Analysis and redesign of an antilock brake system controller = follstead -L. Pettit 22 & ° Indexing terms: Anilock braking, Automotive cool, Nonna conto ystems, Hybrid systems; Relay contol systems Abstract: Antilock braking (ABS) systems are a combination of —hydromechanical braking components with switching solenoids and relays which operate the brakes in response to wheel and vehicle speed information, The control law Which calculates the braking is a complex set of logical rules designed to allow for variations in road conditions and the nonlinear nature of tyre friction characteristics. The piecewise linear action of the actuator components (solenoids and relays) and the logical control rules make it B then brake pressur: if wheel spin Pay) in the wheel cylinder; (b) the road angular velocity effect on torque or road load effect (1, > t) and (c) most importantly, the relationship between tyre torque and wheel spin («, > r,,). The control ‘input’ is shown as a switching function that can select cither ‘pump’, *hold” or “dump” modes. a6 Fon lea B) kg + Eero) Lys broke dynamics whl and tyre dynamics FIQ.7 Blok gram of the antek brake ‘The equations of the system can be decomposed [26] to give the following mathematical model of the sys- tems behaviour. Assuming linear hydraulic restrictance, the inlet and exhaust valve flows are, respectively: Pras ~ Payt Payt ~ Pes — ct gy = Pat Pep (gy : a ore The valve restrictances are 1 1 eer eee Rio are oO Wheel cylinder volume is given by Yet = [lan Yex)dt (6) Assuming a linear relationship between brake pressure and brake torque Tork = Bick Poot © Expander chamber pressure is given by Pesp = Corp ~ keapveyi @ ‘The wheel eylinder pressure is given by Kyu (Veyi — Vaca) When Veys < v Pays = { Bool est — Vac ext < Yao wf coca nna) ‘The wheel and vehicle inertias give the following expressions. The wheel acceleration is given by Tyr = Took r @ where [, is the road wheel inertia ‘The vehicle acceleration is given by (10) en by the where J, is the ‘inertia’ of the vehicle as road wheel. Finally, the wheel spin speed is given by Ws = Wy — (ay where ty the brake torque, is obtained from the brake model and the tyre and road load torques, tyr aand Ty are given by the piecewise linear functions dis cussed below. It will be convenient to rearrange the equations to give spin speed as a state because spin speed is simply a linear combination of the wheel and road speeds, Rearranging the relevant equations gives: OTe Tink, Tart Fae 7 I. = Tire +I) _ ten, Tad ae Topiary ee RE Prac Conta Theory Appl Vol 144, No.5, Setenber 1997A. general autonomous state model of the system dynamics can be deduced from eqns. 3-12: 0 mnotucckpn(hon thoss)=Ceaahess 0 oe ° my sey og ih + | notacaton tical ton thoy Reankas¢ +P (13) where the parameters cy and ky, depend upon the piecewise linear segment of the tyre torque characteris- tic; cy and kg depend upon the road load characteris- tic: Ky and kyr are the inverse restrictances of the ABS. modulator valves and motgy is a Boolean value that indicates when the brake Wheel cylinder is not in its dead zone, ie. NObied =O for all Yeyt < Vaca notdea for all veyt > ted (14) It is important to reiterate that this model has been developed to capture basic ABS features. As a result, dynamics are highly simplified and issues such as how the road angular velocity is measured in a real vehicle are not addressed, As the main aim is to demonstrate the analysis of mixed dynamicilogic systems, it was felt the model omissions were acceptable. ednesion ityre torauel ox im tio | Ua em ap wall spin Spnmin ‘Sond wheel velocty-road velaityfanguter equiv) Fig.8 Chaconne re asion cre 4.2. Tyre modelling A piecewise linear approximation to the tyre torque ‘versus spin speed is shown in Fig. 8. This curve is usu- ally given as a continuous nonlinear curve that varies for differing road conditions. The true tyre curve has @ complex shape and changes with road and vehicle con- ditions. For a review of recent developments in tyre modelling see [27, 28]. The curves used in this analysis, were derived by fitting a double exponential function to data supplied by an industrial collaborator. In order to handle the nonlinearity in the analysis, the curve is approximated by a PL function which is designed to capture the peak characteristic and the tail slope of the curve, There are four Key wheel spin references that are used in the controller design: {IEE Proc-Comvol Theor) Appl Vo 44 No.8, Setar 1997 ‘Spn0 («2{0)) ~ the zero spin or no braking reference qu ~ the spin at the peak tyre torque point qq — the spin at the ‘knee’ of the curve Spnmin (@,,) ~ the lower bound on the spin. If the spin reaches Spnmin, then normal ABS operation is considered to have failed. Since the tyre curve vaties for differing road condi- tions, four curves were used and four graphs generated through the analysis. The curves used are shown in Fig. 9 and are labelled as = 1 (high adhesion) through to = 0.2 (icy conditions), 4 = 0.5 is consi ered to be the nominal road adhesion condition for tar- mac. This article will present just two results, those for u = 0.2 and w = 0.5, since these will be sufficient to demonstrate the advantages of the analysis method. A more detailed explanation of the modelling process and complete analysis is given elsewhere [1]. tyre/road aahesion 5 Initial controller design The controller aims to generate a limit cycle in the dynamics that move the wheel spin back and forth around the maximum of the tyre torque curve, We will use the term ‘stable region’ to indicate the nonsliding condition (wheel spin between 0 and ogy). The term ‘unstable region’ will indicate the locked’ wheel condi- tion. The control principle is to set three threshold curves that approximate the true tyre characteristic, but to also allow for uncertainty in the tyre characteristic. ‘These thresholds represent values that are the differ- ence between the tyre and brake torques. One threshold curve (acct) sits “below” the true curve, the other two (ace2 and ace3) are close together and sit ‘above’ the tyre torque curve. The control aim is to drive the spin acceleration variable &, using the ‘pump’ control action until the ace2 threshold is reached (Phase B ‘on’). The ‘hold’ control action is then used to maintain the torque such that it tracks acc2 (Phase B hold’). This is depicted as the two parts of the ‘Phase_B’ curve in Fig, 10. Once the ge Value is reached, the tyre adhe- sion will decrease. Since the braking torque is main- tained using the ‘hold’ action, the acceleration measurement will maintain its value as spin increases negatively and the ace2 threshold will drop below it. The acceleration curve will hold steady until it hits the acc3 threshold, this confirms that the dy value has been reached and triggers the ‘dump’ ‘action, ‘This switches off the brake and unlocks the wheel as shown in ‘Phase C’ of Fig. 10. When sufficient decrease in braking torque has occurred, acct is crossed and the brake pressure set to ‘hold’ (indieated by “Phase_A’ inFig. 10). Once acct is re-crossed, this indicates that the wheel spin is again in the stable region of the tyre adhesion curve, and *Phase_B’ can be repeated, unstable operating stobie Fegion 1 epercting torque region ace Phose 8 cece prose re Prose | Hl - spk Fig. 10 strain of he compote ation ‘A broxe rote phase Tintiot) Taleo phase A “nots Fig.11 Convo lop Further scheduling is required in setting the rate at which the pressure is applied and removed from the braking cylinder. This determines how fast ‘Phase_B’ and “Phase_C’ operate. The rule logic can be shown as, plot of spin acceleration against the “restrictance’ applied to the valves to regulate flow to and from the brakes. This is shown in Fig. 11, An initialisation phase ‘Phase D' is also shown. This will be activated just once in the control cycle when the driver activates the ABS through hard braking. The controller rule set used to achieve the desired limit eycle is given below: Tf duspin > acc1 AND phase THEN phase -> PhaseA If duspin < ace1 AND phase ‘THEN phase -> Phase.B If duspin < acc3 AND phase ‘THEN phase -> Phase.C PhaseD = PhaseA (15) where dwspin is the spin acceleration (day/dt) and Phase_D is the initialisation state (see below). The con- trol is then determined by the state of phase: If phase == phases THEN rate -> 0 If phase == phase.B AND dyspin > acc2 THEN rate -> rate2 If phase == phase. AND dvepin < acc2 THEN rate -> 0 If phase == phase-€ THEN rate ~> ratet (as) Three additional rules are also used. The first is an absolute bound on the spin velocity (NB wepin = @,) ‘and aims to prevent it from becoming excessively large by switching Co the turn-off phase (Phaze_C). IF wspin < spnmin, THEN phase ~> phase.c (7) where spnmin is a large negative value. The other addi- tional rules are used for initialisation. In this context it is useful to note that a large number of rules are often required just to initiate the ABS controller limit cycle. In this case 1Wo rules are used: IF wspin > Spn0 THEN phase -> phase-D IF uspin < Spn0 AND duspin < accO AND phase == phase D, THEN phase -> phase.C as) Phase_D is the initial phase in which the brakes are tured on at the maximum rate — it is the ‘ABS off condition with rate0 corresponding to the rate with the inlet valve fully open, Hence: IF phase == phaseD THEN rate -> rate0 (1g) Rule set 18 provides both entry and exit conditions to ABS operation. The condition on spin is that it must, remain at a small value greater than Spn0, which is a small negative limit. The condition on acceleration is, that it must be less than acco, a large negative valu When the deceleration is large and the spin greater than Spn0, the wheel is judged to have broken away and the ABS control is brought into action by switeh- ing to the recovery phase (Phase_c). The combined rules and dynamics create a state event table summaris ing all the system state transitions (Table 1), Table 1: State event table for the ABS controller Phtse A phase. phase B phase.0 phase D (ox) Chola) ‘State event asapin acer phase a phaseA twopin < ace phase ‘hold xepin> acc? aeepin aces opin spo phased phase.D phase.0 pha The controller was implemented in ACSL as this has an effective structure for dealing with logic. The system dynamics, as given in eqn. 13, are embedded in a derivative block of ACSL. The rules are implemented by assigning ACSL schedules to «, and 0), Le. wepin and dvepin, respectively. These variables are scheduled in the derivative block against the tuneable variables acc0 to ace3 for duspin and Spn0, spnnin for wspin Flags are used (0 track the history of the control phases activated. A lookup table in the discrete block then allows the braking rate to be sclected from the tuneable variables rated to rate2. The lookup logic is given by Table | BE Proe-Comes Theory Ap Yo. 144, No.8, Soptomber 1987‘Once the controller rule set is fixed, then the remain- ing parameters of the controller that require tuning are the scheduling variables to trivger the rules. These are the four accelerations, acc0 to acc3 and the two spin limits, Spn0 and epnmin. There are then the three rate variables controlling the braking rate, raved (0 rate2. This reflects a large range of choice in controller varia- bles und illustrates the formidable controller tuning problems which the designer of rule based controllers, faces. In practice the designer has little alternative but to conduct hundreds of simulation runs, testing combi- nations of parameter values in an attempt to select a parameter set containing the required performance and. robustness conditions. The results of a design obtained in this “ial and error” manner are illustrated by two typical simulations given in Figs, 12-17. The controller E = nod § 100} Bl B% tyre torque, Nn Sirlation res with bial controler phase plot of Fig. 13h can be related to Fig. 11. The wore falue din Fig, 13) pdictes Paces D in Fig “il Sin cates Phase-¢, 2 indictes Phoss.b andl indieass —g Phase. A Figs 12, [Sand Md show wspersesforaread Egy surface of 4 = 0.2 and Figs. 15, 16 and 17 responses for q weos boo 4 z é ea i Bu fl a i 4 2 ga 3 i E 8 § Pay—asa0 4507530 € > e Fig.t5 un nih ste 3 oe } fae 0 05 40 45 20 7S 30 lated ° J Fla-12 Sinn wh et rater gy Got? sire tt © peer ger TY 1 1 A Eo pW SY £4 AGS : tne a) . 2 gy 4 fu A y ; 0 a d ose is a re controler phase ys eat whe 3 Fg Simin witht er See Figs. 12-17 illustrate some of the problems in design- ing complex systems using simulation. On first inspec- tion, the figures look very promising, The key plots for tyre and brake torque show the ABS system quickly EE Proc Canto Tory Appl Vl 1, No.8, Sepeber 1997 Fig.16 | sunaievion rm with nil conrtier (ohn aicration (6) onal phase bringing the braking torque to a maximum and holding. it there for the duration of the ABS operation, How= ever, these plots provide no information as to the fune- tioning of the controller with the system. To attempt to give this information, simulations of the controller phase, spin acceleration, wheel spin and road and wheel speeds are given. The controller appears to cycle around its phases in the manner predicted through the design. The controller action together with the plots of aotyre and brake torques behave in a similar manner for i= 0.2 and w= 05. This is also a good indication that the design works. The plots of wheel spin and spin acceleration show the effect of the limit eyele behaviour and seem to be within acceptable limits of variation, If there is any slight concern, it may be that the wheel spin cycling for w= 0.5 isa Tittle excessive, but itis still acceptable. As can be seen, even with detailed simulae tion, the designer can extract little more than qualita- tive information from the simulations. The ability of the designer to interpret this information using past experience then becomes critical in order to achieve good design, We will return to the plots after the anal- ysis and design eyele presented in the paper. This will allow us to examine the simulation using the insights provided by the analysis § 00 ¥ 600) oases a time,s > Fig. 17 Sinan rants init eonroer Gh tyetoraee 6 Analysis of the initial controller As mentioned in the previous Section, only two road conditions are considered here. In many ways the road adhesion 4 = 0.5 represents @ normal road so this will be examined first. The full connection graph for the system is not shown here. This is because, as am exam= ple, the 4 = 0.5 road generates 44 regions with some- thing like 215 nodes. It is meaningless to display such a large graph, since no useful information can be ‘obtained by simple visual inspection. Indeed, automatic information extraction methods are required, see [20] The key limit cycles that are related to the control action can be extracted from the full connection graph to produce a reduced graph. In all the graph plots, a grid is drawn of wheel spin along the x-axis and a ci bination of torque acceleration and valve position along the y-axis. This allows the graph to be related back to the control cycle shown in Figs. 10 and 11 because the rules depend only upon wheel spin and rate of change of wheel spin, Fig. 18 shows the key paths Found for «= 0.5 In Fig, 18 the principal control eycle has Phase_B moving from B3 through BS to B9. At this point, ace3 is reached and Phase_C (‘dump’) is triggered. This, drives the trajectories down to C6 where acct is crossed and Phase_A begins. This holds the trajectories through A6 until acc1 is recrossed and Phase B restarts, This cycle is as expected from the control design and simulation. The other cycles in the graph also make sense, since it is expected that for certain ini- 0 tial conditions, the dynamies cross the ,,, threshold and asa worst case, cross the sulety rule triggered by the dynamics reaching spnmin. All these conditions are shown to return to the main control loop within the graph. phase A phaseB phase.C phase_D sie Senin am Ulspk spn wan Fig. 18 Key dyna puts for w= 0.5 In the main, the graph confirms the behaviour which was planned during the design/simulation iteration However, the graph shows up one unexpected pattern During the design process the control performance cri- terion was for Phase B to drive the dynamics to the acc2 threshold and hold them at this level until ay, is crossed. The wheel spin should then inerease until acc3, is reached and the ‘dump’ action initiated, The graph tells a slightly different story. Phase_B only manages to achieve an acceleration torque between acct and acc? before dy is reached (see B3 = B6 in the graph). The acc? level, crossed at node BS, is reached afer uy, is exceeded. ‘The dynamics then increase until acc3 is reached. This implies that the control action spends ‘much longer in the unstable part of the torque curve than was anticipated in the design, since the aecelera- tion torque must cross both acc? and ace3 in the unstable part of the curve, phose-A phase. phose.C phase. = CT exet Ye “pain Fig. 19 shows the key cycles when a = 0.2. This pat. tern shows a number of differences from the expected. control cycle, The first is that conditions for a sliding mode exist at node B4 (in the full graph B4 is a node with all connections converging to it as illustrated in BE Pree Cantal Theory App ol 164 No.8, Sotomber 1997Fig, 3), Specifically an unplanned and unpredieted slid- ing mode from B4 to BS exists. The problem of acc? not being crossed before dy. is reached is again shown in the path B3 + B6 — BS” However, a potential path B3 > Bd — BB exists where acc? is reached before yi. More disturbing is the fact that the only method of reaching Phase_C or the ‘dump’ action is for w, to increase until Spnain is reached, As mentioned prev ously, this is an emergeney rule and for , to reach Spain means a long time is spent in the unstable region of the tyre adhesion curve “The analysis shows a clear failure in terms of aecept- able control action in the ABS. Moreover, it is one which was neither predicted by ad foc design nor detected in simulation. However, given these analysis results, we can revisit the simulations in Figs. 12-17 The problem of hitting the spnzin rule for = 0.2 is, fone that might have been picked up by looking at the wheel spin plot (Fig. 12h). Here the wheel spin is seen to touch the spnmin limit of -10. However, as the sim- ulation is of a low friction surface, the peak of the tyre! torque curve is close to this limit anyway (Fig. 9). Indeed, for many initial conditions, the designer would expect the spnnin rule to fire, and so would not be overly concerned to see the limit reached. The other problems are almost impossible to infer from simula- tion. There is no evidence of the sliding behaviour a only certain initial conditions excite this behaviour. The designer must hope one of the simulations catches the behaviour and this did not occur here. Given the knowledge that the controller spends too much time in the unstable region of the curve, itis possible to look at the controller phase plots of Fig. 134 and say that the time spent in level ‘I is too long. However, this is not something easily inferred a prior ‘The node graphs highlight a number of problems in the control design. In summary, these are: (a) The acceleration control shown in Phase_B needs to be improved so that the design threshold ace2 is reached before iy is erossed. This relates to increasing, the time the eycle'spends in the stable side of the adhe- (b) The sliding behaviour for w= 0.2 should be removed. (6) The wheel spin needs to avoid the Spamin rule, par- ticularly for w = 0.2 7 Redesign of the controll The first problem to be addressed is the sliding mode. Examination of the ace? rule suggests that the sliding behaviour occurs whenever Phase B results in the acceleration torque reaching accd before dy is crossed. The alternative is to prevent acc? being reached and increase the time spent in the unstable part of the adhesion curve. This leads to the conclusion that a4 designed sliding mode is to be preferred, since it should be relatively robust to different values of 1. This elfect is achieved by increasing the rave2 value for turning the brakes on ‘pump’ action ) (this is to guar- aantee that the acceleration reaches ace2), including hysteresis and dividing acc2 into two thresholds (ace20 and acc2t). This avoids chattering on the sliding mode. An unwanted consequence of increasing the set rate rate? for Phase B is a reduction in time spent in the stable part of the curve. This ean be resolved by providing two thresholds to replace acct. Thus the BE Prec-Conrl Tesry Appl, Vol HH, Ne. 5, September 199? controller switches from Phase C to Phase_A at acct0 and from Phase A to Phase B at accit, Thus accli can be scheduled to ensure Phase_B starts well within the stable portion of the curve. These changes are illus- trated in Fig. 20a. The modified illustration of the rule operation is shown in Fig. 208, torque hose B A brake rate [prose D Tisitiat) proses, | tee Yeontrot) ced ccc tig ecco] [acez ecez0 phases hold) nese C ‘eome) Fig.20 Resigned cansoll loop {8} Moi contol schedule ‘The sliding mode hysteresis design aims to give a (relatively) low frequency chatter while maintaining ight control, To ensure that the sliding mode is attained in all cases rate2 must be chosen so that the spin acceleration can always reach ace21 whilst opera ing in the stable region of the tyre torque curve, To see how redesigned variables were chosen, consider a sim- plified model of the operation in phase_B on the stable side of tyre torque curve that can be obtained from eqn. 12: fytle +4) _ Taek , Tae aoe Tw a “The tyre torque in the stable region increases with decrease in spin speed. Assuming ty increasing tine fn with time and that tis constane gives the Simpl Tied equation: 20) 15 = hyw, ~ kyratedt +e (uy where ky will depend on 1, ky will depend upon the brake pressure at which the linearisation is performed and is a constant which will depend upon the road speed about which the approximation is made. To examine the scheduling of the thresholds, the variation of acceleration with jis needed. The acceleration willbe constant when (22) To achieve sliding motion in phase_B, a (negative) spin, acceleration is required that will drive the controller past the ace? threshold under all conditions, i.e. 6, << ace? then from eqn. 22 we obtain hy Fhace2 rate2 > 23) ‘The values for ky and k; can be derived from the parameters of the state equations (eqn. 12) for each operating point. In the sliding mode assume that the mean acceleration is approximately equal to acc2. In phase_B a duration of about 0.15 and a change of spin in that period of 5% of the peak torque spin is chosen for design, ic dire | Swe _ 0.05.» a OT 8 Since the ABS should operate around the spin peak this suggests a schedule of ace? = we/2 (25) Combining eqns. 22 and 23 and inserting values for k,. and cya for each case of 4c gives rate2 > 0.0094 (26) ace2 = a (24) s0 choose rate? = 0.02 (en Note that the rate2 should ideally be scheduled; how- ever, this would be difficult with the current ABS mod- ulators For an overshoot (past 4) between 1% and 10% a suitable choice is ace3 = 0.30, — 2.2 (28) Note that only the value for acc2 has been chosen. The control algorithm requires ace20 and ace21 to be spec- ified. For simplicity these are made linear combinations of ace? and acs: ace20 = ace? + A(acc2 — ace3) ace2i = ace2—A(ace2—ace3) (29) ‘The value of A determines the frequency of the switeh- ing along the sliding mode. Here was chosen to be 1. In retrospect, the frequency achieved is rather high. The values of ace10 and ace1i depend upon the value of the spn0 threshold; if the undershoot is 100 large, the epn0 threshold will be hit during a normal eycle which is undesirable. The difference in acceleration thresholds can be reflected into the difference of spins on entry and exit of phace_A. With spn0 chosen to be 0.25, acet0 was set to 50 and acct to 10. ‘The system with modified controller was analysed for = 0.5 and the resulting graph constructed. The analy- sis was carried out inthe most ‘eritical’ dynamic regions first, these regions being identified from_the analysis of the system with the initial controller. This approach resulted in a dangerous dynamic. pattern being revealed by the partially created graph before analysis of the system was completed. This pattern, illustrated in Fig. 21, was confirmed to exist for = 0.8 and 1.0 as well as «= 0.5, with all three tyre adhesion curves showing the same pattern of instability within their respective graphs. eced cc2 ace20 spamin vam sake spa0 ‘actions within phase_B ssuitenproses “pump role Fig.21 Problem with the redesigned conte for w 20.5 ig. 21 shows that for normal operation, the ABS behaves as expected. If Phase B is entered by acct being triggered for wheel spin between Spn0 and ay, then the graph shows the acceleration torque being driven to the sliding mode and entering a cycle between ace20 and acc2i. In this cyelo the pressure to the brake cylinder is alternately switched on at rave? and held. This cyele continues until oye is exceeded, then the dynamies are able to exit out via the acc3 rule and begin Phase C. However, a totally unexpected instabil- ity occurs for initial conditions where 0, > dy. In this case, there is a strong likelihood of the dynamics being driven past «,,, the knee of the adhesion curve. Once this occurs, a dangerous limit cycle is generated between the acc20 and ace21 thresholds for Which the only escape is to wait until @, exceeds the Spain safety rule. This kind of behaviour can occur if, for instance, the car hils a slippery patch while braking This could result in the initial conditions for the ABS. to suddenly appear around (@,,, inducing the instability in the controler. Once a problem such as this is diagnosed from the graph, its cause can be deduced from the model. This again is a result of the analysis and the fact the nodes in the graph can be related directly back to the system model. It is unlikely that (with no prior information) an instability such as this would have been spotted by checking the equations. The problem is due to the scheduling of the acceleration thresholds ace20, acc24 and acc3. At high spin speeds, the acceleration ‘thresh old decreases faster than the spin acceleration. That is when operating in Phase_8 with the controller holding the brake pressure constant and the spin speed becom ing more negative, the acceleration threshold is deereas- ing with spin at_a higher rate than the spin accoleration. Therefore the acceleration threshold. is never exceeded and the controller locks up until the Spnnin spin threshold is passed To see this consider eqn. 21. When the brakes are being held, the spin aeceleration can be approximated by Og X ~hyw, $e (30) Meanwhile, the controller is waiting for the acc3 threshold to be crossed, ie, Gy < Macedids + Cocca (31) EE Proc-Comvol Theory Al, Vol 144 Nu 5, Septamber 198745 sermin ig.22 Analysis for the fina conta Where m3 and Cyc are the gradient and offset of the acc3 threshold that is scheduled against «,. Combining these two equations gives the inequality (ha + macs les < Crees (32) The problem arises when «, becomes more negative and the term (ky + mgs) is also negative; then the ine- quality cannot be true and the controller cannot switch to Phase_C and release the brakes. Thus when the gra- dient of the tyre torque function has become very shal- low and , is small, eqn. 32 cannot be satisfied, This problem is due to incorrect scheduling of the thresholds ace20, ace? and ace3, particularly when wheel spin > ‘ye. Once diagnosed this problem is easily overcome by choosing different threshold values to ensure eqn. 24 is satisfied. eee = De ace3, Bu 2s ce 20, 4 an oN sm spe 90 Fig.23 Key control bop for w= 0S 8 Final controller design The complete graph for the final controller design is too large. Instead a simplified version is given in Fig. 22, which shows the graph for w= 0.5. The key paths of the controller are shown in Fig. 23. EE Proc Coro Tory App, Vol 144, No.8, Spb 1997 acco aced occ? oce20 Fig. 23 shows Phase_B being triggered at ace: (node Bil). The dynamics are driven to the sliding mode between ace20 and ace21 and oscillate until spin exceeds «,.,. This is shown by the eyele around B7 => B6 => BS “> BY. The continued sliding cycle after Oe, in the initial, unsuccessful, redesign (shown in Fig. 20) no longer exists, since no’eycle occurs around BI3 => Bld => BJS = BIO. Instead, the dynamics move towards the acc3 threshold (B12) and trigger Phase_C Fig, 22 shows that the sliding mode after (4, has di appeared and the acceleration can increase and reach acc3 through B20 at this point, In effect, the graph shows that for = 0.5 the controller rules are well int grated and no dangerous conditions are apparent. This result is confirmed with « = 0.2. Fig. 24 shows the cor responding graph Fig. 24 shows that the principal control action has a very similar graph to that for c= 0.5. The graph shows, that Phase C can be reached through both the acc3 and Spnzin rules as intended. Closer investigation con- firms that the preferred path is via the ace3 rule (BI2 in the graph). To confirm that the improved control gives good responses, two simulation runs using the final control ler are shown in Figs. 25-30. The interesting thing t0 note is that this second set of simulation runs does not differ significantly in appearance from the first set shown in Figs, 12-17. This reinforces one of the tenets of this paper, specifically that direct testing or repeated simulation is insufficient to reveal the actions of a Piecewise linear system, in this case a logic controller. jiven the knowledge from the analysis it is interesting to look at the differences between initial and final con- troller simulations (Figs. 12-17 and Figs. 25-30, respec tively). The most obvious difference is that the final controller exhibits a much faster limit cycle than before. This is a byproduct of the design and in princi« ple, the cycle frequeney can be made slower in the final design so that it matches the initial design. More signif= icant are the differences in wheel spin when comparin the plots for j= 0.2 and = 0.5, In the final controlisto smn Fig. 24 Ana ofthe fra vnnoter (= 02 & $ & z 5 3 alte Bena <=] : ios Ws Oy Ga ad ib ot whee spin,raa/s “Sy aT OF 03 Of 05 Of OF 08 05 70 times 2 Fig.25 Somuaton rum with final crolor acco ecezi 2ce20 § t ged COE OE 17 G8 GE AO ime, > ig.27 Simulation ram with fal contoer 18) Tyre tongs E i ae — 5 amy - + a a jay a f ee a ae ee # 400g~g7-OF a3 Oc 05 06 07 08 09 10 BOUT OT Or Os OS oT OF OF 0 & a & 2 ay & gz 2 Et z °s a7 02 03 Oc OS Os 07 08 OS 70 = 0 07 02 03 04 08 06 O7 08 09 10 : Fig.26 Simulation run wit final controler (oy pis scclraton 1G) cleeele pase ler, the wheel spin does not dip much below the peak spin value for the tyre torque curve and it is clear the wheel spin in these plots spends most of its time in the stable part of the curve. This is not so obvious in the Fig.28 Sinuaion noe initial controller plots (Figs. 12b and 156). Similarly the final controller spends much less time in its level “I” or Phase_A mode relative to the other controller phases (see the controller phase plots) than the initial control EE Proc-Comtrol Theory Appl, VoL 144 Ba $,Setonber 17Jer. However, the actual tyre torque and braking torque plots for the initial and final controller differ very little g ‘pin acceleration OF OF 03 UL OS 08 OF 08 OFT times controller phose (Sar OF Os On OS 06 07 08 09 10 tines : Fig.28 simi th car oe = ao: TOF G2 0s OF US VE OT Oe OS 10 TOT OE OF OL OS 08 07 OF OS 70 time,s > 30 Simulation no ith fn cone (obits rue wes 9 Summary The theme of this paper is that, except for the simplest systems, piecewise linear dynamical systems cannot be adequately analysed using conventional simulation tools. However, by using a special piecewise linear analysis tool, it is possible to study in detail the per- formance of @ logic controller in a way which reveals, characteristics not visible by simulation, field trials or static analysis. To this end we have applied the ted nique to a typical industrial piecewise linear system. Specifically we have discussed a model for an ABS con- troller and applied it to a simplified model of the wheel and brake. The model has been created to capture underlying features of an ABS system although much of the complexity of an accurate ‘real life’ model has been missed. An initial controller design was carried out using extensive simulation together with intuition as to the effect of the rules on the dynamics. The result ‘was a controller with around 10 rules. These were then analysed using the PL analysis principles outlined in Section 2 and detailed in [3, 4}. The PL analysis pro- duced a linear connected graph which contains infor ‘mation concerning the possible performance of the PL system, In the case of the ABS, the graph highlighted IEE Pree Como Theory Appl, Vol 144, No.8, Spur weaknesses in the rules which were not apparent in the initial simulations. The controller rules were conse- quently redesigned. The new graph showed a further problem; an instability in the rules that was not obvi ous through the design. Once identified, the source of the instability could be found through the model equa- tions and a new rule design generated which removed the instability. This design produced a high degree of consistency in the graphs for different values of road/ tyre friction and showed no inconsistencies in the rule operations. Thus the use of the PL analysis to create a graph linking the controller logic with the closed-loop system dynamics was crucial to the design of the rule base and to the subsequent redesign of the controller laws. Having shown the analysis working for a simplified model, the next step would be to look at a more realis- tic model with higher order dynamics and a more com- plex rule base, 10 Acknowledgments We would like to highlight the contribution of Dr Rus- sell Wilson-Jones to the paper. He has been an integral part of the ideas behind the work. We thank the EPSRC for supporting the piecewise linear systems research which underpins this paper. The technical and financial support of Lucas Automotive is also acknow!- ‘edged; special thanks go to M. Appleyard, Professor P. Extance, and Dr P.G. Scotson. Finally we would like to thank Danfoss A/S for its encouragement in writing, up the research, 11 References | WILSON-JONES, RA generalised phase portrait for piecewise Jae sens. PHD hey Conta Sytema Cen, UMIST, 1 2 BESSON, V., PETTIT, N.B., and WELLSTEAD, PE. ‘Repre- scoling plese linear systens for analysis and simulation”. 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