cut at each
location and set to equilibrium for both shear and moment loading at distance x, as following.
For 0 < x < L1:

y
F
w
M(x)
x
V(x)
2 3 4
RA RB
x
FIGURE 5.3
The FBD of the beam sectioned at point (1).

F = 0 R V = 0 V = R (5-3)
+ up y A ( x) ( x) A
+ ccw M = 0 R x + M = 0 M = R x (5-4)
A ( x) ( x) A

For L1 < x < L2:
y
F
M(x) w
x
1 V(x) 3 4
RA RB
x
FIGURE 5.4

+ up F = 0
y RA F V( x ) = 0 V( x ) = RA F (5-5)

+ ccw M = 0 RA x + F( x L1) + M( x ) = 0 M( x ) = RA x F( x L1) (5-6)

For L2 < x < L3:
y
F
w
M(x)
x
1 2 V(x) 4
RA RB
x
FIGURE 5.5

+ up
Fy = 0 RA F w( x L2) V( x ) = 0 V( x ) = RA F w( x L2)
(5-7)
x L2
+ ccw M = 0 RA x + F( x L1) + w( x L2)
2
+ M( x ) = 0
( x L2)2
M( x ) = RA x F( x L1) w (5-8)
2
For L3 < x < L:
y
F
w M(x)
x
1 2 3 V(x)
RA RB
x
FIGURE 5.6

+ up
Fy = 0 RA F w(L3 L2) V( x ) = 0 V( x ) = RA F w(L3 L2)
(5-9)
L3 + L2
+ ccw M = 0 RA x + F( x L1) + w(L3 L2) x
2
+ M( x ) = 0
L3 + L2
M( x ) = RA x F( x L1) w(L3 L2) x (5-10)
2
Example 5.1
For the beam system shown below, determine the shear-moment diagrams.
1000 lb 1000 lb
20 in
40 in
RA RB
60 in
From the FBD, the reactions are calculated as
RA = 500 lb and RB = 1500 lb

For 0 < x < 40:
1000 lb
M(x)
V(x)
x 1500 lb
500 lb
+ up F = 0, 500 V = 0
y (x) V( x ) = 500 lbf
+ ccw M = 0, (500)x + M (x) =0 M( x ) = 500 x in lb

For 40 < x < 60:

1000 lb
M(x)
V(x)
x
500 lb 1500 lb
+ up F = 0, 500 + 1500 V = 0 V = 1000 lbf

y ( x) ( x)
+ ccw M = 0, (500)x 1500( x 40) + M = 0 M

( x) ( x) = 500x + 1500( x 40) in-lb
Based on this FBD, the shear and moment diagram are:

1000 lb
20 in
40 in
500 lb 1500 lb
V(x)
1000 lb
40 in
x
60 in
500 lb
M(x)
20000 in-lb
5.4Deflection of the Beams

Here, the deflection of the beam is derived from the curvature representa-
tion theory of the beam. The curvature differential equation of the beam is
integrated twice, to first produce the slope of the beam and then to produce
the deflection of the beam.
Radius of
y, v Curvature
x
v
FIGURE 5.7
The beam deflection orientation.
The equation of the curvature of the beam learned from solid mechanics is
d2 v M( x )
= (5-11)
dx 2 EI
where M(x) is the bending moment, v is the displacement in vertical direc-
tion, E is the elastic modulus, and I is the moment of inertia, whereas the
orientation of the beam is defined by Figure5.7.
Simply by separation of the variables and double integration, the deflec-
tion is derived from Expression (5-11),
x x

EI
d2 v =

0 0
M( x) dx 2 (5-12)
Integrating once, one would have the slope,

x

EIdv =
0
M( x) dx + C1 dx (5-13)
and, by integrating the second time, the deflection is

x x

EIv =

0 0
M( x) dx + C1 dx + C 2 (5-14)
where the constants of the integration, C1 and C2, are determined by applica-
tion of the appropriate boundary conditions.
Example 5.2
Consider a simply supported beam of length L under a concentrated load-
ing P at a location a distance away from the edge of the beam. Determine
the deflection of the beam along the length (x) in the y direction.
P P
a a
x
a a
L P 1 P
L L
Let 1 represent the deflection for segment x a and 2 represent the

deflection for segment x a.
The applicable boundary conditions are:
v1 = 0 at x = 0
v2 = 0 at x = L
dv1 dv2
v1 = v2 and = at x = a
dx dx
For x a:
Knowing that the bending moment on the beam is
a
M( x ) = P 1 x
L
by Expression (5-11), the beam curvature is
d 2 v1 a
EI = M( x ) = P 1 x
dx 2 L
Integrating once, one would have
dv1 Px 2 Pax 2
EI = + + C1
dx 2 2L
And integrating a second time, one would have
Px 3 Pax 3
EIv1 = + + C1x + C 2,
6 6L
for the deflection.

For x a:
Knowing that the bending moment on the beam for this segment of
the beam is
a
M( x ) = P 1 x P( x a)
L
d 2 v2 a
EI = M( x ) = P 1 x + P( x a)
dx 2 L
dv2 a x 2 Px 2
EI = P 1 + Pax + C 3
dx L 2 2
a x 3 Px 3 Pax 2
EIv2 = P 1 + + C3x + C 4
L 6 6 2
for the deflection.

Applying the boundary conditions and solving for the integration con-
stants, one would have
Pa
C1 = ( a 2 L)( a L)
6L
C2 = 0
Pa 2
C3 = ( a + 2 L2 )
6L
Pa 3
C4 =
6
Thus, the deflection of the beam under a concentrated loading at an

intermediate location is
For x a:
1 Px 3 Pax 3 Pa
v1 = + + ( a 2L)( a L)x
EI 6 6L 6L

For x a:
1 Pax 3 Pax 2 Pa 2 Pa 3
v2 = + ( a + 2 L2 )x
EI 6L 2 6L 6

Example 5.3
Consider the cantilevered beam of length L shown below under a uni-
formly distributed loading of w. For this beam, determine the deflec-
tion of the beam in the vertical y direction along the length of the
beam (x).
w w
wL2
2
x
L
wL
The applicable boundary conditions are
dv
v = 0 and = 0 at x = 0
dx
wx 2 wL2
M( x ) = + wLx
2 2
d2 v wx 2 wL2
EI = M ( x ) = wLx +
dx 2 2 2
Integrating once, one would have,
dv wx 3 wLx 2 wL2 x
EI = + + C1
dx 6 2 2
wx 4 wLx 3 wL2 x 2
EIv = + + C1x + C2,
24 6 4
for the deflection.

C1 = 0
C2 = 0
Thus, the deflection of the beam under a uniformly distributed load-

ing is
1 wx 4 wLx 3 wL2 x 2
v= +
EI 24 6 4
.
Example 5.4
Consider the cantilevered beam of length L shown below under a gradu-
ally increasing distributed loading of w0. For this beam, determine the
deflection of the beam in the vertical y direction along the length of the
beam (x).
w0
w0 x
wx =
L
M(x)
x
L
The applicable boundary conditions are:
dv
v = 0 and = 0 at x = L
dx
1 w0 x 2 x 1 w0 x 3
M( x ) + = 0 or M( x) =
2 L 3 6 L

d2v 1 w0 x 3
EI 2
= M( x ) =
dx 6 L
dv 1 w0 x 4
EI = + C1
dx 24 L
1 w0 x 5
EIv = + C1x + C 2
120 L
for the deflection.

w0L3
C1 =
24
w0L4
C2 =
30

ing is
1 1 w0 x 5 w0L3 x w0L4
v= +
EI 120 L 24 30

Example 5.5
Consider the cantilevered beam of length L shown here under a uni-
formly distributed loading of w. The beam is simply supported at the
right-hand side as shown. For this beam, determine the deflection of the
beam in the vertical y direction along the length of the beam (x direction).
By principals of superposition, this structural system is equivalent to
the following two systems.
w w
= +
1 2
Part 1 Part 2
Notice part one of this equality has already been solved by Example
5.3, and the deflection of the beam was determined to be
1 wx 4 wLx 3 wL2 x 2
v= +
EI 24 6 4

Then part two of this equality is represented in the following.
RL
x
R R
The moment on this beam along the x direction is
M(x) = RL Rx
d2v
EI = M( x) = RL + Rx
dx 2
dv Rx 2
EI = RLx + + C1,
dx 2
and integrating a second time, one would have
RLx 2 Rx 3
EIv = + + C1x + C 2,
2 6
for the deflection.

Applying the boundary conditions
dv
v = 0 and = 0 at x = 0
dx
and solving for the integration constants, one would have
C1 = 0
C2 = 0

ing is
1 Rx 3 RLx 2
v=
EI 6 2

Now combining the deflection expressions from part one and part
two, one would have the following expression for the total deflection of
the original system in question:
1 wx 4 wLx 3 wL2 x 2 Rx 3 RLx 2

v= + +
EI 24 6 4 6 2

To determine the reaction load R and the moment equation for the
beam, one can use the fact that the deflection at point 2 (at x = L) is zero,
and solve for reaction R in the above total deflection equation,
1 wL4 wL4 wL4 RL3 RL3

v( x = L) = + + =0
EI 24 6 4 6 2

Hence, reaction R = 3wL/8. Substituting R back into the total deflection

expression, one would have
1 wx 4 wLx 3 wL2 x 2 3wLx 3 3wL2 x 2

v= + + or
EI 24 6 4 48 16
1 wx 4 5wLx 3 wL2 x 2
v= +
EI 24 48 16

Now to determine the moment on the beam along the x direction, refer
to the free-body diagram of the original system.
R1
w
M1
x
R
By summation of the moments and forces at point 1, M1 is determined

to be
wL2 5wL
M1 = and R1 =
8 8
Thus, at any point along the beams x direction, the moment for the
original beam system is
5 wL
8
wL2
M(x)
8
x
wx 2 5wLx wL2
M( x ) = +
2 8 8
Example 5.6
Consider a simply supported beam of length L under a bending moment
M at a location a distance away from the edge of the beam. Determine the
deflection of the beam along the length (x) in the y direction.
a a
Mc Mc
L Mc Mc

L L
Let 1 represent the deflection for segment x a and 2 represent the

deflection for segment x a.
The applicable boundary conditions are
v1 = 0 at x = 0
v2 = 0 at x = L
dv1 dv2
v1 = v2 and = at x=a
dx dx
For x a, knowing that the bending moment on the beam is
Mc x
M( x ) =
L
d 2 v1 Mx
EI = M( x ) = c
dx 2 L
dv1 M x2
EI = c + C1
dx 2L
Mc x 3
EIv1 = + C1x + C 2
6L
for the deflection.

For x a, knowing that the bending moment on the beam for this seg-
ment of the beam is
Mc x
M( x ) = Mc
L
d 2 v2 Mx
EI = M( x ) = c + M c
dx 2 L
dv2 M x2
EI = c + Mc x + C 3
dx 2L
Mc x 3 Mc x 2
EIv2 = + + C3x + C 4
6L 2
for the deflection.

Mc a 2 Mc L
C1 = + Mc a
2L 3
C2 = 0
Mc L Mc a 2
C3 =
3 2L
Mc a 2
C4 =
2
Thus, the deflection of the beam under a concentrated loading at an

intermediate location is
For x a:
Mc x3 a2 L
v1 = + +a x
EI 6L 2L 3

For x a:
Mc x 3 x 2 Lx a 2 x a 2
v2 = + +
EI 6L 2 3 2L 2

5.5Bending of the Beams

The moments on the beams cross-section about the in-plane axes z and y
cause a bending stress on the beam member, in the normal x direction, as
illustrated by Figure5.8.
This normal stress due to the beam bending is defined as
Mz y My z
x = + (5-15)
Iz Iy

where Mz and My are the moments about the z and y axes respectively, Iz and
Iy are the moments of inertia about the z and y axes respectively, and y, as
well as z, are the locations along the beam cross-section from the neutral axis
to the boundaries of the beam cross-section.
This normal stress may have another component, which is due to any
perpendicular axial loading acting on the cross-section of the beam. Hence,
expanding the normal stress expression to the following form results in
Px Mz y My z
x = + + (5-16)
A Iz Iy

where Px is the axial load on the cross-section and A is the area of the cross-section.
Now, it should be noted that the maximum normal stress due to any
bending moment (M) occurs at the extreme boundary location at h/2 for a
symmetric cross-section. Thus, this maximum normal stress is expressed
as
Mh
max = (5-17)
2I
y y
Mz Mz
x z h
My
Beam cross-section
FIGURE 5.8
The bending of the beam about z and y axes.
5.6Shear of the Beams

Normally the loads acting parallel to the plane of the beams cross-section
cause shear stress on the beam and A for the cross-section shown in Figure
5.10. The shear stress in the beam cross-section is defined as
VQ
xy = (5-18)
It
where V is the shear load, Q is the first moment of area, I is the total section
moment of inertia, and t is the width of the section.
The first moment of area Q is a function of the area and the distance from
the neutral axis (N.A.) to the section where stress needs to be calculated. The
Q is defined as
Q=
y dA (5-19)
A
or, for combined sections made of several area cross-sections, Q is defined as
Q= A y = A y
i i 1 1 + A2 y 2 + ........ (5-20)
i
The y and A are evaluated as
1
y= ( yt + y ) (5-21)
2
A = ( yt y )b (5-22)

where yt is the distance from the N.A. to the top of the section, and b is the
width of the section y distance away from the N.A.
xy
z
FIGURE 5.9
The shear of the beam cross-section.
b1
(1) yt
y
(2) y1
N.A.
b2
FIGURE 5.10
The beam cross-section first moment of area segment.
As an example, lets use a T section or the top part of an I section to illus-
trate the calculation method of Q.
The y1 and A1 are evaluated as
1
y1 = ( yt + y ) (5-23)
2
A1 = ( yt y )b1 (5-24)

and the first moment of area is
1
Q1 = ( yt y )b1 ( yt + y ) (5-25)
2
Thus, by Expression (5-18), the shear stress in part one is
VQ1
xy = (5-26)
Ib1
Similarly, for part two of the beam cross-section, the first moment of area
is calculated as
1 1
Q2 = A1 y1 + A2 y 2 = ( yt y1 )b1 ( yt + y1 ) + ( y1 y )b2 ( y1 + y ) (5-27)
2 2
Thus, again by Expression (5-18), the shear stress in part two is
VQ2
xy = (5-28)
Ib2
Note: For the lower portion of the cross-section below the N.A., the Q is eval-
uated in a similar manner.
The typical shear stress distributions for section plane cuts for an I beam
and a T beam are illustrated by Figures5.11 and 5.12, respectively.
xy
max
N.A.
FIGURE 5.11
The I beam shear stress distribution.
xy
max
N.A.
FIGURE 5.12
The T beam shear stress distribution.
5.7Torsion of the Beams

A torque load (T), as shown by Figure5.13, that causes twist in the beam pro-
duces shear stresses. The shear stress on the beam varies in magnitude from
the center of the beams cross-section to the outer edges of the cross-section
at the radius location R.
FIGURE 5.13
The torsion on the beam.
This shear stress due to torsion is defined as
Tr
= (5-31)
J
where r is the radial distance away from the center of the beam cross-section
and J is the cross-section polar moment of inertia.
The maximum stress occurs at r = R at the edges of cross-section. Hence,
Expression (5-31) takes the form
TR
max = (5-32)
J
for the maximum stress value.

For hollow beam shafts of any shape, the shear stress due to torsion is
defined as
T
= (5-33)
2tA
where t is the wall thickness of the shaft and A is the area bounded by the
midsurface centerline of the shaft cross-section.
5.8Curved Beam Theory

The Winkler method is hereby utilized to illustrate the curved beam theory.
Consider a curved beam shown as in Figure 5.14 under an applied bend-
ing moment M. Assume that the cross-sectional plane of the beam remains
plane after deformation due to this bending. Further, there exists a neutral
axis surface whereas its deflection due to bending is zero. In Figure5.14, this
surface is distance R away from the center of the beam curvature C.
Now, the deformation of the curved beam S at any location r from the
center of the curvature can be expressed in terms of the rotational angle
change and the distance away from the neutral axis (r R). This deforma-
tion concept is expressed as
S = (r R) (5-34)

Knowing that the original undeflected curve of the beam at location r is
S = r (5-35)
N.A.
M
M r R
FIGURE 5.14
The curved beam under bending moment.
one can develop an expression for the beam strain in the angular direction
as
S
= (5-36)
S
or, by substituting Expressions (5-34) and (5-35) into (5-36),
(r R)
= (5-37)
r
Hence, by Hookes principal, the stress of the beam can be represented as
= E (5-38)
where, by substituting Strain Expression (5-37) into this stress equation, one
would have the expression
(r R)
=E (5-39)
r
representing the beam stress due to bending.

At equilibrium, the forces on the beam sum up to zero; thus, the summation
of the stresses on the beam over the cross-sectional area of the beam (A) is
dA = 0 (5-40)
Substitute Stress Expression (5-39) into this equilibrium expression and

one would have
(r R)
E r
dA = 0 (5-41)
which trivially is an indication that
(r R)
r
dA = 0 (5-42)
or, by separation of terms,
R
dA r dA = 0 (5-43)
Hence, the location of the neutral axis from curvature center C is deter-
mined as
1 A

AR
r dA = 0 R=
dA
r
(5-44)
Likewise, the moment on the beam can also be represented in terms of the
stress magnitude away from the neutral axis (r R) as
(r R) dA = M (5-45)
Substitute Stress Expression (5-39) into this equilibrium expression and
one would have
( r R )2
E
r
dA = M (5-46)
which can be expanded as
(r 2 2 rR + R 2 )
E
r
dA = M (5-47)
and simplified to
R2

E
r 2R +
r
dA = M (5-48)
This expression can be further separated and solved to produce
dA

E
r dA 2R dA + R 2
r
= M (5-49)
Hence, from the elementary section properties, it is known that the cen-
troid of a cross-section is
rdA
r= (5-50)
A
That is, by substitution of this centroid term and Expression (5-44) into
Expression (5-49), one would develop the expression

E ( rA 2 RA + RA) = M (5-51)

or

E ( rA RA) = M (5-52)

Now, this expression is rearranged as
M
E = (5-53)
( r R) A
which can be substituted back into Stress Expression (5-39) to give
M( r R )
= (5-54)
Ar( r R)
for the stress representation of the curved beam under bending moment
M.
h r2
h
R=
r1 r
ln r2
1
b2
C
h
1 2 r2 b1
2
h (b1 + b2)
R= r1
r
(b1r2 b2r2) ln r2 + h(b1 b2)
1
rc
R = 1 r + r rc
2 2
2
r
FIGURE 5.15
The neutral axis location for typical cross-sections.
The neutral axis location for three typical cross-sections is developed here
for ease of calculation.
h
R=
ln rr21

1
2h2 (b1 + b2 )
R=
(b1 r2 b2 r1 )ln rr21 + h(b1 b2 )

1

R=
2
(
r + r 2 rc2 )
Example 5.7
For the curved beam section here, under 100 lbs of pulling load, deter-
mine the stress at the top and bottom of the cross-section of the beam at
AA.
A
3 in
1 in (2)
2 in (1)
1 in
A
3 in 3 in
100 lb 100 lb
The free-body diagram of the beam section is drawn as:
100 lb
F = 0 F = 100 lbf
F = 0 F = 100 lbf
The centroid of the cross-section is determined first.
Section A r rA
(1) (1)(2) = 2in2 4 in 8
(2) (1)(3) = 3in2 5.5 in 16.5
_________ ____
rA 24.5
5 in2 24.5 r = = = 4.9 in
A 5
Thus,
M = 100 r = (100)(4.9) = 490 in-lb

.
The distance to the neutral axis is
A
R= dA

r
And thus,
5 5
R= (1) dr (3) dr R= = 4.73
53 + 65 (1) ln 53 + (3) ln 65
r r .
Then using Expression (5-54),
Top: r = 6 in
M( r R ) 490(6 4.73)
bending = bending = = 120.2 psi
Ar( r R) (5)(6) ( 4.9 4.73 )

Bottom: r = 3 in
M( r R ) 490(3 4.73)
bending = bending = = 326.8psi
Ar( r R) (5)(3)(4.9 4.73) .
Now the total stress on the cross-section would be
= axial + bending

where
F
axial =
A
At the top:
100
= 120.2 = 100.2 psi
5 .
At the bottom:
100
= + 325.8 = 345.8 psi
5 .
Problems
1. For the following beam system, determine the shear and moment
diagram.
50 lb 70 lb
10 lb/in
20 in 20 in 35 in 15 in 50 in
2. For the following beam system, determine the shear and moment
diagram.
15 lb
100 lb
10 in
10 in
35 in 55 in 10 in 50 in
10 in
15 lb
3. Determine the deflection of the following beam under the applied

loading. (Assume E and I properties.)
y
P
a

y
P
a
L

y
w

y w

y
P
a
8. Determine the maximum deflection of the following steel (E = 29

106 psi) beam under the applied loading.
50 lb/in
8 in
6 in
200 in 1 in
9. For the following beam system, determine the maximum bending

and shear stress of this steel (E = 29 106 psi) beam under the applied
loading. (Assume a T cross-section with 8-inch wide flange, a web
10 inches high, and a thickness of 1.5 inches all around.)
150 lb
40 lb/in
40 in 40 in 65 in 35 in
10. For the beam system shown in problem 1, determine the maximum
bending and shear stress of this beam under the applied loading,
assuming an aluminum material and a 2-inch by 3-inch rectangu-
lar cross-section.
11. For the beam system shown in problem 8, determine the maximum
bending and shear stress of this beam under the applied loading.
12. For the following hook, determine the maximum bending stress
and its corresponding location under the applied loading. (Assume
E and I properties.) Also, size the cross-section of the hook if an alu-
minum material is to be used.
1 in
0.6 in
500 lb
References
Hill Inc.
Megson, T.H.G., Structural and Stress Analysis, 1996. New York: Halsted Press.
6
Plate Analysis Theory
6.1Introduction
This chapter covers the analysis of initially flat circular and rectangular
plates. Specifically, thin plates are analyzed where the ratio of the thickness
to the smaller length is less than 1:20. The deflection behavior of the plate
is shown and, in addition, the in-plane stress formulations are developed.
The Timoshenko approach is taken in this chapter. The general assump-
tions used for plate analysis are: (1) the plate deflection of the midsurface is
small comparing to the plate thickness, (2) the lines normal to the midsurface
remain straight and normal to the midsurface after the bending of the plates,
and (3) through the thickness, stress is negligible.
6.2Circular Plates Uniformly Loaded

For a circular plate of radius a shown by Figure6.1, loaded by a uniformly
distributed load on the surface, the equation of the deflection is derived by
Timoshenko (1959) as
qr 4 r2 r
w= + C1 + C 2 log + C 3 (6-1)
64D 4 a
where q is the pressure distribution (lb/in2), r is the radius location, and D is

the stiffness of the plate defined as
Et 3
D=
12(1 v 2 )
The constants of this equation can be solved by determining the deflection

and the slope of the circular plate for different edge boundary conditions.
85
FIGURE 6.1
Uniformly loaded circular plate.
Consider a uniformly loaded plate clamped at the edges as shown by

Figure6.2. The following boundary conditions apply for this plate:
dw
At r = 0 and r = a, = 0 (6-2)
dr
At r = a, w = 0 (6-3)
Using the above boundary conditions, Expression (6-1) can be manipulated

to determine the equation constants, C1, C2, and C3, thus resulting in the
general form for the deflection behavior of a clamped-edge plate,
q
w= ( a 2 r 2 )2 (6-4)
64D
It is known that the maximum deflection occurs at the center of the plate.
Hence, at r = 0, the maximum plate deflection is
qa 4
wmax = (6-5)
64D
FIGURE 6.2
Uniformly loaded circular plate with clamped edges.
Plate Analysis Theory 87
Further, the bending moments for the plate in the radial and tangential
directions are given as follows:
q 2
Mr = [ a (1 + v) r 2 (3 + v)] (6-6)
16
q 2
Mt = [ a (1 + v) r 2 (1 + 3 v)] (6-7)
16
Based on the bending moments, the radial and tangential stresses in the
plate are given by
6 Mr 6q 2
r = or r = [ a (1 + v) r 2 (3 + v)] (6-8)
t2 16t 2
6 Mt 6q 2
t = or t = [ a (1 + v) r 2 (1 + 3 v)] (6-9)
t2 16t 2
The maximum stresses would occur at the edges of the plate at r = a. Hence,
the maximum plate stresses in the radial and tangential directions are
6q 2 3a2 q
r ,max = 2
[ a (1 + v) a 2 (3 + v)] = 2 (6-10)
16t 4t
6q 2 3 a 2 vq
t ,max = 2
[ a (1 + v) a 2 (1 + 3 v)] = (6-11)
16t 4t 2
Now consider a uniformly loaded plate simply supported at the edges, as

shown by Figure6.3. The following boundary conditions apply for this plate:
dw
At r = 0, = 0 (6-12)
dr
At r = a, w = 0 (6-13)
FIGURE 6.3
Uniformly loaded circular plate with simply supported edges.
Applying the above boundary conditions to Expression (6-1), the deflection

behavior of the simply supported circular plate is determined as
q 5+ v 2
w= (a2 r 2 ) a r 2 (6-14)
64D 1+ v
Once again, the maximum deflection occurs at the center of the plate atr = 0.
Thus, Expression (6-14) reduces to the following form for the maximum plate
deflection:
qa 4 5 + v
wmax = (6-15)
64D 1 + v
The bending moments in the radial and tangential directions for this plate
are given as
q 2
Mr = ( a r 2 )(3 + v) (6-16)
16
q 2
Mt = [ a (3 + v) r 2 (1 + 3 v)] (6-17)
16
which produce the following form for the stresses on the plate in the radial
and tangential directions respectively:
6 Mr 6q 2 2
r = or r = ( a r )(3 + v) (6-18)
t2 16t 2
6 Mt 6q 2
t = or t = [ a (3 + v) r 2 (1 + 3 v)] (6-19)
t2 16t 2
The maximum stresses are known to occur at the center of the plate at r = 0
for this type of plate, as shown by Expressions (6-20) and (6-21):
6a2 q
r ,max = (3 + v) (6-20)
16t 2
6a2 q
t ,max = (3 + v) (6-21)
16t 2
6.3Circular Plates Loaded at the Center

Likewise, in a similar manner, a circular plate with a concentrated load at
the center is analyzed. For a circular plate of radius a shown by Figure6.4,
loaded by a concentrated load at the center, the equation of the deflection is
derived as
P 2 r
w= r log + C1r 2 + C 2 (6-22)
8D a
where P is the load at the center (lb), r is the radius location, and D is the stiff-
ness of the plate defined as
Et 3
D=
12(1 v 2 )
The constants of this equation can also be solved by determining the

deflection and the slope of the circular plate for different edge boundary
conditions.
Now consider a circular center loaded plate clamped at the edges as
shown by Figure 6.5. The following boundary conditions apply for this
plate:
dw
At r = 0, = 0 (6-23)
dr
At r = a, w = 0 (6-24)
FIGURE 6.4
Center-loaded circular plate.
FIGURE 6.5
Center-loaded circular plate with clamped edges.
Applying the above boundary conditions to Expression (6-22), the deflec-

tion behavior of this simply supported circular plate is determined as
Pr 2 r P
w= log + ( a 2 r 2 ) (6-25)
8D a 16D
Likewise, as the plate described in Section 6.2, the maximum deflection

occurs at the center of the plate atr = 0. Hence, Expression (6-25) reduces to
the following form for the maximum plate deflection at r = 0:
Pa 2
wmax = (6-26)
16D
The radial and tangential bending moments for this type of plate are
defined as
P a
Mr = (1 + v)log 1 (6-27)
4 r
P a
Mt = (1 + v)log v (6-28)
4 r
Thus, again, the stresses in the radial and tangential directions are derived
as follows, respectively:
6 Mr 6P a
r = or r = (1 + v)log 1 (6-29)
t2 4t 2 r
6 Mt 6P a
t = or t = (1 + v)log v (6-30)
t2 4t 2
r
The maximum stresses occur at the edge boundaries at r = a,
6P
r ,max = (6-31)
4t 2
6 Pv
t ,max = (6-32)
4t 2
FIGURE 6.6
Center-loaded circular plate with simply supported edges.
For a center-loaded plate simply supported at the edges as shown by

Figure6.6, the equation of the deflection is derived as
P 3+ v 2 r
w= ( a r 2 ) + 2 r 2 log (6-33)
16D 1 + v a
Once again, the maximum deflection occurs at the plate center at r = 0 for
this type of loading as well. Expression (6-33) reduces to the following form
representing the maximum plate deflection:
Pa 2 (3 + v)
wmax = (6-34)
16D (1 + v)
The radial and tangential bending moments for this type of plate are
defined as
P a
Mr = (1 + v)log (6-35)
4 r
P a
Mt = (1 + v)log + 1 v (6-36)
4 r
which, respectively, produce the following stresses in the radial and tan-
gential directions for a plate simply supported and point loaded at the
center,
6 Mr 6P a
r = or r = (1 + v)log (6-37)
t2 4t 2 r
6 Mt 6P a
t = or t = (1 + v)log + 1 v (6-38)
t2 4t 2 r
Example 6.1
A flat steel circular plate of 0.06 inches thick with diameter of 6 inches
is subjected to a 6 psi uniform pressure on the surface. Determine the
maximum plate deflection at the center and the radial stresses at the cen-
ter and boundary edges of the plate.
3 in. 6 psi
(E = 29 106 psi, v = 0.3)

The stiffness of the plate is determined as
Et 3 (29000000)
D= , D= = 573.6
12(1 v 2 ) 12(1 .32 )
The maximum deflection of the plate at the center is determined by

Expression (6-5) as follows:
qa 4 (6)(3)4
wmax = , wmax = = 0.013 in
64D 64(573.6)
The radial stresses are determined by using Expression (6-8),
6q 2
r = [ a (1 + v) r 2 (3 + v)]
16t 2
The stress at the center of the plate at r = 0 is
6(6)
r=0 = [(3)2 (1 + .3) (0)2 (3 + .3)] = 7312.5 psi
16(.06)2
The stress at the boundary edges of the plate at r = 3 inches is
6(6)
r=3 = [(3)2 (1 + .3) (3)2 (3 + .3)] = 11250 psi
16(.06)2
6.4Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Plates

Similarly, the behavior of rectangular plates can be shown by the plate theory
of elasticity. Here, the essentials of this method are described for rectangular
plates. Consider a rectangular plate simply supported at all edges with sides
a and b as shown by Figure6.7.
The plate is uniformly loaded on the surface. A Fourier series is used to
represent the deflection of this plate as
ny
16q sin max sin
w=
6D mn(
m= 1 n= 1
m2
+ n
b
2 2
)
(6-39)
a2 b2

where m = 1,3,5, and n = 1,3,5,.

The maximum deflection for this rectangular plate occurs atx = a/2 and y =
b/2. Thus, by applying these coordinates, Expression (6-39) is reduced to the
following form to show the maximum plate deflection as:
m+ n
1
16q (1) 2
wmax = 6
D mn(
m= 1 n= 1
m2
+ n2
)
2 (6-40)
a2 b2

where m = 1,3,5, and n = 1,3,5,.

The stresses in the x and y directions are evaluated as
6D 2 w 2 w
x = + v (6-41)
h2 x 2 y 2

6D 2 w 2 w
y = + v (6-42)
h2 y 2 x2

z q
x
b
t
a
y
FIGURE 6.7
Rectangular plate under uniform loading.
Where by application of the Deflection Relation (6-40) into Expressions (6-41)

and (6-42), the stress field in the rectangular plate is defined as
2
96q

( ma )2 + v ( nb ) mx my
x = 2 4
h m2 n2
m = 1 n = 1 mn ( a ) + ( b )
2 sin
a
sin
b
(6-43)

2 2
v ( ma ) + ( nb )

96q mx my
y =
h2 4 mn (
m= 1 n= 1
m 2
) +( ) n 2
2 sin
a
sin
b
(6-44)
a b

in the x and y directions, respectively.
Example 6.2
For a steel rectangular plate 10 inches wide by 20 inches long, with a
thickness of 0.1 inches, plot the deflection of the plate along the length
of the plate at the width of 5 inches. There is a 1 psi uniform load on the
plate surface. Assume the plate is simply supported in all edges.
z 10 psi
x
10 in. 5 in.
0.1 in.
20 in.
y
x(in.)
0 5 10 15 20
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
w(x, 5), (in.)
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
0.045
The stiffness of the plate is determined as
Et 3 (29000000)(0.1)3
D= , D= = 2655.7
12(1 v 2 ) 12(1 .32 )
Using Expression (6-42), the deflection in terms of x at y = 5 inches is

(using the first terms for the series, m = n = 1)
ny
16q sin max sin 16(1) sin (1)20x sin (1)10
(5)
w=
6D mn (
m= 1 n= 1
m2
+ n
b
2 2
)
w( x , 5) =
6 2655.7 (1)(1) 12 + 12 2
( )
a2 b2 202 102
Problems
1. A flat steel circular plate 0.06 inches thick with a diameter of 6 inches
is subjected to a 6 psi uniform pressure on the surface. Assuming the
edges of the plate are simply supported, determine the maximum
plate deflection at the center.
2. A flat aluminum 6061-T6 circular plate 0.1 inches thick with diameter
of 10 inches is subjected to a 15 psi uniform pressure on the surface.
Assuming the edges of the plate are fixed, determine the maximum
plate deflection at the center and the maximum stress on the plate.
3. Consider a flat circular plate 0.05 inches thick with a diameter of
12 inches made out of aluminum 6061-T6. Assuming the edges of
the plate are fixed, what would be the maximum surface pressure it
could withstand before yielding occurs?
4. Consider the plate in problem 3. Assuming the edges of the plate are
simply supported, what would be the maximum surface pressure it
could withstand before yielding occurs?
5. Consider a flat circular plate 0.04 inches thick with a diameter of 8
inches made out of aluminum 2014-T6. The plate is subjected to a
concentrated load of 100 lbs. at the center. Assuming the edges of
the plate are fixed, determine the maximum plate deflection at the
center and the maximum stress on the plate.
6. Do problem 5 above, this time assuming the edges are simply
supported.
7. Consider a flat circular plate 0.15 inches thick with a diameter of 15
inches made out of stainless steel. Assuming the edges of the plate
are fixed, what would be the maximum surface pressure it could
withstand before the plate fails?
8. Consider a flat square plate 0.15 inches thick with sides 25 inches
long made out of stainless steel. The plate is subjected to a con-
stant surface pressure of 20 psi. Assuming the edges of the plate are
simply supported, what would be the maximum plate deflection?
Determine the maximum stress on the plate under this loading.
9. Consider a flat rectangular plate 0.1 inches thick, 25 inches wide, by
40 inches long made out of aluminum 7075-T6. Assuming the edges
of the plate are simply supported, what would be the maximum sur-
face pressure it could withstand before yielding occurs?
References
Timoshenko, S.P., Woinowsky-Krieger, S., Theory of Plates and Shells, 1959. New York:
McGraw Hill Inc.
7
Elastic Stability and Buckling
7.1Introduction
Typically, a structural member is said to have buckled when the member fails
to react to the bending moment generated by a compressive load on it. It this
chapter, the buckling of long slender columns and thin plates is considered. A
long column is defined as one with a slenderness ratio (or length to radius
of gyration ratio) greater than 200. Radius of gyration is defined as the square
root of the column second moment of area over the cross-sectional area of the
column. Likewise, a plate is called a thin plate when its thickness is at least
one order of magnitude smaller than the span or diameter of the plate.
7.2Column Buckling Instability

The following mathematical formulation, as used by Simitses (1976) repre-
sents the behavior of a column of length L under an axial loading P, parallel
to its axis without eccentricity,
d4u d2 u
EI + P = 0 (7-1)
dx 4 dx 2
where u is the lateral deflection of the column perpendicular to the column axis.
Rewriting this equation in a simpler form, one would have
d4u P d2 u
+ = 0 (7-2)
dx 4 EI dx 2
By introducing the term
P
k2 = (7-3)
EI
97
Equation (7-2) above reduces to
d4u 2
2 d u
+ k = 0 (7-4)
dx 4 dx 2
The available solution for this differential equation is
u = u( x) = c1 sin kx + c2 cos kx + c3 x + c 4 (7-5)

which, at the application of different boundary conditions and expansion of

the solution, provides the critical loading of the column buckling (x is in the
direction along the length).
Now, consider a long slender column as shown by Figure7.1 under axial
loading P. The following boundary conditions are applicable to this system:
u(A) = u(0) = 0
u(B) = u(L) = 0
d2 u d2 u
( A) = (0) = 0
dx 2 dx 2
d2 u d2 u
2
(B) = 2 (L) = 0 (7-6)
dx dx
L
u, y
FIGURE 7.1
Simply-simply supported column.
Elastic Stability and Buckling 99
Substituting Boundary Conditions (7-6) into General Solution (7-5), one

would have
c2 + c 4 = 0 (7-7)
c1 sin kL + c2 cos kL + c3 L + c4 = 0 (7-8)
c2 k 2 = 0 (7-9)
c1 k 2 sin kL c2 k 2 cos kL = 0 (7-10)
By rewriting the above equations in matrix form, one would have
0 1 0 1 c1 0
sin kL cos kL L 1 c2 0 (7-11)
=
0 k2 0 0 c3 0
k 2 sin kL 2
k cos kL 0 0 c4 0

Once the determinant of this matrix is determined, then one would have
sin kL = 0 (7-12)
which has the first-term solution of
kL = (7-13)
Substitute back the k loading term from Expression (7-3) into Equation (7-13)
and one would develop the critical loading where the buckling occurs as
Pcr 2 EI
L = or Pcr = (7-14)
EI L2
The corresponding stress would be
Pcr 2 EI
cr = or cr = (7-15)
A AL2
Similarly, for a column fixed at both ends, as shown by Figure7.2, the fol-
lowing boundary conditions are applicable:
u(A) = u(0) = 0
u(B) = u(L) = 0
du du
( A) = (0) = 0 (7-16)
dx dx
du du
(B) = (L) = 0
dx dx
L u, y
FIGURE 7.2
Fixed-fixed supported column.
By substituting Boundary Conditions (7-16) into General Solution (7-5), one

would have
0 1 0 1 c1 0
sin kL cos kL L 1 c2 0 (7-17)
=
k 0 1 0 c3 0
k cos kL k sin kL 1 0 c4 0

Likewise, expanding the determinant of this matrix yields
kL
sin = 0 (7-18)
2

kL
= (7-19)
2
Substitute back the k term from Expression (7-3) and one would have
Pcr L 4 2 EI (7-20)
= or Pcr =
EI 2 L2
Pcr 4 2EI
cr = or cr = (7-21)
A AL2
L u, y
FIGURE 7.3
Fixed-free supported column.
Finally, for a column with one end fixed and one end free as shown by
Figure7.3, the following boundary conditions are applicable:
u(A) = u(0) = 0
du du
( A) = (0) = 0 (7-22)
dx dx
d2 u d2 u
2
(B) = 2 (L) = 0
dx dx
du d4u du d4u
k2 (B) + 4 (B) = k 2 (L) + 4 (L) = 0
dx dx dx dx
By substituting Boundary Conditions (7-22) into General Solution (7-5), one

would have
0 1 0 1 c1 0
k 0 1 0 c2 0
2 = (7-23)
k sin kL k 2 cos kL 0 0 c3 0
0 0 k2 0 c4 0

Expanding the determinant of this matrix yields
cos kL = 0 (7-24)

(7-25)
kL =
2
Substitute back the k term from Expression (7-3) and one would have
Pcr 2 EI (7-26)
L= or Pcr =
EI 2 4L2
Pcr 2 EI (7-27)
cr = or cr =
A 4 AL2
Example 7.1
For the simply supported column 10 feet long with square cross-section
of 3 inches by 3 inches, determine the critical buckling stress. Assume a
steel column.
P
10 ft. 3 in.
3 in.
Using Expression (7-15), the critical stress of the column is determined as

2EI
cr =
4 AL2
E = 29 106 psi
A = 3 3 = 9in2
3 33
I= = 6.75in4
12
2 (29 106 )(6.75)
cr = = 14906 psi
(9)(10 * 12)2
Compare this value to the steel yield strength.

7.3Column Buckling under Combined

Axial and Bending Loads
Consider the column loaded with a combination of axial and bending loads
as shown by Figure7.4.
The equation representing the bending of the column is
d2 u
EI = M (7-28)
dx 2
By virtue of simple static theory, the lateral reactions at the points A

and B are R A = Va/L and R B = V(L a)/L, respectively. Using these reaction
loads, one can develop the total bending moment along the axis of the
column as
Vax
M1 = Pu1 + for 0 x L a (7-29)
L
and
V (L a)(L x)
M2 = Pu2 + for L a x L (7-30)
L
B a
V
L
u
FIGURE 7.4
Column buckling under combined loading.
Now, by substituting Moment Equations (7-29) and (7-30) into Expression

(7-28), one would have
d 2 u1 Vax
EI = Pu1 for 0 x L a (7-31)
dx 2 L
d 2 u2 V (L a)(L x)
EI = Pu2 for L a x L (7-32)
dx 2 L
As before, by introduction of the term k2 = P/EI, the available solutions for

these differential equation are
Vax
u1 = u1 ( x) = c1 cos kx + c2 sin kx for 0 x L a (7-33)
PL
V (L a)(L x)
u2 = u2 ( x) = c3 cos kx + c 4 sin kx for L a x L (7-34)
PL
For this system, by applying the applicable known boundary conditions

as before,
u1 ( A) = u1 (0) = 0
u2 ( A) = u2 (0) = 0 (7-35)
u1 (L a) = u2 (L a)
du1 (L a) du2 (L a)
=
dx dx
the constants of the integration c1, c2, c3, and c4 are determined as
c1 = 0 (7-36)
V sin ka
c2 = (7-37)
Pk sin kL
V sin k(L a)
c3 = (7-38)
Pk
V sin k(L a)
c4 = (7-39)
Pk tan kL
By substitution of the above constants into Expressions (7-33) and

(7-34), one would have the following final deflection expressions for the
column:
V sin ka Va
u1 = sin kx x for 0 x L a (7-40)
Pk sin kL PL
V sin k(L a) V (L a)(L x)

u2 = sin k(L x) for L a x L (7-41)
Pk sin kL PL
The maximum lateral displacement occurs in the middle of the column

where x = L/2. Thus, using Expressions (7-40) and (7-41), for the maximum
displacement one would have (for a = L/2)
L V sin 2 k L2 VL (7-42)
u x= =
2 Pk sin kL 4 P
We know that Expression (7-42) goes to infinity at sin kL = 0. Thus, the first-
term solution is
kL = (7-43)
which, by substitution of the k term, would produce the critical axial load for
buckling of the column as
Pcr 2EI
= or Pcr = (7-44)
EI L L2
7.4Multiple Column System Buckling

At the column system shown by Figure7.5, points A, B, and D are pinned and
point C is a fixed joint. Knowing that the deflection angles produced at point
C are equal and the summation of the moments at that point results in zero,
one can derive the critical buckling load for the system as
13.84EI
Pcr = (7-45)
L2
The final buckling deflection of this system is shown in Figure7.6.

Likewise, at the column system shown by Figure7.7, points A and B are
pinned and point D is fixed. Also, point C is a fixed joint. Knowing that
the deflection angles produced at point C are equal, the summation of the
A L, (EI) L, (EI) B
P P
C
L/2
FIGURE 7.5
Three-column-system with pinned support.
AC
BC
A C B
P P
CD
FIGURE 7.6
Three-column-system buckling deformation.
A L, (EI) L, (EI) B
P P
C
FIGURE 7.7
Three-column-system with fixed support.
AC
BC
A C B
P P
CD
FIGURE 7.8
Three-column-system buckling deformation.
moments at that point results in zero, and that the deflection angle at point
D is zero, one can derive the critical buckling load for the system as
13EI
Pcr = (7-46)
L2
The final buckling deflection of this system is shown in Figure7.8.
7.5Buckling of Plates
Consider a plate as shown by Figure7.9, with thickness t and the length and
width dimensions of a and b, respectively. Also, assume the plate is simply
supported along the edges at x = 0 and x = a. A loading force Nx per unit
length is applied to the edges of the plate laterally.
y
z
Nx (force/unit length) b t
Nx (force/unit length)
x
a
FIGURE 7.9
Simply supported plate buckling.
The equation of equilibrium for this laterally loaded plate, in terms of the
plate deflection w in the z direction, is
4 2 w
D w + Nx = 0 (7-47)
x2
where the plate stiffness
Et 3
D=
12(1 2 )
Hence, the following series solution is available to the system as shown by

S. P. Timoshenko:
mx ny
w( x , y ) = Amn sin sin (7-48)
a b
Applying the applicable boundary conditions,
w(0, y) = w(a, y) = 0 (7-49)
one would find that the plate lateral load is
2
2 D mb n2 a
Nx = + (7-50)
b2 a mb

For the buckling solution, n = 1 gives the smallest value of lateral load Nx.
Thus, the critical buckling load is
2
2 D mb a 2D
N x , cr = 2
+ or N x , cr = C (7-51)
b a mb b2
where
2
mb a
C= +
a mb
Applying the stiffness D value, one would have the plate critical loading of
2 Et 3
N x , cr = C (7-52)
12(1 2 )b 2
10
m =1 2 3 4 5
2
8 mb + a
C=
a mb
6
C
4
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
a/b
FIGURE 7.10
Plate buckling load coefficient versus the aspect ratio.
Lastly, the plate critical buckling stress is determined as
N x , cr 2E t2
cr = or cr = C (7-53)
t 12(1 ) b 2
2

where the coefficient C can be determined from the a/b aspect ratio graph
shown by Figure7.10.
To use the graph, simply calculate the aspect ratio a/b, and then find the
corresponding value based on a straight line to the lower bounds of the
curves drawn. For example, for a/b aspect ratios of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, the buck-
ling coefficients are 4 in all cases.
Example 7.2
For a simply supported plate 20 inches long and 10 inches wide, with a
thickness of 0.01 inches, determine the critical buckling stress. Assume
a steel plate.
y
z
Nx,cr 9 in. 0.01 in. Nx,cr
x
20 in.
The plate aspect ratios would be
a 20
= = 2.22
b 9
From Figure7.10, the corresponding plate coefficient value C is deter-

mined as C = 4.036.
For the material properties of
E = 29 106 psi
= .3
The buckling stress is determined by Expression (7-53) as
2E t2
cr = C
12(1 2 ) b 2

2 (29 106 ) 0.012
cr = (4.036) = 130.6psi
12(1 0.32 ) 92

Problems
1. For a simply supported column 10 feet long with square cross-sec-
tion of 2 inches by 2 inches, determine the critical buckling stress.
Assume aluminum 6061-T6 column material.
2. For a fixed-fixed column of 20 feet long with an I cross-section,
determine the critical buckling load and the stress for the column.
Assume the column is made of stainless steel material, with flange
width of 6 inches, web height of 4.5 inches, and 0.5 inch thickness
all around.
3. For a fixed-free column 15 feet long with an I cross-section, determine
the critical buckling load and the stress for the column. Assume the
column is made of aluminum 7075 material, with flange width of
5 inches, web height of 4 inches, and 0.5 inch thickness all around.
4. Consider a fixed-fixed column with a square cross-section of 3
inches by 3 inches, with a desired minimum critical load of 1000
lbs.; determine the maximum length. Assume the column is made of
aluminum 7075-T6 material.
5. For a simply supported plate 35 inches long and 10 inches wide,

with thickness of 0.04 inches, determine the critical buckling stress.
Assume aluminum 7075-T6 plate material.
6. For a simply supported plate 40 inches long and 13 inches wide,
with thickness of 0.05 inches, determine the critical buckling stress.
Assume annealed steel plate material.
References
Simitses, G., An Introduction to Elastic Stability of Structures, 1976. New York: Prentice
Hall Inc.
McGraw Hill Inc.
8
Fatigue Analysis
8.1Introduction
Fatigue is known as the failure of a structural component under repeated
loading. It can occur prematurely and reduce the life of a component con-
siderably. There are three methods currently available for fatigue analysis:
(1) the stress-life approach, (2) the strain-life approach, and (3) the fracture
mechanics approach. This chapter briefly concentrates on the stress-life
approach only. It is written to give the stress analyst a general idea of stress-
life fatigue analysis. For a detailed fatigue analysis technique, a metal fatigue
text or handbook is recommended.
8.2Stress-Life SN Curve
The plot of the alternating stress (S) versus the cycles-to-failure (N) is known
as the SN curve, which is used to predict material failure under repeated
loads. In the case of steel, this curve can be quantified by the expression
shown by the relation
S = 10C N b (for 103 < N < 106 ) (8-1)

where
1 0.9Sult (0.9Sult )2
b = log 10 and C = log 10
3 0.5Sult 0.5Sult
A graphical representation of Expression (8-1) is shown in Figure8.1 in log scale.

The stress level at the life of 1 million cycles is referred to as the endurance
limit (Send) of the material. In Figure 8.1, the endurance limit of the mate-
rial is where the alternating stress flattens down (Send = 0.5 Su). In reality, for
113
0.9 Sult
1.0
0.9
0.8
S/Sult
0.7 0.5 Sult
0.6
0.5
0.4 3
10 104 105 106 107
Life to Failure N (cycles)
FIGURE 8.1
General SN curve for steel.
fatigue analysis, this endurance limit is factored out for size, type of loading,
temperature, environment, surface treatment, and surface finish as applica-
ble. These factors are available for each material in the respective materials
handbook.
In fatigue analysis, the mean stress, stress amplitude, and stress ratio are
often utilized. Mean stress is defined as
max + min
mean = (8-2)
2
where max is the maximum stress level the component undergoes over time
and min is the minimum stress level the component undergoes over time.
Likewise, the stress amplitude is defined as
max min
amp = (8-3)
2
and stress ratio or R is defined as
min
R= (8-4)
max
In 1899 Goodman developed the fatigue relationship
amp mean
+ = 1 (8-5)
Send Su
which can be used to derive an expression for the fully reversed stress level
(Sn) as shown by Expressions (8-6) and (8-7). This stress level is used to
Fatigue Analysis 115
predict the fatigue life of a component under cyclic stress. The correspond-
ing life from the SN curve or Expression (8-1) is the total predicted life of the
component under repeated cyclic loading,
amp mean
+ = 1 (8-6)
Sn Su
amp
Sn = (8-7)
1 mean
Su

Example 8.1
Consider a structural component that undergoes a cyclic stress with a
maximum level of 100 ksi and minimum level of 2 ksi. The component is
made out of steel with ultimate strength of 125 ksi. Determine the life of
the component under this condition.
max = 100 ksi

and
min = 2 ksi
max + min 100 + 2
mean = , mean = = 51 ksi
2 2
max min 100 2
amp = , amp = = 49 ksi
2 2
Determine the fully reversed stress level using Expression (8-6),

amp mean 49 51
+ = 1, + =1
Sn Su Sn 125
Thus, Sn 82.9 ksi.

Construct the SN curve and determine the life, graphically, based on an
alternating stress level of 82.9 ksi from that curve or use Expression (8-1).
Thus, the predicted life of the component is N = 37,000 cycles.
0.9 Sult = (0.9)(125) = 112.5 ksi

120
110
100 82.9
S (ksi)
90 37000 0.5 Sult = (0.5)(125) = 62.5 ksi

80
70
60
103 104 105 106 107
Life to Failure N (cycles)
8.3Fatigue Crack Growth

The determination of the life of a structural component with the presence of
a crack is examined here for fatigue analysis. Fracture mechanics principles
are used to predict the life of a structure before an existing crack on the
structure has grown to a critical detectable size.
In the 1960s, P. C. Paris developed an expression relating crack growth rate
to stress cycles. This expression, as shown in Expression (8-8), relates the
crack length (a) rate and the fatigue cycles (N) to the stress intensity of the
component under cyclic loading,
da
= C( K )m (8-8)
dN
where the stress intensity K = f ( g )( max min ) a , C, and m are material

constants that can be obtained from fatigue material handbooks. Also, f(g) is
a function of the crack geometry and is defined by Bannantine, Comer, and
Handrock (1990) as shown in Figure8.2.
f ( g ) = 1.12 .231( a/b) + f ( g ) = 1.12 + .203( a/b)

a
10.55( a/b)2 21.72( a/b)3 1.197( a/b)2 + 1.93( a/b)3 f ( g ) = sec
2b
+ 30.39(a/b)4
6M
=
tb 2
t = thickness
f ( g ) = 1.12 1.4( a/b) + 7.33( a/b)2 13.08( a/b)3 + 14( a/b)4

Now, by the separation of the variables of Expression (8-8) and integration,

the life-cycles-to-failure (Nfailure) for the structural component can be calcu-
lated as
da

dN =

C( K )m
(8-9)
or
af
da

N failure =
ai C( K )m
(8-10)
Fatigue Analysis 117
a a a
2a
b 2b 2b
M b M
a
FIGURE 8.2
Stress intensity correction factors.
where ai is the existing initial crack size and af is the final critical crack size.
This final crack size is usually calculated as
2
1 Kc
af = (8-11)
f ( g ) max

with Kc being the critical stress intensity.
Problems
1. A structural component undergoes a cyclic stress with maximum
level of 65 ksi and minimum level of 12 ksi. The component is made
out of steel with ultimate strength of 70 ksi. Determine the life of the
component under this condition.
2. A structural component undergoes a cyclic stress with maximum
level of 70 ksi and minimum level of 30 ksi. The component is made
out of steel with ultimate strength of 95 ksi. Determine the life of the
component under this condition.
3. A relatively large plate contains a center crack of 0.02 inches wide.
The yield strength of the material is 70 ksi and the fracture toughness
of the material is 110 ksi (in)1/2. The plate is subjected to a maximum
stress level of 45 ksi and a minimum stress level of 5 ksi. Assuming
the fatigue material constants, C = 108 and m = 3.5, determine the
number of cycles to failure for this plate.
References
Bannantine, J.A., Comer, J.J., Handrock, J.L., Fundamental of Metal Fatigue Analysis,
1990. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Inc.
9
Energy Methods
9.1Introduction
This chapter explores the application of energy methods to study structural
behavior for determinate and indeterminate structures. Strain energy is
examined for determination of displacements and rotations in solid elastic
bodies. Furthermore, potential energy applications for determination of the
stresses due to impact loading on elastic bodies are investigated.
9.2.Strain Energy
Strain energy is defined as the energy stored within an elastic body when
the solid matter is deformed by an applied loading. Thus, strain energy is
equivalent to the work done by the external forces acting on a body. The
general expression defining the strain energy is
1

U=
2 (
V
+ yy yy + zz zz + xy xy + yz yz + xz xz )dV (9-1)
xx xx
For a bar of length L under only axial loading F, Expression (9-1) reduces to
1

U=
2 (V
)dV (9-2)
xx xx
where the volume change is dV = Adx, the area times the change in length.
Substituting the terms for the axial stress and strain, one would have
1 F F

U=
2 L A EA
Adx (9-3)
119
This expression is solved and reduced as
F2L
U= (9-4)
2EA
which for a series of n bars joined together, the strain energy takes the
series form
n
Fi2 Li
U= 2Ei Ai
(9-5)
i=1
Likewise, for a beam under bending moment M, the strain energy expres-
sion reduces to
1

U=
2 (V
xx xx )dV (9-6)
where the volume change is dV = dAdx, the change in area times the change
in length.
Substituting the terms for the bending stress and strain, one would have
1 My My

U=
2
L A I EI
dA dx (9-7)
where I = A y 2 dA. This expression is solved and reduced as
1 M2

U=
2 L EI
dx (9-8)
For a beam under torque T, the strain energy expression reduces to
1

U=
2 (V
xy xy )dV (9-9)
where the volume change is dV = dAdx, the change in area times the change
in length.
Substituting the terms for the shearing stress and strain, one would have
1 Tr Tr

U=
2 L A J JG
dAdx (9-10)
Energy Methods 121
where J = A r 2 dA . This expression is solved and reduced as
1 T2

U=
2 L JG
dx (9-11)
which can be integrated, and the strain energy is
T2
U= (9-12)
2 JG
For a series of n beams joined together, the strain energy takes the series form
n
Ti2
U= 2 J iGi
(9-13)
i=1
9.3Castiglianos Theory
Castiglianos theory states that for an elastic body under applied loading Q,
the deflection yQ, at the point of the application of load Q, is the partial deriv-
ative of the strain energy of the structure, U, with respect to load Q:
U
yQ = (9-14)
Q
Likewise by this theorem, the slope of a beam where moment M is

applied is determined as the partial derivative of the strain energy U with
respect to the applied moment M:
U
= (9-15)
M
Also, the angle of twist for a shaft where a torque T is applied is the par-
tial derivative of the strain energy U with respect to torque T:
U
= (9-16)
T
It should be noted that at a point where deflection is needed and there is no

applied loading at that point, a fictitious load would be added and the partial
derivate is carried out. Then the fictitious load is set to null to determine the
deflection term.
Example 9.1
The aluminum truss system shown is under an applied loading Q. The
rods have circular cross-sections with 2-inch diameters. Determine the
vertical displacement at point C where the loading is applied by using
the energy method.
60 in.
C
A
70 in. Q
By fundamentals of static, the loads in the truss members are
FAC = 1.67Q and FBC = 1.94Q

The cross-sectional area of the rods is
22
A= = 3.1415 in 2
4
Thus the strain energy in the system by Expression (9-5) is
2 2
U= 2FE LA i
i
i
i
i=1
(1.67Q)2 (60) (1.94Q)2 (70)

U= + = 0.647 105 Q 2
2(10.6 10 )(3.1415) 2(10.6 106 )(3.1415)
6
dU
yc = = 2(0.647 105 )Q thus y c = 0.13 104 (Q) in.
dF
Energy Methods 123
Example 9.2
For the uniformly distributed loaded beam shown here, determine the
end deflection at point B by use of the energy method.
x
A B
L
By Castiglianos method, a fictitious vertical load Q is introduced to

point B as shown.
A B
The free-body diagram of the system is developed that includes the

following loading:
y
Q
MA x
A B
L
RA
From mechanics of material, the reaction shear and moment at point

A are determined as
RA = Q + wL
wL2
M A = QL +
2
The moment along the beam length at any point x is represented by

wL2 wx 2
M( x) = (Q + wL)x QL +
2 2
The deflection at point B by Castiglianos theory is the partial derivative
of Expression (9-8) with respect to load Q, as stated by Expression (9-14):
L
dU M dM

yB =
dQ
=
0 EI dQ
dx
L
wL2 wx 2

yB =
o
(Q + wL)x QL +
2

2
( x L) dx
x=L
1 x3 x2L wL2 x2 wx 4 wx 3L
yB = (Q + wL) QL + Lx +
EI 3 2 2 2 8 6
Q=0
x=0
4 4 4 4 4 4
1 wL wL wL wL wL wL
yB = + +
EI 3 2 4 2 8 6
The deflection at point B is

wL4
yB =
8EI
9.4Stress Due to Impact by Potential Energy

The response of an elastic body having a stiffness of k under the impact of
weight W can be shown by the use of the potential energy theory as modeled
by Figure9.1. The potential energy of the falling mass is equal to the energy
absorbed by the elastic body,
1
W ( h + ) = Fspring (9-17)
2
FIGURE 9.1
Impact loading of an elastic body.
Energy Methods 125
where Fspring is the equivalent static load that the elastic body (spring)
would produce.
This load is defined as
Fspring = k (9-18)

Now substituting Expression (9-18) into (9-17), one would have
1 2
W ( h + ) = k (9-19)
2
The stiffness of the spring can be rewritten in term of the static deflection
st of the spring,
W
W = k st or k= (9-20)
st
By substitution of this stiffness term into Expression (9-19), one would have
1W 2
W ( h + ) = (9-21)
2 st
Rewriting the equation into form
1W 2
+ W + Wh = 0 (9-22)
2 st
then, the solution for this system is
2h
= st 1 + 1 + (9-23)
st

Substitute this deflection equation into Expression (9-18) and the equiva-
lent spring force is derived as
2h
Fspring = k st 1 + 1 + (9-24)
st

The term kst can be replaced by the weight, W, as given by Expression

(9-20), thus,
2 h (9-25)
Fspring = W 1 + 1 +
st
This is the equivalent spring force due to the impact of the weight in terms
of the displacements. By fundamentals of physics, this relation can be rewrit-
ten in terms of impact velocity by using the relation
v 2 = 2 gh (9-26)

as
v2
Fspring = W 1 + 1 + (9-27)
st g

Now consider a cantilever beam of length L while being impacted by a

free-falling weight W with the velocity of v. The stress due to this impact
can be evaluated by determining the equivalent force on the beam due to the
free-falling weight by Expression (9-27) as
v2
Fe = W 1 + 1 + (9-28)
st g

By mechanics of material, the maximum static deflection of the beam is
WL3
st = (9-29)
3EI
Substituting back this displacement into Expression (9-28), one would have
3EIv 2
Fe = W 1 + 1 + (9-30)
WgL3

FIGURE 9.2
Cantilever beam under impact loading.
Energy Methods 127
The resulting bending moment on the beam is
3EIv 2
M = FeL or M = WL 1 + 1 + (9-31)
WgL3

Thus, the stress on the beam due to the impact of the falling weight would be
=
Mc
=
(
WL 1 + 1 + 3 EIv 2
WgL3 ) c
(9-32)
I I
Example 9.3
Consider a beam supported vertically by two spring systems as shown
by the following figure. A weight of 100 lbs. is dropped on the beam cen-
ter from a distance of 10 inches high. Determine the maximum stress of
the beam due to this impact loading by application of potential energy.
The beam is made of aluminum (E = 10 106 psi).
100l
10 in.
2 in.
1.5 in.
spring 100 lb/in 100 lb/in
50 in.
By Expression (9-25), the equivalent force by the falling weight is
2h 2(10)
Fe = W 1 + 1 + , Fe = 100 1 + 1 +
st st

The static equilibrium deflection is the sum of the beam deflection and
the spring displacement. The beam displacement is
WL3 100(50)3
beam = = = 0.026 in.
48EI 48(10 106 )(1)
The spring displacement is
1 W 1 100
spring = = = 0.5 in.
2 k 2 100
The total static equilibrium deflection is
st = beam + spring st = 0.026 + 0.5 = 0.526 in.

Thus,
2(10)
Fe = 100 1 + 1 + = 725 lb
0.526

Based on the free-body diagram of the system and the fundamentals

of the mechanics of material,
Fe
Fe/2 Fe/2
the bending moment of the beam would be,
FeL 725(50)
M= = = 9063 in-lb
4 4
Thus the stress on the beam due to this falling weight would be
Mc 9063(1)
= = = 9063 psi
I 1
Problems
1. An 80-lb. weight is dropped in the middle of a simply supported
beam from a height of 30 inches. The simply supported beam is 70
inches long with a square cross-section of 1.2 inches by 1.2 inches.
The beam is made of annealed steel material. Determine the maxi-
mum stress and the deflection of the beam due to this impact.
Energy Methods 129
2. Consider an aluminum 7075 cantilevered beam 50 inches long with

a rectangular cross-section of 1.5 inches wide by 2 inches high. If a
weight of 50 lbs. is dropped onto the free end of the beam, what is
the free-fall height that causes the beam to permanently deform?
3. For the beam system shown here, determine the deflection at point
A using Castiglianos theorem. (Assume E and I properties.)
A 2L L
4. For the beam system shown here, determine the deflection at point
E. (Assume E and I properties.)
L L 2L
5. For the truss system shown here, determine the deflection at point
C. Assume all members are made from round 1-inch diameter bars.
The bar material is steel (E = 29 106 psi).
50 in
50 in
12000 lb
6. For the truss system shown here, determine the deflection at the
point of the load application. Assume all members are made from
round 0.5-inch diameter bars. The bar material is cold rolled steel.
75 in
45 45
500 lb
References
10
Numerical and Finite Element Methods
10.1Introduction
The finite element method is one of the most commonly used methods for
calculation of the stresses and deflections of large truss and beam systems.
The structural system is discretely divided into finite elements and each has
its own basic equilibrium model. Each element model is defined and assem-
bled into the larger global model that defines the system, and then the system
is represented by simultaneous equations and solved by numerical methods.
Hence, the nodal displacements are determined and the individual element
forces are computed. The displacements can be translated into strains and
the forces can be translated into stress values for each element.
10.2Stress on Truss Elements

By definition, a truss is structural system of slender, two-force members or
rods joined with pins and loaded only at the joints. Consider a rod with an
original length L and applied force F at the end joints.
Under the applied loading, the rod elongates an amount of horizontal dis-
placement u. The strain on the rod is defined as
u
= (10-1)
L
and the axial stress is defined as

F
= (10-2)
L
By Hookes law, the stress and strain are related as
= E (10-3)
131
u
F F
FIGURE 10.1
Truss (rod) member under axial loading.
Thus by substitution of (10-1) and (10-2) into Hookes relation, one would have
F u
= E (10-4)
A L
or for displacement
FL
u= (10-5)
AE
Solving for force as a function of displacement, one would have
AE
F= u (10-6)
L
where AE/L is the stiffness of the rod. Let k represent this stiffness,
AE
k= (10-7)
L
Then, Expression (10-6) can be rewritten as
F = ku (10-8)
Now consider the rod under equilibrium conditions. The summation of

forces on the rod must be equal to zero,

F = 0, F1 + F2 = 0, or F1 = F2 (10-9)
The same concept is applicable to rod elongation. Thus, total rod elonga-
tion can be represented by the individual end displacements:
u = u2 u1 (10-10)
Numerical and Finite Element Methods 133
+x
u1 u2
F1 F2
FIGURE 10.2
Rod, truss member under equilibrium conditions.
Apply Expression (10-8) and the force on the rod is

F2 = F1 = k(u2 u1 ) (10-11)

or
F1 = u1 k u2 k (10-12)
and
F2 = u2 k u1 k (10-13)
Expressions (10-12) and (10-13) can be represented in matrix form as
F1 k k u1
= (10-14)
F2 k k u2

which follows the form of
{R} = [ K ]{D} (10-15)
where {R} is the load vector, {D} is the displacement vector, and [K] is the
stiffness matrix.
k k
[K ] = (10-16)
k k

This is the finite element representation of the rod truss member.
Lets consider the same element except at an inclined angle of . The load
and the end displacements can be as shown in Figure10.3.
As shown in Figure 10.3, the loads and the end displacements can be
resolved into their respective components in term of the inclined angle for
side (1) as
f1 x
cos = (10-17)
F1
f1 y
sin = (10-18)
F1
F2
f 2y
F1
f 2x
u 1y
u 2y
u 1x
u 2x
f1x
f1y
FIGURE 10.3
Rod, truss member at an inclined angle.
Hence,
f1x = F1 cos (10-19)

f1y = F1 sin (10-20)

Likewise, for side (2) of the rod,
f2 x
cos = (10-21)
F2
f2 y
sin = (10-22)
F2
Hence,
f2 x = F2 cos (10-23)

f2 y = F2 sin (10-24)

Now, multiply both sides of Expressions (10-19) by the cosine of the angle
and both sides of Expression (10-20) by the sine of the angle as follows:
f1x cos = F1 cos 2 (10-25)

f1y sin = F1 sin 2 (10-26)

Add the two expressions and solve for F1. Then,
F1 = f1y sin + f1x cos (10-27)

Repeat the same operation for the loading on side (2) of the rod and one
would have
f2 x cos = F2 cos 2 (10-28)

f2 y sin = F2 sin 2 (10-29)

and hence,
F2 = f2 y sin + f2 x cos (10-30)

By the same analogy, the end displacements can be solved as
u1 = u1x cos + u1y sin (10-31)

and
u2 = u2 x cos + u2 y sin (10-32)

where the total rod displacement is
u = u2 u1 = u2 x cos + u2 y sin u1x cos u1y sin (10-33)

Now by equilibrium
F1 = k(u2 u1 ) (10-34)

F2 = k(u2 u1 ) (10-35)

Substitute the displacement terms into these expressions and one would
have the following expressions for the rod end loadings:
F1 = ku1x cos + ku1y sin ku2 x cos ku2 y sin (10-36)

F2 = ku1x cos ku1y sin + ku2 x cos + ku2 y sin (10-37)

Finally, the rod end-force components can be derived by substitution of

Expressions (10-36) and (10-37) back into Equations (10-19), (10-20), (10-23),
and (10-24) as follows:
f1x = ( k cos 2 )u1x + ( k sin cos )u1y + ( k cos 2 )u2 x + ( k sin cos )u2 y (10-38)

f1y = ( k sin cos )u1x + ( k sin 2 )u1y + ( k cos sin )u2 x + ( k sin 2 )u2 y (10-39)

f2 x = ( k cos 2 )u1x + ( k sin cos )u1y + ( k cos 2 )u2 x + ( k sin cos )u2 y (10-40)

f2 y = ( k sin cos )u1x + ( k sin 2 )u1y + ( k cos sin )u2 x + ( k sin 2 )u2 y (10-41)

Rewriting these expression in matrix form
{ f } = [ K ][u] (10-42)

one would have developed the finite element relation of the rod based on the
inclined angle as
f1 x c2 sc c2 sc u1x
f1 y sc s2 sc s2 u1y
=k (10-43)
f2 x c2 sc c2 sc u2 x
f2 y sc s2 sc s2 u2 y

where s = sin and c = cos.
Now consider the truss numerical problem as shown in Figure10.4. The
truss system is under an applied loading of 450 lbs. at the right corner and
450 lbf
39.4 in
59 in
FIGURE 10.4
Truss system under loading.
450 lbf
R3x
R3y
39.4 in
R1x
59 in
R1y
FIGURE 10.5
Truss system free-body diagram.
pinned at the left side as shown. The rods are all made of AL 2024-T4, with
cross-sectional area of 2.33 in2.
The free-body diagram of the system is shown by Figure10.5, where Rij are
the reaction loads.
The finite element representation of the system is shown by Figure 10.6,
where each truss member is assigned the appropriate vertical and axial end-
load components. Also, the external loads at the nodes are shown.
Table10.1 shows the breakdown of the model.
Each element stiffness is calculated as
A( e ) E ( e )
k (e) = (10-44)
L( e )
Hence, for elements (1) through (4), one would have
2.33(10.6 106 )
k (1) = = 418610 (10-45)
59
2.33(10.6 106 )
k (2) = = 626853 (10-46)
39.4
2.33(10.6 106 )
k (3) = = 347859 (10-47)
71
2.33(10.6 106 )
k (4) = = 418610 (10-48)
59
450 lbf
(N3) f34y (4) f44y

R3x (N4)
f34x f44x
f33y f42y
R3y f33x
f42x
(3) (2)
f23x f22x
f23y f22y
(N1) f11x (1) f21x

R1x (N2)
f11y f21y
R1y
FIGURE 10.6
Truss system finite element model.
The stiffness matrices for each element are evaluated based on their respec-
tive inclined angles as
c2 0 s 0c 0 c2 0 s 0c 0
s 0c 0 s2 0 s 0c 0 s2 0
[ K ](1) = k (1) (10-49)
c2 0 s 0c 0 c2 0 s 0c 0
s 0c 0 s2 0 s 0c 0 s2 0

TABLE10.1
Truss System Data
Element Nodes Length Area S C
1 1,2 59 in. 2.33 in 2 0 0 1
2 2,4 39.4 in 2.33 in2 90 1 0
3 2,3 71 in. 2.33 in2 146.26 0.55 0.83
4 3,4 59 in. 2.33 in2 0 0 1
c 2 90 s90c 90 c 2 90 s90c 90
s90c 90 s2 90 s90c 90 s2 90
[ K ](2) = k (2) (10-50)
c 2 90 s90c 90 c 2 90 s90c 90
s90c 90 s2 90 s90c 90 s2 90

c 2 146.26 s146.26c146.26 c 2 146.26 s146.26c146.26

2
s146.26c146.26 s 146.26 s146.26c146.26 s 2 146.26
[ K ](3) = k (3)
c 2 146.26 s146.26c146.26 c 2 146.26 s146.26c146.26
2
s146.26c146.26 s 146.26 s146.26c146.26 s 2 146.26

(10-51)
c2 0 s 0c 0 c2 0 s 0c 0
s 0c 0 s2 0 s 0c 0 s2 0
[ K ](4) = k (4) (10-52)
c2 0 s 0c 0 c2 0 s 0c 0
s 0c 0 s2 0 s 0c 0 s2 0

Numerically the stiffness matrices are
1 1 1 1
k11 k12 k13 k14 418610 0 418610 0
1 1 1 1
k21 k22 k23 k24 0 0 0 0
[ K ](1) = =
1
k31 1
k32 1
k33 1
k34 418610 0 418610 0
1
k 41 1
k 42 1
k 43 1
k 44 0 0 0 0

(10-53)
2 2 2 2
k11 k12 k13 k14 0 0 0 0
2 2 2 2
k21 k22 k23 k24 0 626853 0 626853
[ K ](2) = =
2
k31 2
k32 2
k33 2
k34 0 0 0 0
2
k 41 2
k 42 2
k 43 2
k 44 0 626853 0 626853

(10-54)
3 3 3 3
k11 k12 k13 k14 240546 160667 240546 160667
3 3 3 3
(3) k 21 k 22 k 23 k 24 160667 107313 160667 107313
[K ] = =
3
k 31 3
k 32 3
k 33 1
k 34 240546 160667 240546 160667
3
k 41 3
k 42 3
k 43 3
k 44 160667 107313 160667 107313

(10-55)
4 4 4 4
k11 k12 k13 k14 418610 0 418610 0
4 4 4 4
(4) k21 k22 k23 k24 0 0 0 0
[K ] = =
4
k31 4
k32 4
k33 4
k34 418610 0 418610 0
4
k 41 4
k 42 4
k 43 4
k 44 0 0 0 0

(10-56)
Knowing that the global nodal forces for N elements are
N
{F} = { f (e)
} (10-57)
e=1
one can sum up the loads at each node as

F1x = f11x (10-58)

F1y = f11y (10-59)

F2 x = f21x + f22x + f23x (10-60)

F2 y = f21y + f22y + f23y (10-61)

F3 x = f33x + f34x (10-62)

F3 y = f33y + f34y (10-63)

F4 x = f 42x + f 44x (10-64)

F4 y = f 42y + f 44y (10-65)

The nodal loads in vector form are
(1) (2) (3) (4)

1
f 1x
F1x f11x 0 0 0
F1y f11y 0 0 0
f11y
F2 x f 21x + f 22x + f 23x f 22x f 23x 0
f 21x 0
F2 y f 21y + f 22y + f 23y f 22y f 23y (10-66)
= = f 21y + + + f 34x
F3 x f 33x + f 34x 0 f 33x 4
F3 y 0 0 f 3y
f 33y + f 34y 0 f 33y
F4 x f 42x f 44x
f 42x + f 44x 0 2
0
F4 y 0 f 4y 0 f 44y
f 42y + f 44y

where the summation vector {Fij} can be broken down into force vectors for
each element (1 through 4).
Now, the force vector for each element is the element stiffness times the
displacement vector:
{f(e)} = [K](e){u} (10-67)
Hence, specifically for each element, one would have
f11x 1
k11 1
k12 1
k13 1
k14 0 0 0 0 u1x
f11y 1
k21 1
k22 1
k23 1
k24 0 0 0 0 u1y
f21x 1
k31 1
k32 1
k33 1
k34 0 0 0 0 u2 x (10-68)
1 1 1 1
f21y = k 41 k 42 k 43 k 44 0 0 0 0 u2 y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
f22x 0 0 2
k11 2
k12 0 0 2
k13 2
k14 u2 x
f22y 0 0 1
k21 1
k22 0 0 1
k23 1
k24 u2 y (10-69)
=
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
f 42x 0 0 2
k31 2
k32 0 0 2
k33 2
k34 u4 x
2 2 2 2
f 42y 0 0 k 41 k 42 0 0 k 43 k 44 u4 y

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
f23x 0 0 3
k11 3
k12 3
k13 3
k14 0 0 u2 x
f23y 0 0 3
k21 3
k22 3
k23 3
k24 0 0 u2 y (10-70)
3
= 3 3 3 3
f 3x 0 0 k31 k32 k33 k34 0 0 u3 x
3 3 3 3
f 3
3y 0 0 k 41 k 42 k 43 k 44 0 0 u3 y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (10-71)
f34x = 0 0 0 0 4
k11 4
k12 4
k13 4
k14 u3 x
f34y 0 0 0 0 4
k21 4
k22 4
k23 4
k24 u3 y
f 44x 0 0 0 0 4
k31 4
k32 4
k33 4
k34 u4 x
4 4 4 4
f 44y 0 0 0 0 k 41 k 42 k 43 k 44 u4 y

Substitute back each of the element load vector expressions into Expression
(10-66) and the global stiffness matrix of the truss system is developed as
F1x
1
k11 1
k12 1
k13 1
k14 0 0 0 0 u1x
F1y 1
k21 1
k22 1
k23 1
k24 0 0 0 0 u1y
F2 x 1
k31 1
k32 1
k33 2
+ k11 3
+ k11 1
k34 2
+ k12 3
+ k12 3
k13 3
k14 2
k13 2
k14 u2 x
F2 y 1
k 41 1
k 42 1
k 43 2
+ k 21 3
+ k 21 1
k 44 2
+ k 22 3
+ k 22 3
k 23 3
k 24 2
k 23 2
k 24 u2 y
=
F3 x 0 0 3
k 31 3
k 32 3
k 33 4
+ k11 3
k 34 4
+ k12 4
k13 4
k14 u3x
F3 y 0 0 k 3
41 k 3
42
3
k +k
43
4
21
3
k +k
44
4
22 k 4
23
4
k 24 u3y
F4 x 0 0 2
k 31 2
k 32 4
k 31 4
k 32 2
k 33 4
+ k 33 2
k 34 4
+ k 34 u4 x
F4 y 2 2 4 4 2 4 2 4
0 0 k 41 k 42 k 41 k 42 k +k
43 43 k 44 + k 44 u4 y

(10-72)
In general terms,
{F}nodal = [K ]Global {U }nodal (10-73)
For this numerical problem, the known external loadings are F2x = 0, F2y =
0, F4x = 0, and F4y = 450 lbf. Also, the known boundary conditions are u1x = 0,
u1y = 0, u3x = 0, and u3y = 0.
Substitute the stiffness k values from Expressions (10-53) through (10-56)
into Expression (10-72) and solve for the unknowns (simultaneous equa-
tions). The results follow.
For the displacements:
u2 x = 1.61 103 in (10-74)

u2 y = 6.6 103 in (10-75)

u4 x = 0 (10-76)
u4 y = 7.32 103 in (10-77)

For the external loads:
F1x = 674 lbf (10-78)

F1y = 0 (10-79)

F3 x = 674 lbf (10-80)

F3 y = 450 lbf (10-81)

The axial loads on each truss member are determined by using Expressions
(10-68), (10-69), (10-70), and (10-71) and application of the nodal displacements.
The stress on each member is determined as follows.
For member (1):
f11x = k13
1 1
u2 x + k14 u2 y = (418610)(1.61 103 ) = 674 lbf (10-82)

f11x 674
(1) = = = 289 psi (10-83)
A(1) 2.33
For member (2):
f22y = k21
2 2
u2 x + k22 2
u2 y + + k23 2
u4 x + k24 u4 y
= (626853)(6.6 103 ) + (626853)(7.32 103 ) = 450 lbf (10-84)

f22y 450
(2) = = = 193 psi (10-85)
A(2) 2.33
For member (3):
f23x = k11
3 3
u2 x + k12 3
u2 y + k13 3
u3 x + k14 u3 y
= (240546)(1.61 103 ) + (160667)(6.6 103 ) = 674 lbf (10-86)

f23y = k21
3 3
u2 x + k22 3
u2 y + k23 3
u3 x + k24 u3 y
= (160667)(1.61 103 ) + (107313)(6.6 103 ) = 450 lbf (10-87)

f 3 = ( f23x )2 + ( f23y )2 = 810 lbf (10-89)

f3 810
(3) = = = 348 (10-90)
A(3) 2.33 .
For member (4):
f34x = k11
4 4
u3 x + k12 4
u3 y + k13 4
u4 x + k14 u4 y = 0 (10-91)

f34x
(4) = = 0 (10-92)
A(4)
10.3Stress on Beam Members

Consider a beam of length L with shear forces F1 and F2 and moments M1 and
M2 applied to its ends, as shown by Figure10.7.
The moment along the length of the beam at any distance x is defined by
elementary mechanics of solid as
M( x) = F1 x M1 (10-93)

The curvature equation for this beam with respect to the moment is
d 2 v M( x) F1 x M1
= = (10-94)
dx 2 EI EI
By integration, the slope of the beam is defined as
dv 1 F1 x 2
= M1 x + C1 = (10-95)
dx E 2

Likewise, by a second integration, the deflection of the beam is defined as
1 F1 x 3 M1 x 2
v= + + C1 x + C2 (10-96)
E 6 2

Now, knowing that the load-deflection relation for the beam is defined as
F1 v1
M1 1
= [{ K 1}{ K 2}{ K 3}{ K 4}] (10-97)
F2 v2
M2 2

y, v
L, (EI)
M1 M2 x
F1 F2
FIGURE 10.7
Beam member deformation.
the elements of the beam stiffness matrix can be determined by application

of the unity deflection boundaries; i.e.,
Case 1: {K1} is determined as, v1(x = 0) = 1 and 1(x = 0) = v2(x = L) = 2 (x = L) = 0

Case 2: {K2} is determined as 1(x = 0) = 1 and v1(x = 0) = v2(x = L) = 2 (x = L) = 0
Case 3: {K3} is determined as v2(x = L) = 1 and v1(x = 0) = 1 (x = 0) = 2 (x = L) = 0
Case 4: {K4} is determined as 2 (x = L) = 1 and v1(x = 0) = 1 (x = 0) = v2 (x = L) = 0
For case 1, apply the respective boundary conditions into Equations (10-95)
and (10-96) and determine the constants of the integration,
1 F1 (0)3 M1 (0)2
v1 ( x = 0) = 1, 1 = + + C1 (0) + C2 C2 = 1 (10-98)
EI 6 2

1 F1 (0)2
1 ( x = 0) = 0, 0 = M1 (0) + C1 C1 = 0 (10-99)
EI 2

1 F1 (L)3 M1 (L)2 F L3 M L2
v2 ( x = L) = 0, 0 = + + 1 EI = 1 1 (10-100)
EI 6 2 6 2

1 F1 (L)2 FL
2 ( x = L) = 0, 0 = M1 (L) M1 = 1 (10-101)
EI 2 2

Substitute (10-101) into (10-100) and one would have
F1 L3 F1 L3 12EI
EI = F1 = 3 (10-102)
6 4 L .
Substitute (10-102) into (10-101) and one would have
F1 L 6EI
M1 = = 2 (10-103)
2 L
By equilibrium,
F1 + F2 = 0 F2 = F1 . (10-104)
Thus,
12EI
F2 = (10-105)
L3
Likewise, by equilibrium,
M1 + M2 + FL1 = 0 M2 = F1 L M1 (10-106)
Thus,
12EI 6EI 6EI
M2 = 2 = 2 (10-107)
L2 L L
Hence, by comparison of Expressions (10-102), (10-103), (10-105), and (10-107)

with Equation (10-97), one would find that the first vector of the stiffness
matrix is
12EI
L3
6EI
L2
{ K 1} = (10-108)
12EI
L3
6EI
L2

Similarly, for case 2, apply the respective boundary conditions into

Equations (10-95) and (10-96) and determine the constants of the integration.
Then determine the corresponding shear and moment expressions for unity
slope. One would have
C1 = 1 (10-109)
C2 = 0 (10-110)
and
6EI
F1 = (10-111)
L2
4EI
M1 = (10-112)
L
6EI
F2 = (10-113)
L2
2EI
M2 = (10-114)
L
Likewise, by comparison of Expressions (10-111), (10-112), (10-113), and (10-

114) with Equation (10-97), one would find that the second vector of the stiff-
ness matrix is
6EI
L2
4EI
L (10-115)
{K 2} =
6EI
L2
2EI
L

displacement. One would have
C1 = 0 (10-116)
C2 = 0 (10-117)
and
12EI (10-118)
F1 =
L3
6EI
M1 = (10-119)
L2
12EI (10-120)
F2 =
L3
6EI (10-121)
M2 =
L2
Likewise, by comparison of Expressions (10-118), (10-119), (10-120), and
(10-121) with Equation (10-97), one would find that the third vector of the
stiffness matrix is
12EI

L3
6EI
2
L
{K 3} = (10-122)
12EI
L3
6EI
2
L


slope. One would have
C1 = 0 (10-123)
C2 = 0 (10-124)
and
6EI
F1 = (10-125)
L2
2EI
M1 = (10-126)
L
6EI
F2 = (10-127)
L2
4EI
M2 = (10-128)
L
Likewise, by comparison of Expressions (10-125), (10-126), (10-127), and (10-
128) with Equation (10-97), one would find that the fourth vector of the stiff-
ness matrix is
6EI
L2
2EI
L
{K 4} = (10-129)
6EI
2
L
4EI
L

The element stiffness matrix can be assembled together as
12EI 6EI 12EI 6EI

L3 L2 L3 L2
6EI 4EI 6EI 2EI
L2 L L2 L
[K ] = (10-130)
12EI 6EI 12EI 6EI
L3 L2 L3 L2
6EI 2EI 6EI 4EI
L2 L L2 L

This matrix is only valid for vertical translation and in-plane rotation.
1 2
L, (GJ)
T1
x
z T2
FIGURE 10.8
Torsional deformation of beam.
Now consider a beam under torsion loading as shown by Figure10.8. Under

the applied loading, the beam twist is a total amount of , ( = 1 2). The
strain on the beam is defined as
r
= (10-131)
L
and the shear stress is defined in terms of the total torque on beam as
Tr
= (10-132)
J
By Hookes law, the stress and strain are related as
= G (10-133)
Thus, by substitution of (10-131) and (10-132) into Hookes relation, one

would have
Tr r
= G (10-134)
J L
or for twist,
TL
= (10-135)
JG
Solving for torque as a function of twist, one would have
JG
T= (10-136)
L
where JG/L is the stiffness of the beam. Let kT term represent this stiffness,
JG
kT = (10-137)
L
Then, Expression (10-136) can be rewritten as
T = kT (10-138)

Now consider the beam under equilibrium conditions. The summation of

torques on the beam must be equal to zero:

T = 0, T + T = 0
1 2 or T1 = T2 (10-139)
The total beam twist can be represented by the individual end rotations
= 1 2 (10-140)

Apply Expression (10-138) and the torque on the beam is
T2 = T1 = kT (2 1 ) (10-141)

or
T1 = 1 kT 2 kT (10-142)

and
T2 = 2 kT 1 kT (10-143)

Expressions (10-142) and (10-143) can be represented in matrix form as
T1 kT kT 1
= (10-144)
T2 kT kT 2

which defines the twist behavior of the beam under torsion.

One can combine the Stiffness Matrix (10-130) and (10-144) to represent the
total beam behavior under shear, torsion, and moment all together as follows:
12EI 6EI 12EI 6EI

0 0
L3 L2 L3 L2
JG JG
F1 0 0 0 v1
L L
T1 4EI 6EI 2EI 1
0
M1 L L2 L 1
=
F2 12EI 6EI v2
0
T2 L3 L2 2
M2 JG 2
0
L
4EI
Symmetric
L

(10-145)
This relation is to be used the same way as Relation (10-43) for truss mem-
bers was used. It is used to build up the beam system of simultaneous equa-
tions, which can be solved to determine beam displacements and rotations.
10.4Accurate Finite Element Analysis of Plates

One can derive an expression representing the stress field in a plate shown in
Figure10.9 from the Airy stress function. The stress expression derived would
be in polar coordinates where r (Equation 10-146) represents the stress in a
radial direction to the center hole. Likewise, (Equation 10-147) represents
the stress in the angular direction at the circumference of the center hole. The
r=a

FIGURE 10.9
Plate model with center-hole.
r (Equation 10-148) would represent the shearing stress in polar coordinates.

In all three expressions, r represents the radial location, a represents the center-
hole radius, represents the normal stress due to normal loading, and repre-
sents the angular location from horizontal as shown by Figure10.9.
a2 3a 4 4a 2
r= 1 + 1 + 2 cos 2 (10-146)
2 r2 r4 r

a2 3a 4
= 1+ 2
1 + 4 cos 2 (10-147)
2 r r

3a 4 2 a2
r = 1 4 + 2 sin 2 (10-148)
2 r r

Further, the stress in polar coordinates can be expressed in terms of the
stresses in Cartesian coordinate systems as shown by Equations (10-149),
(10-150), and (10-151). The x represents the normal stress, the y represents
the transverse stress, and xy represents the shear stress in the Cartesian
coordinate system:
r = x cos 2 + y sin 2 + 2 xy sin cos (10-149)

= x sin 2 + y cos 2 2 xy sin cos (10-150)

r = ( y x )sin cos + xy (cos 2 sin 2 ) (10-151)

The expressions in Equations (10-149), (10-150), and (10-151) can be formu-
lated in matrix and vector forms and the simultaneous equations can be
solved for the stresses in Cartesian coordinates. From the Cartesian stress
expressions, the principal stress values can be determined by expression in
Equation (10-152):
2
x + y x y
1,2 = + 2xy (10-152)
2 2

Finally, one can derive the von Mises stress (von-mises) representing the
stress field on the plate by expressions in Equation (10-153), where 1, 2, and
3 are the principal stresses determined by Equation (10-152). This von Mises
stress would be used to draw the theoretical closed-form stress solution of
the plate with a central hole:
2
von mises =
( 1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 1 3 ) (10-153)
2
A quarter symmetric model of a thin plate (0.2 inch) with center hole (4-inch
diameter) is built with four-node shell elements in ANSYS. The plates full
(a) (b)
FIGURE 10.10
(a) Free mesh, (b) high-density free mesh using membrane shell elements.
dimension is 20 inches by 20 inches. Four distinct meshes are generated to

elaborate the shape dependency of the finite element analysis (FEA) results.
The first model is built with free mesh of shell elements that are of fairly equal
sides [low-density (LD) free mesh]. Figure 10.10(a) illustrates this unstruc-
tured mesh. The same model is built from a high-density free mesh (HD map
mesh). In this mesh, in the immediate proximity of the hole area where there
is stress concentration, the mesh density is higher. Figure10.10(b) illustrates
this second mesh. A third model is built with mapped mesh of shell elements
that are of almost equal sizes but have high aspect ratios (HAR map mesh);
that is, the ratio of the long side of the element to the shorter side is large
(slender shape). Also, these elements follow a uniform pattern. Figure10.11(a)
(a) (b)
FIGURE 10.11
(a) High-aspect-ratio mapped mesh, (b) low-aspect-ratio mapped mesh using membrane shell
elements.
TABLE10.2
The Mesh Type Index for all Models
LD Free LAR Map HAR Map
Mesh Type HD Mesh Mesh Mesh Mesh
Number of plate elements 482 395 60 640
Average Size (in^2) 0.08 0.25 3 0.5
%plate elements with high aspect ratio 0 0 40 100
% plate elements with low aspect ratio 100 100 60 0
illustrates the shape and pattern of this structured mesh. The fourth model is
built with a mapped mesh of shell elements that have a low aspect ratio; that
is, the ratio of the longer side of the elements to the shorter side is small (LAR
map mesh). Figure 10.11(b) clearly illustrates the shape and pattern of this
structured mesh. These four mesh models adequately summarize all of the
possible mesh patterns that could be generated to mesh this plate geometry.
Symmetric properties are used in order to model only one fourth of the
full plate model. Symmetric boundary conditions are used at the left and
bottom sides of the plate models. For applied loading, a 50-lb/in uniform line
pressure is applied to the right side of the model (depicted by red arrows in
the meshed figure). This 50-lb/in line loading is equivalent to a quasi-static
1000 lbf tensile load applied to the plate thickness on the right side. The top
side of the plate model is free from restraints.
Table10.2 is used to index the four different mesh-type models with respect
to the number of elements, element size, and aspect ratio. HD mesh is the
high-density free mesh, LD free mesh is the low-density free mesh, LAR
map mesh is the low-aspect-ratio mapped mesh, and HAR map mesh is
the high-aspect-ratio mapped mesh. This comparison table materializes the
mesh represented in Figures10.2 and 10.3.
Figures10.12 through 10.15 represent the whole-field displacements for the
free mesh, high-aspect-ratio mapped mesh, low-aspect-ratio mapped mesh,
and the high-density mesh, respectively. All four models produce identical
displacement counters of the plate model with the same maximum displace-
ments. The displacement magnitudes indicate that the model is stiff, and
contour patterns indicate all four models are strained in the same manner.
The stress contours representing the stress field of the plate are ploted in
Figures 10.16 through 10.19. All of the plots from the four different possible
meshes indicate a maximum von Mises magnitude at the 90 location around
the hole at r = 2 in. This is a stress concentration location that is also expected by
theoretical values where displacement in the x direction is considered to be con-
strained. Comparing all models, the stress contours over the entire plate model
are similar in pattern. The only variations are the mangitudes of the stress levels
FIGURE 10.12
Displacement contour for the unstructured free-mesh model.
155
156
FIGURE 10.13
Displacement contour for the structured high-aspect-ratio mapped-mesh model.

FIGURE 10.14
Displacement contour for the structured low-aspect-ratio mapped-mesh model.
157
158
FIGURE 10.15
Displacement contour for the unstructured high-density free-mesh model.
FIGURE 10.16
Stress contour for the unstructured free-mesh model.
159
160
FIGURE 10.17
Stress contour for the structured high-aspect-ratio mapped-mesh model.
FIGURE 10.18
Stress contour for the structured low-aspect-ratio mapped-mesh model.
161
162
FIGURE 10.19
Stress contour for the unstructured high-density free-mesh model.
Von Mises Stress Around the Hole

900
800
700
600
von (psi)
HD-Mesh
500
400 LD free-Mesh
300 LAR Map-Mesh

200 HAR Map-Mesh
100 Closed-form Solu
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Angular Location (degrees)
FIGURE 10.20
Von Mises stress levels around the plate hole radius for different meshs.
developed in the plate stress field. The model with a denser mesh captures
the stress levels more accurately, as is shown by Figure10.20. The models with
mapped mesh produce a less-accurate representation of the von Mises stresses.
The results from the finite element analysis of the previous four mesh
models are compared with the theoretical von Mises stress levels derived by
using the expression in Equation (10-153).
Figure10.20 draws a comparison between the von Mises stress-magnitude
results developed based on the different mesh generations. The von Mises
stresses illustrated are of the stress contours immediately at the edge of the
2-inch radius hole section (r = 2 in). The figure compares different mesh results
with one another and to the results developed from closed-form stress analysis
theory. A close comparison of the different mesh models used indicates that a
free mesh with fairly consistent elements matches the results of an HAR map
mesh. However, an exception is that there is a 3.65% difference in the final max-
imum von Mises stress due to the same loading for the two different meshes.
In comparison to the LAR map-mesh results, the low-aspect-ratio mesh
overestimates the von Mises behavior of the plate slightly. However, for the
LAR model, the final maximum von Mises stress magnitude is closer to the
theoretical value with only a 1.72% difference. All three meshes together are
close to the theoretical von Mises stress values except at the 30 angle loca-
tion where the dip in the stress nullity is not very well determined. The HD
free mesh closely follows the LD free mesh and the HAR mapped mesh with
the exception that it estimates the theoretical stress depth closer than the
other three models. This mesh overestimates the theoretical final maximum
stress level by 9.73%, yet it proves to be a sufficient mesh since it closely pre-
dicts the stress behavior as seen by Figure10.20.
Interestingly, from all of the four mesh models, it can be concluded that
the proper aspect ratioed mapped mesh of the elements alone does not guar-
antee accurate results. An adequate mesh density is required to predict the
stress behavior of a structure. Also, it could be concluded that LAR meshes

are a good tool for determining margins of safety, since they may closely
predict the maximum stress levels.
Most FEA packages in some way provide meshing tools that generate
well-behaved (moderate aspect ratio) elements, yet none of them provide
for an automatic mesh density measure. The analyst has to select and con-
trol the mesh density of the region of interest being analyzed. This has to be
done either by preliminary FEA trial runs detecting the stress concentra-
tion regions or by predetermination of the specified region by theoretical
means. In either method, the degree of mesh density refinement also has to
be dealt with, which only comes from FEA experience of similar structures.
To elaborate on the far-field accuracy of the most accurate mesh (the HD
mesh), the plot of the normal stress vs. the vertical distance from the hole to
the horizontal edge of the plate in the y direction (at the left symmetry line)
is plotted in Figure 10.21. The FEA results from the HD mesh mimics the
theoretical values of the normal stress on the plate accurately. It is conclusive
that the HD mesh also is a good far-field indicator.
To explain the theoretical reasoning for having less accuracy for HAR ele-
ments, it is essential to understand the computational method for the finite
element modeling. One can begin by understanding the isoparametric for-
mulation of elements (see El-Sawy and Martini). For every element as illus-
trated by Figure 10.22, there is a linear displacement function defined in
horizontal direction u and vertical direction v:
u = 1 + 2 x 3 y + 4 xy (10-154)
v = 5 + 6 x 7 y + 8 xy (10-155)
Normal Stress Along the Symmetry

900
800
700
Normal Stress (psi)
600
500
400 HD-Mesh
300 Thoery
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance Y (in)
FIGURE 10.21
Normal stress vs. the vertical distance to the top.
u4 , v4 u3 , v3
X
u1, v1 u2, v2
FIGURE 10.22
Four-node rectangular element.
Using the boundary conditions at each node, the s can be eleminated and
displacement functions can be expressed as
u = (1/4bh)[(b x)(h y)u1 + (b + x)(h y)u2 + (b + x)(h + y)u3 + (b x)(h + y)u4]

(10-156)
v = (1/4bh)[(b x)(h y)v1 + (b + x)(h y)v2 + (b + x)(h + y)v3 + (b x)(h + y)v4]

(10-157)
The displacement expressions in (10-156) and (10-157) can be expressed in

matrix form as
{U} = [N]{d} (10-158)
where [N] is the shape function and {d} is the nodal displacement vector.
Relation (10-158) can be expanded and
u1
v1
u2
u N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 0 v2
=
v 0 N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 u3
v3
u4
v4

(10-159)
where Ni coefficients are the shape functions in terms of x, y, b, and h.

Now the strain in terms of the displacement is
u
x
x
v
y = (10-160)
y
yxy
u v
+
y x

which is
x
y =
xy
u1
v1
( h y)0( h y)0( h + y)0 ( h + y)0 u2
v2
0 (b x)0 (b + x)0(b + x)0(b x)
u3
(b x) ( h y) (b + x)( h y)(b + x)( h + y)(b x) ( h + y)
v3
u4
v4

(10-161)
whereas for a plane stress condition, the stress vector {} in terms of the ele-
ment strains can be derived as
{} = [D]{} (10-162)
where D is the material stifness matrix,
1 v v 0
E
D := v 1 0 (10-163)
1 v2
(1 v)
0 0
2

Now from Expression (10-162) a comparison between the stress results

from a HAR element and a LAR element can be computed and one would
have a higher stress value for the HAR element.
Problems
1. For the truss system shown here, determine the joint displacements
and the member stresses assuming all members are made from square
0.5 inch by 0.5 inch bars. The bars are made out of steel material (E = 29
106 psi).
12 in
300 lb
10 in
20 in
and the member stresses assuming all members are made from
round 1-inch diameter bars. The bars are made out of steel material
(E = 29 106 psi).
50 in
50 in
8000 lb
square 1 inch by 1 inch bars. The bars are made out of steel material
(E = 29 106 psi).
65 in
65 in
30
800 lb
square 1.5 inch by 1.5 inch bars. The bars are made out of steel mate-
rial (E = 29 106 psi).
24 in
1500 lb
30 in 30 in
5. For the beam system shown here, determine the stiffness matrix for
vertical translation and in-plane rotation. Also determine the forces in
each element. The beams are made out of steel material (E = 29 106
psi).
20000 lbf
140 in
120 in
I = 143 in4
I = 417 in4
6. For the beam system shown here, determine the stiffness matrix
for vertical translation and in-plane rotation. Determine the tip dis-
placement. Also determine the forces in each element. The beams
are made out of steel material (E = 29 106 psi).
1200 lb
200 in 200 in
460 in-lb
I = 108 in4 I = 108 in4
7. Using the expressions shown in Equations (10-149), (10-150), and

(10-151), solve for the state of stresses in the Cartesian coordinate system.
References
Asmar, G., Chakar, E., Analysis of an isotropic plate containing three identical cir-
cular holes arranged in a triangular configuration, Advances in Computational
Tools for Engineering Applications Conference, 2009.
El-Sawy, K M., Martini, M. I., Stability of biaxially loaded square plates with single
central holes, ships and offshore structures, 2010.
Logan, D.L., Finite Element Methods, 2002. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group.
Madenci, E., Guven, I., The Finite Element Method and Applications in Engineering Using
ANSYS, 2006. New York: Springer.
Phase 2, Mesh Generation Tools, http://www.Rockscience.Com, 2011.
Picasso, M., Adaptive finite elements with large aspect ratio based on an anisotro-
pic error estimator involving first order derivatives, Journal of Computational
Mathematics, 2005.
11
Composite Analysis Theory
11.1Introduction
The application of composite materials for design of various structural sys-
tems is becoming more common every day. Composites are generally used
because they can provide improvement of mechanical properties such as
strength, stiffness, and toughness. Thus, stress analysis of composite mate-
rials would be required for design with such material. For that purpose,
this chapter first provides the fundamental calculation theory necessary to
evaluate composite lamina (a single layer of laminated composites). Once
the lamina behavior is determined, then the stress analysis methods for
composite laminate (bonded layers of lamina) structures is presented.
11.2Orthotropic Lamina
The composite lamina by definition is an orthotropic material that has
properties that are different in each material direction. The material
direction parallel to the fiber direction is normally referred to as the lon-
gitudinal direction, and the material direction perpendicular to the fiber
direction is normally referred to as the transverse direction. Figure 11.1
illustrates this. It is accurate to indicate that the properties of the lamina
in the longitudinal direction are governed by the fiber properties, and the
properties of the lamina in the transverse direction are governed by the
matrix (epoxy) properties.
Having said that, and using the annotation L for longitudinal direction
and T for the transverse direction, one can denote the strainstress relation-
ship for a lamina as follows:
L
L = TL T (11-1)
EL ET
171
Matrix
Fiber
FIGURE 11.1
Composite lamina schematic.
T
T = LT L (11-2)
ET EL
LT
LT = (11-3)
GLT
where E, , and G with their subscripts represent the material properties of

the lamina in their respective direction (Note: LTET = TLEL).
Likewise, the lamina stresses can be derived from the above relations as
L Q11 Q12 0 L
T = Q12 Q22 0 T (11-4)
LT 0 0 Q66 LT

where, in matrix form, the matrix containing the Q elements is referred to as

the stiffness matrix and they are as follows:
EL
Q11 = (11-5)
1 LT TL
ET
Q22 = (11-6)
1 LT TL
LT ET TL EL
Q12 = = (11-7)
1 LT TL 1 LT TL
Q66 = GLT (11-8)

Composite Analysis Theory 173
11.3Orthotropic Layers Oriented at an Arbitrary Angle

The stresses and strains of the lamina, as shown by Figure11.2, in any direc-
tion in terms of the longitudinal and transverse stresses and strains are rep-
resented by the following transformation (plane stress):
T L
xy
FIGURE 11.2
Lamina stresses at arbitrary angle.
x c2 s2 2 sc L
y = s2 c2 2 sc T (11-9)
xy sc sc c s2
2
LT

where c denotes cosine of an angle and s denotes sine of an angle.

Now, by substitution of Expression (11-4) into this equation matrix, one
would have
x c2 s2 2 sc Q11 Q12 0 L
y = s2 c2 2 sc Q12 Q22 0 T
xy sc sc c 2 s2 0 0 Q66 LT

(11-10)
Knowing that, the strain transformation relation is
L c2 s2 2 sc x
T = s2 c2 2 sc y (11-11)
LT sc sc c 2 s2 xy
2 2

Substitute this Strain Transformation (11-11) into Expression (11-10) for the
stressstrain relationship, resulting in the following expression that repre-
sents the state of stress in terms of strains in an arbitrary fiber angle:
x c2 s2 2 sc Q11 Q12 0
y = s2 c2 2 sc Q12 Q22 0
xy sc sc c s2
2 0 0 2Q66
x
c2 s2 2 sc
y
s2 c2 2 sc (11-12)
xy
sc sc c 2 s2
2
This relation can be represented in a simpler matrix form as:
x Q11 Q12 Q16 x

y = Q12 Q22 Q26 y (11-13)
xy Q16 Q26 Q66 xy

where the matrix elements in terms of the stiffness elements [Q] are as follows:
Q11 = Q11c 4 + Q22 s 4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66)s2 c 2 (11-14)

Q22 = Q22 c 4 + Q11s 4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66)s 2 c 2 (11-15)

Q12 = (Q11 + Q22 4Q66)s2 c 2 + Q12( s 4 + c 4 ) (11-16)

Q66 = (Q11 + Q22 2Q12 2Q66)s2 c 2 + Q66( s 4 + c 4 ) (11-17)

Q16 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66)c 3 s (Q22 Q12 2Q66)cs3 ) (11-18)

Q26 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66)cs3 (Q22 Q12 2Q66)c 3 s) (11-19)

It should be noted that the stresses along the lamina directions (L,T) can
be presented in terms of the arbitrary axes stresses by inversing the relation
shown by Expression (11-9) as follows:
L c2 s2 2 sc x
T = s2 c2 2 sc y (11-20)
LT sc sc c 2 s2 xy

Example 11.1
For a lamina shown in the following figure, the strains are x = 400 ,
y = 700 and xy = 450 . Determine the normal stress components in
the x and y directions and the shear stress. Also determine the stresses
and strains along the fiber and transverse matrix directions (EL = 20 106
psi, ET = 1.3 106 psi, GLT = 1.03 106 psi, LT = 0.3).
60
To determine the strain along the fiber and transverse directions, use
Strain Expression (11-11) for = 60. One would have:
L
.25 .75 .866 400 230
T
= .75 .25 .866 700 = 70
LT
.433 .433 .5 225 589
2

and thus, L = 230 , T = 70 , and LT = 1178 .

Using Expression (11-4), one can determine the stresses at the longi-
tudinal and transverse directions. Before that, the Q values have to be
determined as follows:
LT ET
Note: LT ET = TLEL , then = TL = .02
EL
EL 20E6
Q11 = = = 20.12E6
1 LT TL 1 0.3(0.02)
ET 1.3E6
Q22 = = = 1.31E6
1 LT TL 1 0.3(0.02)
LT ET 0.3(1.3E6)
Q12 = = = 0.392E6
1 LT TL 1 0.3(0.02)
Q66 = GLT = 1.03E6

Thus, one would have,
L 20.12E6 0.392E6 0 230 106 4655

T = 0.392E6 1.31E6 0 70 106 = 181
LT 0 0 1.03E6 1178 106 1213
thus, L = 4655 psi, T = 181 psi, and LT = 1213 psi.

Using Expression (11-9), one can determine the normal and shear
stresses in the x and y directions, as follows:
x 0.25 0.75 0.866 4655 249

y = 0.75 0.25 0.866 181 = 4586
xy 0.433 0.433 0.5 1213 1331

x = 249 psi, y = 4586 psi, and xy = 1331 psi.
11.4Analysis of Laminate
Assume a single layer of material undergoing bending as shown in
Figure 11.3. Let u, v, and w represent the displacements in the x, y, and z
directions, respectively. After bending, the displacement of the layer is a
combination of the midplane displacement and the angular displacement,
denoted as follows:
w0
u = u0 z
x
(11-21)
w
v = v0 z 0
y

FIGURE 11.3
Single layer bending of material.
where u0, v0, and w0 are the midplane displacements.

The strains are defined as
u u0 2 w0
x = = z = 0x + zk x (11-22)
x x x2
v v0 2 w0
x = = z = 0y + zk y (11-23)
y y y 2

u v u0 v0 2 w0
xy = + = + 2z = 0xy + zk xy (11-24)
y x y x x y

where 0x , 0y , and 0xy are the midplane strains, and kx, ky, and kxy are the
plate curvatures.
These expression can be rewritten in terms of the midplane strains and
plate curvatures in vector form:
x 0x kx
0
y = y +z ky (11-25)
xy 0xy k xy

Substitute the above expression (11-25) into Expression (11-13) and the
stressstrain relationship for the single layer, k, can be written as
x Q11 Q12 Q16 x

y = Q12 Q22 Q26 y (11-26)
xy Q16 Q26 Q66 xy
k k
or
x Q11 Q12 Q16 0x

y = Q12 Q22 Q26 0y
xy Q16 Q26 Q66 0xy
k k
Q11 Q12 Q16 kx

+z Q12 Q22 Q26 ky (11-27)
Q16 Q26 Q66 k xy
k
Now consider a laminate with the height of h made out of n single lay-
ers. The resultant forces and the moments acting on the laminate are as
follows:
Nx h/2
x n hk
x
Ny =
h/2
y dz =
k =1
hk 1
y dz (11-28)
N xy xy xy

Mx h/2
x n hk
x
My =
h/2
y zdz =
k =1
hk 1
y zdz (11-29)
Mxy xy xy

where, {N} is the resultant forces (force per unit length) and {M} is the resul-
tant moments (moment per unit length) on the laminate.
Now, substituting Expression (11-27) into Equations (11-28) and (11-29), one
would have
Nx n Q11 Q12 Q16 0x

hk
Ny = Q12 Q22 Q26 hk 1
dz 0y
N xy k =1
Q16 Q26 Q66 0xy
k
n Q11 Q12 Q16 kx

hk
+ Q12 Q22 Q26 hk 1
zdz ky (11-30)
k =1
Q16 Q26 Q66 k xy
k
Mx n Q11 Q12 Q16 0x

hk
My = Q12 Q22 Q26 hk 1
zdz 0y
Mxy k =1
Q16 Q26 Q66 0xy
k
n Q11 Q12 Q16 kx

hk
+ Q12 Q22 Q26 hk 1
2
z dz ky (11-31)
k =1
Q16 Q26 Q66 k xy
k
Rewriting Expressions (11-30) and (11-31) in another form results in
Nx A11 A12 A16 0x B11 B12 B16 kx

0
Ny = A12 A22 A26 y + B12 B22 B26 ky
N xy A16 A26 A66 0
xy
B16 B26 B66 k xy

(11-32)
Mx B11 B12 B16 0x

My = B12 B22 B26 0y
Mxy B16 B26 B66 0xy
D11 D12 D16 kx

+ D12 D22 D26 ky (11-33)
D16 D26 D66 k xy

where the [A], [B], and [D] matrices are known as the extensional stiffness
matrix, coupling stiffness matrix, and bending stiffness matrix, respectively.
The components of these matrices are given by using the laminate lay-up
shown by Figure11.4,
n
Aij = (Qij) (h h k k k 1 )
k =1 (11-34)
n
1
Bij =
2 (Qij) ( h k
2
k hk2 1 )
k =1 (11-35)
n
1
Dij =
3 (Qij) ( h k
3
k hk3 1 )
k =1 (11-36)
h0 Layer 1
h1 Layer 2 h/2
h2
x Mid-plane
hk1
hk h/2
hn
FIGURE 11.4
Laminate lay-up.
Expressions (11-32) and (11-33) can be rewritten to give the strain and cur-
vature results based on the applied resultant loading as follows:
0x Nx Mx
0y = [[] [][ 1 ][ ]] Ny + [][ 1 ] My (11-37)
0xy N xy Mxy

and
kx Mx Nx
1 1
ky = [ ] My [ ][ ] Ny (11-38)
k xy Mxy N xy

where
[] = [ A 1 ]
[] = [ A 1 ][B]
[ ] = [B][ A 1 ] (11-39)
[] = [D] [B][ A 1 ][B]

EXAMPLE 11.2
Consider the laminate lay-up of (0/45/90) under the loading as shown
by the following figure. The lamina properties are EL = 20 106 psi, ET =
1.3 106 psi, GLT = 1.03 106 psi, and LT = 0.3 for all layers. Determine the
strains in the x and y directions. Also, determine the strains and stresses
along the longitudinal and transverse directions for each ply layer.
Assume each layer is 0.05 inches thick.
200 lb/in
500 lb/in x 500 lb/in
200 lb/in
Determine the stiffness matrix [Q] by using the Expressions (11-5)

through (11-8):
EL ET LT ET TLEL
Q11 = , Q22 = , Q12 = = , Q66 = GLT
1 LT TL 1 LT TL 1 LT TL 1 LT TL
20.12E6 0.3923E6 0
[Q] = 0.3923E6 1.308E6 0
0 0 1.03E6
Determine the stiffness matrices for each angled layer (0/45/45/90)

using Expressions (11-14) through (11-19):
Q11 = Q11c 4 + Q22 s 4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66)s 2c 2
Q22 = Q22 c 4 + Q11s 4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66)s 2c 2
Q12 = (Q11 + Q22 4Q66)s 2c 2 + Q12( s 4 + c 4)
Q66 = (Q11 + Q22 2Q12 2Q66)s 2c 2 + Q66( s 4 + c 4)
Q16 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66)c 3s (Q22 Q12 2Q66)cs 3
Q26 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66)cs 3 (Q22 Q12 2Q66)c 3s

20.12E6 0.3923E6 0
[Q]0 = 0.3923E6 1.308E6 0
0 0 1.03E6
6.582E6 4.522E6 4.703E6

[Q]45 = 4.522E6 6.582E6 4.703E6
4.703E6 4.703E6 5.160E6 .
6.582E6 4.522E6 4.703E6
[Q]45 = 4.522E6 6.582E6 4.703E6
4.703E6 4.703E6 5.160E6
1.308E6 0.3923E6 0
[Q]90 = 0.3923E6 20.17 E6 0
0 0 1.03E6

Apply the following lay-up schematic to calculate the elements of the
[A], [B], and [D] matrices using Equations (11-34) through (11-36):
n n n
1 1
Aij =
k =1
(Qij)k ( hk hk 1 ), Bij =
2 k =1
(Qij)k ( hk2 hk2 1 ), Dij =
3 (Qij) (h h
k =1
k
3
k
3
k 1 )
h0 = 0.1
Layer 1, 0
h1 = 0.05
Layer 2, 45
h2 = 0.0 x
Layer 3, 45
h3 = 0.05
Layer 4, 90
h4 = 0.1
1.73E6 4.915E5 0
[ A] = 4.915E5 1.73E6 0
0 0 6.19E5
7.054E 4 0 1.176E 4
[B] = 0 7.054E 4 1.176E 4
1.176E 4 1.176E 4 0
6.798E3 6.057 E2 0
[D] = 6.057 E2 6.798E3 0
0 0 1.031E3

Using Expression (11-37), calculate the laminate strains:
0x 500 0
0y = [[] [][ 1 ][ ]] 200 + [][ 1 ] 0 , thus
0
xy
0 0
0x 591.4 106
0y = 17.64 106
0xy 110.5 106

Transform the laminate strains to the strains at each layer (0/45/45/90)
using Expression (11-11):
L x
c 2 s 2 2 sc y
T
= s 2 c 2 2 sc
LT xy
sc sc c 2 s 2
2 2

L
1 0 0 591.4 106
T
= 0 1 0 17.64 106 , thus
LT
0 0 1 110.5 106
2 0o
L 591.4 106
T = 17.64 106
LT 221 106
0o
L
.5 .5 1 591.4 106
T
= .5 .5 1 17.64 106 , thus
LT
.5 .5 0 110.5 106
2 45o
L 415 106
T = 194 106
LT 574 106
45 o
L
.5 .5 1 591.4 106
T
= .5 .5 1 17.64 106 , thus
LT
.5 .5 0 110.5 106
2 45o
L 194 106
T = 415 106
LT 574 106
45o
L
0 1 0 591.4 106
T
= 1 0 0 17.64 106 , thus
LT
0 0 1 110.5 106
2 90o
L 17.64 106
T = 591.4 106
LT 221 106
90o
Using Expression (11-4), determine the stresses in each ply layer:
L Q11 Q12 0 L
T = Q12 Q22 0 T
LT 0 0 Q66 LT

L 20.12E6 0.392E6 0 591.4 106

T = 0.392E6 1.31E6 0 17.64 106
LT 0 0 1.03E6 221 106
0o 0o
11910
= 255 psi
228

L 20.12E6 0.392E6 0 415 106

T = 0.392E6 1.31E6 0 194 106
LT 0 0 1.03E6 574 106
45o 450
8426
= 417 psi
591

L 20.12E6 0.392E6 0 194 106

T = 0.392E6 1.31E6 0 415 106
LT 0 0 1.03E6 574 106
45o 45o
4066
= 620 psi
591
L 20.12E6 0.392E6 0 17.64 106

T = 0.392E6 1.31E6 0 591.4 106
LT 0 0 1.03E6 221 106
90o 90o
587
= 782 psi
228
11.5Effective Modulus of the Laminate

Once a laminate is designed and built up, then the effective properties of the
laminate can be used to analyze the laminate state of stress and strains as
well. The effective properties of a laminate can be evaluated by use of the [A]
matrix as follows:
1 A11A22 A12 2
Ex( eff ) = (11-40)
h A22

1 A11A22 A12 2
Ey ( eff ) = (11-41)
h A11

1
Gxy ( eff ) = A66 (11-42)
h
A12
xy ( eff ) = (11-43)
A22
There are several laminate lay-ups that produce effective modulus proper-
ties that are similar in the in-plane directions and mimic an isotropic mate-
rial. These laminates are referred to as the quasi-isotropic laminates.
The laminate shown in Example 11.2 (0/45/45/90) is a quasi-isotropic
laminate with effective properties given as
1 1.73E6(1.73E6) (4.915E5)2
Ex( eff ) = = 7.951 106 psi
0.2 1.73E6

1 1.73E6(1.73E6) (4.915E5)2
Ey ( eff ) = = 7.951 106 psi
0.2 1.73E6

1
Gxy ( eff ) = (6.19E5) = 3.095 106 psi
0.2
4.915E5
xy ( eff ) = = 0.28
1.73E6
One can observe that the Ex and Ey are equal. Another quasi-isotropic lami-
nate lay-up is the (0/60/60).
Problems
1. For an IM6/epoxy lamina oriented at 45 degrees from the x axis, the
strains levels are x = 800 , y = 950 , and xy = 500 . Determine
the normal stress components in the x and y directions and the shear
stress. Also determine the stresses and strains along the fiber and
transverse matrix directions.
2. For an E-glass/epoxy lamina oriented at 30 degrees from the x axis,
the stress levels are x = 1500 psi, y = 200 psi. Determine the in-plane
strains resulting from this loading.
3. Consider a laminate lay-up of (0/60/60) with each layer being 0.03
inch thick. This laminate is made of AS/3501 plies. Determine the
[A], [B], and [D] matrices for this buildup.
4. Consider a laminate lay-up of (45/45/90/90/45/45) with each layer
being 0.05 inch thick. This laminate is made of IM6/epoxy plies.
Determine the [A], [B], and [D] matrices for this buildup.
5. Consider a laminate lay-up of (0/90/90/0) with each layer being 0.08
inch thick. This laminate is made of S-glass/epoxy plies. Determine
the [A], [B], and [D] matrices for this buildup.
6. For Problem 4 above, under x-direction loading of 800 lb/in and
y-direction loading of 350 lb/in, determine the strains in the x and y
directions.
7. Consider a laminate lay-up of (0/45/90/90/45/0) with each layer
being 0.05 inch thick. This laminate is made of IM6/epoxy plies. The
applied loading in the x direction is 1000 lb/in and the loading in the
y direction is 1300 lb/in. Determine the strains in the x and y direc-
tions. Also determine the strains and stresses along the longitudinal
and transverse directions for each ply layer.
8. Repeat Problem 7 above with a laminate lay-up of (0/45/30/30/45/0).
References
Agarwal, B. D., Broutman, L.J., Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, 1990. New
York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Gurdal, Z., Haftka, R.T., Hajela, P., Design and Optimization of Laminated Composite
Materials, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
12
Fasteners and Joint Connections
12.1Introduction
Fasteners and joints are integral parts of the design of structures. Thus, stress
analysis of the fasteners and joints are necessary components to be learned
by stress analysts. There are two major types of connections: (1) the bolted or
riveted connections, and (2) the welded connections. This chapter illustrates
the fastener-joint failure modes of the connections of the first type and the
failure mode of the second type. Failure stress calculations are shown for
each type of failure. Furthermore, fastener analysis under eccentric loading
of the joints is shown. For this analysis, basic knowledge of vector mechanics
is necessary.
12.2Fastener Connection Failure

Bolted and riveted connection failure is categorized into two sections: (1)
fastener failure and (2) joint failure. Fastener failure modes are normally due
to shear and bending of the fasteners (bolts and rivets). Figure12.1 illustrates
a fastener connection under shear loading.
The shear stress on the fastener is calculated as
F
= (12.1)
As
where As is the cross-sectional area of the fastener with diameter D,
D2
As =
4
189
F
F
FIGURE 12.1
Fastener under shear loading.
Figure12.2 illustrates a fastener under combined bending and shear. The

bending stress on the fastener is calculated as
MD
= (12-2)
2I
where I is the moment of inertia of the fastener with diameter D,
D4
I=
64
The maximum bending moment (M) and shear (V) are calculated assum-
ing the following load distribution on the fastener shown in Figure 12.3,
whereas the distributed load exerted by the middle lap is w = F/L.
Making use of the shear and moment diagrams for this fastener, one would
have the following terms.
Hence, by using Expression (12-2), the maximum bending stress on the
fastener due to the maximum bending moment, Mmax = (wLg/2) + (wL2/8), is
16wLg + 4wL2
max = (12-3)
D3
or
16 Fg + 4 FL
max = (12-4)
D3
x
g, on both sides
F/2
F
F/2
FIGURE 12.2
Fastener under bending and shear loading.
Fasteners and Joint Connections 191
y Fastener
L
g g
wL/2 wL/2
FIGURE 12.3
Fastener load distribution.
The maximum shear stress on the fastener due to the maximum shear load
Vmax = wL/2 is
Vmax
max = (12-5)
As
or
wL
2 2 wL
max = = (12-6)
D2 D2
4
V(x)
wL/2
wL/2
(wLg/2) + ( wL2/8)
M(x)
wLg/2 wLg/2
FIGURE 12.4
Shear-moment diagram for the fastener.
F
L
F/2
t
F/2
Shearing Area
FIGURE 12.5
Shear tear-out of the joint.
where this equation can be rewritten in terms of load F as,

2F
max = (12-7)
D2
The joint failure modes are due to shear tear-out, tension tear-out, and
bearing. Figure12.5 illustrates shear tear-out of the joint under axial loading.
The shear tear-out stress of the joint is calculated as
F
= (12-8)
2 Ash
where Ash is the area of the shear surfaces, Ash = Lt.

Figure12.6 illustrates the tension tear-out of the joint. The tension tear-out
stress of the joint is calculated as
F
= (12-9)
Atn
where Atn is the tension surface area, Atn = w1(t) + w2(t).
Tension Area
w2
F/2
w1 F/2
t
FIGURE 12.6
Tension tear-out of the joint.
F
D
F/2
F/2
t
FIGURE 12.7
Bearing failure mode.
Figure 12.7 illustrates the bearing failure mode of the joint. The bearing
stress of the joint is calculated as
F
br = (12-10)
Abr
where Abr is the bearing contact surface of the joint, Abr = Dt.
Normally a detailed analysis carries all of the above failure modes for both
the fasteners and the connecting joints.
12.3Welded Connection Failure

The most common type of welded connection is the fillet weld connection.
Figure12.8 illustrates the connection and its geometry. The fillet welds trans-
fer the load between two plates and carry a shear stress in both longitudinal
and transverse joint directions.
Assume a tensile load F acting on the joint and the welds with a shear-
ing stress capability of long and trans in the longitudinal and transverse joint
Weld
A
t
t
F b F
a A-A
A
FIGURE 12.8
Typical welded joint connection.
directions, respectively. The following force balance is applicable to the weld

connection, which can be used to determine the weld size or the joint force
capability depending on what is known to the stress analyst. Note that in
this joint there are three sides welded. Depending on the number of sides of
the joint that are welded, the corresponding weld area in the equation below
should be adjusted to account for the additional weld areas for this equality to
be valid. The areas in this equation are represented by the (a)(t) and (b)(t) terms.
F = 2 long ( a)(t) + trans (b)(t) (12-11)

This is valid for axial tensile load on the joint. If this joint is loaded by a
bending moment, the moment should be reduced to a force-couple and the
same force balance should be applied to the joint for weld sizing.
12.4Eccentric Loading of Fasteners

For a fastener connection where the loading is applied at distance Le from
the center of the fastener connection, eccentric loading is developed. Under
this condition, there would be a moment developed on the fastener pattern
that also introduces a shear loading on each fastener in addition to the sim-
ple shear due to the eccentric load. Figure 12.9 and Figure 12.10 illustrate
this concept.
P
Le
Fasteners
FIGURE 12.9
Eccentric loading of a fastener pattern.
xi
P/4 P/4
F4
ri F1 yi
P/4 + P/4
F3
F2
FIGURE 12.10
Load components on the fasteners.
Forces F1, F2, F3, and F4 due to the eccentric moment M = P(Le) are calcu-
lated as
P(Le)
Fi = ri (12-12)
ni = 1 ri2
where radius ri is defined as ri = xi2 + y i2 and n is the number of fasteners

(n = 4).
Now in order to find the total shear load on each fastener, the resultant
load has to be calculated from tload components Fi and (P/n) by utilizing vec-
tor mechanics concepts. The free-body diagram in Figure12.11 illustrates the
loads on a typical single fastener. Thus, total shear load on any fastener can
easily be determined by the principles of static:
Fix = cos(i )Fi (12-13)

Fiy = sin(i )Fi (12-14)

2
P
Fshear = + sin ( i ) Fi + (cos(i )Fi )2 (12-15)
n
P/n
i i
ri Fi
yi
Center xi
FIGURE 12.11
Free-body diagram of any fastener.
Example 12.1
For the bolt pattern shown here, determine the resultant load on each bolt.
30 lb
30 in
2 in
3 in
3 in 500 lb
2 in 2 in
Forces F1, F2, F3, and F4 due to total eccentric moments M = (30)(30) +
(500)(2) = 1900 in-lbf are calculated using Equation (12-12):
M
Fi = ri
ni =1 ri2
where ri = 3.61 in (a = 2 in. and b = 3 in)
1900
F1 = = 3.61 = 131.6 lbf
4 x(3.612 )
Since the bolt pattern C.G. is right at the center (all rs are equal), then F4
= F3 = F2 = F1.
A free-body diagram is
1000/4 (lbf)
x 500/4 (lbf)
i i
ri Fi
yi
Center xi
From the free-body-diagram of a fastener shown here for a single gen-

eral bolt, one has
xi 2
(i ) = inv sin = inv sin = 33.64
ri 3.61

(i ) = 90 33.64 = 56.36
Fiy = cos ( i ) Fi = cos(56.36)(131.6) = 72.9 lbf

Fix = sin(i )Fi = sin(56.36)(131.6) = 109.6 lbf

2 2
1000 500
Fshear = + 72.9 + + 109.6 = 399.1 lbf for all fasteners
4 4
For maximum possible loading condition, consider the lower right-hand-

side bolt in the bolt group, where the load components produced would
be in the same direction as the 1000 lbf down and 500 lbf left loads.
12.5Intercoupling Loading of Fasteners and Inserts

In a real-life design consideration, the loads acting on the fasteners and/
or the connecting inserts are a combination of tensile (or compressive) and
shear loads. For every fastener and insert connection, the loads can usually
be reduced to a single combined tensile and shear loading applicable per
fastener or insert. For a fastener connection or insert where combined ten-
sile and shear loading are acting as a coupling, the intercoupling fastener or
insert analysis can be done as follows to calculate the margins of safety (MS):
1
MS = 1 (12-16)
FS( Pt ) 2 2

( Ft ) + ( FSFs( Ps) )
where FS is the factor of safety used, Pt is the tensile load on the fastener or
insert, Ps is the shear load on the fastener or insert, Ft is the tensile allowable for
the fastener or inserts, and Fs is the shear allowable for the fastener or inserts.
Note: For a bolt or fastener group, the total load would be reduced to load
per fastener in the group according to the C.G. of the bolt group and the
application of the loads and moments. After this load reduction and determi-
nation of the single tensile and shear loading per fastener, the same margin
of safety calculations can be used for each bolt or fastener in the group.
12.6Fastener Properties
The fastener strength values are shown for common fasteners used in design
both in International Standard (SI) and English units. Tables 12.1 and 12.2
show the English and SI versions of the fasteners, respectively.
TABLE12.1
Fastener properties in English units
Proof Strength Yield Strength Tensile
SAE Grade Diameter d (in.) (psi) (psi) Strength (psi)
1 1/4 through 1 1/2 33 36 60
2 1/4 through 3/4 55 57 74
2 Over 3/4 to 1 1/2 33 36 60
5 1/4 through 1 85 92 120
5 Over 1 to 1 1/2 74 81 105
5.2 1/4 through 1 85 92 120
7 1/4 through 1 1/2 105 115 133
8 1/4 through 1 1/2 120 130 150
Source: Society of Automotive Engineering Standard J429K (1979).
TABLE12.2
Fastener properties in SI units
Proof Strength Yield Strength Tensile Strength
SAE Grade Diameter d (mm) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
4.6 5 through 225 240 400
4.8 1.6 through 16 310 340 420
5.8 5 through 24 380 420 520
8.8 17 through 36 600 660 830
9.8 1.6 through 16 650 720 900
10.9 6 through 36 830 940 1040
12.9 1.6 through 36 970 1100 1220
Source: Society of Automotive Engineering Standard J1199 (1979).
Problems
1. For the single side fastener joint shown, under a fastener loading of
3600 lbs., determine the failure modes of the joint and evaluate the
corresponding stresses. If an aluminum 7075 material is used for the
joint, would the joint be strong enough?
3600 lbf 5 in
0.25 in
3600 lbf
0.15 in thick
2. For the joint connection shown, determine the maximum stresses on

the fastener. Assume two rows of fasteners. Lap thickness L is 0.25
inch, gap g is 0.1 inch. The applied loading F is 1200 lbf. The fasten-
ers used are 1/4-inch diameter SAE grade 2. Would the fasteners be
adequate to hold the joint together?
x
g, on both sides
F/2
F
F/2
3. For the bolt pattern shown here, determine the resultant load on
each bolt. What size bolt do you recommend for this bolt pattern?
200 lb
33 in
2 in
3 in
12 in
3 in 400 lb
2 in 2 in
References
Hill Inc.
13
MathCAD Stress Analysis Simulations
13.1Introduction
In this chapter, sample MathCAD simulation codes are written to perform
various stress analysis calculations and procedures. MathCAD is a commer-
cial symbolic math package tool that can be used to perform various calcu-
lations via computer. Basically, the computations are carried out within the
package as a series of equations that are typed in as is. This package con-
tains operational math solutions and tools such as matrix manipulators that
are useful for structural analysis. The codes shown in this chapter mimic
the calculation analyses that were presented in Chapters 1 through 12 of
this book. The MathCAD simulation worksheets shown here start with sim-
ple section-property calculations; as the chapter progresses, more complex
analysis worksheets are presented. Even though each worksheet is designed
for a specific analysis procedure based on the analysis requirements, they
can be compiled together in any combination for a more comprehensive
analysis. It should be noted that in this chapter it is assumed that the reader
is familiar with basic MathCAD operations and formats. Thus, most of the
codes are presented without explanation, assuming the reader can input
them properly.
Note: The square blue boxes appearing within the worksheets are the
explanation notes added to ease off the coding within the MathCAD. The
2-D plots are within the capabilities of the MathCAD software and are read-
ily available within the software as tools. Pay careful attention when enter-
ing the actual units to the starting components, since the final derived values
would automatically have the correct units if the derivations are correct. This
would serve as a good engineering check for your calculations; for example,
F = ma, [N] = [kg] [m/sec2]).
201
13.2 Section Property Calculations

The section properties such as area, moment of inertia, and first moment
of area can easily be calculated using MathCAD. The following codes are
written in MathCAD as sample section property calculations for some of the
common structural cross-sections.
MathCAD Stress Analysis Simulations 203
13.3 Stress Transformation and Principal Stresses

The following MathCAD worksheet is designed to perform stress transfor-
mation at any angle given in an original state of stress.
The following MathCAD worksheet is designed to calculate the principal

stresses and construct the Mohrs circle. (It should be used concurrently with
the previous worksheet.)
13.4 Hookes Law (Stress and Strain Conversations)

The following MathCAD worksheet is designed to illustrate Hookes law
showing the stress and strain conversations.
The following MathCAD worksheet is designed to perform strain transfor-

mations from the measured strain inputs to the strains in the x, y, and shear
strain directions.
13.5 Contact Stresses

The following MathCAD worksheet is designed to calculate contact stresses
between two solids.
13.6 Pressure Vessels

The following MathCAD worksheet is designed to calculate wall stresses on
pressure vessels.
13.7 Shear and Moment Diagrams

The following MathCAD worksheet is developed to determine the shear and
moment diagram of a beam.
(a)
(b)
13.8 Curved Beam Theory

The following MathCAD worksheet is developed to determine the stresses
on a curved beam member.
13.9 Deflection of Circular Plates

The following MathCAD worksheets are developed to determine the deflection
of circular plates with simply supported and fixed-edge boundary conditions.
13.10 Deflection of Rectangular Plates

The following MathCAD worksheet is developed to determine the deflection
of a rectangular plate with a simply supported edge boundary condition.
13.11 Column Buckling

The following MathCAD worksheets are developed to determine critical
buckling load and stresses of columns with various boundary conditions.
13.12 Plate Buckling

For plate buckling analysis, type in the following load-coefficient data into
the MathCAD worksheet as shown below. Then use the worksheet shown to
calculate the critical load and stress of the plate.
13.13 Finite Element of Truss System

The following MathCAD worksheet is developed to determine the global
stiffness matrix of a truss system. The truss system is the same example
problem solved in Chapter 10.
13.14 Composite Laminate Lay-up Analysis

The following worksheets are developed for laminate lay-up analysis. Refer
to Chapter 11 for the laminate analysis example problem provided for a bet-
ter understanding.
13.15 Eccentric Loading of the Fasteners

The following MathCAD worksheets are developed for eccentric loading fas-
tener analysis. Assume a four-bolt pattern as shown.
References
Agarwal, B. D., Broutman, L.J., Analysis and Performance of Fiber Composites, 1990. New
York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Hill Inc.
Gurdal, Z., Haftka, R.T., Hajela, P., Design and Optimization of Laminated Composite
Materials, 1999. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Logan, D.L., Finite Element Methods, 2002. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group.
Simitses, G., An Introduction to Elastic Stability of Structures, 1976. New York: Prentice
Hall Inc.
McGraw Hill Inc.
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Developed with stress analysts handling multidisciplinary subjects in mind,
and written to provide the theories needed for problem solving and stress
analysis on structural systems, Essentials of Mechanical Stress Analysis
presents a variety of relevant topicsnormally offered as individual course
topicsthat are crucial for carrying out the analysis of structures. This work
explores concepts through both theory and numerical examples, and
covers the analytical and numerical approaches to stress analysis, as well as
isotropic, metallic, and orthotropic composite material analyses.
Comprised of 13 chapters, this must-have resource:
Establishes the fundamentals of material behavior required

for understanding the concepts of stress analysis
Defines stress and strain, and elaborates on the basic concepts
exposing the relationship between the two
Discusses topics related to contact stresses and pressure vessels
Introduces the different failure criteria and margins of safety calculations
for ductile and brittle materials
Illustrates beam analysis theory under various types of loading
Introduces plate analysis theory
Addresses elastic instability and the buckling of columns and plates
Demonstrates the concept of fatigue and stress to life-cycle calculations
Explores the application of energy methods for determining deflection
and stresses of structural systems
Highlights the numerical methods and finite element techniques most
commonly used for the calculation of stress
Presents stress analysis methods for composite laminates
Explains fastener and joint connection analysis theory
Provides MathCAD sample simulation codes that can be used
for fast and reliable stress analysis
Essentials of Mechanical Stress Analysis is a quintessential guide detailing

topics related to stress and structural analysis for practicing stress analysts in
mechanical, aerospace, civil, and materials engineering fields and serves as
a reference for higher-level undergraduates and graduate students.
K24137
6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW

Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487
711 Third Avenue
New York, NY 10017
an informa business
2 Park Square, Milton Park
w w w. c r c p r e s s . c o m Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN, UK w w w. c rc p r e s s . c o m

(Javidinejad, Amir) Essentials of Mechanical Stres PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

(Javidinejad, Amir) Essentials of Mechanical Stres PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Essentials of

RECENTLY PUBLISHED TITLES

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-5848-6 (eBook - PDF)

and the CRC Press Web site at

1 Basics of Material Engineering....................................................................1

2 Stress and Strain Relationship................................................................... 11

3 Stress Due to Pressure Conditions............................................................ 31

4.6 Mohrs Criterion................................................................................... 50

5 Beam Analysis Theory................................................................................. 55

6 Plate Analysis Theory.................................................................................. 85

7 Elastic Stability and Buckling.................................................................... 97

8 Fatigue Analysis.......................................................................................... 113

9 Energy Methods........................................................................................... 119

9.4 Stress Due to Impact by Potential Energy...................................... 124

10 Numerical and Finite Element Methods................................................. 131

11 Composite Analysis Theory...................................................................... 171

12 Fasteners and Joint Connections.............................................................. 189

13 MathCAD Stress Analysis Simulations............................................... 201

13.13 Finite Element of Truss System........................................................ 230

Amir Javidinejad received his MS degree from the Georgia Institute of

1.2The Fundamental Terms

For isotropic homogeneous material, strain deformation in an axial direction

Similar to the modulus of elasticity, there is a modulus that relates shear

The ultimate strength of a material is defined as the maximum load sus-

1.3The Material Properties

ASTM-A514 29 11.2 .3 .284 6.5 110 100

IM6/Epoxy 29.4 1.62 1.22 0.32 0.058 508 8.1 14.2

2.32-D Stresses on an Inclined Angle

where the inclination angle is defined as

Likewise for maximum shear:

then the principal stresses are

Using Equation (2-6), the principal angle is

thus, s = 17.23 and

2 = 13435 psi 1 = 48435 psi

then the principal stresses are

= 2800 and 2000 psi.

Using Equation (2-6), the principal angle is

then the maximum shear stresses are

Using Equation (2-9), the shear angle is

thus, s = 11.31 and

2 = 2000 psi 15000 psi 1 = 28000 psi

2.7Plane Stress and Strain

To derive Expressions (2-17) and (2-18), set z = 0 in Equations (2-11) and

To derive Expression (2-20), start by setting Equation (2-13) to zero. To

whereas the direction of the principal strain would be

Likewise, the maximum shear strain is shown as

2.9Stress Based on the Measured Strains

A = x cos 2 1 + y sin 2 1 + xy sin 1 cos 1 (2-26)

B = x cos 2 2 + y sin 2 2 + xy sin 2 cos 2 (2-27)

C = x cos 2 3 + y sin 2 3 + xy sin 3 cos 3 (2-28)

By relations 2-26 through 2-28,

40 = x cos 2 0 + y sin 2 0 + xy sin 0 cos 0 40 = x

1000 = x cos 2 45 + y sin 2 45 + xy sin 45 cos 45 1000 = x (0.5) + y (0.5)

400 = x cos 2 90 + y sin 2 90 + xy sin 90 cos 90 400 = y

Solving the above relations simultaneously, one would have:

x = 40 , y = 400 and xy = 1560

To determine the stresses, use the equations of plane strain: Equations

2.10Stress State in Polar Coordinates

r = x cos 2 + y sin 2 + 2 xy sin cos (2-29)

1.2The Fundamental Terms

1.3The Material Properties

2.32-D Stresses on an Inclined Angle

2.7Plane Stress and Strain

2.9Stress Based on the Measured Strains

2.10Stress State in Polar Coordinates

2.11Stress Field around Circular Holes in Thin Plates

3.3Thin-Walled Spherical Pressure Vessels

3.4Thin-Walled Cylindrical Pressure Vessels

4.3Maximum Shear Stress Criterion

4.4Maximum Distortion Energy Criterion

4.5Maximum Normal Stress Criterion

4.7Factor of Safety Calculations

5.2Boundary Conditions and Loading