Towards the end of the first half of the nineteenth century, the romantic

appreciation of historic monuments was given new vigour through the

confidence provided by the development of modern science and technology,
as well as by positivism in philosophy. At the same time as Eclecticism
dominated the field of contemporary architecture, the treatment of historic
buildings found support from Historicism. In an increasing number of
European countries, important historic buildings were conceived as national
monuments, and were restored in the most appropriate style as an
illustration of the achievements of the nation.

Having been initiated in England and Prussia, restoration of mediaeval

buildings was given
its rationale as the restoration of stylistic unity by the Service des
monuments historiques of
France.

6.1 Restoration principles and

practice in France

In the first part of the nineteenth century, the architects and builders were
still ignorant about
mediaeval architectural systems and techniques.1 Prosper Mrime was
well aware that those who repair can be just as dangerous as those who
destroy! The case of the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis showed clearly the
risks involved. There had been works in the church ever since 1805 to repair
the ravages of the revolution, but without proper understanding of the
structural system (Didron, 1846:175; Leniaud, 1980:78). In June 1837,
lightning struck the top of the spire of the north-western tower, and the
repairs were entrusted to Franois Debret (17771850), a member of the
Conseil des btiments civils. Instead of repairing the damaged part, he
decided to demolish the spire and tower down to the platform above the
main entrance. Without a proper
survey of the causes of the cracks in the lower part, he then built a new and
heavier tower.

New cracks soon appeared, and were repaired with cement and iron ties, but
the situation worsened. In 1844 the Minister of Public Works gave an order
to demolish the new structure. At the same time, Didron wrote: we would
not see much harm if, whilst at it, they were to demolish the whole portal.
We add in all frankness that Saint-Denis would no longer be of any interest
to us. We would rather that this monument be destroyed than humiliated in
such a way . . . There are many who would prefer death to dishonour!2
These words, which anticipated John Ruskin, had an effect; Debret resigned,
and the work was entrusted to Viollet-le-Duc, who limited himself to
consolidation and did not attempt to build a new tower.
The restoration of the flamboyant fifteenthcentury church of Saint-Germain
lAuxerrois, in front of the Louvre in Paris, was the first school for sculptors,
glass painters and other craftsmen as well as for restoration architects
although the work itself was much contested at the time (Leniaud, 1980:57).
In a meeting of the Comit des arts et monuments in March 1839, Victor
Hugo denounced the destruction of the charnel house and of two chapels in
the sacristy; closing of windows, and removal of fifteenth-century window
bars, the intention to remove the roofs of the entrance pavilions, and to
scrape the church interior. The Works were under the responsibility of the
municipality of Paris, and the architect in charge was Etienne-Hippolyte
Godde (17811869), who worked on several churches in Paris, including
Notre-Dame and Saint-Germain des Prs; he restored the Htel de Ville of
Paris, and repaired Amiens Cathedral. As a restorer, Godde received all
possible blame: inconsiderate use of cement and iron which made stones
crack, not understanding the real causes of structural problems and making
surface repairs, confusing the styles and making costly, superficial and
inaccurate restorations.3
With reference to the examples mentioned above, the principles of
restoration developed
from the 1830s concept of a conservative mnimum intervention based on
careful archaeological study, to a more drastic complete restoration
towards the middle of the century.
The early principles were summarized by Adolphe Napolon Didron
(180667), archaeologist, glass painter and the founder of Les Annales
archologiques in 1844, as well as one of the foremost critics of restorations
in France in the 1840s. In 1839, he condensed the principles in the following,
oft-repeated words: Regarding ancient monuments, it is better to
consolidate than to repair, better to repair than to restore, better to restore
than to rebuild,
better to rebuild than to embellish; in no case must anything be added and,
above all, nothing should be removed.4 Didron was one of the most ardent
critics of the work of
Godde, and called his work: style goddique!5 Mrime certainly reflected
Didrons principles,
when he praised the conservative treatment of the Triumphal Arch of
Orange, and the good taste of the restorers for not having attempted any
reconstruction. In Nmes, he thought the reconstruction had gone too far; it
would have been wiser to limit the work to consolidation of the original
structure. Even in the case of old mediaeval structures, such as the crypt of
Saint-Laurent in Grenoble (Isre), he was reluctant to go ahead with
reconstruction, because this would harm the archaeological value of the
monument (Mrime, 1971). In principle, Mrime considered all periods
and all styles to merit protection, but he also recommended that the
government should only be involved in those that were really digne.
Instructions for the restoration of these protected buildings recommended
expressly that: all innovation should be avoided, and the forms of the
conserved models should be faithfully copied. Where no trace is left of the
original, the artist should double his efforts in research and study by
consulting monuments of the same period, of the same style, from the same
country, and should reproduce these types under the same circumstances
and proportions.6

While Mrime insisted on the faithful preservation of original architecture

and its presentation to posterity intact, this often remained a mere
intention. As more skills and knowledge were acquired, there was also more
confidence to undertake extensive reconstruction of lost features on the
basis of analogy.Both Mrime and Didron had already prepared the ground
for the stylistic restoration exploited in practice by Viollet-le-Duc in France
and Sir George Gilbert Scott in England. The fact was, on the other hand,
that historic buildings had suffered from serious mutilations in recent
decades; many buildings had been abandoned, and unskilful repairs had
often exacerbated the situation. In 1845, Montalembert referred to such
situations when he wrote about Notre-Dame of Paris: It is really an act of
the highest and purest patriotism since one is removing the ravages of time
and of barbarous ignorance from these buildings that bear witness to the
supremacy of French genius during the Middle Ages and which still form the
most beautiful ornament of the nation.7

Hugo did not win his campaign against Godde; the restorations were carried
out as intended. However, it was not all so bad, and even Hugo accepted
that the restitution of the main entrance porch was exemplary, gentle,
scholarly, conscientious, based on carefully made records of the destroyed
original. And, in fact, the porch had been the responsibility of Goddes young
inspector, Jean-Baptiste Lassus (180757), an enthusiastic promoter of
Gothic Revival in France, who worked later on important restoration projects,
especially on Sainte-Chapelle, and, together with his younger colleague,
Eugne Viollet-le-Duc, on Notre-Dame of Paris. For the restoration of Notre-
Dame, there was a competition in 1842, in which Lassus and Viollet-le-Duc
were authorized to participate unofficially. Didron was very impressed by
their proposal, and wrote: Among the young architects there were, thank
goodness, a few valid ones. One of them [Lassus], who is the most
knowledgeable, the most intelligent among these artists of our times to
whom profound study and strict practice of Gothic architecture has
attributed great value, was designated and selected by all those interested
in the Notre-Dame of Paris.8 The proposal of Lassus and Viollet-le-Duc was
preferred, but they had to present a revised scheme which was finally
approved in 1845
.
The approach of Lassus to the restoration of historic monuments was strictly
scientific and
positivistic, and the creative artist had to be pushed aside.

When an architect is in charge of the restoration of a monument, he has to

acquire [scientific] knowledge. Consequently, the artist has to step aside
completely, forget his tastes, preferences and instincts, and must have as
his only and constant aim to conserve, consolidate and add as little as
possible, and only when it is a matter of urgency. With almost religious
respect he should inquire as to the form, the materials and even to the
ancient working methods since the exactitude and historic truth are just as
important to the building as the materials and the form. During a restoration
it is essential that the artist constantly bears in mind that his work needs to
be forgotten, and that all his efforts should ensure that no trace of his
passage can be found on the monument. As we see it, this is merely
science, this is exclusively archaeology.9

In this statement, published in the Annales archologiques in 1845, Lassus

crystallized the
intentions of restoration based on a scientific methodology, on the
archologie nationale
that aimed at a clarification of the history of mediaeval architecture. Lassus
himself was
recognized for his studies in this field; in 1837 he had already proposed to
publish a monograph on Sainte-Chapelle, and he also worked on an edition
of the notebook of Villard de Honnecourt.
The most discussed personality in the history of French restoration is
certainly Eugne Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (181479), architect and chief
inspector of monuments. His influence has been felt for good and bad
not only in France, but also in the rest of the
world. He was the son of Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, conservator of royal
residences at the
Tuileries, and of Eugnie Delcluze, whose mother kept a salon in Paris
where Ampre,
Stendhal, Girardin or Saint-Beuve met on Fridays. Eugne received a taste
for the arts
from his uncle, Etienne J. Delcluze; he travelled widely, and became an
excellent draughtsman. Never entering an official school of architecture, he
made his own studies
practising in architectural studios, working for the Directorate of Public
Works, as well as
touring in both Central Europe and Italy.

On his return from Italy in August 1838, he attended the meetings of the
Council of Historic Buildings as an observer, and was nominated an assistant
inspector to the construction works at the royal archives; the following year,
he inspected the church of Saint-Just in Narbonne for repairs. His life and
work were divided between his interests as an archaeologist-historian,
conservator-restorer and architect-creator; his approach was always
systematic, based on a thorough analysis of each case. Mrime
summarized this by saying that he had an excellent mind: He knows how to
reason, which is a great point in architecture, because the objective of this
art being essentially usefulness, an error of reasoning could not be made
without its being an error against art at the same time.10

As a result of his successful report, as well as for the good impression he

made on Mrime and other members of the commission, he was
recommended for the work of La Madeleine at Vzelay one of his most
significant projects on which he continued until 1859, through the most
important part of his career. After his employment for the restoration of La
Madeleine in 1840, he rapidly advanced in his career and was nominated
Chief of the Office of Historic Monuments (Service des monuments
historiques) in 1846; two years later he was a member of the Commission
des arts et difices religieux, in 1853 he was appointed General Inspector of
Diocesan Buildings, and in 1857 Diocesan Architect. His intense studies in
art and architecture, and his interests in other fields such as mountains and
geology, gave him material to write a great number of articles in dozens of
periodicals and journals, including Annales archologiques. During 185468
he published the ten volumes of the Dictionary of French Architecture, and
in the following years there were several other publications, e.g., on the
history of architecture, and furniture.11

Viollet-le-Duc was an excellent draughtsman, and worked as an architect

designing new buildings, as well as furniture and interiors including the
design of the imperial train.

He was interested in teaching, and contributed to decorative arts and crafts.

However, his main contribution was the restoration of historic structures,
both as architect and as inspector, and he had a thorough knowledge of
traditional building methods and techniques. His main restoration projects
included the cathedrals of Paris, Amiens, Reims and ClermontFerrand, the
churches of Saint-Just in Narbonne, La Madeleine in Vzelay, Saint-Pre-
sous-Vzelay, Beaune, Saint-Denis, Saint-Sernin of Toulouse and Eu, as well
as the fortified Cit of Carcassonne, the Synodal Hall of Sens, the Castle of
Coucy, the Castle of Pierrefonds, and the ramparts of Avignon. In addition,
he was involved in numerous other schemes in France, Belgium, the
Netherlands and Switzerland. His direct or indirect influence was felt all over
Europe and even on other continents, and he became practically a symbol
of the restoration movement.

Hacia finales de la primera mitad del siglo xix, la valoracin romntica de los
monumentos histricos se dio un nuevo impulso a travs de la confianza
proporcionada por el desarrollo de la ciencia y la tecnologa modernas, as
como por el positivismo en la filosofa. Al mismo tiempo que el eclecticismo
dominaba el campo de la arquitectura contempornea, el tratamiento de los
edificios histricos se apoyaba en el historicismo. En un nmero creciente
de pases europeos, importantes edificios histricos fueron concebidos como
monumentos nacionales, y fueron restaurados en el estilo ms apropiado
como ilustracin de los logros de la nacin.

Habiendo sido iniciado en Inglaterra y Prusia, la restauracin de los edificios

medievales fue dada su "justificacin" como la restauracin de la unidad
estilstica por el Servicio de los monumentos histricos de Francia.

6.1 Principios de restauracin y

Prctica en Francia

En la primera parte del siglo XIX, los arquitectos y constructores todava

ignoraban
Los sistemas arquitectnicos y las tcnicas medievales.1 Prosper Mrime
era muy consciente de que los que reparan pueden ser tan peligrosos como
los que destruyen! El caso de la Iglesia Abada de Saint-Denis muestra
claramente los riesgos que ello implica. Haba obras en la iglesia desde
1805 para reparar los estragos de la revolucin, pero sin una comprensin
adecuada del sistema estructural (Didron, 1846: 175; Leniaud, 1980: 78). En
junio de 1837, un rayo golpe la parte superior de la torre de la torre
noroccidental y las reparaciones fueron confiadas a Franois Debret (1777-
1850), miembro del Conseil des btiments civils. En lugar de reparar la
parte daada, decidi demoler la torre y la torre hasta la plataforma por
encima de la entrada principal. Sin una
Levantamiento de las causas de las grietas en la parte inferior, entonces
construy una torre nueva y ms pesada.

Nuevas grietas aparecieron pronto, y fueron reparadas con cemento y lazos

de hierro, pero la situacin empeor. En 1844 el Ministro de Obras Pblicas
dio una orden para demoler la nueva estructura. Al mismo tiempo, Didron
escribi: "no veramos mucho dao si, mientras que en l, que fueron a
demoler todo el portal. Aadimos con toda franqueza que Saint-Denis ya no
nos interesara. Preferimos que este monumento sea destruido que
humillado de tal manera. . . Hay muchos que preferiran la muerte a la
deshonra! 2 Estas palabras, que anticipaban a John Ruskin, tuvieron un
efecto; Debret renunci y la obra fue confiada a Viollet-le-Duc, quien se
limit a la consolidacin y no intent construir una nueva torre.

La restauracin de la extravagante iglesia del siglo XV de Saint-Germain

l'Auxerrois, frente al Louvre de Pars, fue la primera escuela de escultores,
pintores de vidrio y otros artesanos, as como de arquitectos de
restauracin. El tiempo (Leniaud, 1980: 57). En una reunin del Comit de
Artes y Monumentos en marzo de 1839, Vctor Hugo denunci la destruccin
del charnel y de dos capillas de la sacrista; El cierre de las ventanas y la
eliminacin de los barrotes del siglo xv, la intencin de quitar los techos de
los pabellones de entrada y raspar el interior de la iglesia. Las obras estaban
bajo la responsabilidad del municipio de Pars, y el arquitecto encargado era
Etienne-Hippolyte Godde (1781-1869), quien trabaj en varias iglesias en
Pars, incluyendo Notre-Dame y Saint-Germain des Prs; Restaur el Htel
de Ville de Pars y repar la catedral de Amiens. Como restaurador, Godde
recibi toda la culpa posible: el uso desconsiderado de cemento y hierro que
hizo que las piedras se rompieran, no comprendiendo las verdaderas causas
de los problemas estructurales y haciendo reparaciones superficiales,
confundiendo los estilos y haciendo restauraciones costosas, superficiales e
inexactas.

Con referencia a los ejemplos mencionados anteriormente, los principios de

restauracin desde el concepto de 1830 de una intervencin mnima
conservadora basada en un cuidadoso estudio arqueolgico, hasta una
"restauracin completa" ms drstica hacia mediados del siglo.

Los primeros principios fueron resumidos por Adolfo Napolon Didron (1806-
67), arquelogo, pintor de vidrio y fundador de Les Annales archologiques
en 1844, as como uno de los principales crticos de las restauraciones en
Francia en la dcada de 1840. En 1839 condens los principios en las
siguientes palabras, muchas veces repetidas: "En cuanto a los monumentos
antiguos, es mejor consolidar que reparar, reparar mejor que restaurar,
restaurar mejor que reconstruir,mejor reconstruir que embellecer; En ningn
caso se debe aadir nada y, sobre todo, nada debe ser eliminado ".4 Didrn
fue uno de los crticos ms ardientes de la obra de Godde, y llam a su obra:
style goddique! 5 Mrime sin duda reflejaba los principios de Didron,

Cuando elogi el tratamiento conservador del Arco Triunfal de Orange y el

"buen gusto" de los restauradores por no haber intentado ninguna
reconstruccin. En Nmes, pens que la reconstruccin haba ido demasiado
lejos; Habra sido ms prudente limitar el trabajo a la consolidacin de la
estructura original. Incluso en el caso de las antiguas estructuras
medievales, como la cripta de Saint-Laurent en Grenoble (Isre), se mostr
renuente a seguir adelante con la reconstruccin, ya que ello perjudicara el
valor arqueolgico del monumento (Mrime, 1971). En principio, Mrime
consideraba que todos los perodos y todos los estilos merecan proteccin,
pero tambin recomend que el gobierno slo participara en aquellos que
eran realmente "digne". Las instrucciones para la restauracin de estos
edificios protegidos recomendaban expresamente que: se evitara toda
innovacin y se fielmente copiar las formas de los modelos conservados.
Donde no queda rastro del original, el artista debe duplicar sus esfuerzos en
la investigacin y el estudio consultando los monumentos del mismo
perodo, del mismo estilo, del mismo pas, y debe reproducir estos tipos en
las mismas circunstancias y proporciones.

Mientras que Mrime insisti en la fiel preservacin de la arquitectura

original y su presentacin a la posteridad "intacta", esto a menudo sigue
siendo una mera intencin. A medida que se adquirieron ms habilidades y
conocimientos, tambin hubo ms confianza para emprender una extensa
reconstruccin de los rasgos perdidos sobre la base de la analoga. Tanto
Mrime como Didron ya haban preparado el terreno para la "restauracin
estilstica" explotada en la prctica por Viollet-le-Duc En Francia y Sir George
Gilbert Scott en Inglaterra. El hecho fue, por otro lado, que los edificios
histricos haban sufrido graves mutilaciones en las ltimas dcadas;
Muchos edificios haban sido abandonados, y las reparaciones intiles a
menudo haban exacerbado la situacin. En 1845, Montalembert se refiri a
tales situaciones cuando escribi sobre Notre-Dame de Pars: "Es realmente
un acto del ms alto y ms puro patriotismo, ya que se estn quitando los
estragos del tiempo y de la ignorancia brbara de estos edificios que dan
testimonio de la Supremaca del genio francs durante la Edad Media y que
todava forman el ms bello adorno de la nacin".

Hugo no gan su campaa contra Godde; Las restauraciones se llevaron a

cabo segn lo previsto. Sin embargo, no todo fue tan malo, e incluso Hugo
acept que la restitucin del porche de entrada principal era ejemplar,
"suave, erudito, concienzudo", basado en registros cuidadosamente hechos
del original destruido. Y, de hecho, el porche haba sido responsabilidad del
joven inspector de Godde, Jean-Baptiste Lassus (1807-57), entusiasta
promotor del renacimiento gtico en Francia, que trabaj ms tarde en
importantes proyectos de restauracin, especialmente en Sainte-Chapelle, y
, Junto con su colega ms joven, Eugne Viollet-le-Duc, en Notre-Dame de
Pars. Para la restauracin de Notre-Dame, hubo una competencia en 1842,
en la que Lassus y Viollet-le-Duc fueron autorizados a participar
extraoficialmente. Didron qued muy impresionado por su propuesta y
escribi: "Entre los jvenes arquitectos haba, por suerte, unos pocos
vlidos. Uno de ellos [Lassus], que es el ms conocedor, el ms inteligente
entre estos artistas de nuestros tiempos, a quienes el estudio profundo y la
prctica estricta de la arquitectura gtica ha atribuido gran valor, fue
designado y seleccionado por todos los interesados en el Notre-Dame La
propuesta de Lassus y Viollet-le-Duc fue preferida, pero tuvieron que
presentar un esquema revisado que finalmente fue aprobado en 1845
.
El acercamiento de Lassus a la restauracin de monumentos histricos era
estrictamente "cientfico" y
Positivista ", y el artista creativo tuvo que ser apartado.

Cuando un arquitecto est a cargo de la restauracin de un monumento,

tiene que adquirir conocimientos [cientficos]. En consecuencia, el artista
tiene que dejar de lado por completo, olvidar sus gustos, preferencias e
instintos, y debe tener como su nico y constante objetivo conservar,
consolidar y aadir lo menos posible, y slo cuando es una cuestin de
urgencia. Con un respeto casi religioso debe investigar la forma, los
materiales e incluso los mtodos de trabajo antiguos, ya que la exactitud y
la verdad histrica son tan importantes para el edificio como los materiales
y la forma. Durante una restauracin es esencial que el artista tenga
siempre en cuenta que su obra debe ser olvidada y que todos sus esfuerzos
deben asegurarse de que ningn rastro de su paso se puede encontrar en el
monumento. Tal como lo vemos, esto es meramente
Ciencia, esto es exclusivamente arqueologa.9

En esta declaracin, publicada en los Annales archologiques en 1845,

Lassus cristaliz la
Intenciones de restauracin basadas en una metodologa cientfica, en la
"archologie nationale"
Que apuntaba a una aclaracin de la historia de la arquitectura medieval.
Lassus mismo fue
Reconocido por sus estudios en este campo; En 1837 ya haba propuesto
publicar una monografa sobre Sainte-Chapelle, y tambin trabaj en una
edicin del cuaderno de Villard de Honnecourt.

La personalidad ms discutida en la historia de la restauracin francesa es,

sin duda, Eugne Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (1814-79), arquitecto e inspector
jefe de monumentos. Su influencia se ha sentido -para bien y para mal- no
slo en Francia, sino tambin en el resto de la
mundo. Fue hijo de Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, conservador de residencias
reales en la
Tuileries, y de Eugnie Delcluze, cuya madre mantuvo un saln en Pars
donde Ampre,
Stendhal, Girardin o Saint-Beuve se reunan los viernes. Eugne recibi 'un
gusto por las artes'
De su to, Etienne J. Delcluze; Viaj mucho y se convirti en un excelente
dibujante. Nunca entrando en una escuela oficial de arquitectura, hizo sus
propios estudios
En estudios de arquitectura, trabajando para la Direccin de Obras Pblicas,
as como
De gira tanto en Europa Central como en Italia.
A su regreso de Italia en agosto de 1838, asisti a las reuniones del Consejo
de Edificios Histricos como observador y fue nombrado inspector auxiliar
de las obras de construccin en los archivos reales; Al ao siguiente,
inspeccion la iglesia de Saint-Just en Narbonne para reparaciones. Su vida
y su trabajo se dividieron entre sus intereses como arquelogo-historiador,
conservador-restaurador y arquitecto-creador; Su enfoque siempre fue
sistemtico, basado en un anlisis minucioso de cada caso. Mrime
resumi esto diciendo que tena una mente excelente: "Sabe razonar, que
es un gran punto de la arquitectura, porque el objetivo de este arte es
esencialmente utilidad, un error de razonamiento no podra hacerse sin que
sea un error Contra el arte al mismo tiempo.'10

Como resultado de su exitoso informe, as como por la buena impresin que

hizo sobre Mrime y otros miembros de la comisin, fue recomendado para
el trabajo de La Madeleine en Vzelay - uno de sus proyectos ms
significativos en el que continu hasta 1859 , A travs de la parte ms
importante de su carrera. Despus de su empleo para la restauracin de La
Madeleine en 1840, avanz rpidamente en su carrera y fue nombrado Jefe
de la Oficina de Monumentos Histricos (Servicio de monumentos histricos)
en 1846; Dos aos ms tarde fue miembro de la Comisin de Artes y
Ediciones Religiosas, en 1853 fue nombrado Inspector General de los
Edificios Diocesanos y en 1857 Arquitecto Diocesano. Sus intensos estudios
en arte y arquitectura y sus intereses en otros campos como las montaas y
la geologa le dieron material para escribir una gran cantidad de artculos en
docenas de peridicos y revistas, incluyendo Annales archologiques.
Durante 1854-68 public los diez volmenes del Diccionario de Arquitectura
Francesa, y en los aos siguientes hubo varias otras publicaciones, por
ejemplo, sobre la historia de la arquitectura y el mobiliario.

Viollet-le-Duc fue un excelente dibujante, y trabaj como arquitecto

diseando nuevos edificios, as como muebles e interiores - incluyendo el
diseo del tren imperial.

l estaba interesado en la enseanza, y contribuy a las artes decorativas y

la artesana. Sin embargo, su principal contribucin fue la restauracin de
estructuras histricas, tanto como arquitecto como como inspector, y tena
un conocimiento profundo de los mtodos y tcnicas tradicionales de
construccin. Sus principales proyectos de restauracin incluyeron las
catedrales de Pars, Amiens, Reims y Clermont-Ferrand, las iglesias de Saint-
Just en Narbonne, La Madeleine en Vzelay, Saint-Pre-sous-Vzelay,
Beaune, Saint-Denis, Saint-Sernin de Toulouse y Eu, as como la Cit
fortificada de Carcassonne, el Saln Sinodal de Sens, el Castillo de Coucy, el
Castillo de Pierrefonds y las murallas de Avin. Adems, particip en
numerosos otros proyectos en Francia, Blgica, los Pases Bajos y Suiza. Su
influencia directa o indirecta se sinti en toda Europa e incluso en otros
continentes, y se convirti prcticamente en un smbolo del movimiento de
restauracin.