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LI NI U .......................................................................................................... 5
Chng I: M u ................................................................................................... 8
1.1 Tp hp v cc cu trc i s......................................................................... 8
1.1.1 Tp hp v cc tp con ............................................................................. 8
1.1.2 Tp hp v cc php ton hai ngi .......................................................... 9
1.3 Quan h v quan h tng ng .................................................................. 12
1.4 Hm s .......................................................................................................... 15
1.5 Logic mnh v tn t .............................................................................. 16
1.5.1 Logic mnh ........................................................................................ 16
1.6.2 Cng thc mnh ................................................................................. 18
1.5.3 Dng chun ca cc cng thc ............................................................... 20
1.5.4 Cc qui tc suy din trong tnh ton mnh ........................................ 23
1.6 Tn t (v t) v cc lng t ........................................................................ 25
1.7 Cc phng php chng minh ...................................................................... 28
Bi tp v logic v lp lun ................................................................................. 30
Chng II: L thuyt tmt ............................................................................... 35
2.1 tmt hu hn ............................................................................................. 35
2.1.1 Cc tnh cht ca hm chuyn trng thi ................................................ 38
2.1.2 Cc phng php biu din tmt ........................................................ 39
2.1.3 Ngn ng on nhn c ca tmt ................................................... 40
2.2 tmt hu hn khng n nh .................................................................. 41
2.3 S tng ng ca tmt n nh v khng n nh ........................... 43
2.4 Cc tiu ho tmt hu hn ........................................................................ 47
Bi tp v tmt hu hn ................................................................................... 51
Chng III: Vn phm v ngn ng hnh thc .................................................. 53
3.1 Bng ch ci v cc ngn ng ...................................................................... 53
3.2 Cc dn xut v v ngn ng sinh bi vn phm .......................................... 55
3.3 Phn loi cc ngn ng ca Chomsky ........................................................... 62
3.4 Tnh qui v cc tp qui ......................................................................... 70
3.5 Cc php ton trn cc ngn ng ................................................................... 73
3.6 Ngn ng v tmt ...................................................................................... 76
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
LI NI U
L thuyt tmt ra i xut pht t nhng nhu cu ca thc tin k thut, ch
yu l t nhng bi ton v cu trc ca cc h thng tnh ton v cc my bin i
thng tin t ng. Ngy nay, l thuyt ny c mt c s ton hc vng chc v
nhng kt qu ca n c nhiu ng dng trong nhiu lnh vc khc nhau.
Song song vi l thuyt tmt, cc ngn ng hnh thc cng c tp trung
nghin cu nhiu t nhng nm 50 ca th k 20, khi cc nh khoa hc my tnh
mun s dng my tnh dch t mt ngn ng ny sang ngn ng khc. Cc
ngn ng hnh thc to thnh mt cng c m t i vi cc m hnh tnh ton c
cho dng thng tin vo / ra, ln kiu cc thao tc.
tmt v vn phm sinh ra cc ngn ng hnh thc thc cht l mt lnh vc lin
ngnh, gp phn rt quan trng trong vic m t cc dy tnh ton v iu khin t
ng, c pht sinh trong nhiu ngnh khoa hc khc nhau t cc h thng tnh
ton, ngn ng hc n sinh hc. Khi nghin cu vi t cch l cc i tng ton
hc, l thuyt ny cng cp n nhng vn c bn ca khoa hc my tnh, v
cc kt qu nghin cu c nhiu ng dng ngay i vi cc ngnh ton hc tru
tng.
Ngy nay, cc l thuyt v ngn ng hnh thc, tmt v l thuyt tnh ton c
hnh thc ho thnh cc m hnh ton hc tng ng cho cc ngn ng lp trnh,
cho cc my tnh, cho cc qu trnh x l thng tin v cc qu trnh tnh ton ni
chung. tmt v ngn ng hnh thc c p dng rng ri trong nhiu lnh vc
khoa hc v ng dng nh: m hnh ho, m phng cc h thng tnh ton, cc k
thut dch, thng dch, tr tu nhn to, cng ngh tri thc, ...
Nhm p ng nhu cu ging dy, hc tp v nghin cu ca cc sinh vin ngnh
Cng ngh thng tin, chng ti bin son gio trnh tmt v ngn ng hnh
thc theo hng kt hp ba l thuyt chnh: l thuyt tmt, ngn ng hnh thc
v l thuyt tnh ton vi nhiu v d minh ho phong ph.
Gio trnh ny gii thiu mt cch h thng nhng khi nim c bn v cc tnh
cht chung ca tmt v ngn ng hnh thc.
Chng m u trnh by cc khi nim c bn, cc tnh cht quan trng ca cc
cu trc i s, logic mnh , logic tn t v cc phng php suy lun ton hc
lm c s cho cc chng sau. Chng II gii thiu v l thuyt tmt, nhng
khi nim c s v cc hot ng ca tmt. Vn phm v cc ngn ng hnh
thc c cp n chng III. Nhng vn lin quan n tp chnh qui,
ngn ng chnh qui v tmt hu hn c trnh by chi tit chng IV.
Chng V, VI nghin cu cc khi nim c s, mi quan h gia cc lp ngn ng
v cc tnh cht rt quan trng ca ngn ng phi ng cnh, tmt y xung. Lp
cc ngn ng phi ng cnh loi LR(k) c nhiu ng dng trong chng trnh dch,
chng trnh phn tch c php c trnh by trong chng VII. M hnh tnh
ton my Turing, mi quan h tng ng tnh ton gia cc lp ngn ng c
cp chng cui. Trong chng ta tm hiu v phc tp tnh ton ca cc
h thng tnh ton, nhng bi ton quyt nh c v nhng bi ton thuc lp
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
on Vn Ban
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
CHNG I
M u
1.1 Tp hp v cc cu trc i s
1.1.1 Tp hp v cc tp con
Tp hp l s kt tp nhng i tng c cng mt s thuc tnh ging nhau, v d
tp tt c cc sinh vin ca Khoa CNTT. Mi i tng thnh vin c gi l
phn t ca tp hp.
Cc ch in hoa A, B, C, c s dng k hiu cho cc tp hp; cc ch thng a, b, c,
c s dng k hiu cho cc phn t ca mt tp hp xc nh. Phn t a thuc tp A, k
hiu l a A, ngc li, khi a khng phi l phn t ca A, k hiu l a A.
Tp hp c th c m t theo cc cch sau:
(i) m c cc phn t. Ta c th vit cc phn t ca tp hp theo th t
bt k trong cp du ngoc {, }, v d tp cc s t nhin chia ht cho 7 v
nh hn 50 c th vit l {7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49}.
(ii) M t tp hp theo tnh cht ca cc phn t. V d tp cc s t nhin
chia ht cho 7 v nh hn 50 c th vit:
{n | n l s nguyn dng chia ht cho 7 v nh hn 50}.
(iii) nh ngha qui. Cc phn t ca tp hp c th nh ngha thng qua
cc qui tc tnh ton t cc phn t bit trc. V d tp cc s giai tha
ca n c th nh ngha:
{fn | f0 = 1; fn = (n-1) * fn-1, n = 1, 2, }.
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Tin 1, 2
Na nhm (Semigroup)
5 3
ton ton
Na nhm Abelian Monoid
5
3 to 4
ton n ton
Monoid Abelian Nhm (group)
4 5
ton Nhm Abelian
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Tin 6, 7, 11
Vnh (ring)
10
10 8
to
to
n hon
Vnh giao Vnhnc n v
8 10
to to
n
Vnh giao hon c nn v
1-11
Trng
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
V d 1.5
a/ Trn tp S, nh ngha xRy x = y. D kim tra c ba tnh cht trn quan
h = u tha mn, vy = l quan h tng ng.
b/ Trong tp cc sinh vin ca Khoa CNTT ta c th thit lp quan h R: sinh
vin a quan h R vi sinh vin b nu c hai u hc cng mt lp. Hin nhin quan
h ny cng l quan h tng ng.
c/ Trn tp S, nh ngha xRy x > y. D kim tra tnh i xng khng
c tha mn, do quan h > khng phi l quan h tng ng.
nh ngha 1.6 Gi s R l quan h tng ng trn tp S v a S. Lp cc
phn t tng ng vi a, k hiu l Ca = {b | b S v a R b}. Lp Ca c th k
hiu l [a]R.
nh l 1.1 Tp tt c cc lp tng ng ca quan h R trn tp S to thnh mt
phn hoch ca S.
Chng minh: Chng ta cn chng minh rng
(i) S= C
aS
a
nn S C a
. Mt khc, theo nh ngha ca Ca, ta lun c Ca S vi mi a ca S.
aS
Vy C a
S. T suy ra (i).
aS
V d 1.6
a/ Trn tp s t nhin N, nRm khi m v n u chia ht cho 2 s c hai lp
tng ng l tp cc s chn v tp cc s l.
b/ Cc lp tng ng ca quan h tng ng trong v d 1.5 (b/) chnh
l cc lp hc c xp trong mt Khoa.
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
R2 = {(a, b), (b, c), (c, a)} {(a, b), (b, c), (c, a)}
= {(a, c), (b, a), (c, b)}
R3 = {(a, c), (b, a), (c, b)} {(a, b), (b, c), (c, a)}
= {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c)}
R4 = {(a, a), (b, b), (c, c)} {(a, b), (b, c), (c, a)}
= {(a, b), (b, c), (c, a)} = R.
Do vy, R* = R0 R+ = R0 R R2 R3
= {(a, b), (b, c), (c, a), (a, c), (b, a), (c, b), (a, a), (b, b), (c, c)}
1.4 Hm s
Khi nim hm s xut hin khi chng ta mun xt mi quan h tng ng duy
nht ca i tng vi mt i tng cho trc.
nh ngha 1.10 Hm hoc nh x f() t tp X vo tp Y l qui tc gn tng
ng mi phn t x trong X bng mt phn t duy nht trong Y, k hiu l f(x). Phn
t f(x) c gi l nh ca x thng qua f(). Hm f() c k hiu f: X Y.
Cc hm c th nh ngha bi:
(i) Tp cc nh ca cc phn t,
(ii) Qui tc tnh tng ng f(x) v x.
Cho trc f: X Y v A X. K hiu f(A) = {f(a) | a A} Y.
V d 1.9
a/ f: {1, 2, 3, 4}{a, b, c} c th nh ngha f(1)= a, f(2) = b, f( 3) = f(4)= c.
b/ f: Z Z c xc nh bi cng thc f(x) = x2 + x.
nh ngha 1.11 Cho trc hm f: X Y.
(i) f c gi l n nh (one-to-one) nu x y th f(x) f(y).
(ii) f c gi l ton nh (onto) nu mi phn t y ca Y u l nh ca
mt phn t no ca X, ngha l f(X) = Y.
(iii) f c gi l song nh nu f va l n nh v l ton nh.
V d 1.10 f: Z Z c cho bi f(n) = 2*n l n nh nhng khng phi hm
ton nh v cc s nguyn l khng l nh ca s no c. f(X) l tp con thc s ca
Y.
nh l sau gip chng ta phn bit c s khc nhau c bn gia tp hu hn v
tp v hn.
nh l 1.3 (Nguyn l chung b cu) Gi s S l tp hu hn. Hm f: S S l
n nh khi v ch khi l hm ton nh.
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
P P
T F
F T
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
P Q PQ
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
P Q PQ
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
P Q P Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
P Q PQ
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
I10 (P Q) (P Q) P
I11 Lut nghch o
(P Q) QP
I12 (P Q) ( P Q)
I13 (P Q) (P Q) (Q P)
Trong , P, Q, R l cc cng thc.
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
T dng biu din nh phn nu trn ta thy dng chun tuyn chnh tc v bng
gi tr chn l ca mi cng thc c mi quan h cht ch vi nhau. Cch xc nh
dng chun tuyn chnh tc ca cng thc da vo bng gi tr c thc hin n
gin nh sau:
Trong bng gi tr ca cng thc , nhng hng m c gi tr ng (T) s xc
nh tng ng cc hi s cp cc tiu tng ng theo dng biu din nh nguyn
nu trn. Trong , T ng vi 1 v F ng vi 0 (sai). Chun tuyn chnh tc ca
cng thc chnh l tuyn ca nhng hi s cp cc tiu ng vi nhng hng .
V d 1.15 Tm dng chun tuyn chnh tc ca cng thc c cho nh bng
gi tr sau:
Bng 1.8 Cc gi tr ca cng thc
P Q R
T T T T
T T F F
T F T F
T F F T
F T T T
F T F F
F F T F
F F F T
Gii:
Cng thc nhn gi tr ng trong cc hng th 1, 4, 5 v 8. Cc hi s cp cc tiu tng
ng vi nhng hng l (P Q R), (P Q R), ( P Q R) v ( P Q R). Vy
dng chun tuyn chnh tc ca s l
(P Q R) (P Q R) ( P Q R) ( P Q R)
Mt khc, ta d nhn thy i ngu ca dng chun tuyn s l dng chun hi.
Tng t nh trn, ta c cc nh ngha ca cc dng i ngu nh sau:
nh ngha 1.20 Tuyn s cp cc i ca cc bin mnh P1, P2, Pn l mt cng
thc dng Q1 Q2 Qn, trong Qi l Pi hoc l Pi. Mt cng thc dng chun
hi chnh tc hay (chun hi u ) nu n l hi ca cc tuyn s cp cc i.
Lu : D dng suy ra nu l dng chun tuyn chnh tc th s l dng chun
hi chnh tc.
Tng t nh i vi dng chun tuyn chnh tc, ta cng khng nh c l mi cng
thc u chuyn tng ng c v dng chun hi chnh tc v l dng chun
duy nht.
V d 1.16 Tm dng chun hi chnh tc ca cng thc = P (Q R)
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Gii:
Trc tin tm = (P (Q R))
(P ( Q R))
P ( Q R)
P (Q R) P Q R
Vy, dng chun hi chnh tc ca s l ( P Q R) P Q R.
Mt khc, ta cng c th da vo mi lin quan gia bng gi tr chn l ca cng
thc vi dng chun hi chnh tc ca cng thc thit lp cc tuyn s cp
cc i.
Trong bng gi tr ca cng thc , nhng hng m c gi tr sai (F) s xc
nh tng ng cc tuyn s cp cc i tng ng theo dng biu din nh phn.
Trong , T ng vi 0 v F ng vi 1. Hi chnh tc ca cng thc chnh l hi ca
nhng tuyn s cp cc i tng ng vi nhng hng .
V d 1.17 Tm dng chun hi chnh tc ca cng thc c cho trong bng gi tr sau:
Bng 1.9 Cc gi tr ca cng thc
P Q R
T T T T
T T F F
T F T F
T F F T
F T T T
F T F F
F F T F
F F F T
Gii:
Cng thc nhn gi tr sai trong cc hng th 2, 3, 6 v 7. Cc tuyn s cp cc i tng
ng vi nhng hng l ( P Q R), ( P Q R), (P Q R) v ( P Q R).
Vy dng chun hi chnh tc ca s l
( P Q R) ( P Q R) (P Q R) ( P Q R)
- 23 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
P1
P2
Pn
Q
Di y l bng cc qui tc suy din c bn trong lp lun logic ton hc, c s
dng trong lp trnh logic, trong suy din v chng minh ton hc, ...
Bng 1.10 Cc qui tc suy din
Cc qui tc Cng thc dng ko theo
RI1: Gia tng
P P (P Q)
P Q
RI2: n gin ho
PQ (P Q) P
P
RI3: Modus ponens
P
PQ (P (P Q)) Q
Q
RI4: Modus tollens
Q
PQ ( Q (P Q)) P
P
RI5: Tam on lun
P
PQ ( P (P Q)) Q
Q
RI6: Suy lun bc cu
P Q
QR (( P Q) (Q R))) (P R)
P R
RI7: nh kin thit
(P Q) (R S)
PR ((P Q) (R S) (P R)) (Q S)
Q S
RI8: nh i thit
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
(P Q) (R S)
Q S ((PQ)(RS)( Q S)) ( P R)
P R
S
Gii:
Theo RI7 ta c
PQ
Q R
P R
Mt khc, R ( R), kt hp vi kt lun trn v p dng lut RI4 (Modus tollens)
ta c
( R)
P R
P
S dng kt lun ny cng vi gi thit P S v p dng RI5 suy ra iu phi
chng minh.
P
P S
1.6 Tn t (v t) v cc lng t
Trong suy lun, chng minh ton hc v trong qu trnh tnh ton, ta thng s
dng nhng mnh c cc bin. V d "x > 5", "x = y + 10". Nhng mnh ny
c th ng, sai tu thuc vo cc gi tr ca cc bin x, y. Mt khc, mnh
"x > 5" c hai phn:
+ x l bin, l ch im m mnh khng nh,
+ "ln hn 5" - ni v tnh cht ca x v cn c gi l tn t (hoc v t).
Ta c th k hiu P(x) "x ln hn 5". Pht biu P(x) cn c gi l hm tn t
hay hm v t. Khi P(4) = F, P(8) = T.
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Tng qut ho vi n bin: x1, x2, . . . xn, P(x1, x2, . . . xn) l hm mnh vi b
n-phn t, trong P l tn t.
Cc hm mnh thng xc nh gi tr ng, sai trong mt tp cc gi tr ca cc
bin: vi tt c hay vi mt s phn t no . Ton t xc nh s lng c
gi l cc lng t. C hai loi lng t:
+ Lng t tng qut: vi mi phn t (trong v tr),
+ Lng t tn ti: vi mt phn t no trong phm vi xc nh ca bin.
nh ngha 1.21 Cho P(x) l hm xc nh trn min gi tr D.
a/ Vi mi x thuc D, P(x) gi l mt pht biu tng qut v c k hiu:
x D, P(x), trong k hiu l lng t (lng t) vi mi.
Mnh : x D, P(x) ng nu P(x) ng vi mi x D.
b/ Vi x no thuc D, P(x) gi l pht biu tn ti v c k hiu:
x D, P(x), trong l lng t (lng t) tn ti.
Mnh : x D, P(x) ng nu P(x) ng vi t nht mt gi tr x no trong D.
V d 1.19
a/ Vi mi s thc x, x2 0 l mnh hng ng, vit ngn gn
x R, x2 0, vi R - tp cc s thc.
b/ Vi mi s x, c mt s y, x + y = 0 c th vit x R, y R, x + y = 0.
Lu :
chng minh x D, P(x) l ng th phi ch ra rng vi mi x D
th P(x) u ng.
chng minh x D, P(x) l ng th ch cn ch ra rng P(x) ng
vi t nht mt gi tr x no thuc D, ngha l tm c mt gi tr x
P(x) ng.
chng minh x D, P(x) l sai th ch cn tm ra mt gi tr x thuc
D m P(x) l sai.
chng minh x D, P(x) l sai th phi ch ra rng vi mi x thuc D
th P(x) u sai.
Khi min gi tr D c xc nh trc, ta c th vit ngn gn cc hm lng
t nh sau: x P(x) hoc (x)P(x) i vi lng t tn ti v x P(x)
hoc (x) P(x) i vi lng t vi mi.
Tng t nh cc cng thc mnh nu trn, cc hm tn t (cng thc tn t)
c xy dng t cc bin mnh , cc php ton logic v hai php lng t , .
i vi cc cng thc tn t chng ta c cc qui tc suy din sau.
- 26 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 28 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
p qq p
Chng minh bng phng php lp lun, suy din - lp lun loi tr cc
trng hp.
Chng minh bng phng php qui np ton hc. Gi thit mnh S(n)
xc nh trn mi s nguyn dng. chng minh mnh S(n) ng
th chng ta thc hin nh sau:
(i) [Bc c s] Kim tra xem S(1) = T?. Nu ng vi cc trng
hp c s th thc hin bc tip theo.
(ii) [Gi thit qui np] Gi thit S(k) = T vi mi k < n.
(iii) [Bc qui np] Da vo gi thit qui np v cc nh ngha, cc
tnh cht c chng minh lin quan n mnh S(k + 1), nu
chng ta khng nh c S(n + 1) = T th kt lun c mnh
trn ng vi mi n nguyn dng.
V d 1.21 Hy chng minh rng:
1. Vi mi s thc d, d1, d2, x nu d = min{ d1, d2} l gi tr cc tiu ca
d1, d2 v x d th x d1 v x d2.
Chng minh: T nh ngha ca hm min ta c d d1 v d d2. Tip theo t x d
v d d1 suy ra x d1 v quan h c tnh bc cu. Tng t ta c x d2. y l
phng php chng minh trc tip.
2. Vi mi s thc x, y nu x + y 2 th hoc x 1, hoc y 1.
Chng minh: (Phn chng) Gi s kt lun l sai, ngha l x < 1 v y < 1. Khi
x + y < 2, iu ny dn n nghch l (p p l mnh mu thun). Do vy
mnh trn l ng.
3. Xt bi ton sau: Chng trnh c li v lp trnh vin pht hin ra:
+ Li pht hin module 17 hoc module 24.
+ y l li v tnh ton s hc,
+ Module 24 khng c li.
Vy module 17 c li v tnh ton s hc!
Chng minh: chng minh khng nh trn chng ta s dng phng php lp
lun v suy din dng:
Nu p1 v p2 v ... pn th q.
4. Chng minh rng n! 2n 1 vi n = 1, 2, . . . (**)
Chng minh qui np:
Bc th c s: Kim tra xem (**) c ng vi n = 1?. Bi v
1! = 1 1 = 21 - 1
nn bc th qui np l ng.
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Bi tp v logic v lp lun
1.1 Cho S = {a, b}*. Vi mi x, y S, nh ngha x y = xy (ghp 2 ch).
(a) S c ng vi ?
(b) Php c tnh kt hp, giao hon?
(c) S c phn t n v i vi ?
1.2 Tm quan h l bao ng i xng ca R trn tp S.
1.3 Nu X l tp hu hn th |2X| = 2|X|
1.4 Nhng quan h R sau c phi l quan h tng ng hay khng
(a) Trn tp tt c cc ng thng, l1Rl2 nu l1song song vi l2,
(b) Trn tp cc s t nhin N, mRn nu m - n chia ht cho 3,
(c) Trn tp cc s t nhin N, mRn nu m chia ht cho n,
(d) Trn S = {1, 2, , 10}, aRb nu a + b = 10.
1.5 Cho f: {a, b}* {a, b}* xc nh bi f(x) = ax, vi x {a, b}*. Hi f() c
nhng tnh cht g?
1.6 Nu w {a, b}* tha mn abw = wab, chng minh rng |w| l s chn.
1.7 Nhng mnh sau ng hay sai trong trng s thc?
a/ x, y , nu x < y th x2 < y2
b/ x, y , nu x < y th x2 < y2
c/ x, y , nu x < y th x2 < y2
d/ x, y , nu x < y th x2 < y2
1.8 Chng minh cc mnh sau:
a/ 5n 1 chia ht cho 4
b/ 1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2n - 1) = n2
c/ 2n n2, vi n = 4, 5, . . .
d/ 2 + 4 + 6 + . . . + 2n = n*(n + 1)
1.9* ( thi cao hc nm 2000, cu 1 mn thi c bn: Ton hc ri rc)
1. Hy lp bng gi tr ca cng thc mnh sau: P((QR)S)
- 30 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 31 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
X1
1.14* ( thi cao hc nm 2003, cu 1 mn thi c bn: Ton hc ri rc)
1. Cho cng thc
A (x (P(x) Q(x)) x R(x)) (x F(x) (X Y)). Thc hin cc php
bin i tng ng sau y i vi A:
a/ Kh php keo theo .
b/ a du ph nh v trc tip lin quan n P, Q, R v F.
c/ a cc lng t , ln ng trc cc cng thc logic khc.
d/ Tm dng chun hi v dng chun tuyn ca A. T vit dng chun
tuyn v dng chun hi ca A.
2. a cng thc B (x)(y)P(x, y) (x)(y) P(x, y) v cng thc
tng ng trn trng M = {a, b} {c, d} khng cn cc lng t , ,
- 32 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
X5
b/ Chuyn m hnh suy din trn v dng cng thc hng ng tng
ng.
1.15* ( thi cao hc nm 2004, cu 1 mn thi c bn: Ton hc ri rc)
1. Cho m hnh suy din trong logic v t
(x) S(x)
y P(x), Q(x), R(x), S(x) l cc bin v t xc nh trn trng M.
a/ Vit cng thc tng ng vi m hnh suy din (*) nu trn v n c phi l
cng thc hng ng khng?.
b/ M hnh suy din trn c ng trn trng M khng?, nhng quy tc suy din no
c p dng trong m hnh suy din .
3. Hy din t nh ngha gii hn lim f(x) = L di dng mt cng thc v t.
x x0
4. Ch ra rng cng thc ((x) P(x)) tng ng vi cng thc (x) P(x) trn
trng M = {a1, a2, , an}.
1.16* ( thi cao hc nm 2005, cu 1 mn thi c bn: Ton hc ri rc)
1. Pht biu sau ng hay sai, ti sao?
Tt c mi ngi c bng c nhn th u tt nghip i hc.
Lan c bng c nhn.
Vy suy ra Lan tt nghip i hc.
2. Hai cng thc sau c tng ng logic vi nhau khng, ti sao?
A = P (Q R) v B = (P Q) (P R)
3. Cho trc cng thc F = (P Q) ( P R)
a/ Kh php ko theo v rt gn cng thc F.
b/ Tm dng chun hi chnh tc (chun hi y ) v chun tuyn chnh tc
ca F.
- 33 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 34 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
CHNG II
L thuyt tmt
Chng hai gii thiu nhng khi nim c s v cc tnh cht ca l thuyt tmt.
Ni dung bao gm:
Cc khi nim c bn v cc tnh cht ca tmt,
Cc tnh cht ca hm chuyn i trng thi,
S tng ng ca tmt hu hn n nh v khng n nh,
Mt s vn lin quan n cc tiu ho tmt hu hn.
2.1 tmt hu hn
Chng ta s tm hiu v mt nh ngha tng qut nht ca tmt v sau thu
hp cho ph hp vi cc ng dng ca khoa hc my tnh. Mt tmt c nh
ngha nh l mt h thng ([2], [3], [4], [5], [6]), trong nng lng, vt cht
hoc thng tin c bin i; c truyn i v c s dng thc hin mt s
chc nng no m khng cn c s tham gia trc tip ca con ngi. V d nh
my ph-t-copy t ng, my tr tin t ng ATM, ...
Trong khoa hc my tnh, thut ng tmt c ngha l my x l t ng trn d
liu ri rc. Mi tmt c xem nh l mt c ch bin i thng tin gm mt
b iu khin, mt knh vo v mt knh ra.
I1 O1
I2 tmt
O2
q1, q2, qn
Ik Om
- 35 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
4. Quan h gia cc trng thi. Trng thi tip theo ca tmt ph thuc vo
hin trng v u vo hin thi, ngha l c xc nh ph thuc vo mt
hay nhiu trng thi trc v d liu hin thi.
5. Quan h kt qu. Kt qu ca tmt khng nhng ch ph thuc vo cc
hin trng m cn ph thuc vo cc u vo. Nh vy, kt qu (u ra,
output) ca tmt c xc nh theo u vo v cc trng thi thc hin
ca n.
Lu [4]:
tmt m u ra ch ph thuc vo u vo c gi l tmt khng
c b nh.
tmt m u ra ph thuc vo cc trng thi c gi l tmt hu
hn b nh.
tmt m u ra ch ph thuc vo cc trng thi c gi l my
Moore.
tmt m u ra ph thuc vo u vo v cc trng thi mi thi
im c gi l My Mealy.
V d 2.1 Xt thanh ghi dch chuyn nh sau
D Q D Q D Q D Q
Input
Error! Output
Hnh H2-2 Thanh ghi dch chuyn 4 bit s dng D-flip flaps
Thanh ghi dch chuyn trn cn c gi l my hu hn trng thi c 24 = 16
trng thi (0000, 0001, , 1111), mt dy vo v mt dy ra, bng ch ci vo
(tn hiu vo) = {0, 1}v bng ch ci u ra (tn hiu ra) O = {0, 1}. Thanh
ghi dch chuyn 4 bit trn c th c m t bi tmt sau:
tmt
q1, q2, q16 O
Hnh H2-3. My hu hn trng thi thc hin thanh ghi dch chuyn 4 bit.
Nhn xt: Hnh vi ca mi my tun t (cc thao tc thc hin tun t) u c th
biu din c bng mt tmt.
Sau y chng ta xt nh ngha hnh thc v tmt hu hn trng thi gi tt l
tmt hu hn.
- 36 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
$ Bng d liu vo
u c R
B iu khin
hu hn
- 37 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 38 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Cc trng K hiu vo
thi a1 a2 an
trong , Q = {q1, q2, qk}, = {a1, a2, , an} v F l tp tt c nhng trng thi
qf (nhng trng thi nm trong hnh trn), q0 l trng thi bt u (c mi tn i
n).
V d 2.2 Xt tmt hu hn c hm chuyn trng thi c xc nh theo bng
sau
Bng B2.1 Bng chuyn trng thi ca M
Dy vo
Trng thi 0 1
q0 q2 q1
q1 q3 q0
q2 q0 q3
q3 q1 q2
- 39 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
1
q0 q1
1
0 0 0 0
1
q2 q3
1
q0 b q1
b a
q3
b
Hnh H2-6 Biu din th ca tmt hu hn M cho trc
Da vo cc tnh cht v cch biu din ca hm chuyn trng thi trn th nh
hng, chng ta nhn thy:
- 40 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
q0 0 q1
1 1
q2
- 41 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
q0 1 1
q1 q2
1 0, 1 1
q3 q4
0
- 42 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 43 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 44 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Mt khc, {r1, r2, rl} = (q0, ya) = ((q0, y), a) = ({p1, p2, pk}, a). Theo nh
ngha ca ,
({p1, p2, pk}, a) = {r1, r2, rl}. (2.11)
Do vy, (q0, x) = (q0, ya) = ((q0, y), a) = ({p1, p2, pk}, a)
= {r1, r2, rl} theo (2.11).
Suy ra (2.9) c chng minh vi x = ya.
iu kin chng minh tng t.
T suy ra, x L = T(M) khi v ch khi (q, x) cha mt trng thi ca F. Bi v
(q0, x) cha trng thi thuc F khi v ch khi (q0, x) nm trong F. iu khng nh
x T(M) x T(M), ng ngha vi vic M cng on nhn ng L.
Trng thi \ 0 1
q0 q0 q1
q1 q1 q0, q1
Nhn xt: Khi M c n trng thi, M tng ng s c th c 2n trng thi. Tuy nhin,
chng ta khng nht thit phi xy dng tmt c tt c 2n trng thi m ch cn nhng
trng thi t n t trng thi khi u v i n c trng thi kt thc.
Trong bng chuyn trng thi B2.3 trng thi l khng t n c t trng thi
bt u {q0} nn c th loi b i. Ngoi ra, cho tin li chng ta c th k hiu
- 45 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
s0 s0 s1
s1 s1 s2
s2 s2 s2
Trng thi \ a b
q0 {q0, q1} q2
q1 q0 q1
q2 {q0, q1}
- 46 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Trng thi \ a b
- 47 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Chng minh: Chng ta chng minh bng phn chng. Gi s q1 v q2 khng phi
l (k+1)-tng ng. Khi tn ti w = aw1 vi di k+1 sao cho (q1, aw1) l
trng thi kt thc nhng (q2, aw1) li khng phi l trng thi kt thc. Nh vy,
(q1, aw1) = ((q1, a), w1) l trng thi kt thc v (q2, aw1) = ((q2, a), w1)
khng phi l trng thi kt thc. T suy ra (q1,a) v (q2, a) khng phi l k-
tng ng, mu thun vi gi thit (b).
- 48 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
b a
b
b
q0 q3 q4 q5
b
a b
a a
a a
q2 a
q1 q7 q6
b b
q0 q1 q0
q1 q0 q2
q2 q3 q1
q3 q3 q0
q4 q3 q5
q5 q6 q4
q6 q5 q6
q7 q6 q3
Theo thut ton trn ta c Q10 = {q3}, Q20 = { q0, q1, q2, q4, q5, q6, q7} v
0 = {{q3},{ q0, q1, q2, q4, q5, q6, q7}}.
Chng ta xt tip quan h 1-tng ng tnh 1. Trc tin ta c
Q11 = {q3}. Da vo bng B2.7 chng ta d kim tra c q0 l 1-tng
ng vi q1, q5, q6 v (q0, t) v (qi, t), i = 1, 5, 6 v t = a, b l cng kt
thc hoc cng khng phi l trng thi kt thc. Vy Q21 = { q0, q1, q5, q6}.
Tng t ta c th kim tra c q2 -tng ng vi q4 v Q31 = { q2, q4}.
Hin nhin cn li Q41 = {q7}. T chng ta c
- 49 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
a
[q0,q6] [q7]
b [q3] b
a a a a
a
b
[q1,q5] [q2,q4]
b
Hnh H2-10 tmt cc tiu ca tmt hnh H2-9
- 50 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Bi tp v tmt hu hn
2.1 Chng minh rng trong tmt hu hn, nu (q, x) = (q, y) th
(q, xz) = (q, yz) vi mi z trong +.
2.2 Cho trc tmt hu hn M = (Q, , , q0, F). Gi s R l mt quan h trn
Q c nh ngha nh sau q1R q2 nu (q1, a) = (q2, a) vi a . Hi R c
phi l quan h tng ng hay khng?
2.3 Xy dng mt tmt khng n nh on nhn {ab, ba}, v s dng n
tm tmt n nh on nhn cng tp .
2.4 Xy dng mt h bin i on nhn c cc xu c cha cat hoc rat t
bng ch a, b, c,
2.5 Xy dng mt tmt khng n nh on nhn c tp tt c cc xu t tp
{a,b} kt thc bng xu con aba.
2.6 Xy dng tmt n nh tng ng vi
M = ({q0, q1, q2, q3}, {0, 1}, , q0, {q3}) vi c cho trong bng
Bng B
Trng thi \ a b
q0 q0, q1 q0
q1 q2 q1
q2 q3 q3
q3 q2
2.7 M = ({q1, q2, q3}, {0, 1}, , q1, {q3}) l tmt khng n nh, trong
c cho bi
(q1, 0) = {q2, q3}, (q1, 1) = {q1}
(q2, 0) = {q1, q2}, (q2, 1) =
(q3, 0) = {q2}, (q3, 1) = {q1, q2}
Tm tmt n nh tng ng vi M.
2.8 Xy dng tmt n nh trn {0, 1} on nhn tt c cc xu cha chn
ln cc ch s 1.
2.9 Xy dng tmt n nh trn = {a1, a2, , an} on nhn cc ngn ng
sau:
a) L1 = {x * | x c di l}
b) L2 = {x * | x c di chn}
c) L3 = {x * | x c di chn v ln hn 1}
- 51 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
q0 0 q1 1 q2 c
s0 a s1 s2
M1: 1 0 M2:
1 1 c b
1 q3 b
q5 q4 s4 s3
c b
a/ Tm ngn ng T(M1) on nhn c bi M1 v T(M2) on nhn c bi M2
b/ Xy dng tmt M t M1 v M2 sao cho T(M) = T(M1)T(M2)
c/ Xy dng tmt M t M1 v M2 sao cho T(M) = T(M1) T(M2)
2.11* Xy dng tmt cc tiu tng ng vi tmt hu hn cho trc
0
q0 1
0 0 q3
1 1 q2
q1
0 1
q5
1 0
q6 1
1 1
0 0
q4 q7
0
- 52 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
CHNG III
Vn phm v ngn ng hnh thc
- 53 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 54 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 55 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
R nu .
G
* *
Ch : (i) Da vo tnh cht ca quan h , hin nhin vi mi
G G
*
(ii) Khi , ngha l tn ti mt dy 1, 2, , n, n 2 sao cho
G
*
= 1 2 n = . Khi thc hin trong n bc dn
G G G G
n
xut, ta vit .
G
- 56 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Lu :
1. Mi dn xut u phi thc hin trn c s s dng cc qui tc; khi s cc
qui tc s dng ng mt ln th chng ta vit ; khi s qui tc ln
G
*
hn mt ln th vit l .
G
V th 0n1n L(G), vi n 0.
ch ra rng L(G) {0n1n | n 0}, chng ta bt u xt mt cu w bt k thuc
L(G). Nu s dng S (k hiu rng) trc th ta nhn c . Trong trng
hp ny w = = 0010. Ngc li, khi s dng qui tc S 0S1 th sau chng ta
c th hoc s dng S hoc tip tc s dng S 0S1. Qu trnh dn xut
*
ca w c dng S 0nS1n 0n1n , ngha l
G G
L(G) {0n1n | n 0}
Vy L(G) = {0n1n | n 0}.
V d 3.5 Cho trc vn phm G = ({S, C}, {a, b}, P, S), trong P = {S aCa,
CaCa | b}, tm L(G).
V S aCa aba, vy aba L(G). Hn na
S aCa
n 1
S anCan (p dng n-1 ln qui tc C aCa)
G
- 57 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
L(G) { anban | n 1}
Kt hp hai bao hm thc trn chng ta c
L(G) = { anban | n 1}
V d 3.6 Cho trc G c cc qui tc S aS | bS | a | b, tm L(G).
Chng ta ch ra rng L(G) = {a, b}+.
Trc tin chng ta nhn xt G ch c hai k hiu kt thc a, b, nn L(G) {a, b}*.
Tt c cc qui tcca G u l S-dn xut, vy thuc L(G) ch khi S l mt
qui tcca G. Nhng trong vn phm trn khng c qui tc, nn
L(G) {a, b}* - {} = {a, b}+
chng minh {a, b}+ L(G), hy xt dy a1 a2 an, trong ai l a hoc l b.
Qui tc u tin c th p dng suy ra a1a2 an c th l S aS hoc S bS,
tu thuc a1 = a hoc a1 = b. Tng t xt vi a2, a3, an-1. Cui cng i vi an
chng ta p dng S a hoc S b tu thuc an = a hoc an = b. Vy
L(G) = {a, b}+
V d 3.7 Xy dng vn phm G sinh ra ngn ng L = {wcwT | w {a, b}*},
trong wT l xu soi gng ca xu w, l xu vit theo th t ngc li ca w,
thng c gi l php o v. V d, (abcde)T = edcba.
Chng ta c th chng minh c G = ({S}, {a, b, c}, P, S), vi P = {S aSa | bSb | c}
s sinh ra chnh ngn ng L.
V d 3.8 Tm vn phm sinh ra ngn ng L = {anbnci | n 1, i 0 }.
D nhn thy L = L1 L2, vi L1 = {anbn | n 1} (trng hp i = 0) v
L2 = {anbnci | n 1, i 1 }
Ngn ng L1 c th c sinh bi vn phm c cc qui tc S A, A ab, A aAb v
L2 l kt qu ca php ghp L1 vi ci, i 1. Vy vn phm G = ({S, A}, {a, b, c}, P, S),
trong
P = { S A, A ab, A aAb, S Sc}
Vi n 1, i 0, chng ta c
* *
S Sci Aci an-1Abn-1ci an-1abbn-1ci = anbnci
- 58 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 59 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 60 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 61 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
mi k hiu trong x, chng ta nhn c x S1S2xS3., sau s dng P12, P13 suy
dn ra xx, ngha l L L(G).
chng minh chiu ngc li L(G) L, chng ta hy ch 3 bc u (3.1) v
(3.2) ca mi qu trnh dn xut trong G lun cho aS1S2aS3 hoc bS1S2bS3.
Chng ta tho lun v cc cch dn xut tip t aS1S2aS3 (trng hp cn li tng t) c
c mt cu trong L(G). Nhng qui tc c th p dng y l S1S2 , S3 ,
S1S2 aS1A, S1S2 bS1B. Xt cc trng hp c th xy ra.
Trng hp 1: S dng S1S2 vo aS1S2aS3 chng ta c aaS3 = aaS3. Tip
theo ch c th s dng S3 c aa L.
Trng hp 2: S dng S3 vo xu aS1S2aS3 chng ta c aS1S2a = aS1S2a.
Nu s dng tip S1S2 th kt qu thu c l aa L. Ngc li c th s
dng S1S2 aS1A (hoc S1S2 bS1B) th s nhn c aaS1Aa (bbS1Bb tng
ng). Trong G s khng c qui tc no c th p dng c dn xut tip m
loi b c cc bin S1, A (B tng ng).
Trng hp 3: S dng S1S2 aS1A i vi aS1S2aS3 chng ta c aaS1AaS3.
aaS1AaS3 aaS1aAS3 a2S1aS2aS3 a2S1S2a2S3. n y d nhn ra qu trnh
dn xut lp li qu trnh trn c anS1S2anS3 ri s dng S1S2 , S3
suy ra anan L.
Trng hp 4: S dng S1S2 bS1B i vi aS1S2aS3 chng ta c abS1BaS3. Dn
xut tng t nh trn ta c xu abS1S2abS3 v abab L.
Tip tc dn xut, thc hin mt trong bn trng hp nu trn, chng ta s
suy ra xu dng xS1S2xS3 v do vy xx L.
T kt lun L(G) = L.
V d 3.12 Cho trc G c cc qui tc dn xut S aSa | bSb | aa | bb | . Hy
chng minh rng:
(i) Mi xu (cu) ca L(G) u c di chn,
(ii) S cc xu c di 2*n l 2n.
Mnh u (i) d khng nh v khi p dng bt k mt qui tc no ca G cng
u thay mt k hiu khng kt thc (S) bng hai k hiu kt thc (a hoc b) (tr
S ) v c nhiu nht mt k hiu khng kt thc. Do vy, qua mi ln p dng
mt qui tc th di ca xu c dn ra tng ln 2 tr qui tc S .
chng minh mnh (ii), chng ta xt xu w c di 2*n. Da vo cc qui tc
ca G, chng ta thy w c dng a1 a2 an an a2 a1, ai c dng a hoc b. Vy s
tt c cc xu nh th s l 2n.
- 62 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
sinh ra bi vn phm, chng ta tm cch phn loi chng. Mun phn loi c cc
ngn ng, chng ta phi da vo cc dng khc nhau ca cc qui tc dn xut.
Chomsky chia cc qui tc dn xut ca vn phm G thnh bn loi.
Trc khi thc hin phn loi ngn ng chng ta cn a thm khi nim v ng
cnh.
Xt qui tc dn xut dng A , trong A l bin; c gi l ng cnh
tri cn gi l ng cnh phi v l xu thay th. Qua chng ta hiu l
ch c th thc hin dn xut theo ng cnh v c c xu thay th trong ng
cnh tri v phi nh xc nh.
V d 3.13
(i) Trong abAbcd abBAbcd, ab l ng cnh tri v bcd l ng cnh phi,
(ii) AB A, A l ng cnh tri, l ng cnh phi v = .
(iii) B , c ng cnh tri, phi v u l . Qui tc ny cho php xo
bin B trong mi ng cnh.
nh ngha 3.6 (Phn loi Chomsky) Cho trc vn phm G = (VN, , P, S).
1. Nu cc qui tc trong P khng c rng buc no c th c gi l vn phm loi 0,
hay cn gi l vn phm ng cu, vn phm cu trc cu ([2], [4], [6]) v ngn ng
sinh bi n c gi l ngn ng loi 0 (ng cu). Cc qui tc dng trn c gi
l qui tc loi 0.
2. Nu cc qui tc ca P c dng A vi th vn phm c
gi l loi 1 (cm ng cnh, ph thuc vo ng cnh) v ngn ng sinh bi
n c gi l ngn ng loi 1 (cm ng cnh). Cc qui tc dng trn c
gi l qui tc loi 1. Qui tc S c php xut hin trong vn phm
loi 1, nhng khi S khng c xut hin v phi ca bt k qui tc
no khc v khi G c gi l vn phm cm ng cnh suy rng.
3. Nu cc qui tc ca P c dng A vi A VN v (VN )* th
vn phm c gi l loi 2 (phi ng cnh, khng ph thuc vo ng cnh)
v ngn ng sinh bi n c gi l ngn ng loi 2 (phi ng cnh). Cc
qui tc dng trn c gi l qui tc loi 2.
4. Nu cc qui tc ca P c dng A a hoc A aB vi A, B VN v a
th vn phm c gi l loi 3 (chnh qui) v ngn ng sinh bi n c
gi l ngn ng loi 3 (chnh qui). Cc qui tc dng trn c gi l qui tc
loi 3. Qui tc S c php xut hin trong vn phm loi 3, nhng khi
S khng c xut hin v phi ca bt k qui tc no khc. Vn phm
chnh qui c qui tc S c gi l vn phm chnh qui suy rng.
Lu :
Trong vn phm cm ng cnh, chng ta c th s dng qui tc A
xo i mt bin A m khng c iu kin no. Qui tc ny khng phi l
loi 1 m l loi 1 m rng.
- 63 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 64 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Gii:
Khi xy dng vn phm sinh ra mt ngn ng cho trc, cn phi thc hin theo
hai bc: phn tch cu trc cc t ca ngn ng v sau tm cc qui tc sinh
ra cc t .
(i) Phn tch: mi t x = an+1bn+2 c th vit thnh hai phn:
+ Cc t con a, b2 khng ph thuc vo tham s n c gi l phn c nh.
Phn ny c th t cc v tr c th trn c s m bo lut giao hon.
Vi mi cch t s to ra mt vn phm tng ng.
+ Phn ph thuc vo n: an, bn. Khi n thay i th s ch a, b cng phi thay
i nhng phi m bo sinh ra bng nhau. Ta gi cm ny l cm i
xng. Hin nhin (an, bn) lp thnh cm i xng. m bo tnh i
xng th mi cm i xng phi do mt bin ring sinh ra chng.
Ta c th vit w L bt k di mt trong bn dng khc nhau:
w = anab2bn = aanbnb2 = anabnb2 = aanb2bn
(ii) Xy dng vn phm: T bn dng khc nhau ca xu x c bn vn phm tng
ng nh sau:
G1 = ({S}, {a, b}, {SaSb | ab2}, S)
G2 = ({S, A}, {a, b}, {S aAb2 , A aAb | }, S)
G3 = ({S, A}, {a, b}, {S Ab2 , A aAb | a}, S)
G3 = ({S, A}, {a, b}, {S aA, A aAb | b2}, S)
Hin nhin bn vn phm ny tng ng vi nhau: L(G1) = L(G2) = L(G3) = L(G4) = L.
V d 3.18 Xy dng vn phm phi ng cnh sinh ra ngn ng sau
L = {a2n+1cm+1d2m+1bn+2ci+2fk+1a3i+2 | n, m, i, k = 0, 1, 2, }
Mi t w L u phn c thnh 4 cm i xng nh sau
w = a2n a cm c d d2m b2 bn ci c2 fk f a2 a3i, vi n, m, i, k = 1, 2,
S4
S3
S1 S2
2n n i 3i
Hai cm i xng (a , b ) v (c , a ) c quan h tch ghp, nn chng phi c
sinh ng thi. Ta chn S1 sinh ra (a2n, bn) v S2 sinh ra (ci, a3i) cng mt lc.
Cm (cm, d2m) c lng trong (a2n, bn), cm (fk) lng trong (ci, a3i). Nhng cm
i xng c quan h lng nhau th c sinh dn t ngoi vo trong, ngha cm b
cha sinh sau cm cha n. Ta chn tip S3 sinh ra (cm, d2m), S4 sinh ra (fk).
Khi cm (a2n, bn) phi c sinh ra trc sau mi n cm (c m, d2m), tc l S1
phi xut hin trc S3. Tng t, cm (ci, a3i) phi c sinh ra trc (fk), tc l
S2 phi xut hin trc S4.
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Ngoi ra, cc k hiu ph S1, S2, S3, S4 m nhn vic sinh ra cc xu con ca
w, nn chng khng th ng vai tr l k t bt u c. Bi vy ta a thm k
t bt u S v vn phm sinh ra L s c dng sau:
G = {{S, S1, S2, S3, S4}, {a, b, c, d, f}, P, S), trong P gm cc qui tc sau:
S S1S2 (sinh ra 2 cm i xng tch ghp (a2n, bn) v (ci, a3i))
S1 a2S1b (lp sinh ra cm i xng (a2n, bn))
S1 aS2b2 (dn ra S2 chun b sinh ra cm i xng (am, b2m))
S2 cS2a2 (lp sinh ra cm i xng (cm, b2m))
S2 cd (kt thc vic sinh ra phn u ca xu w)
S3 cS3a3 (lp sinh ra cm i xng (ci, a3i))
S3 c2S4a2 (a S4 vo chun b sinh ra (fk))
S4 fS4 | f
V d 3.20 Xy dng vn phm phi ng cnh trn = {a, b, c, d, e} sinh ra ngn ng
L = { w | w bt u bng abbb, kt thc bng ccd, cha abbcd v |w| l chn}
Trc khi xy dng vn phm G, ta cn phn tch cu trc ca w L, trn c s
a ra nhng qui tc thch hp.
w L w = abbbxabbcdyccd, vi x, y * v |y| + |x| l mt s chn.
Tng di ca x v y l mt s chn li c chia thnh hai trng hp: di ca
chng cng chn hoc cng l. Do vy, ta c th s dng ch s 1 cho trng hp chng
c di l v ch s 2 cho trng hp chng cng c di chn. Khi
abbbx1abbcdy1ccd vi x1, y1 * v |x1|, |y1| l l (3.3)
w Lw= *
abbbx2abbcdy2ccd vi x2, y2 v |x2|, |y2| l chn (3.4)
S dng k hiu A sinh ra trng hp (3.3) v k biu B sinh ra trng (3.4). Khi
vn phm G c cc qui tc dng:
S abbbAabbcdAccd | abbbBabbcdBccd
A aC | bC | cC | dC | eC
sinh ra x1, y1 * c di l
C aA | bA | cA | dA | eA |
B aD | bD | cD | dD | eD |
sinh ra x2, y2 * c di chn
D aB | bB | cB | dB | eB
V d 3.20 Cho bng ch ci = {a1, a2, , an}.
(i) Ngn ng L = + c sinh bi vn phm chnh qui
G = ({S}, , {S aiS | ai, 1 i n}, S).
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 70 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Tnh cht (iii) suy ra t (ii). chng minh (iv), chng ta xt N l s tt c cc xu trn
VN c di nh hn hoc bng n. Nu |VN | = m th N = 1 + m + m2 + ... + mn
bi v mi l s cc xu c di i trn VN . N c xc nh v n ch ph thuc vo
n v m. Hin nhin l |Wi| N, vi mi i. T suy ra (da vo nguyn l chung b
cu) Wk = Wk+1, vi k N.
T (ii) v t (iv) Wk = Wk+1 ko theo Wk+1 = Wk+2. Vy chng ta chng minh c
tnh cht (v) v
*
{ (VN )* | S v || n} = W1 W2 ... Wk Wk+1 ...
= W1 W2 ... Wk = Wk (t (ii)).
*
Tnh cht (v) khng nh w L(G) (S w) khi v ch khi w Wk. Chng ta bit
l W1,W2 , ..., Wk c to ra sau hu hn bc.
- 71 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 72 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 73 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
*
Chng minh L(G) = L1 L2 c th tin hnh nh sau: Nu w L1 L2 th S1 w
G1
* * *
hoc S2 w. V c S S1 v S S2, nn S S1 w hoc S S2 w,
G2 G G1 G G2
- 74 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
*
Trc tin cn chng minh L1L2 = L(GC). Nu w = w1w2 L1L2 th S1 w1 v
G1
* *
S2 w2. V S S1S2 c trong PC, nn S S1S2 w1w2 = w, suy ra w L(GC).
G2 Gc Gc
Do L1 L2 L(G).
*
chng minh chiu ngc li, hy xt w L(GC), S S1S2 w. V VN1 VN2 =
Gc Gc
* *
nn w = w1w2 v S1 w1 v S2 w2. T suy ra L1L2 = L(GC).
G1 G2
Ch :
Php ghp cc ngn ng khng giao hon, ngha l L1L2 L2L1.
- 75 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 76 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Loi 0 My Turing
- 77 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
(c) {albmcn | l + m = n}
3.8 Xy dng vn phm chnh qui sinh ra:
(a) {a2m | m 1}
(b) Tp tt c cc xu trn {a, b} kt thc bng a
(c) Tp tt c cc xu trn {a, b} bt u bng a
(d) {albmcn | l, m, n 1}
3.9 Chng minh rng G1 = ({S}, {a, b}, P1, S), trong P1 = {S aSb | ab} l
tng ng vi G2 = ({S, A, B, C}, {a, b}, P2, S), vi P2 = {S AC,
C SB, S AB, A a, B b}.
3.10 Xy dng vn phm sinh ra {(ab)n | n 1} {(ba)n | n 1}.
3.11 Chng minh rng vn phm gm cc qui tc A xB | y, trong x, y *
v A, B l cc bin l tng ng vi vn phm chnh qui.
3.12* ( thi cao hc nm 2000, cu 3 mn thi c bn: Ton hc ri rc)
Cho ngn ng phi ng cnh L = {anbn0, cm1kdm | n > 0, m > 0, k 0}
(i) Hy tm vn phm phi ng cnh sinh ra L.
(ii) Hy a ra dn xut chng t t a2b20, c311d3 c sinh ra bi vn phm
tm c trong cu (i).
3.13* ( thi cao hc nm 2000, cu 3 mn thi c bn: Ton hc ri rc)
Cho ngn ng phi ng cnh L = {an0kbncmdm | n > 0, m > 0, k 0}
(i) Hy tm vn phm phi ng cnh G sinh ra L.
(ii) Hy kim tra xem cc t a302b3c2d2, a202b2c2d c c sinh ra bi vn
phm G tm c trong cu (i)?
3.14 Ch ra rng tp {abc, bca, cab} l ngn ng sinh ca mt vn phm chnh qui
c bng ch ci l {a, b, c}.
3.15 Xy dng vn phm sinh ra
(i) L1 = {(ab)n | n > 0}, L2 = {(ba)n | n > 0}
(ii) L = L1 L2
(iii) L = L1L2
3.16 Gi s G = ({A, B, S}, {0, 1}, P, S), trong P c cc qui tc S 0AB,
A0 S0B, A1 SB1, B SA | 01. Ch ra rng L(G) = .
3.17 Nhng pht biu sau ng hay sai, ti sao?
(a) Nu G1 v G2 tng ng vi nhau th chng cng mt loi.
(b) Nu L l tp con hu hn ca * th L l ngn ng phi ng cnh.
(c) Nu L l tp con hu hn ca * th L l ngn ng chnh qui.
- 78 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
q0 1 a
q1 q2
0 b b
q3 q4
a
a/ Tm ngn ng on nhn c bi M
b/ Xy dng vn phm chnh qui G sinh ra ngn ng c on nhn bi
tmt nu trn.
c/ Xu w = 1abba c c sinh ra trong G hay khng?, ti sao?
*
3.23 ( thi cao hc nm 2004, cu 3 mn thi c bn: Ton hc ri rc)
Cho trc ngn ng L = {amcbnc, ancbmd, | m, n 0}
a/ Tm vn phm G c loi cao nht sinh ra L, G l vn phm loi no?
b/ Xy dng tmt M tng ng vi G on nhn L.
c/ Ch ra rng xu aacbbbd l c on nhn bi M.
3.24* ( thi cao hc nm 2006, cu 3 mn thi c bn: Ton hc ri rc)
Cho trc ngn ng L = {ambn | 1 n m}
a/ Tm vn phm G c loi cao nht sinh ra L.
b/ Tm dng chun Chomsky ca vn phm G sinh ra L.
c/ Xy dng tmt M tng ng vi G on nhn L.
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
CHNG IV
Tp chnh qui v vn phm chnh qui
Chng bn cp n:
Tp chnh qui v tmt hu hn trng thi,
Cc tnh cht ng ca cc tp chnh qui,
Quan h gia tp chnh qui v vn phm chnh qui.
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
q0 0 q1 1 q3
0 1 0
q2
- 84 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
R= R= R = ai
Hnh H4-2 Cc h bin i on nhn cc tp chnh qui c s
Bc qui np: Gi thit rng nh l trn ng vi nhng biu thc chnh qui c s
k t nh hn hoc bng n. Chng ta phi chng minh rng n cng ng vi
nhng biu thc R c n+1 k t.
Theo nh ngha ca biu thc chnh qui th
R = P + Q, hoc R = PQ, hoc R = P*
Trong P, Q l hai biu thc chnh qui c nhiu nht l n k t. Theo gi thit qui
np, P v Q l c on nhn bi hai h chuyn trng thi G v H nh trong hnh
H4-3.
G
- 85 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Hnh H4-3 (b) H chuyn trng thi H on nhn Q
Chng ta c th xy dng nhng h chuyn trng thi on nhn R nh cc hnh H4-3
(c), 4-3 (d) v 4-3 (e).
G
- 86 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
0 1 2
q0
q1 q2
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
0 1 2
1
q0 q1 q2
1
q0 q1 q2
0 1 2
1 2
q0 q1 q2
2
- 88 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Trng thi \ a b
q0 q1, q2
q1 q0
q2 q0, q1
Q Qa Qb
- 89 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
[q0, q1]
a a b
b
[q0,q1,q2]
- 90 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
0 q1
0 1
1
q3 q2 1
0
Hnh H4-9 Cho trc th trng thi
Da vo th chuyn trng thi, chng ta c th xc nh c cc phng trnh
theo cc trng thi nh sau:
q1 = q10 + q30 + , (4.6)
q2 = q11 + q21 + q31, (4.7)
q3 = q20 (4.8)
Thay (4.8) vo (4.7) chng ta c
q2 = q11 + q21 + (q20)1 = q11 + q2(1 + 01)
p dng nh l 4.1
q2 = q11(1 + 01)* (4.9)
Tng t q1 = q10 + q30 + = q10 + q200 + . Thay (4.9) vo ta c
= q10 + q11(1 + 01)*00 +
= q1(0 + 1(1 + 01)*00) +
Li p dng nh l 4.1
q1 = (0 + 1(1 + 01)*00)* = (0 + 1(1 + 01)*00)*
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
a
q1 q2
b
a a
b
b
q3 q4 a, b
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
q1 1 q2 0 q3 0, 1
0 1
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Gii:
Bc 1: Xy dng th trng thi tng ng c cha cc - dch chuyn theo nh
l 4.2 v sau s dng thut ton 4.1 loi i cc - dch chuyn s thu c
(0 + 1)*(00 + 11)(0 + 1)*
q0 q1
1 q7 1
0, 1 0 q1 0, 1
0
q0 qf
1 q2 1
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Trng thi \ 0 1
q0
q0, q1 q0, q2
q1 qf
q2 qf
qf qf qf
+ Tip theo xy dng bng phn t k tip t trng thi bt u t [q0]. T bng
4.3 chng ta thy [q0] i theo cung c nhn 0 th n c [q0, q1] v i theo cung
c nhn 1 th n c trng thi [q0, q2]. Tng t, [q0, q1] i theo cung c nhn 0
th n c [q0, q1, qf] v i theo cung c nhn 1 th n c trng thi [q0, q2].
T trng thi [q0, q2] i theo cung c nhn 0 s chuyn n [q0, q1] cn i theo cung
c nhn 1 s n [q0, q2, qf]. Tip tc xt s chuyn trng thi t [q0, q1, qf] theo
cung c nhn 0 s dn n chnh n cn i theo cung c nhn 1 s n [q0, q2, qf].
Tng t vi trng thi cn li, [q0, q2, qf]. Vi mi phn t a xc nh tng
ng Qa c bng chuyn trng thi tip theo.
Bng 4.4 Bng chuyn trng thi tip theo
Q Q0 Q1
[q0] [q0, q1] [q0, q2]
[q0, q1] [q0, q1, qf] [q0, q2]
[q0, q2] [q0, q1] [q0, q2, qf]
[q0, q1, qf] [q0, q1, qf] [q0, q2, qf]
[q0, q2, qf] [q0, q1, qf] [q0, q2, qf]
0 1 0 1
q0
1 1
[q0,q2] [q0,q2,qf]
1
Hnh H4-13 (a) tmt n nh tng ng vi (0 + 1)*(00 + 11)(0 + 1)*
- 95 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
+ Cui cng chng ta th ti gin cc trng thi nu c th. Ngay trong bng 4.4 chng ta
thy hai dng ng vi hai trng thi [q0, q1, qf], [q0, q2, qf] l nh nhau, do vy c th ng
nht chng lm mt. tmt hu hn ti gin tng ng vi tmt Hnh H4-12 (e),
hoc tng ng vi biu thc chnh qui (0 + 1)*(00 + 11)(0 + 1)* c m t
hnh H4-13 (b).
[q0,q1] 0
0, 1
0
0 1 [q0,q1,qf]
q0
1
[q0,q2] 1
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
a
b
a, b
a
- 97 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Gii:
(i) Gi s L l chnh qui v tn ti tmt hu hn c n trng thi on
nhn L.
(ii) t w = a n . Hin nhin |w| = n2 > n. Theo b Bm chng ta c th
2
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
(iii) Xt xy2z. Hin nhin, |xy2z| = |x| + 2|y| + |z| > |x| + |y| + |z| v |y| > 0.
Ngha l
n2 = |xyz| = |x| + |y| + |z| < |xy2z|. Bi v |xy| n v |y| n nn
|xy2z| = |x| + 2|y| + |z| = (|x| + |y| + |z|) + |y| n2 + n. T suy ra
n2 < |xy2z| n2 + n < n2 + n + n + 1 = (n + 1)2
V n2 < |xy2z| < (n+1)2, suy ra s cc k t ca xy2z khng th l bnh phng ca
mt s nguyn, ngha l xy2z L, iu ny mu thun vi gi thit.
V d 4.13 Chng minh rng L = {ap | p l s nguyn t} khng phi l tp chnh
qui.
Gii:
(i) Gi s L l chnh qui v tn ti tmt hu hn c n trng thi on
nhn L.
(ii) Chn p l s nguyn t ln hn n. t w = ap. Hin nhin |w| = p > n.
Theo b Bm chng ta c th vit w = xyz vi |xy| n v |y| > 0. Cc
xu x, y, z c thit lp t mt phn t a, nn c th vit y = am vi m 1
v m n.
(iii) t i = p + 1. |xyiz| = |xyz| + |yi-1| = p + (i - 1)m = p(1 + m). Theo b
Bm th xyiz L. Nhng |xyiz| = p(1+m) v p(n + 1) khng phi l nguyn
t nn xyiz L, iu ny mu thun vi gi thit.
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
V d 4.16 Xy dng vn phm chnh qui sinh ra tp chnh qui c biu din
bi E = a*b(a+b)*.
Gii: Trc tin chng ta xy dng tmt hu hn M on nhn E.
a a, b
q0 qf
b
Hnh H4-19 tmt hu hn M on nhn a*b(a+b)*
t G = ({A0, A1}, {a, b}, P, A0), trong P gm:
A0 aA0, A0 bA1, A0 b, A1 aA1, A1 bA1, A1 a, A1 b
Hin nhin, G l vn phm chnh qui, sinh ra ngn ng chnh qui v ngn ng
cng chnh l tp chnh qui E.
- 102 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
b
a a
q0 q1 qf
b
- 103 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
X
n 1
tn L
k
Chng ta cn chng minh chiu ngc li X t L. n
(4.10)
n 1
- 104 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
q0 = []
F = {[x] Q | x L} v hm chuyn trng thi c nh ngha nh
sau:
([x], a) = [xa] vi a v x *. (4.14)
(ii) Chng minh M on nhn L
a/ Qui np theo di ca y, chng ta c th chng c rng
([x], y) = [xy] vi y + v x *. (4.15)
Tht vy, nu |y| = 1, ngha l y = a . Theo (4.14) ta c
([x], y) = ([x], a) = [xa] = [xy]
Gi s (4.15) ng vi mi t y c di |y| k. Xt y = ya, trong |y| = k.
([x], y) = ([x], ya) = ( ([x], y), a) (theo tnh cht ca hm )
= ([xy], a) (theo gi thit qui np)
= [xya] = [xy ]
Tt nhin khi x = , th t (4.15) suy ra (q0, y) = [y], vi mi t y +. (4.16)
b/ Chng minh rng T(M) = L.
Gi s x l t bt k thuc *.
+ Nu |x| = 0, ngha l x = . Do L q0 = [] F nn ta c T(M) L.
+ Nu |x| > 1 th t (7) ta suy ra x T(M) (q0, x) = [x] F x L. Do ,
T(M) = L, ngha l L l ngn ng chnh qui.
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
0 q1 1
q2 1
0 0
0
1 1
q4 q3
- 106 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
q1
q2
1 1 0
0
1 0 q4 1
q0 q3 q4 q2
4.10 Chng minh rng L = {ww | w {a, b}*} khng phi l tp chnh qui.
4.11 Chng minh rng cc tp sau khng phi l tp chnh qui
(i) {anb2n | n > 0}
(ii) {anbm | 0 < n < m}
(iii) {anbn | n > 0}
(iv) {anbm | n, m l nguyn t cng nhau, UCLN(m, n) = 1}
4.12 Cho trc vn phm G c cc qui tc dn xut S aS | a, tm ttomt M
on nhn L(G).
4.13 Xy dng mt tmt hu hn on nhn L(G), khi G c cc qui tc dn
xut: S aS | bA | b, aA | bS | a v A aA | bS | a
4.14 Xy dng tmt n nh hu hn tng ng vi vn phm c cc qui tc
sau: S aS | aA , A bB, B aC, C
4.15 Nhng khng nh sau ng hay sai, nu ng th chng minh, cn sai th cho
v d,
(i) Nu L1 L2 l chnh qui v L1 chnh qui th L2 l chnh qui,
(ii) Nu L1L2 l chnh qui v L1 chnh qui th L2 l chnh qui,
(iii) Nu L* l chnh qui th L chnh qui.
4.16 Cho ngn ng chnh qui trn bng ch ci {0, 1}, gm tt c cc t cha hai
k hiu 0 ng lin nhau.
(i) Hy biu din ngn ng bi biu thc chnh qui
(ii) Hy tm vn phm chnh qui sinh ra ngn ng
(iii) Hy xy dng tmt hu hn on nhn cng ngn ng trn.
4.17 Xy dng tmt hu hn n nh tng ng vi biu thc chnh qui
10+(0+11)*1.
4.18 Cho ngn ng L trn bng ch {0, 1} c cc t cha chn ln s 0 v chn
ln s 1.
(i) Tm biu thc chnh qui biu din cho L.
(ii) Xy dng vn phm sinh ra ngn ng L.
- 107 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
q3 q4
x
- 108 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
CHNG V
Cc ngn ng phi ng cnh
Ni dung ca chng nm cp n:
Cy dn xut v cc phng php xc nh vn phm phi ng cnh,
Tnh nhp nhng v qu trnh gin lc vn phm phi ng cnh,
Cc dng chun: dng chun Chomsky v dng chun Greibach,
B Bm (iu kin cn) cho cc ngn ng phi ng cnh v mt s
thut ton quyt nh c.
- 109 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
(ii) Gc c nhn S,
(iii) Nhn cc nh bn trong (khng phi l l) l cc bin,
(iv) Nu cc nh n1, n2, ..., nk c vit vi cc nhn X1, X2, ..., Xk l cc con ca
nh n c nhn A th trong P c tng ng qui tc A X1X2 ...Xk
(v) nh n l l nu nhn ca n l a hoc l k hiu rng .
V d 5.2 Cho trc vn phm G = ({S, A}, {a, b}, P, S), trong P gm:
S aAS | a | SS, A SbA | ba
Cy dn xut ca G sinh ra xu w = aabaa s l:
S
1
S S
2 3
a A S
a
10 5 6
4
b a a
7 8 9
- 110 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
S
3
a A
4 5
b a
7 8
Hnh H5-2 Mt cy con ca cy T hnh H5-1
Lu : Cy con cng ging nh cy dn xut, ch khc nhau l nhn ca cy con c
th khng phi l k hiu bt u S. Nu nhn ca gc ca cy con l A th cy con
c gi l A-cy.
nh l 5.1 Gi s G = (VN, , P, S) l vn phm phi ng cnh. Khi
*
S khi v ch khi tn ti cy dn xut T ca G T c kt qu l .
Chng minh:
khi v ch khi A-cy c kt qu l .
*
Ch cn chng minh rng A (4.17)
Gi s l kt qu A-cy T1. Chng ta chng minh A
*
bng phng php qui
np theo s cc nh bn trong ca T1.
C s qui np: Nu T1 ch c mt nh bn trong, ngha l tt c cc nh con ca
gc u l l. Khi cy T1 c dng:
A
A1 A2 Am
...
Hnh H5-3 (a) A-Cy c mt nh bn trong
Theo (iv) trong nh ngha 5.1 suy ra A A1A2...Am = l mt qui tc trong G.
Vy A .
Gi thit qui np: Gi s (4.17) ng vi cc cy con c k 1 nh bn trong, k > 1.
Chng ta xt A-cy T1 c k nh bn trong (k 2). Gi thit gc ca T1 c v1, v2, ...,
vm l cc nh con c gn nhn tng ng X1, X2, ..., Xm. Theo (iv) trong nh
ngha 5.1 suy ra A X1X2...Xm l mt qui tc trong P. Do vy,
A X1X2...Xm (4.18)
Bi v k 2 nn trong s cc nh con ca A c t nht mt nh l nh bn trong.
Nu vi l mt nh bn trong th li xt tip cy con ca T1 c gc chnh l v1. Hin
- 111 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
.
*
Ngha l A
.
*
chng minh chiu ngc li, chng ta gi thit rng A Chng ta i xy
dng A-cy c kt qu l . Thc hin iu ny bng phng php qui np theo
s bc trong dn xut A .
*
X1 X2 Xm
k 1
mt qui tc trong P. Cn trong dn xut X1X2...Xm th:
(i) Hoc Xi khng chuyn trng thi sut trong qu trnh dn xut, Xi = i
(ii) Hoc Xi bin i trong qu trnh dn xut. Gi s i l xu nhn c
t Xi, Xi i.
*
Gii:
S aAS aSbAS aabAS a2bbaS a2b2a2, ngha S 2 2 2
*
a ba.
- 112 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
a X2 S
S A a
b
a a
b
X2
- 113 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
1 S
1 0 B
X2
1
0 1
2 2
Hnh H5-5 Cy dn xut cho kt qu 0 1 0101
S S S
S
+ S S *
S
S
+ b
a *
a a
a b
Hnh H5-6 Hai cy dn xut cng cho kt qu a + a * b
- 114 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 115 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
+ Wi +1 = Wi { A VN | nu tn ti A v ( Wi )*}
Theo nh ngha qui trn th Wi Wi +1 vi mi i. Bi v VN l hu hn, nn tn
ti k |VN| Wi = Wi +1. Cui cng t VN = Wi .
(ii) Kin thit P. P = {A | , ( VN )*} P
Chng ta cn ch ra G chnh l vn phm cn tm.
Trc tin, S thuc VN, v nu S VN th L(G) = , iu ny mu thun vi gi
thit l L(G) .
Tip theo cn chng minh:
Nu A VN th A w * v ngc li nu A th A VN
* *
(i) w, w
G' G
G'
G'
...wm *.
*
A w1 w2
G'
*
B ny c th chng qui np theo s bc trong dn xut A w.
G
- 116 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Cho trc vn phm phi ng cnh G = (VN, , P, S), chng ta xy dng vn phm
G = (VN, , P, S) tng ng sao cho vi mi k hiu X VN u tn
ti , VN S X, ngha l mi bin u dn n xu kt thc v
*
xut pht t S.
Chng minh: G = (VN, , P, S) c xy dng nh sau
(a) Xy dng Wi vi i 1
+ W1 = {S}
+ Wi +1 = Wi {X VN | nu tn ti A v Wi v cha X}
Tng t nh trn Wi VN v Wi Wi+1 nn s tn ti k Wk = Wk+1.
+ VN, , P c xy dng nh sau:
VN = VN Wk, = Wk v P = {A | A P, A Wk}
Vi cch xy dng chi tit tng t nh trn, chng ta c L(G) = L(G).
- 117 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
VN = W2 = {S, A, C}
P = {A1 , (VN {a, b}*} P
= {S CA, A a, C b}
Kt thc bc 1: G1 = {{S, A, C}, {a, b}, {S CA, A a, C b}, S}
Bc 2. p dng nh l 5.4 cho G1.
W1 = {S}
W2 = {S} {A, C} bi v S CA v S W1.
W3 = {S, A, C} {a, b} bi v A a, C b v A, C W2.
Tng t W4 = W3 = VN , ng thi P = {A1 | A1 , A1 W3} = P.
Vy, G = {{S, A, C}, {a, b}, {S CA, A a, C b}, S} l khng d tha.
- 118 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 119 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 120 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 121 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 122 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 123 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 124 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 125 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
uwy = uv0wx0y L. Vi k 1, S
* * * * *
B vBx v B w. V S uBy uBy
- 126 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 127 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 128 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 129 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
CHNG VI
tmt y xung
Chng ny cp n:
tmt y xung,
Hai kiu on nhn ca tmt y xung,
Chng minh rng tp cc kt qu on nhn ca tmt y xung
chnh l lp cc ngn ng phi ng cnh.
6.1 Cc nh ngha c s
M hnh ton hc thc s hu hn c nghin cu trong cc chng trc vn
cn cha tho ng vi phn ln cc mc tiu ca cc lnh vc khoa hc, c bit
l khoa hc my tnh. N khng c kh nng on nhn ngay c mt ngn ng n
gin nh L = {anbn | n 1} v n khng th m c s ch a c c trc khi
ch b u tin c tnh n. Khng th xy dng tmt hu hn trng thi
on nhn c L bi v cc xu ca n c dng anbn vi n l tu v sinh ra
chng th phi c v hn trng thi. Tuy nhin, vic m rng trc tip tmt hu
hn bng cch cho php n c v s cc trng thi r rng l khng phi l m hnh
tnh ton ph hp. N qu tng qut v khng tho mn yu cu ch yu v tnh
hiu qu ca khoa hc tnh ton.
Vy tmt loi no thch hp on nhn c nhng ngn ng nh th?. Cu
tr li chnh l tmt y xung.
Mt cch t nhin tm kin thng tin t bng lm vic da trn nguyn tc ngn
xp vo trc ra sau (hay vo sau ra trc). Mt bng lm vic nh vy
c ni n nh mt bng (kho) y xung. Mt tmt y xung l mt tmt
hu hn km theo mt bng y xung v hn tim nng.
tmt y xung hot ng nh sau: N c bng ch (k hiu) vo, c trng thi
iu khin, trng thi bt u, kt thc ging nh tmt hu hn. Ngoi ra, n cn
c kho (b nh) y xung. Mi ln thay i trng thi n c th c, ly ra t nh
xung y hoc ghi mt k hiu vo kho y xung. tmt y xung c nh
ngha hnh thc nh sau.
nh ngha 6.1 tmt y xung (PDA) l b by:
A = (Q, , , , q0, Z0, F), trong
(i) Q l tp hu hn khc rng cc trng thi,
(ii) l tp hu hn khc rng cc k hiu vo, bng ch ci,
- 130 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 131 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
a1 a2 . . . an a2 a3 . . . an
q Z1 q Y1
Z2 Y2
.
. Yk
. Z2
Zm
Z3
Zm
Hnh H6-1 M t quan h chuyn trng thi ca PDA
- 132 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Xt (qi, xi, i) (qi+1, xi+1, i+1). t i = Z1Z2 Zm. Khi chuyn trng thi, Z1 b
xo i v mt xu no c thay vo trc Z2 Zm. Nh vy, Z2 Zm khng b
nh hng. Nu ta c ng sau Z2 Zm th Z2 Zm cng khng b thay i. T
suy ra (qi, xi, i) (qi+1, xi+1, i+1), ngha l
(q, x, ) (q1, x1, 1) (q2, x2, 2) (q', , )
(q0, b, Z0Z0)
(q0, , Z0Z0Z0)
(q0, aab, Z0) (q0, ab, ) v sau khng chuyn trng thi c tip v PDS l
rng.
nh ngha 6.5 PDA A = (Q, , , , q0, Z0, F) l n nh nu
(a) (q, a, Z) hoc l tp rng hoc ch c mt phn t,
(b) (q, , Z) th (q, a, Z) = , a
- 133 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 134 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
V d 6.4 Xt PDA A = ({q0, q1}, {a, b}, {a, Z0}, , q0, Z0, ), vi cho trc
nh sau:
R1: (q0, a, Z0) = {(q0,aZ0)}
R2: (q0, a, a) = {(q0, aa)}
R3: (q0, b, a) = {(q1, )}
R4: (q1, b, a) = {(q1, )}
R5: (q1, , a) = {(q1, )}
Xc nh N(A) v kin thit B T(B) = N(A).
Gii: Trc tin chng ta c th ch ra N(A) = {anbn | n 1 }. Tht vy
- 135 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 136 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
u = u1u2, = 12.
p dng gi thit qui np vi n bc u, ta c
- 137 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
T (6.12) suy ra
(q, uuv, S) * (q, uv, Av)
Theo qui tc R2 , ta c (q, uv, uv) * (q, , ), ngha l w = uuv N(A) khng
nh L(G) N(A).
Tip theo ta chng minh chiu ngc li L(G) N(A).
Tng t, ta chng minh mt tnh cht b tr
Nu (q, uv, S) * (q, v, ) th S
*
u (6.14)
Chng minh (6.14) qui np theo cc bc dch chuyn trng thi ca PDA.
- 138 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 139 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
w L(G) S
*
w
S [q0, Z0, q]
*
w
- 140 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 141 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
a b
S E P1 P2
A E P4 P3
B E P5 P6
Nu A l bin bn tri nht trong dn xut v bin u tin trong dy con cc k
hiu vo cha c x l l b th s dng qui tc P3.
Vn phm c tnh cht trn, ch cn tm v pha trc mt k hiu vo th quyt
nh c qui tc no cn p dng tip theo, c gi l vn phm LL(1).
V d 6.9 Cho trc vn phm phi ng cnh G c cc qui tc: S F + S | F * S | F,
F a. Xc nh dy phn tch c php trn / xung cho xu w = a + a * a.
Nu ch tm v pha trc mt k hiu th chng ta s khng phn tch c w. i
vi xu w, c th p dng F a sinh ra a. Nhng nu a ng sau du + hoc *
th khng th p dng sinh ra a c. Ngha l chng ta phi nhn v pha trc
2 k hiu.
Bt u t S chng ta c th p dng ba qui tc S F + S | F * S | F. Hai k hiu
u ca a + a * a l a +. Do vy chng ta ch c th p dng S F + S, sau c th
p dng F a. Vy S F + S a + S. Phn cn li ca xu cha c phn tch
s l a * a. Tng t hai k hiu u cn li l a*. p dng tip S F * S, F a ta
c S F + S a + S a + F * S a + a * S. K hiu cn li l a, do c
th p dng S F v F a phn tch xong c php xu a + a * a. Vy, dy dn
xut tri nht sinh ra w s l:
S F + S a + S a + F * S a + a * S a + a * a.
Tip theo chng ta xy dng mt bng h tr xc nh dn xut tri nht i vi
cc xu u vo. K hiu P1, P2, P3, P4 cho cc qui tc S F + S, S F * S, S F,
F a v E k hiu li c php.
Bng 6.2 Bng phn tch c php cho v d 6.9
a + * aa a+ a*
S E P3 E E E P1 P2
F E P4 E E E P4 P4
+a ++ +* *a *+ **
S E E E E E E
F E E E E E E
V d, nu bin tri nht l F v hai k hiu tip theo cn x l l a+ th p dng
qui tc P4. Khi gp phi hai k hiu tip theo l *a th c li E.
- 142 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Mt vn khc hay gp phi trong phn tch c php l qui tri. Bin A c
gi l qui tri nu n c dng A A. Khi gp phi trng hp qui tri th
b phn tch c php c th ri vo chu trnh lp v hn. nh l sau cho php loi
b qui tri.
nh l 6.6 Cho G l vn phm phi ng cnh c tp tt c cc A-dn xut l:
{ A A1, , A An, A1, , Am}. Vn phm G1 c xy dng t G
bng cch thm bin mi A v thay cc A-dn xut trong G bng A 1A, ,
A mA, A 1A, , A nA v A l tng ng vi G.
Chng minh: Tng t nh i vi b 5.3.
nh l 6.5 v 6.6 ch p dng dng hiu qu xy dng b phn tch c php
top/down cho mt s vn phm phi ng cnh, khng phi cho tt c cc trng hp.
Chng ta khi qut qu trnh xy dng b phn tch c php top/down nh sau:
Xy dng b phn tch c php top/down (trn / xung)
1. Loi qui tri bng cch s dng nh l 6.6 cho tt c cc bin qui tri.
2. p dng nh l 6.5 loi b s nhp nhng khi cn thit.
3. Nu vn phm thu c l LL(k) vi k l s t nhin th p dng k
thut nh nu hai v d trn phn tch qua k bc trn/xung.
V d 6.10 Xt ngn ng gm tt c cc biu thc s hc vi php +, * trn cc
bin x1 v x2. Vn phm sinh ra L c dng:
G = ({T, F, E}, {x, 1, 2, +, *, (, )}, P, E), trong P c cc qui tc:
EE+T F (E)
ET F x1
TT*F F x2 TF
Xy dng b phn tch c php cho L(G).
- 143 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Gii:
Bc 1: p dng nh l 6.6 loi b qui tri: E v T. Thay E E + T v
E T bng E TE, E + TE v E , E l bin mi b sung. Tng t
thay T T * F v TF bng T FT, T + FT v T . Vn phm mi G1
tng vi G l:
G1 = ({T, F, E, E, T}, {x, 1, 2, +, *, (, )}, P, E), P c cc qui tc:
E TE F (E) T FT T
E + TE E F x1 F x2
T * FT
Bc 2: p dng nh l 6.5 loi b s nhp nhng bng k thut phn tch
thnh tha s. Thay F x1, Fx2 bng F xN, N 1 | 2. Kt qu c vn
phm G2 tng ng:
G2 = ({T, F, E, E, T}, {x, 1, 2, +, *, (, )}, P, E), P c cc qui tc:
P1: E TE P6: T
P2: E + TE P7: F (E)
P3: E P8: F xN
P4: T FT P9: N 1
P5: T * FT P10:N 2
Bc 3: Xy dng bng phn tch t vng cho vn phm LL(1) ( bc 2)
Bng 6.3 Bng phn tch t vng
x 1 2 + * ( )
E E P1 E E E E P1 E
T E P4 E E E E P4 E
F E P8 E E E E P1 E
T P6 E E E E P5 E P6
E P1 E E E P2 E E P1
N E E P9 P10 E E E E
- 144 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
K hiu kho/ x ( ) 1 2 + * $
K hiu vo
Z0
x
(
)
1
2
+
*
E
T
F
S dng bng 6.4 thc hin cc thao tc cn thit. V d, nu k hiu Stack l
F v k hiu vo tip theo l * th thc hin thay th thay th (ii). Nu k hiu
kho l E th t cc k hiu vo nh ca kho Stack.
tmt y xung n nh hot ng nh mt b phn tch c php c xy
dng nh sau:
- 145 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 146 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
19 p) $ T(+EZ0 R6 TF
20 p) $ E(+EZ0 R4 ET
21 p $ )E(+EZ0 R2
22 p$ )E(+EZ0 R1
23 p$ F+EZ0 R7 F(E)
24 p$ T+EZ0 R6 TF
25 p$ EZ0 R3 FE+T
26 p$ Z0 R10
27 p$ R11
Bi tp v tmt y xung
6.1 Xy dng PDA on nhn bng kho y xung rng cc ngn ng sau:
(a) {anbmcn | m, n 1}
(b) {anb2n | n 1}
(c) {ambmcn | m, n 1}
(d) {ambn | m > n 1}
6.2 Xy dng PDA on nhn bng trng thi kt thc cc ngn ng nh trong
bi 6.1
6.3 Xy dng vn phm phi ng cnh sinh ra cc ngn ng sau v sau xy
dng cc PDA on nhn chng bng kho y xung rng:
(a) {anbn | n 1} {amb2m | m 1}
(b) {anbmcn | m, n 1} {ancn | n 1}
(c) {anbmcmdn | m, n 1}
6.4 Xy dng tmt y xung n nh trn {a, b} on nhn tt c cc dy
Palindrrome c di l chn theo kho y xung (ngn xp) rng.
6.5 Ch ra rng tp tt c cc xu trn {a, b} c s k t a bng s k t b, c
on nhn bi mt tmt y xung n nh.
6.6 Ch ra rng {anbn | n 1} {amb2m | m 1} khng th on nhn bi mt
tmt y xung n nh.
- 147 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 148 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
CHNG VII
Vn phm LR(k)
- 149 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
*
(ii) S Aw
R w, vi , V*N v w *,
R
- 150 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Tng t, phn tch a2Ab4 t tri qua phi v nhn thy aAb c th s dng suy
din m khng cn xt tip.
aAbb2 2
R a Ab
4
- 151 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
S R AB
Nh vy, chng ta c cc suy din ngc nh sau:
a2Ab4 2 4
R a b bng cch duyt mt k hiu tip
aAbb2 2 4
R a Ab , khng cn xt tip bt k k hiu no c
Ab2 2
R aAbb , khng cn xt tip bt k k hiu no c
2
ABb R Ab , khng cn xt tip bt k k hiu no c
A B
B
A b
a b
A
a b b
Hnh H7-1 Cy dn xut on nhn a2b4
*
S Aw
R w = x (7.2)
R
- 152 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Bc cui trong hai dn xut (7.1) v (7.2) l ging nhau. Lp li cch thc hin
nh trong (7.1) v (7.2) cho cc cu dn xut khc, chng ta i n khng nh l
(7.1) v (7.2) l mt. V th, G l khng nhp nhng.
- 153 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 154 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Bi tp v vn phm LR(K)
7.1 Chng minh rng vn phm G c cc qui tc S aAb, A aAb | a l LR(1).
N c l LR(0)?
7.2 Hy ch ra rng S 0A2, A 1A1 | 1 khng phi l LR(k), k 0.
7.3 Cho trc vn phm S AB | a, A aA | aB | a, B b, tn ti mt s
nguyn k no vn phm ny l LR(k)?
7.4 Hy ch ra rng {anbncm | n, m 1} {anbmcm | n, m 1} khng phi l
LR(k) vi mi k nguyn dng.
7.5 Nhng pht biu sau c ng khng, ti sao?
(a) Nu vn phm G l nhp nhng, G l LR(k) vi k no .
(b) Nu vn phm G l khng nhp nhng, G l LR(k) vi k no .
7.6 Vn phm G c cc qui tc: S C | D, C aC | b, D aD | C c phi l
LR(0)?
7.7 Vi mi qui tc A ca vn phm phi ng cnh G v w *$k ($ VN ),
nh ngha Rk(w) tp tt c cc xu dng w sao cho A l iu khin
*
cho ww vi w *$* v S$ Aww
R ww. Chng minh rng
R
- 155 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
CHNG VIII
My Turing, tmt gii ni v nhng bi ton P, NP
B a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 an B
u R/W
qk
Hnh H8-1 - M t mt my Turing
Mi bc chuyn ca my Turing, ph thuc vo k hiu do u R/W c c t
bng d liu v trng thi ca b iu khin, my s thc hin cc bc sau:
1. Ghi mt k hiu mi trn bng ti ang duyt (ngha l thay k hiu
c c trn bng bng k hiu no ).
2. Dch chuyn u R/W (sang tri (L), sang phi (R) hoc ng yn ()).
- 156 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 157 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
B a4 a1 a2 a3 a1 a2 a4 a3 B
u R/W
q2
x1x2 ... xi-1 q xi ... xn x1x2 ... xi-2 p xi-1y xi+1 ... xn
M
- Nu i - 1 = n th Xi l B.
- Nu i =1 th khng c ID k tip, ngha l u c khng c php vt
qua cn tri ca bng.
+ Tng t, (q, xi) = (p, y, R) th th hin ca MT c bin i nh sau:
- 158 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
(B, B, R)
(y, y, R) (y, y, L) (y, y, R)
(0, x, R) (1, y, L) (x, x, R) (B, B, R)
q1 q2 q3 q5 q6
(0, 0, R)
(0, 0, L)
(x, x, R)
q4
(0, 0, L)
- 159 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
on nhn nu n hoc dng trng thi khng c on nhn (trng thi khng kt
thc) hoc ni chung l khng dng.
Nh vy, bng v hn c th xem va nh knh vo / ra, va nh mt b nh
ngoi v hn tim nng ca MT.
Ta ni, MT on nhn (chp nhn) dy (xu) vo , nu dy tnh ton ca MT vi
u vo l dng hin trng cui cng c cha trng thi kt thc, ngha l MT
dng hin trng chp nhn.
Mt cch hnh thc, ta nh ngha tp hp cc dy c on nhn bi MT l tp
L(MT) = {w w * v q0 w * 1 p 2 vi p F cn 12 *}
MT
Trong , * l bao ng bc cu ca .
MT MT
q1 xRq2 bRq5
q2 0Rq2 yLq3 yRq2
q3 0Lq4 xRq5 yLq3
q4 0Lq4 xRq1
q5 yRq5 bRq6
q6
- 160 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Trng thi 1
q1 Bq2R
q2 Bq1R
- 161 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Khi u MT cha 0n1n bn tri nht trn bng sau l v hn khong trng B.
MT lp li qu trnh sau:
MT thay 0 bn tri nht bng X ri chuyn sang phi ti 1 tri nht, MT
thay ch s 1 ny bng Y ri dch chuyn v bn tri cho ti khi gp X phi
nht n chuyn sang phi mt (ti 0 tri nht) ri tip tc lp mt chu trnh
mi.
Nu trong khi dch chuyn sang phi tm 1 m MT gp B th MT dng v
khng on nhn dy vo. Tng t, khi MT thay ht 0 bng X v kim
tra cn 1 trn bng th MT cng dng v khng on nhn dy vo.
MT on nhn dy vo nu nh khng cn k hiu 1 no na trn bng.
t MT = (Q, , , , q0, B, F) vi cc thnh phn:
Q = {q0, q1, q2, q3, q4}; = {0, 1}; = {0, 1, X, Y, B} v F = {q4}.
Ta c th hnh dung mi trng thi l mt cu lnh hoc mt nhm cc cu lnh
trong chng trnh. Trng thi q0 l trng thi khi u v n lm cho k hiu 0
bn tri nht thay bng X. Trng thi q1 c dng tin sang phi b qua cc s
0 v Y tm 1 bn tri nht. Nu MT tm thy 1 n thay 1 bng Y ri i vo trng
thi q2. Trng thi q2 a MT tin sang tri cho ti X u tin v i vo trng thi
q0, dch chuyn sang phi ti 0 bn tri nht v tip tc mt chu trnh mi. Khi
MT tin sang phi trong trng thi q1, nu B hoc X c tm thy trc 1 th dy
vo b loi b (khng chp nhn) v c cha nhiu k hiu 0 hn 1 hoc dy vo
khng c dng 0*1*.
Trng thi q0 cn c vai tr khc. Nu trng thi q2 tm thy X bn phi nht v
ngay sau l Y th cc s 0 c xt ht, do trng thi bt u mt chu
trnh mi q0 khng tm thy k hiu 0 no thay th thnh X m ch gp Y th
MT i vo trng thi q3 duyt qua cc Y kim tra c hay khng c k hiu 1 cn
li. Nu theo ngay sau cc Y l B, ngha l trn bng nhp khng cn k hiu 1 no
na th MT s i vo q4 (trng thi kt thc) on nhn dy vo. Ngc li dy
vo b loi b.
Hm chuyn c cho trong bng sau:
Bng 8.4
q4 - - - - -
- 162 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 163 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Bng 8.5
Trng K t trn bng
thi
1 2 3 B
q1 BRq2 BRq1
q2 1Rq2 BRq3 BRq2
q3 2Rq3 BRq4 BRq3
q4 3Rq5 BLq7
q5 1Lq6 2Lq5 BLq5
q6 1Lq6 BRq1
q7
m n, nu m n
f(m, n) = m \ n =
0, ngc li m < n
+ Dy vo: 0m10n
+ Dy ra: 0 m\ n
MT lp li vic thay th ln lt tng s 0 u bng bng B ri tin sang phi,
sau 1 v tm 0 ri thay 0 ny bng 1. MT li chuyn sang tri cho n khi gp B
- 164 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 165 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
(q5, 0) = (q5, B, R)
(q5, 1) = (q5, B, R)
(q5, B) = (q6, B, )
Nu trng thi bt u vng lp mi q0 gp 1 thay v gp 0, th khi cc s 0 bn
tri xt ht, y l trng hp kt thc ii) nu trn: MT s i vo trng thi q 5,
xo phn cn li ca bng ri i vo trng thi kt thc q6 v dng.
Chng hn MT tnh ton php tr 2\1 (tc dy vo 0010 ) nh sau:
q00010 B q1010 B0q110 B01q20 B0q311 Bq3011 q3B011
- 166 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
trng thi q1 nhn thy 0, MT i 0 thnh 2 v i vo trng thi q2. trng thi
q2, MT dch phi ti B, ghi 0 ri dch tri trong trng thi q3. Khi trng thi q3 m
gp 2, MT i vo trng thi q1 tip tc lp li qu trnh trn cho ti khi gp 1.
Trng thi q4 c dng bin i 2 thnh 0 v th tc dng ti q5.
lm y chng trnh ta phi thm cc trng thi bin i hnh trng khi
u q00m10n thnh B0m-11q10n1. Tc l ta cn ba qui tc:
(q0, 0) = (q6, B, R), (q6, 0) = (q6, 0, R), (q6, 1) = (q1, 1, R)
Sau , ta li thm cc php chuyn v trng thi cn thit bin i t hnh thi
Bi0m-i1q50n10n i thnh Bi+10m-i-11q10n10n i l trng thi bt u li vic COPY,
ng thi kim tra i = m hay khng (khi tt c cc 0 ca 0 m b xo). Nu i = m
th 10n1 b xo v qu trnh tnh ton s dng trng thi q12.
- 167 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 168 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 169 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Vy L(MT) = L(G) = L.
Chng minh:
Gi s ngn ng L c on nhn bi my Turing MT = (Q, , , , q0, B, F). Ta
s xy dng mt vn phm khng hn ch G m mi chui dn xut ca n pht
sinh theo ba bc nh sau:
(i) G pht sinh mt cch ngu nhin mt chui w thuc . Chui ny c vit
thnh hai bn: mt s lu gi cho n khi kt thc, mt s thay i trong qu
trnh lm vic ca MT.
(ii) G m phng li qu trnh lm vic ca ca MT trn chui w, bng cch lp li
ng qu trnh lm vic ca MT.
(iii) Khi bc (ii) kt thc, vi s xut hin ca mt trng thi kt thc q F ca
MT (ngha l chui w c MT chp nhn). Lc G tip tc thu gim
chuyn dng cu c v nh chui w. V nh vy, c ngha l chui w
c G sinh ra.
Mt cch hnh thc, ta thit lp vn phm G = (VN, , P, S1)
Vi VN = ( ( { }) ) { S1, S2, # })
V tp qui tc P c xy dng nh sau:
1. a) S1 #q0 S2#
b) S2 [a, a] S2#, a
c) S2
- Nu (q, X) = (p, Y, R) vi p, q ; X, Y th thm cc qui tc dng
(2.a) v (2.b) sau y vo tp qui tc P:
2. a) q[a, X][b, Z] [a, Y]p[b, Z], a, b {} v Z
b) q[a, X]# [a, Y]p[, B], a {}
- Nu (q, X) = (p, Y, L) vi p, q ; X, Y th thm cc qui tc dng
(2.c) sau y vo tp qui tc P:
c) [b, Z]q[a, X] q[b, Z]p[a, Y], a, b {} v Z
- Nu q F th thm cc qui tc (3.a-e) sau y vo tp qui tc P:
3. a) [a, X]q qap, a {} v X
b) q[a, X] qap, a {} v X
c) q#
d) #q
- 170 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
e) q
Dng cc qui tc (1.a-c), ta c dy dn xut:
S1 G* #q0 [a1, a1][a2, a2] [an, an]#
Dy dn xut ny th hin hnh trng bt u ca MT l: #q0a1a2 an#. Bt u t
bc ny cc quy tc (2.a-c) c p dng. Lu rng cc qui tc ny trong G phn
nh cc quy tc chuyn trng thi c thit k cho MT. Cho nn qu trnh dn
xut li trong G s m phng li cc bc chuyn hnh thi trong qu trnh lm vic
ca MT. Nu qu trnh chuyn n mt trong nhng trng thi kt thc q F,
tng ng vi trng hp MT on nhn chui a1a2 an, th trong vn phm G cc
quy tc (3.a-e) s c p dng tip theo v cho php G dn xut ra chnh chui
nhp a1a2 an. Hay ta c: S G* a1a2 an
Phn chng minh L(MT) L(G) v L(G) L(MT) xem nh bi tp.
- 171 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 172 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
3. CB BC
4. aB ab
5. bB bb
6. bC bc
7. cC cc
Mt cch phi hnh thc, p dng mt s qui tc cho cc chui dn xut sinh ra
ngn ng, ta d thy rng vn phm G sinh ra ngn ng c dng:
L = {anbncn n 1}
*
Tht vy, vi qui tc (1) v (2) ta c chui dn xut S an(BC)n. Sau , bng
cch p dng qui tc (3), mi bin B s c thay th ln trc cc bin C trong
chui dn xut: an(BC) * anBnCn. Bi qui tc (4) v (5), mi bin B s c thay
th thnh cc k hiu kt thc b, v cui cng vi (6) v (7), mi bin C cng s
c thay th thnh c. Tm li, ta c chui dn xut nh sau:
* * *
S an(BC)n anBnCn anbncn.
- 173 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 174 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
* *
Nh vy khi MT on nhn xu w, th S w. Ngc li nu S w th mi dng
cu xut hin trong dy dn xut u tho mn w, bi v mi qui tc
trong vn phm G u tha . Nh vy MT c th thc hin dy dn
xut trn bng 2, gia hai k hiu nh du u mt v $. Vy MT on nhn
xu nhp w.
Tm li MT s on nhn mi xu sinh ra bi vn phm G.
Chng minh:
Ta xy dng G theo 3 giai on:
(i) Giai on 1: Vn phm cho php sinh ra mt xu w (xu nhp ca MT), cng
c cha trong , $ v q0.
(ii) Giai on 2: Vn phm lp li cng vic ca MT.
(iii) Giai on 3: Khi xut hin trng thi q F, ta thu v xu w vi lu rng cc
qui tc u c = .
Qu trnh m phng li cc qui tc bi cc qui tc ca G s khng c g vng
mc. Ch giai on 3, vic xo i cc k hiu nh du hai u mt v $, q
khng c php lm rt ngn xu nhp li. gii quyt vng mc ny, ta gn
cc k hiu , $, q k bn vi cc k hiu ca xu nhp m khng ng ri ra
nh trc.
C th, giai on 1 thc hin bi cc qui tc trong G sau:
S1 [a, q0 a]S2 S1 [a, q0a$]
S2 [a, a]S2, S2 [a,a$]
a - {, $}
Cc qui tc trong G cho php thc hin giai on 2, ging nh LBA MT thc hin
(sinh vin t xy dng xem nh bi tp).
Cui cng, giai on 3, cc qui tc sau y s c s dng, vi q F:
[a, q] a
a - {, $} v , c th c.
Ch rng s qui tc l hu hn, v v / hoc ch gm , $ v mt k hiu
nhp vo. Chng ta cng c th xo thnh phn th hai ca mt bin nu n lin k
vi k hiu kt thc bng cch dng cc qui tc dng:
[a, ]b ab
b[a, ] ba
- 175 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
a, b - {, $} v c th c.
Nh vy cc qui tc va c xy dng m t vn phm l G v c th chng
minh L(MT) - {} = L(G).
- 176 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 177 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
bab3 b b ba = ba b3 b3 a
Do , PCP c li gii.
V d 8.13. Chng minh rng vi hai danh sch x =(01, 1, 1) v y = (012, 10, 12)
th PCP khng c li gii.
Trc tin chng ta thy, vi mi xi x v yi y, ta c |xi| < |yi|, vi mi i. Do
vy, xu c to ra bng dy cc xu con ca x s lun ngn hn xu c to ra
bng cc xu con tng ng ca y. V vy, PCP khng c li gii.
Post pht biu nh l sau:
nh l 8.8 PCP trn bng ch vi || 2 s khng quyt nh c.
S dng k thut rt gn chuyn bi ton PCP v nhiu lp cc bi ton quyt
nh trong ngn ng hnh thc. Nhng kt lun sau y c th suy ra c t bi
ton PCP [4].
(i) Nu L1 v L2 hai ngn ng phi ng cnh trn bng ch , || 2, th
khng tn ti thut ton quyt nh c nhng kt qu sau ng hay
sai:
a. L1 L2 = ,
b. L1 L2 l ngn ng phi ng cnh,
c. L1 L2,
d. L1 = L2.
(ii) Nu G l vn phm cm ng cnh (loi 1), th khng tn ti thut ton
quyt nh c nhng kt qu sau ng hay sai:
- 178 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
a. L(G) = ,
b. L(G) l v hn,
c. x0 L(G) vi x0 no .
(iii) Nu G l vn phm ng cu (loi 0), th khng tn ti thut ton quyt
nh xem x * c thuc L(G) hay khng.
8.10 Lp cc bi ton NP y
Vo u nhng nm 60 ca th k 20, cc my tnh c s dng rng ri
gii cc bi ton khoa hc - k thut v cc bi ton kinh t. Cc nh tin hc ng
trc mt vn thch thc rt ln trc nhng cu hi: th no l mt thut ton
tt, hiu qu, hay ngc li, mt thut ton khng tt?, th no l mt bi ton
d, mt bi ton kh? Lc u, phn ln nhn xt theo trc quan, nhanh hay
khng l da vo kt qu thc nghim. Mi cho n 1965 Edmond ln u tin a
tng mi: mt thut ton c gi l hiu qu (tt), nu thi gian thc hin trn
my b chn li bi mt a thc ca mi d liu vo (k c trng hp xu nht).
Cc nh khoa hc (trong c Steve Cook v Dick Karp) khng nh rng yu
cu ti thiu i vi mt thut ton hiu qu l thi gian tnh ca n phi l a thc
(nc), vi c l hng s. Ngi ta cng nhn thy rng i vi nhiu lp bi ton,
vic tm ra nhng thut ton nh vy l rt kh khn, hn na chng ta cn khng
bit l mt thut ton nh th c tn ti hay khng. Chnh v th, Cook v Karp
cng mt s ngi khc a ra nh ngha lp cc bi ton NP-y , m cho
n nay nhiu ngi tin rng (nhng cha chng minh c) khng th c thut
ton hiu qu gii chng.
8.10.1 Cc lp bi ton P v NP
nh gi phc tp tnh ton ca bi ton l xc nh thi gian tnh ton (s cc
php ton c s cn thc hin) ca thut ton tt nht trong tt c cc thut ton
gii bi ton , c nhng thut ton bit ln cc thut ton cn cha bit. Vic
nh gi phc tp tnh ton ca bi ton gi vai tr nh hng trong vic thit
k cc thut ton gii nhng bi ton t ra trong thc t.
nh ngha c lp cc bi ton P v NP chng ta cn nh ngha phc tp
thi gian ca my Turing.
nh ngha 8.7 phc tp thi gian T(n) ca my Turing (n nh) l s php
chuyn cc i ca MT x l mt dy vo bt k c di n.
nh ngha 8.8 Ngn ng L c gi l thuc lp P nu tn ti mt my Turing (n
nh) MT sao cho MT c phc tp thi gian l a thc p(n) v n on nhn c L.
Mc 8.5 chng ta nh ngha my Turing khng n nh. c im ca my
Turing khng n nh l ti mi hin trng bt k, my c php c nhiu kh
nng dch chuyn (hm chuyn khng n tr). nh ngha c lp NP chng
ta cn nh ngha phc tp thi gian ca my Turing khng n nh.
- 179 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
8.10.2 NP-y
Hin nhin l P NP, nn vic xt mi quan h gia P v NP ni chung l phi
duyt li ton b lp NP. Thay v phi duyt ton b lp NP, ta mun ch duyt
mt b phn nh, thm ch ch mt vi bi ton trong NP m thi. Mun th ta hy
chn ra mt bi ton kh gii nht C theo mt ngha no bt k trong NP ri
kim tra xem n c thuc P hay khng. Nu C khng thuc P th l bng
chng P NP. Nh vy, mi bi ton kh nht trong NP l cha kho gii bi
ton P = NP?. S. Cook gi nhng bi ton kh nht trong NP l cc bi ton NP-
y (NP-completeness). Vn t ra l nh ngha nh th no bi ton A l
kh hn bi ton B.
gii quyt vn trn, ta c th vn dng khi nim dn c trong l thuyt
thut ton.
- 180 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 181 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Tnh cht 8.4 Nu chng minh c rng c mt thut ton thi gian a thc cho
mt bi ton NP-y th s tn ti thut ton thi gian a thc cho mi bi ton
NP-y .
Do vy, tr li cho cu hi P = NP?, chng ta cn bit y thng tin v
nhng bi ton NP-y . Cook chng minh SAT l NP-y .
nh l 8.12 (Cook Theorem) SAT l NP-y .
Cook l ngi u tin chng minh c bi ton SAT l NP-y vo nm
1971. Mt nm sau , da vo phng php ca Cook, M. Karp ch ra mt lot
khong 20 bi ton ti u t hp c in l NP-y . n nm 1979, hai tc gi
M. Garey v D. Johnson tng kt c khong 300 bi ton l NP-y . T
n nay, con s cc bi ton l NP-y vn tng lin tc hng nm.
Ngoi nhng bi ton nu trn, ta c th nu thm mt s bi ton trong cc
lnh vc sau y l NP-y [1]:
1. Bi ton hnh trnh ca ngi bn hng (Travelling Salesman Problem).
Cho trc n thnh ph, bit khong cch gia chng v mt s D, c tn ti
mt hnh trnh ngi bn hng i qua tt c cc thnh ph vi qung
ng i nhiu nht l D?.
2. Bi ton qui hoch 0-1 (Zero-one Programming Problem). Cho trc m
phng trnh
m
a x
j 1
ij j = bj, i = 1, 2, , n
- 182 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 183 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 184 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Chng 1
1.6 Ta c th chng minh qui np theo |w|. Nu w = , hin nhin ab = ab. R
rng |w| = 0 l s chn, bc c s qui np c khng nh. Gi s iu cn
chng minh ng vi |w| < n. Ta xt nhng dy w c di n v abw = wab. Bi
v abw = wab nn w = abw1 vi w {a, b}*. Khi , ababw1 = abw1ab suy ra
abw1 = w1ab. Theo gi thit qui np |w1| l s chn. T suy ra |w| = |w1| + 2
cng l s chn.
1.9 2. x ( P(x, y) y Q(y, x)) = (x (P(x, y) y Q(y, x))
= x y (P(x, y) Q(y, x))
1.10 1. A (x P(x) x Q(x)) (x R(x) x F(x))
Thc hin cc php bin i tng ng i vi A:
a/ Kh php ko theo : A = (x P(x) x Q(x)) (x R(x) x F(x))
= (x P(x) x Q(x)) (x R(x) x F(x))
b/ = (x P(x) x Q(x)) (x R(x) x F(x))
c/ = x ( P(x) Q(x)) x ( R(x) F(x))
= x y (( P(x) Q(x)) ( R(y) F(y)))
d/ Dng chun hi: x y (( P(x) Q(x) R(y)) ( P(x) Q(x) F(y)))
Dng chun tuyn: x y ( P(x) Q(x) ( R(y) F(y))
2. a/ Cng thc (x!) (x3 = 1) l hng ng cn (x!) (x2 3x + 2 = 0) l sai
v x2 3x + 2 = 0 c hai nghim: x1 = 1, x2 = 2.
b/ (x!) P(x) x P(x) x y ((P(x) P(y)) x = y).
1.11 1. P(x, y) = y = 2x trn trng s Z Z, Z l trng s nguyn.
(x)(y!) (P(x, y) ((y!)(x) P(x, y)) l sai v (x)(y!)(y = 2x) = T nhng
(y!)(x)(y = 2x) = F.
(y!)(x) (P(x, y) ((x)(y!) P(x, y)) l ng v (y!)(x)(y = 2x) = F.
2. Trng (x!)(x > 2) ng, v d D = {y | y 2} {3}.
Trng (x!)(x > 2) sai, v d D = Z tt c cc s nguyn.
3. (x P(x) (x Q(x)) (X (x P(x) x Q(x)))
(x P(x) (x Q(x)) ( X (x P(x) x Q(x)))
(x P(x) x Q(x) X) (x P(x) x Q(x)))
- 185 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
X1
p dng tnh cht ca qui tc suy din ta c: X1 X2 = X1 X2 v X3
X2 = X2 X3. S dng qui tc suy din bc cu suy ra X1 X3. Tng t X4
X3 = X3 X4, X4 X5 = X4 X5, suy ra X1X4 v cui cng X1X5.
Sau s dng qui tc Modus tollens:
X5
X1 X5
X1
1.15 1. a/ Cng thc tng ng
F = ((x)(P(x) Q(x)) (x) P(x) (x)(Q(x) R(x)) (x)(S(x) R(x))) (x) S(x)
Trc khi tm dng chun tuyn, ta thc hin mt s php bin i v rt gn cng
thc. Ta t A = (x)(P(x) Q(x)) (x)(Q(x) R(x)) (x)(S(x) R(x))
= (x)((P(x) Q(x)) (Q(x) R(x)) (S(x) R(x))).
- 186 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
D nhn thy: S(x) R(x) = R(x) S(x) . S dng qui tc suy din bc cu
hai ln suy ra A = (x)((P(x) S(x). Do vy,
F = ((x)((P(x) S(x) (x) P(x)) (x) S(x)
= (((x)((P(x) S(x)) (x) P(x)) (x) S(x)
= ((x)((P(x) S(x)) ((x) P(x)) (x) S(x)
= ((x)((P(x) S(x)) (x) S(x) ((x) P(x))
= ((x)((P(x) S(x) S(x)) ((x) P(x))
= (x) P(x) (x) S(x)) ((x) P(x)) = T
b/ M hnh suy din trn c ng trn trng M. Tng t nh trn, s dng quy tc
bc cu v qui tc Modus Ponens khng nh iu .
2. Hy din t nh ngha gii hn Limf ( x) = L di dng mt cng thc v t:
x x0
Chng 2
2.2 Bi v (q1,a) = (q1,a), nn R l phn x. Tnh i xng l hin nhin. Nu
q1Rq2 th (q1,a) = (q2,a) vi a , cn nu q2Rq3 th (q1,a) = (q2,a). T
suy ra (q1,a) = (q3,a), ngha l q1Rq3. Vy R l quan h tng ng.
2.3 Bng chuyn trng thi ca TK on nhn {ab, ba}
Bng A.1
Trng thi/ a b
q0 q1 q2
q1 q3
q2 q1
q3
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Bng A.2
Trng thi/ a b
[q0] [q1] [q2]
[q1] [q3]
[q2] [q1]
[q3]
2.5 tmt khng n nh on nhn c tp tt c cc xu t tp {a,b} kt thc
bng xu con aba c xy dng nh sau
q0 a q1 b q2 a q 3
a, b
2.6 Bng chuyn trng thi ca tmt n nh tng ng l
Bng A.3
Trng thi/ 0 1 2
[q0] [q1, q4] [q4] [q2, q3]
[q4]
[q1, q4] [q4]
[q2, q3] [q4] [q2, q3]
Q\ a1 a2 a3 ... an-1 an
q0 q1 q1 q1 ... q1 q1
q1 q0 q0 q0 ... q0 q0
Q\ a1 a2 a3 ... an-1 an
q0 q1 q1 q1 ... q1 q1
q1 q2 q2 q2 ... q2 q2
q2 q1 q1 q1 ... q1 q1
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
q0 0 q1 1 q2 a c
s0 s1 s2
M1: 1 0 M2:
1 1 c b
1 q3 b
q5 q4 s4 s3
c b
a/ Ngn ng on nhn c bi M1: T(M1) = {0(14)n0 | n 0} {1}
Ngn ng on nhn c bi M2: T(M2) = {a(cb)nbm | n 0, m 1} {cm | m 1 }
b/ tmt M c ghp t M1 v M2 sao cho T(M) = T(M1)T(M2), c th xy
dng nh sau:
q0 0 q1 1 q2
1 1
1 0 q4 1 q3
a c
s0 s1 s2
c b
s4 s3
c b
b
c/ M l hp ca M1 v M2 sao cho T(M) = T(M1) T(M2)
q0
a c
0 c s1 s2
1 b
q1 1 q2 b
s4 s3
1 1 c b
0 1
q5 q4 q3
Chng 3
* * *
3.1 (a) S 0nS1n 0nA1m1n, n 0, m 1. A 1kA 1k+1, k 0.
G G G
m n m n
0 1 L(G) vi n > m 1. Vy L(G) = {0 1 | n > m 1}
(d) L(G) = {x {0, 1}+ | x khng cha hai s 0 lin tip}.
3.2 (a) G =({S, A, B}, {0, 1}, P, S), trong P c cc qui tc S 0B | 1A, A 0 | 0S
|1AA, B 1 | 1S | 0BB. Chng minh cc tnh cht sau qui np theo |w|.
*
(i) S w khi v ch khi w cha s cc s 0 bng s cc s 1.
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
*
(ii) A w khi v ch khi w cha s cc s 0 ln hn s cc s 1 l 1.
*
(iii) B w khi v ch khi w cha s cc s 1 ln hn s cc s 0 l 1.
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
l cc xu: aa, aaa, abaa, aaaa, aabaa, abaaa, a5, ababb, aaabbb, v a4b.
(ii) Tng t nh trn, nhng xu c di nh hn hoc 5 ca a* + (ab + a)*
l: , a, ab, aa, abab, aab, aba, a3, abaa, aaab, ababa, a4, abaaa, v a5.
4.5 H chuyn i (hoc tmt hu hn) tng ng vi cc biu thc
(ab + a)*(aa + b) c cho bi hnh sau.
a
q0 q1 q2 b q5
b a a a
q4 q3
Sau tip tc loi b cc cung s thu c tmt hu hn yu cu.
4.6 (a) (1 + 01)* biu din cho tp nhng xu khng cha cp 00. Biu thc
(1 + 01)*00(1 + 01)* biu din cho tp nhng xu cha ng mt cp 00.
Tng t i vi cp 11. Vy biu thc chnh qui biu din tp tt c cc xu
trn {0, 1} c nhiu nht mt cp s 0 hoc nhiu nht mt cp s 1 l:
(1 + 01)* + (1 + 01)*00(1 + 01)* + (0 + 10)* (0 + 10)*11(0 + 10)*
(c) b* + (b + abb)* ab*
(d) 1(0 + 1)*00.
4.7 Gi s L l tp tt c cc xu Palindrome trn {a, b} c on nhn bi tmt
hu hn M = (Q, , , q0, F). Bi v Q l hu hn nn {(q0, an) | n 1} l tp con
ca Q, ngha l (q0, an) = (q0, am), vi m < n. Mt khc, anb2nan L (l
Palindrome) nn (q0, anb2nan) = q F. V (q0, an) = (q0, am) nn t tnh cht
ca hm chuyn ta c (q0, amb2nan) = (q0, anb2nan), m < n. T suy ra amb2nan
L. iu ny mu thun v m < n nn amb2nan khng phi l Palindrome.
4.10 Gi s L = {ww | w {a, b}*} l tp chnh qui, c on nhn bi tmt
M c n trng thi. D nhn thy s k hiu a, b trong cc xu ca L lun l s
chn. Xt w = anb, hin nhin anbanb L. |ww| = 2(n + 1) > n. p dng b
Bm vit ww = xyz vi |y| 0, |xy | n. Hy tm i sao cho xyiz L th s
dn n mu thun.
Tht vy, ta c th chn xu y ch c mt trong cc dng sau:
(i) y khng cha b, y = ak, k 1.
(ii) y ch c mt k hiu b.
Bit rng |y| |xy| n. Trng hp (i), ta chn i = 0. Khi xy0z = an-kbanb
khng thuc L v khng th vit xz thnh dng uu vi u {a, b}*. Tng t
trng hp (ii) cng chn i = 0. D nhin xy0z = xz L v s k hiu b trong xz
l l, mu thun.
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
q0 x q1
x 0 1
q3 1 q2
y
q4 y
(iii) Dy cc qui tc S xS xxA xx1C xx10B xx10y, v vy
xx10y L(G). Xu x101 khng c sinh ra bi vn phm G v khng c
cch no dn ra c x101 trng thi kt thc.
4.20 (i) Ngn ng L = {a(xyz)nb | n 0} {bab}. Sau chng minh L = L(G).
(ii) tmt hu hn trng thi (khng n nh) M sao cho T(M) = L(G) l
q0 a q1 z
q2
b b x y
q3 q6 q5
a b
q4
(iii) D dng ch ra c dy cc dn xut xu w = axyzb L(G) v ch ra
cy dn xut trn th biu din tmt hnh trn n trng thi kt thc q 6
v dy nhn trn n l w.
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Chng V
*
5.2 p dng cc qui tc S 0S0 | 1S1 | A s c S wAw, vi w {0, 1}*. S dng
*
hai qui tc A 2B3, B2B3 s dn tip ra A 2mB3m, sau p dng B 3 ta
*
nhn c S w2m3m+1w. T suy ra L(G) {w2m3m+1w | w {0, 1}*, m 1}.
Chiu ngc li chng minh tng t.
5.4 Xt w = abababa ch ra rng n c hai cy dn xut khc nhau.
5.5 Xu abab c hai dn xut khc nhau: S abSb abab v S aAb
abSb abab.
5.6 (i) S aB aaBB aaaBBB aaabBB aaabbB aaabbaBB
aaabbabB aaabbabbS aaabbabbbA aaabbabbba.
(ii) S aB aaBB aaBbS aaBbbA aaBbba aaaBbba
aaabBbba aaabbSbba aaabbaBbba aaabbabbba.
5.7 (ii) Thc hin theo hai bc
Bc 1. p dng nh l 5.3, ta c W1 = {B}, W2 = {B} {C, A},
W3 = {A, B, C} {S} = VN. Vy G1 = G.
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Chng 6
6.1 (a) PDA on nhn {anbmcn | m, n 1} c nh ngha nh sau:
A = ({q0, q1}, {a, b}, {a, Z0}, , q0, Z0, }, trong c xc nh nh sau:
R1: (q0, a, Z0) = {(q0, aZ0)}
R2: (q0, a, a) = {(q0, aa)}
R3: (q0, b, a) = {(q1, a)}
R4: (q1, b, a) = {(q1, a)}
R5: (q1, a, a) = {(q1, )}
R6: (q1, , Z0) = {(q1, )}
Bt u vo t vic xp cc k hiu a vo kho y xung cho n khi gp b
(lut R1, R2). Khi b xut hin, tmt thay i trng thi nhng vn khng
thay i kho y xung (lut R3). Khi cc k hiu b c c ht (lut R4),
sau xo i cc k hiu a (lut R5).
Vy, (q0, anbman, Z0) * (q1, , Z0) (q1, , ), ngha l anbman N(A).
Sau chng minh N(A) = {anbman | m, n 1}.
(b) tmt PDA on nhn {anb2n | n 1} c nh ngha nh sau:
A = ({q0, q1, q2}, {a, b}, {a, Z0}, , q0, Z0, }, trong c xc nh bi:
(q0, a, Z0) = {(q1, aZ0)}, (q1, a, a) = {(q1, aa)}, (q1, b, a) = {(q2, a)}
(q2, b, a) = {(q1, )}, (q1, , Z0) = {(q1, )}.
(c) tmt PDA on nhn {ambmcn | m, n 1} c nh ngha nh sau:
A = ({q0, q1}, {a, b, c}, {Z0, Z1}, , q0, Z0, }, trong c xc nh bi:
(q0, a, Z0) = {(q0, Z1Z0)}, (q0, a, Z1) = {(q0, Z1Z1)},
(q0, b, Z1) = {(q1, )}, (q1, b, Z1) = {(q1, )},
(q1, c, Z0) = {(q1, Z0)}, (q1, , Z0) = {(q1, )}.
6.3 (a) G = ({S, S1, S2}, {a, b}, P, S) sinh ra {anbn | n 1} {amb2m | m 1},
trong P c cc qui tc: S S1 | S2, S1 aS1b | ab, S2 aS2bb | abb.
tmt PDA on nhn L(G) c nh ngha nh sau:
A = ({q}, {a, b}, {S, S1, S2, a, b}, , q, S, }, trong c xc nh bi:
(q, , S) = {(q, S1), (q, S2)},
(q, , S1) = {(q, aS1b), (q, ab)},
(q, , S2) = {(q, aS2bb), (q, abb)},
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
a c b b
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
Chng 7
7.1 L(G) = {an+1bn | n 0}. Vi t dng an+1bn, A a c p dng bc cui
khi a ng trc ab. Vy A a l qui tc iu khin khi v ch khi k hiu
bn phi ca a l b. Tng t A aAb l qui tc iu khin khi v ch khi k
hiu bn phi ca aAb l b v S aAb l qui tc iu khin khi v ch khi k
hiu bn phi ca aAb l . T suy ra G l LR(1) v khng phi l LR(0).
7.2 Vn phm G cho trc khng phi l LR(k), k 0. Gi s G l LR(k), vi k
no . Hy xt dn xut phi nht ca 012k+12 v 012k+3:
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
*
S 01kA1k2
R 012k+12 w (A7.1)
R
vi = 01k+1, = A, w= 1k+12. V cc xu c to ra bi 2k + 1 k
t u tin (lu || + k = 2k + 1) ca w v wl mt, = ,
ngha l 01k = 01k+1, dn n mu thun.
7.3 Vn phm G l nhp nhng v ab c hai cy dn xut, do khng c mt s
nguyn k no vn phm ny l LR(k).
7.4 V anbncn xut hin trong c hai tp, do s c hai cy dn xut khc nhau.
Vy G l nhp nhng, suy ra khng phi l LR(k) vi mi k nguyn dng.
Chng 8
8.2 Dy tnh ton i vi xu con 12 ca 1213 l
Trng thi 0 1 B
q0 0Rq0 1Rq1 BRqf
q1 0Rq1 1Rq0
qf
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
l
v yj = a , j = 1, 2, , n. Khi
j
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
K hiu ngha
aA a thuc tp A
aA a khng thuc tp A
AB A l tp con ca B
Tp rng, tp trng
Phn t rng, phn t trng
AB Hp ca tp A v B
AB Giao ca tp A v B
AB Hiu ca tp A v B
AC Phn b ca tp A
2A Tp tt c cc tp con ca A
AB Tch Cc ca tp A v B
Ca Lp tng ng cha a
R+ Bao ng bc cu ca A
R* Bao ng phn x, bc cu ca A
R1R2 Hp thnh (ghp) ca hai quan h R1 v R2
Hi mnh , php v logic, AND
Tuyn mnh , php hoc logic, OR
PQ Php keo theo, P suy ra Q
Php ph nh logic
Php ng nht
Lng t (lng t) ph dng: vi mi
Lng t (lng t) tn ti
Quan h tng ng
f: X Y Hm f t X sang Y
|x| di (s phn t, c) ca xu (dy) x,
(Q, , , q0, F) Mt tmt hu hn
Mt php chuyn trng thi
(VN, , P, S) Mt vn phm
A Qui tc, suy din trong vn phm
Mt dn xut trong vn phm G
G
*
Mt dy dn xut ca vn phm
R1 + R 2 Hp ca cc biu thc chnh qui R1 v R2
R1 R2 Ghp ca cc biu thc chnh qui R1 v R2
R1 * Bao ng (lp) ca cc biu thc chnh qui R1 v R2
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
T vit tt ngha
M Tp cc mnh
T Gi tr ng (True)
F Gi tr sai (False)
TK tmt hu hn khng n nh
T tmt hu hn n nh
VN Tp cc k hiu khng kt thc, cc bin
Tp cc ch ci, cc k hiu kt thc
L(G) Tp cc xu c sinh bi vn phm G
0 Lp tt c cc ngn ng loi 0
1 Lp tt c cc ngn ng loi 1
2 Lp tt c cc ngn ng phi ng cnh (loi 2)
3 Lp tt c cc ngn ng chnh qui (loi 3)
CNF Dng chun Chomsky
GNF Dng chun Greibach
PDA tmt y xung
PDS Kho y xung
N(A) Tp on nhn bi PDA vi kho PDS rng
T(M) Tp cc xu on nhn c bi tmt M
LL(k) Tp con ca vn phm phi ng cnh, c
trc k k t pha trc
LR(k) Tp con ca vn phm phi ng cnh, c
cc k t t tri qua phi
LBA tmt tuyn tnh gii ni
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
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tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
- 205 -
tmt v ngn ng hnh thc
[1] Ding-Zhu Du, Ker-I Ko, Theory of Computational Complexity, John Wiley &
Sons, INC, 2000.
[2] Hopcroft J. and Ullman J., Formal languages and their relation to automata,
Addison Wesley, London, 1969.
[3] Johnsonbaugh R., Discrete Mathematics, Macmillan Publishing Company,
1992.
[4] Mishra K. and Chandrasekaran, Theory of Computer Science (Automata,
Languages and Computation), Prentice Hall, 2001.
[5] Nguyn Vn Ba, Ngn ng hnh thc, H Bch Khoa H Ni, 1997.
[6] Rosen K. H., Discrete Mathematics and Its Application, Mc Graw- Hill, NY
1994.
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