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(Literature and Culture Handbooks) Andrew Hiscock, Stephen Longstaffe-The Shakespeare Handbook-Bloomsbury Academic (2009)
(Literature and Culture Handbooks) Andrew Hiscock, Stephen Longstaffe-The Shakespeare Handbook-Bloomsbury Academic (2009)
(Literature and Culture Handbooks) Andrew Hiscock, Stephen Longstaffe-The Shakespeare Handbook-Bloomsbury Academic (2009)
Literature and C u lt u re H a n d b o o k s
Edited by
Andrew Hiscock
and
Stephen Longstaffe
A
c o n t in u u m
Continuum
T h e Tower Building 80 M aiden Lane, Suite 704
11 York Road New York
L ondon S E I 7N X N Y 10038
w w w.continuum books.com
P art I: S h a k e s p e a re 's T im e 1
P a rt II: H o w to R ead S h a k e s p e a re 69
P a rt I I I : S h a k e s p e a re S tu d ie s N o w 145
v
Contents
10 R ecen t Issu es in Sh ak esp eare Stu d ies: From M arg in s to C en tre 190
W illy M aley
N otes 22 7
In dex 256
vi
Detailed Table of Contents
A ck n o w led g em en ts xiii
G en e ra l E d ito rs' In tro d u ctio n xv
F orew o rd - H ow to u se th is B ook xvii
P a rt I: S h a k e s p e a re 's T im e 1
2 H isto rica l C o n te x ts fo r th e A g e o f S h a k e s p e a re 26
W illiam E. E ngel
Telling H isto ry , T h e n a n d N o w 26
R eligio u s C h an g e 27
C om m ercial and M ilitary E x ch an g es 34
R elatio n s w ith th e C o n tin en t: M artial and M arital 38
U rb a n G ro w th in th e C a p ita l 41
C o u rt C u ltu re and C en tres o f P ow er 42
C o n clu sio n 43
A ctin g 47
A u th o rsh ip 48
B lackfriars P lay h o u se 48
vii
D etailed Table o f Contents
B lazo n 49
Boy P la y ers 50
C en so rsh ip 50
C la ssica l H eritag e 52
C o m ed y 52
C o stu m e s 53
C o u rt 54
E d u ca tio n 55
G lo b e T h eatre 56
H isto ry P lay 56
K in g Ja m es B ib le 57
L o nd on 57
M asq u e 58
E a rl o f O xfo rd 59
P asto ral 59
P atro n ag e 60
P lag u e 60
P lay in g C o m p an y 61
P ro p s 62
P u b lish in g 62
R ep erto ire 63
R h e to ric 64
R om an ce 64
S cen ery 65
Sta g e D irectio n s 65
S ta g e s 66
Su m p tu ary L aw s 66
T rag ed y 66
P a rt II: H o w to R ead S h a k e s p e a re 69
4 C a se S tu d ie s in R e a d in g I: R e a d in g th e T exts 71
K irk M eln ik o ff
Sh a k e sp e a re 's E n g lish 72
Sh a k e sp e a re 's V erse 73
A n aly sin g th e S o n n e t 75
L an g u ag e and D ram atic C o m m u n icatio n 77
Sh a k e sp e a re 's P rose 79
T h e M o v em en t betw een P o etry an d P rose 82
Sh a k e sp e a re 's Im ag ery 84
P la y s a s D ram atic P oem s 86
Sh a k e sp e a re 's W o rd -p lay 87
viii
D etailed Table o f Contents
L an g u a g e and th e L o w e r O rd ers 89
Sh a k e sp e a re 's L an g u a g e E x p erts 90
Sh a k esp e a re in T h e o ry 93
R ea d in g R ead in g 95
N ew H isto ricism 96
'R a c e ' and E th n icity 100
G en d er and S e x u ality 103
P sy ch o an aly sis and D eco n stru ctio n 105
Sh a k esp e a re A fte r T h e o ry 110
A P la y e r's H id e 112
R ed isco v erin g S h ak esp e are in P erfo rm a n ce 114
Sh a k e sp e a re 's T h e a tre 114
V iew in g Sh ak esp eare 116
M acbeth W o rk sh o p 117
M acbeth in P erfo rm an ce 122
C o n clu sio n 127
P a rt I I I : S h a k e s p e a re S tu d ie s N o w 145
9 N ew C o n te x ts fo r S h a k e s p e a re 173
G abriel Egan
10 R e c e n t Is s u e s in S h a k e s p e a re S tu d ie s : F ro m M a rg in s
to C e n tre 190
W illy M aley
x
D etailed Table o f Contents
xv
G eneral Editors' Introduction
xvi
Foreword - H ow to use this Book
C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w
S h a k e sp e a re a m o n g h is C o n te m p o ra rie s
3
The Shakespeare H andbook
4
Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies
5
The Shakespeare H andbook
E qu ally in flu en tial, T h o m a s R y m e r's A sh ort v ieio o f tragedy its orig in al, ex cel
len cy a n d co rru p tion : w ith so m e reflection s on S hakesp ear an d oth er p ractition ers fo r
t h e stag e (1693) becam e a sou rce o f o n g o in g d eb ate fo r d ecad es to co m e. R ym er
d ev o ted m u ch tim e a n d sp ace to lam en tatio n s o v e r th e sh o rtco m in g s o f
S h a k e sp e a re 's and h is co n tem p o raries' d ra m a tic art in te rm s o f an ach ron ism ,
d isco n tin u ity , illogical p lo ttin g , im p lau sib le ch ro n o lo g ies - in sh o rt, failures
to sa tisfy th e exp ectatio n s o f n eo -classical d ram atu rg y. In th e n e x t g en era
tio n , A lex a n d er P op e a m o n g m any o th e rs w o u ld feel co m p elled to d efen d
Sh a k esp e a re a g a in st p ersistin g co m p lain ts co n cern in g h is 'w a n t o f learn in g '
a n d th e irreg u la ritie s' o f his d ra m a tic n arrativ es. P op e m o stly co u n tered such
a ccu sa tio n s w ith fu lsom e p raise, 'T h e P o etry o f S h a k esp e a r w a s In sp iratio n
in d eed : h e is n o t s o m u ch an Im itator, a s an In stru m en t o f N atu re; and 'tis
n o t s o ju s t to say th at he sp e a k s fro m her, a s th at sh e sp eak s th ro ' h im ' (Pope
1986: 13).
M o re g en era lly in th e eig h teen th cen tu ry, th e g ro w th in th e rea d in g and
sch o la rsh ip su rro u n d in g Sh ak esp eare w a s en o rm o u sly assisted b y th e p u b li
ca tio n o f his co m p lete w o rks in su ch ed itio n s a s th o se o f N ich o la s Row e
(1709), A lex an d er P op e (1725), L ew is T h eo b ald (1 733), S a m u el Jo h n so n (1765),
G eo rg e S te e v e n s (1773) an d E d m o n d M alo n e (1790). In th e ca s e o f an ed ition
su ch a s Jo h n so n 's , th e p u b licatio n n o t o n ly co n stitu ted a fo rm id a b le resou rce
for th o se w h o w ere a b le to afford it: Jo h n so n su p p lem en ted th e ed ited p lay -
texts w ith his o w n ap p raisal o f each o f th e p la y s w h ic h h a v e co n tin u ed
to stim u la te critical d ebate in to the m o d e m p erio d - 'H e sa crifices v irtu e to
co n v e n ie n ce and is s o m u ch m o re carefu l to p lea se than to in stru ct th at he
see m s to w rite w ith o u t an y m o ral p u rp o se ' (Jo h n so n 1977: 30 7 ). In a d d itio n to
th e a p p e a ra n ce o f th ese g ran d to m es, there w ere o th ers lik e th o se by Z ach ary
G rey e n title d C ritical, h istorical an d ex p la n a to ry n otes on Shakespeare, w ith em en d
ation s o f the text a n d m etre (1754), a n d W illiam K en rick 's Introdu ction to the
sch o ol o f S hakespeare; h eld , on W ednesday ev en in g s, in th e A p ollo, a t th e D evil Tavern,
Tem ple B ar (1774) - all d esign ed to facilitate th e jo u rn ey o f th e w o u ld -b e stu d en t
th rou gh th e co rp u s o f the b a rd 's w orks.
T h e d eb ate su rro u n d in g S h ak esp e are's a ch iev e m en t co n tin u ed in a h o st o f
d iffere n t p laces a n d w as o ften fram ed by the in terv en tio n s o f lead in g literary
fig u res (m o stly o f ch an g eab le o p in io n s). D am n in g th e bard w ith fa in t praise
in a p iece for th e jo u rn al The C ham pion in 1740, H en ry F ield in g a sse rte d that
'S ir John F a lsta ff and h is w h o le G a n g m u st h a v e g iv en m u ch m o re E n terta in
m e n t to th e S p e cta to rs o f Q u een E lizabeth's D a y s, th an to a m o d e m A u d ien ce'
(F ield in g 1974: 395); a n d O liv er G o ld sm ith w rote in a sim ila r v e in for T he
C ritical R ev iew in 1759 th at Sh a k esp e a re w as a m an 'w h o se b ea u ties seem
ra th er the result o f ch an ce th an d esign ; w h o , w h ile h e lab ou red to satisfy his
a u d ien ce w ith m o n sters and m u m m ery , seem ed to throw in h is in im ita b le
b ea u ties a s trifles in to the b a rg a in '. T h e en o rm o u sly p o p u la r n o v e list Sam u el
6
Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies
T h e N in e te e n th C e n tu ry
7
The Shakespeare H andbook
8
Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies
T h e T w e n tie th C e n tu ry : th e G r o w th in P ro fessio n al C r it ic is m
9
The Shakespeare H andbook
0
Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies
11
The Shakespeare H andbook
co n sid ers three v iew s o f h is ch a ra cte r b e fo re d isp a tch in g them w ith u np rin cely
sp eed b ec a u se 'th e y iso late o n e e le m e n t in h is ch aracter a n d situ a tio n and treat
it a s a w h o le' (1904: 76). T h e se are th e 'co n scien ce ' v iew - th at H am let had
co n scie n tio u s o b jectio n s to v en g ean ce; th e 'se n tim e n ta l' v iew - th a t H am let
w a s to o o th erw o rld ly and sen sitiv e to resp o n d to the G h o st's d em a n d s; and
the 'reflectiv e' v iew - th at H am let d elay s b ecau se h e is u n a b le to m ak e u p his
m in d . B rad ley , o n the o th er h an d , p ro p o se s H am let a s a v ictim o f 'm e la n ch o ly '
w h o se trag ed y is sim p ly th a t at th e o n e tim e h is ch aracter is tested it is hardly
h is o w n . T h e liv elin e ss a n d p leasu re w ith w h ich H a m let so m etim e s speaks
a n d a cts a re h is 'tru e ' ch a ra cte r fo r B rad ley ; w h a t w e w o u ld n o w call h is m ood
sw in g s b etw ee n p assiv ity and actio n , h is 'b u rsts o f tran sitory , a lm o st h y ster
ical, and q u ite fru itless em o tio n ' a re sy m p to m s o f a co n d itio n ra th er th an the
m an h im se lf (1904: 99). S o too a re his leth arg y o r ap ath y , a n d h is in ab ility to
u n d erstan d w h y h e is su b je ct to th em . B rad ley th en te sts th is th eo ry to see
if it w ill p ro d u ce a m o re p ersu asiv e a cco u n t o f th e p la y th an th o se proposed
b y riv al theories. B rad ley is fairly su re th at the qu estio n o f H a m le t's and
O p h e lia 's 're a l' relatio n sh ip , for ex a m p le, h as an answ er, b ec a u se Sh ak esp eare
k new w h a t it w as. H o w ev e r h e co n ced es th at th e o n ly w a y su ch kn o w led ge
co u ld be tran sm itted is via a p ro d u ctio n w here th e a cto rs' in terp retation s
w ere in fo rm ed b y th e in ten tio n s o f th e w riter - th a t is to sa y , a p erfo rm a n ce
d u rin g S h a k e sp e a re 's o w n lifetim e: 'T h e actor, in stru cted b y th e au th o r, w ou ld
m ak e it cle a r to u s b y lo o k s, to n es, g estu res a n d b y p la y h o w far H am let's
feign ed h arsh n ess to O p h elia w as m ingled w ith real b itte rn e ss, a n d again
h o w far h is m e lan ch o ly had d ead ened his lo v e ' (1 9 0 4 : 128).
T h o u g h B ra d le y 's ch a p ters o n th e p lay are H am let-h ea v y (h e is o f the o p in
ion th at 'a ll th e p erso n s in H am let ex cep t th e h ero arc m in o r ch a ra cte rs, who
fail to rise to th e tra g ic le v e l'), his rem ark s o n o th e r trag ed ies a re n o t co n cen
trated so le ly o n th e trag ic hero. H is d iscu ssio n o f O thello b eg in s w ith th e blunt
sta tem e n t th at 'th e ch a ra cte r o f O th ello is co m p a ra tiv ely sim p le ' (1904: 151);
he is far m o re interested in O th e llo 's d eceiv er and d o w n fa ll, Iag o. T h e o v e r
w h elm in g q u estio n to b e ask ed o f this ch a ra cte r is sim p ly 'w h y ? ' B rad ley
d en ies Ia g o 's o w n ex p la n a tio n s - h atred fo r O th ello , a n d a m b itio n - a s sp rin g
ing fro m p assio n s n o w here e lse d isp lay ed b y h im in th e p lay. In stead , he
a tten d s to th ree e lem e n ts o f Ia g o 's p lo t w h ich ex p la in its attra ctio n for h im : it
co n firm s h is o w n p rid e in h is su p erio rity , it ex e rts h is o w n su p erio r abilities,
and in v o lv es d anger. H ere, B rad ley extrap o lates the o rig in s o f the plot:
12
Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies
13
The Shakespeare H andbook
S h a k e s p e a re a n d th e A n ti-B ra d le y a n R eactio n
T h e p e n d u lu m sta rte d to sw in g a g a in st B rad ley in th e 1920s. Sign ifican tly ,
th is d eca d e saw the first m a jo r stirrin g s o f the 'p ra ctica l criticism ' critical
m eth od w h ich focu sed in itially o n p o etry , a n d w h o se in v en to r a n d ch ief
p ro se ly tiser w a s th e C am b rid g e a cad e m ic I. A. R ich ard s. P ra ctica l criticism , as
14
Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies
befitted R ich ard s's back g ro u n d in lin g u istics and p sy ch o lo g y , p resen ted itself
a s th e an tid o te to th e su b je ctiv e , feelin g s-v alid a ted if n o t feelin g s-d riv en,
m eth o d s o f th e R om an tics, a n d o f B rad ley , th e la s t g rea t R o m a n tic critic. O ne
o f th e m o st fam o u s an ti-B rad ley an resp o n ses fo cu sin g o n S h a k e sp e a re 's la n
g u a g e w as L. C . K n ig h ts's ch eek ily titled 'H o w m a n y ch ild ren h a d Lad y
M a cb eth ?', first p u blished in 1933. K n ig h ts claim ed th at a Sh a k esp e a re p lay,
far fro m b ein g e ssen tially ab o u t ch aracters and th eir in terrelatio n s, w as 'a
d ra m a tic p o e m ', a n d it is th e c ritic's b u sin e ss to ex a m in e 'th e w o rd s o n the
p a g e' (K n ig h ts 1946: 6). F o r K n ights, th e g ro w th o f ch a ra cte r stu d y in the
p o st-S h ak esp earean p e rio d w a s sy m p to m atic o f an in creasin g lack o f u n d er
sta n d in g o f S h a k e sp e a re 's E n g lish , and a co n co m ita n t in ab ility to ap p reciate
'S h a k e sp ea re 's p la y s as p o etry '. Ju s t a s B rad ley had criticized C o lerid g e's
d iscu ssio n o f H am let for te llin g u s m o re ab o u t C o le rid g e th a n a b o u t H am let,
K n ig h ts cla im e d th a t th e ch a ra cte r o f th e critic w a s a lw ay s p resen t in 'c h a r
a c te r stu d y '. A g a in st th is kind o f su b jectiv ism , K n ig h ts proposed a m eth od o f
read in g Sh ak esp eare w h ic h insisted on th e p riv a te read in g e x p e rie n ce (as
o p p o sed to B ra d le y 's reco m m en d atio n th at critics sh o u ld read a s i f they w ere
actors p lay in g parts), a n d w h ich it is u sefu l to e x cerp t at length:
15
The Shakespeare H andbook
To illu strate h is rem ark s, K n ig h ts self-co n scio u sly p ro p o sed a 'n o n -d ra m a tic'
read in g o f M acbeth a s 'a sta tem e n t o f e v il' w ith tw o m a in th em es: 'th e reversal
o f v a lu e s a n d o f u n n atu ral d iso rd e r' (1946: 18). U sin g a g rea t d ea l o f q u o ta
tion , and atten d in g in p a rticu lar to e lem e n ts su ch a s im ages, sy m b o ls, values,
th em es, an d seem in g ly 'irre le v a n t' scen es, K n ig h ts arg u e d for a coherent
w o rk o f a rt w h ich w as m u ch m o re th an an exp lo ratio n o f o u r rela tio n to one
o r tw o 'g reat te rrib le fig u res'. E ssen tially the sam e a p p ro a ch can b e fou n d in
G . W ilso n K n ig h t's T h e W heel o f F ire (1930). K n ig h t arg u ed fo r th e a rtistic unity
o f th e p lays, w h ich h e th o u g h t w as obscu red b y a fo c u s o n p lo t a n d character,
the ex p erien ce o f b o th o f w h ich b ecam e m o re in ten se to w ard s the en d o f the
play. K n igh t, o n the o th e r h an d , th in k s that
16
Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies
u n a ttractiv e', and th at this m u st b e b ec a u se it is essen tially tru e, a s 'n o cap able
p o et, m u ch le ss a Sh ak esp eare, in ten d in g to p ro d u ce a m erely "d ra m a tic "
serie s o f p o em s, w o u ld d ream o f in v e n tin g a sto ry lik e th a t o f th ese so n n ets'
(B rad ley 1909: 331). T h e an tith esis to B ra d le y 's fo cu s o n th e so n n ets' 'sto ry '
w a s p ro v id ed b y th e p o ets R obert G ra v es and L au ra R id in g , w h o prod uced
in the 1920s a b ra v u ra readin g o f S o n n e t 12 9 , focu sin g o n its first prin tin g
in 1609. T h ey sh o w how th e co m m o n ly an th o lo g iz ed 'e d ite d ' v ersio n o f the
tw en tieth ce n tu ry altered th e n u m b er o f sy lla b les ('m u rd ro u s' b eco m es 'm u r
d e ro u s', for ex am p le), o b scu red so m e o rig in a l so u n d p a ttern s (b ecau se as
o u r p ro n u n ciatio n h a s ch an g ed , s o h as o u r sp ellin g , and w e regu larize
Sh a k esp e a re to fit th is), a n d re-p u n ctu ated th e po em , rem o v in g am b igu ities
and d ra stica lly slo w in g d o w n a n d o v er-clarify in g its a m b ig u ities (th e 1609
v e rsio n h a s tw enty co m m a s and tw o fu ll sto p s; the m o d ern iz ed v ersio n has
eig h tee n co m m a s, tw o full sto p s, on e co lo n a n d n in e sem i-co lo n s) (Jo n e s 1977:
6 3 -7 0 ). In ad d itio n , S h ak esp e are's p lays a s w ell as th e so n n ets form ed a m ajo r
p o in t o f reference in R ich ard s's stu d e n t W illiam E m p so n 's Seven T ypes o f
A m b ig u ity (1930), w h ich in sisted th at 'reso lv in g ' am b ig u ities (as B rad ley ty p
ically attem p ted to in h is d iscu ssio n s o f th e plays) ignored th e p re cise form o f
th eir ex p ressio n a s am bigu ities.
H is to ric is in g S h a k e sp e a re
T h e seco n d m ajo r d ev elo p m en t in Sh ak esp eare stu d ies in th e first h a lf o f the
tw en tieth ce n tu ry , and o ne m u ch m o re o b v io u sly en ab led b y th e grow ing
'p ro fe ssio n alizatio n ' o f it, esp ecially in the U n ited S ta te s, w a s h isto ricism . T h e
b ed ro ck o f an y a ttem p t to u n d erstan d a w o rk 'in its o w n tim e' is scholarsh ip ,
a n d th e first tw o -th ird s o f th e ce n tu ry , in p articu lar, sa w m a jo r ad v a n ces in
arch iv ally b a se d sch o larsh ip . T h e latte r in its d eta il a n d co m p reh en siv en ess
su rp assed an y th in g w h ic h had b e e n p ro d u ced b efo re: E. K. C h a m b e rs's fou r
v o lu m es o n T h e E lizabethan S tage (1923), a n d W. W. G re g 's fo u r-v o lu m e B iblio
g ra p h y o f P rin ted D ram a to the R estoration (1 9 3 9 -5 9 ) w ere co m p lem en ted by
m an y o th e r co n trib u tio n s to tex tu al an d ed ito rial stu d y: A . W. P o lla rd 's m a n y
w o rks o n S h ak esp e are's q u a rto and fo lio texts; G . E. B en tle y 's sev en volum es
o n T h e Jacobean a n d C arolin e S ta g e (1 9 4 1 -6 8 ); C h a m b e rs's tw o v o lu m es o n
W illiam Shakespeare: A S tu dy o f F a cls a n d P roblem s (1 930); T. W. B a ld w in 's T he
O rganization a n d P erson n el o f th e Shakespeare C om p an y (1927); B a ld w in 's tw o-
v o lu m e stu d y o f S h a k e sp e a re 's ed u catio n an d read in g in W illiam Shakspere's
S m all L atin e a n d L esse G reeke (1944); H a rb a g e 's S h akespeare's A u d ien ce (1941).
O n e o f th e e a rliest m ajo r critica l p ro jects to b e n e fit from th is in crea se in
k n o w led g e w as H a rle y G ra n v ille -B a rk er's se rie s o f P refaces to Shakespeare.
G ra n v ille -B ark er h ad w o rk ed w ith W illiam Poel, w h o from 1895 h a d p ro
d u ced in L o n d o n a range o f Sh ak esp eare p erfo rm a n ces u sin g a t lea st som e
'o rig in a l' stag e co n d itio n s - b a re stag e, m inim al o r n o scen ery , an en sem b le
17
The Shakespeare H andbook
18
Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies
19
The Shakespeare H andbook
20
Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies
Peter Sillitoe
21
The Shakespeare H andbook
1585 Elizabeth allow s volunteers to fight in the Birth o f H am n et and Judith Shakespeare, twins
Netherlands against the im perial forces of to W illia m and Anne
C ath olic Spain
1587 Execution o f M a ry Q u e e n o f Scots Leicester's theatre com pany tours England with
Francis D rake raids Spanish port o f Cadiz a stop in Stratford-upon-Avon
1589 Elizabeth continues to incur huge m ilitary H e n ry V I, Part 1 Richard H ak lu yt's P rin cip a l!
expenses in th e conflict w ith Spain N avig atio n s. . . o f the English N atio n published
1592 Plague in London, intermittent outbreaks for Closure o f the London playhouses, o w in g to
the next tw o years severe outbreak o f plague (until 1594)
Shakespeare almost certainly w orking on Venus
an d A d o n is and The R ap e o f L u cre ce in this
period
Playwright Robert G re e n e attacks Shakespeare
in C roatsw orth o f W it as an 'upstart crow '
Shakespeare m entioned in ledgers o f a London
theatre com pany
22
Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies
1593 Richard Hooker's ta w s o f E ccle sia stical P o litic Printing o f Q 1 o f Venus a n d A donis
in four books (Book V in 1597)
1594 Rodrigo l opes executed lor Irving to poison lo v e 's Lab ou r's lo s l (possibly 1595)
Q u e e n Elizabeth Q1 of H en ry V I, Part 2 printed as 7he First Part
o f the Contention o f the Two Fam ous Houses o f
York a n d Lancaster
Printing o f Q l for Titus A ndronicus
Printing o f The R ap e o fL u c re ce in Q u arto form
1595 1000 apprentices m arch toward Tower Hill R ich ard II, Rom eo an d lu liet, A M idsum m er
M artial law enforced N ig h t's Dream
Hu gh O 'N e ill, Earl o f Tyrone, in o pen rebellion Printing o f H en ry' V I, Prt i as the octavo The
against English rule in Ireland True Tragedy o f R ich ard D u k e o f York an d the
Cood K ing H e n ry the Sixth
Ph ilip Sidney's The D e fe n ce o f Poesie
published
1599 Robert Devereux, Second Earl o f Essex, lands H e n ry V, lu liu s Caesar, A s You L ik e It (possibly
in Ireland w ith 16,000 men as early as 1598, or as late as 1600)
Printing o f Q 2 o f Rom eo an d lu lie t (a more
reliable text t h a n Q I)
Building o f the G lo b e Theatre
23
The Shakespeare H andbook
1604 Ham pton Court Conference in January O th e llo (possibly as e arly as 1603), A ll's W e ll
that Ends W e ll
Printing o f Q 2 o f H am let
1605 The G u n p o w d e r Treason / Plot K ing Lear; /mon o f Athens (with Thomas
Middleton)
Francis Bacon s The A dvancem ent o f le arn in g
1608 C oriolanus
Printing o f First Q u arto of K ing Lear
Shakespeare sues Jo h n Addenbrookc for 6.00
Death o f Shakespeare's mother, M a ry
Shakespeare
1609 V irginia C om pany chartered Robert Cecil The W in te r's Tale, publication o f The Sonnets,
gamers 7000 for the fiscal year including Lover's Com plaint'
Printing o f Q 1 o f Troilus a n d C ressida and
Q l o f Pericles
1610 C ym belm e
1613 Princess Elizabeth m arries Frederick, Elector K ing H e n ry V III/ A ll is W e ll, V ie Two N o b le
Palatine Kinsm en (both w ith lohn Fletcher; Kinsm en
possibly as late as 16 1 4)
The G lo b e burns dow n
Shakespeare purchases property in Blackfriars,
London
24
Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies
25
Historical Contexts for the
Age of Shakespeare
W illiam E. Engel
C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w
Ten 'H isto rie s' are listed in th e 'C a ta lo g u e' o f p la y s a ttrib u ted to Sh ak esp eare
in th e F irst F olio o f 1623 (see G lo ssary ). L ik e m an y o f the so u rces h e co n su lted ,
the T u d o r royal line is sh o w n in a fav ou rab le ligh t. T h is is n o t su rp risin g
w h e n w e co n sid er th a t th e first o f th ese p la y s, K in g Jo h n , w a s first p erform ed
a t a tim e o f h eig h ten ed n atio n al p rid e, a few y ears after th e d e fe a t o f th e
S p a n ish A rm ad a. E ach p resen ts cau tio n ary lesso n s a b o u t th e p o litica l ev ils
o f factio n al d isse n sio n an d th e v irtu es o f c iv ic peace.
H isto ry a n d th eatre w ere clo sely lin ked in th e m in d s o f Sh ak esp eare's
a u d ien ce. C o n tem p o rary w riters a n d statesm en , su ch a s W alter R aleg h in his
H istory o f th e W orld (1614), referred to p eop le as 'tra g ica ll a cto rs' in a 'G re a t
T h e a tre ' o v erse en by G o d 's P ro vid en ce. T h is alleg o rical view o f h isto ry bu ild s
o n th e earlier m ed iev al n o tio n o f th e re b ein g th ree d o m a in s o f kno w led ge:
P h iloso p h y , w ith th e co rresp o n d in g h u m an fa cu lty o f R easo n ; P o etry , w hose
facu lty is Im ag in atio n ; and H isto ry , co rresp o n d in g to M em ory . P h ilip Sid ney
d iscu ssed th ese b ran ch es o f kno w led ge in p recisely th ese term s in T h e D efen ce
26
H istorical Contexts for the A g e o f Shakespeare
R e lig io u s C h a n g e
R eligio n exerted a d ecisiv e and p o w erfu l p ressu re o n d a ily life throu ghou t
the sixteen th cen tu ry. T h e ce n tu ry in to w h ich Sh ak esp eare w a s b o rn sa w a
27
The Shakespeare H andbook
d ecisiv e sp lit w ith in W estern E u ro p ean C h ristian ity in to o p p o sin g 'ch u rch es',
w ith 'P ro te sta n t' C h ristian s, m ainly from n o rth e rn E u ro p e, b rea k in g from
the m o stly m o re so u th ern 'C a th o lic ' C h ristian co m m u n ities w h o accep ted
the sp iritu al au th o rity o f th e P op e. A t tim es th e riv a lry b etw ee n C ath olics
a n d P ro testan ts reach ed v io len t p ro p o rtio n s: h o w ev er, m o re o ften th an not
in C o n tin e n tal E u ro p e, th ese co n flicts o w ed m o re to p o litical m o tiv es, a n ce s
tral riv a lries a n d d y n astic fa ctio n s th a n to d ee p ly felt relig iou s co n v ictio n s.
D octrin al d isp u tes b ecam e m o re a p a rt o f th e so cial eq u a tio n in England
a n d S cotlan d as rad ical P ro te sta n t id eas gain ed stren g th a m o n g th o se w ho
b eliev ed th at the R efo rm atio n h ad n o t g o n e far en o u g h to elim in a te d octrin al
a n d cerem o n ial asp ects o f C ath o licism ('th e O ld F a ith ') - su ch a s the ven er
a tio n o f sain ts, th e ad o ratio n o f M ary, and sin g in g m a sse s for the d ea d to
ea se th e ir w ay fro m P u rg ato ry (see G lo ssary ) to H eaven.
M a n y o f S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s a re im p licated in th ese co n flicts and n eg o
tiation s. In 15 1 7 o n e o f th e le a d in g refo rm ers o n th e co n tin en t, M artin
L uther, had p u blished h is N in ety-F ive T heses on th e P ow er o f Indu lgen ces w hich
a ttack ed , a m o n g o th er a b u se s o f the C hu rch , the sellin g o f pard o n s fo r the
rem ission o f sin s and for the release o f so u ls from p u n ish m en t in P urgatory.
T h is d o cu m en t w a s p o ste d o n th e d o o rs o f th e C astle C h u rch in W itten b erg
o n 31 O cto b er 1517 w h ere th e S a x o n ru ler F red erick III had accu m u lated
E u ro p e's larg est co llectio n s o f h o ly relics o f th e sain ts, w h ich w ere believed
to h a v e m iracu lo u s p o w ers. T h a t H am let is retu rn in g fro m h is stu d ie s in
W itten berg for h is fa th er's fu n eral su b tly lin k s him to P ro testan t v ie w s on
P urgatory. If th ere is n o P u rg ato ry , H a m let righ tly m u st q u estio n , from w here
d id his fa th er's g h o st co m e to w a rn h im ab o u t th e treach ery and treaso n o f
h is u su rp in g u ncle?: 'W h a t m ay th is m ean , / T h a t th o u , d ead co rp se, ag ain
in co m p lete steel, / R ev isits th u s the g lim p ses o f th e m o o n , / M ak in g n ig h t
h id eou s, and w e fo o ls o f n a tu re / S o h o rrid ly to sh a k e o u r d isp o sitio n / With
th o u g h ts b ey o n d the re a ch es o f o u r so u ls?' (H am let, 1. 4. 3 2 -3 7 , p. 1683). This
crisis o f k n o w led g e h a s d eep p o litical im p licatio n s in th e p lay, and d ra m a tic
a lly refracts th e w id e r n eg o tia tio n s o f fa ith a t th e tim e.
R o o ts o f th e R e fo rm a tio n in E n g lan d
L o n g b efo re S h a k e sp e a re 's tim e there had b een relig iou s co n tro v ersies su r
ro u n d in g th o se w h o u rged C h ristian s to retu rn to th e B ib le as a so u rce for
b e lie fs and p ractices. For in stan ce o f th ese w e m a y retu rn to C h a u c e r's d ay
w ith Jo h n W y cliffe 's E n g lish v ersio n o f th e B ib le, a n d the b ib lica l fo cu s o f
th e te a ch in g s o f th e Lollard s, w h o se stro n g est su p p o rt w a s in L o n d o n and
E ast A n g lia, Bristol a n d th e M id lan d s. W ith th is cu ltu ra l co n tex t o f rep eated
a p p e als for relig iou s reform , and w ith the g ro w th o f C h ristia n h u m anism
(see G lo ssary ), in sp ired b y E rasm u s an d o th ers, E n g la n d w a s b e in g exp o sed
to ca lls for relig iou s ch an g e from a h o st o f d ifferen ce d ire ctio n s (see Streete,
28
H istorical Contexts for the A g e o f Shakespeare
H en ry V I I I a n d th e C h u rch o f E n g lan d
E n g la n d 's b re a k w ith th e C a th o lic C hu rch to o k p la ce in 1534. H en ry VIII
had p etitio n ed the p o p e for an 'a n n u lm e n t' o f h is m arriag e to C a th erin e o f
A ragon (w h o o rig in ally had b een m arried to h is o ld e r brother, A rth u r - see
G en ealo g y ). N o tw ith stan d in g d etailed relig iou s a rg u m en ts and b ib lica l p re
ce d e n ts ju stify in g th is actio n , P o p e C lem en t V II co u ld h ard ly sa n ctio n the
d iv o rce (as C ath erin e w as th e m atern al a u n t o f C h arles V, th e p o w erfu l head
o f th e H oly R o m an E m p ire, w h o in 1 5 2 7 had sa ck ed R om e and m ad e the
P op e h is priso n er). W ith the h elp o f T h o m a s C ro m w ell, w h o to o k o v e r the
ca u se after th e fall o f h is fo rm er m a ster C ard in al W o lsey, H e n ry had h im self
d eclared H ead o f th e C hu rch o f E n gland b y the E n glish P arliam en t.
H en ry asse rte d his co n tro l o v e r the ch u rch a s w ell a s th e co u n try by
h av in g P arliam en t p ass th e A ct o f S u p rem acy in D ecem b er 1534. W h en he
en co u n tered resistan ce, th e ag ein g and in creasin g ly ira scib le k in g d id not
h esitate to ex e cu te d issen ters, su ch a s B ishop F ish e r a n d th e ren ow n ed
h u m an ist and statesm an T h o m a s M o re; a n d , in 1536, to issu e the A ct o f the
Ten A rticles. T h is w as th e first s e t o f d o ctrin al m an d ates o f the n ew ch u rch in
w h ich , o f th e sev en sacram en ts, o n ly b ap tism , p e n a n ce and co m m u n io n w ere
retained . C rom w ell w as m ad e 'v ice -re g e n t', em p o w ered to issu e in ju n ction s
to th e bishop s. H e req u ired th a t clerg y m en in th e ir serm o n s d efen d th e royal
su p rem a cy a n d co n d em n p ilg rim a g es to h o ly sites, a C ath o lic p ra ctice a sso ci
ated w ith the g a in in g o f 'm e rit' in the search fo r salv atio n . H is secon d set
o f in ju n ctio n s tw o y ears la te r w e n t fu rth er b y p ro h ib itin g ritu a ls a n d beliefs
n o t ju stified b y Scrip tu re a n d b y p lacin g a B ib le in E n g lish in ev ery ch u rch.
T h e m o st n o tab le o f th ese ch an g es called for the strip p in g o f im ages o f v en e r
a tio n fro m th e ch u rch e s and fo rb ad e th e b u rn in g o f ca n d les fo r sa in ts and the
d ea d . N o t ev er)' p arish w as q u ick to co m p ly , b u t p e rio d ic v isits b y chu rch
o fficials so u g h t to estab lish a w id esp read co n fo rm ity . Still, w e m u st reflect
th at 'co n fo rm ity in itself im p lies n o th in g a b o u t the b eliefs o f clerg y , w ard en s,
o r laity in th e p a rish e s' (D u ffy 2005: 481).
29
The Shakespeare H andbook
30
H istorical Contexts for the A g e o f Shakespeare
31
The Shakespeare H andbook
32
H istorical Contexts for the A g e o f Shakespeare
Je w s a t th e E liz a b e th a n C o u r t a n d T h e a tre s
R o d rig o L o p es, a Jew ish co n v ert to C h ristia n ity w h o had fled the
In q u isitio n and settled in E n g lan d , ev en tu a lly b e c a m e th e English
co u rt p h y sician . H e w as tried a n d ex e cu ted in 1594 a lleg ed ly for tryin g
to p o ison th e Q u een . C a p ita liz in g o n th e n atio n a list p u b lic sen tim e n t in
a n d aro u n d L o n d o n , T h e L ord A d m ira l's M en rev iv ed C h risto p h er
M a rlo w e's p lay T h e Jew o f M alta writh the p re-em in en t tragedian
Edw ard A lleyn in the lead role. S o m e tim e a fte r 1596 S h a k esp e a re's
co m p an y had a n ew p lay w ith a Je w a s th e an tag o n ist, T h e M erch an t o f
Venice.
K in g Ja m e s a n d th e B ib le
E liz a b eth 's su ccessor, Ja m es Stu art, the so n o f M a ry , Q u e en o f S c o ts, w as
raised as a P ro testan t in P resb y terian Sco tla n d and to o k m a tters o f religion
serio u sly (P atterso n 2000: 3 8 - 3 9 ).1 A s an in d irect co n se q u e n ce o f Ja m es h av
ing called a co n feren ce a t H am p to n C o u rt in 1604 to s e e w h at n eed ed to be
d o n e to en su re th e sm o o th o p era tio n s o f th e C h u rch , a co u n cil o f d ivin es
a n d sch o lars w as co n v en ed to o v ersee an 'A u th o rise d ' tran slatio n o f the
E n glish Bible. T h is en o rm o u sly in flu en tial w o rk o w ed a larg e d e b t to W illiam
T y n d a le's 1524 translation o f the N ew T estam en t, the first tim e an y p a rt o f
the B ib le had b e e n p rin ted in E n glish . 'I f an y in d iv id u al is to be cred ited
w ith th e p erfectio n o f th e E n glish u sed b y Sh ak esp eare, th en h e w a s T y n d a le'
(C o llin so n 2002: 223). A lth o u g h T y n d ale rep eated ly p etitio n ed th e k in g to
lice n se a v ersio n o f the Bible in the v ern a cu la r a n d w a s clo se to reaching
an a g reem en t b ro k ered b y C ro m w ell, h is effo rts ca m e to a halt w h en he
w a s b u rn ed a s a h eretic in A n tw erp (L o ck y er 2005: 65).
33
The Shakespeare H andbook
D e fe n d e rs o f Ih e Faith
C o m m e r c ia l an d M ilita ry E x ch a n g es
M o nopolies
T h e co lo n ies w ere estab lish ed w ith co m m ercial rath er than relig io u s am b i
tio n s in m ind . T h e y w ere p a rt o f a larger, th o u gh b y n o m e a n s sy stem atic,
p ro g ram m e o f eco n o m ic d ev e lo p m e n t. F o r E liz a b e th 's ad m in istra tio n , this
p ro g ram m e also in v o lv ed reap ing th e b en efits o f sellin g m o n o p o lies, o r
ex clu siv e trad in g righ ts an d th e fixin g o f prices, b o th a s a w a y o f e n rich in g h er
co ffe rs and o f k eep in g h er co u rtiers in line. F ollo w in g h is retu rn fro m Ireland
in 1581, S ir W alter R aleg h , an a d v o ca te o f the a n ti-S p a n ish foreign policies
o f L eicester a n d W alsin g h am , w as g reatly en rich ed b y b e in g n am ed 'L o rd
W ard en o f th e S ta n n e rie s' w h ich placed h im in re ceip t o f rev en u e from all o f
th e m in in g to w n s o f D artm oor. T h is g a v e h im ab so lu te co n tro l o v e r th e trade
in tin a n d related m etals and o res. S h o rtly th ereafter h e w a s en tru sted to g o to
D artm o u th to d iv id e th e sp o ils o f th e sev en -d eck ed S p a n ish sh ip , M a d r de
D eos, cap tu red b y S ir Jo h n B o ro u g h w ith an estim ated h au l o f 500,000. There
w a s a n o th er sid e to m o n o p o ly rig h ts a s w ell. A fte r E sse x 's n eg o tia tio n s w ith
the Irish rebel lead er Tyron e b ecam e k n o w n , h is fall from g ra ce w a s assu red ;
a n d w h e n in 1600 his 'sh o rt-term d eb ts alo n e exceed ed 5 ,0 0 0 , th e final
b lo w ca m e writh E liz a b eth 's p o in ted refu sal to ren ew th e ea rl's m o n o p o ly o f
sw e e t w in es, [w hich had been ] o v e r the p ast d eca d e the k ey to h is so lv en cy '
(N ich o lls 1999: 300).
34
H istorical Contexts for the A g e o f Shakespeare
T h ere w ere rep eated calLs fo r a b o lish in g this p ractice, for, in effect, it
a m o u n ted to taxatio n w ith ou t th e co n se n t o f P arliam en t. T ow ard s th e end
o f E liz a b eth 's re ig n a d o zen m o n o p o lies w ere n o t ren ew ed , bu t th ese co n ces
sio n a ry refo rm s w ere su p erficial. B u t m o n o p o ly p a te n ts w ere n o t ju s t granted
to p eers. F o r e x a m p le, T h o m a s S m ith and W illiam C ecil, in see k in g to p ro
m o te n ew p ro jects th at w o u ld m ak e sm all b u t essen tia l item s, su ch a s pins
a n d n ails, accessib le to all b u t th e v ery poor, also g av e p ro ject en trep ren eu rs
so le rig h ts o f m an u factu re fo r a g iv e n p erio d (L o ck y er 2005: 4 9 -5 0 ).
C o m p a n ie s a n d C om p acts
T h e log ic and la w s o f su ch co m p a n ies ap p lie d to th e w o rld o f en tertain m en t
a s w ell. T h eatres required a ro y al licen ce. T h e first w a s g ran ted to R obert
D u d ley , E arl o f L eicester in 1574. A m o n g th e lead ers o f L eice ste r's co m p a n y
o f actors w as Ja m es B u rbage, a n acto r a n d en trep ren eu r w h o in 1576 secured
the le a se o f lan d at Sh o re d itch for th e co n stru ctio n o f th e first playh ou se,
called sim p ly T h e T h eatre. A b o u t a d eca d e later, in 1587, L eicester's co m p a n y
a cted , a m o n g o th e r p la ce s, at Stratfo rd -u p o n -A v on , w h ere Sh ak esp eare, m e n
tion ed in co n n ectio n w ith a law su it a t th e tim e, is p resu m ed to h a v e been
resid in g . S in ce w e h a v e n o su rv iv in g record o f w h a t Sh ak esp eare w a s d o in g
a fte r 1587 until h e sh o w s u p in led g ers a s an a cto r a n d d ra m a tist in L o n d o n in
1592, so m e h a v e co n jectu red th at he to o k p a rt in th e p lays o f th e th eatrical
co m p a n ies k n o w n to have visited Stratfo rd -u p o n -A v on in 1 5 8 6 -8 7 o r at least
th at h e saw th e p o ssib ilities o f m ak in g a liv in g in th is trad e. A fte r h e had
retired to Stratfo rd -u p o n -A von , h is w ill sh o w s th at b y th e tim e Sh ak esp eare
d ie d in 1616 h e had accu m u lated a co n sid erab le esta te (S ch o en b a u m 1975:
2 4 6 ). By th e sa m e to k en , th e g rea t tra g e d ia n E d w ard A lle y n , w ho w en t o n
to m a rry th e step -d au g h ter o f the p re-em in en t th eatre m an ag er a n d en tre
p ren eu r P hilip H e n slo w e, w as a b le to p ay 5 0 0 0 fo r a m a n o r a n d , in 1619,
o b ta in ed a ro y al ch a rter to fou n d D u lw ich C ollege.
T h e ch a rterin g o f th e C o m p a n y o f S tatio n e rs o f th e C ity o f L on d on ,
e sta b lish ed o rig in a lly b y Q u e en M ary to serv e a s a 'su ita b le rem ed y ' a g ain st
th e rise o f P ro testan t p u b licatio n s, w as co n firm ed b y E lizab eth in 1558.
H ow ever, h er in ten tio n w as to co n fer o n its m e m b ers 'p riv ile g e s a n d practices
co m m o n to th e o ld e r g u ild s (see G lo ssary ): rights o f p ro p e rty o w n ersh ip , self
reg u latio n , k eep in g ap p ren tices and e n g a g in g in sea rch es to p ro tect th e trade
from "fo re ig n e r s " (n on -m em b ers) an d p o o r w o rk m a n sh ip ' (C leg g 2001: 24).
T h e S tation ers w ere su cce ssfu l in th e ir p etitio n in 1560 for liv ery (a co stu m e
to b e w o rn b y its m em bers). T h is n o w m e an t th a t they had v o tin g righ ts in
b o th L on don an d p arliam en tary electio n s, p articip a tio n in th e c ity 's g o v e rn
a n ce , a n d statu s a m o n g the le a d in g liv ery com p an ies.
S im ila r in k in d , there w ere also ag ree m en ts fo r th e sp ecu la tiv e trad in g o f
p ro d u cts from abroad . M o st w ere m od elled in p a rt o n th e C o m p a n y o f
35
The Shakespeare H andbook
C o lo n ia l V en tu re s A bro ad
R a leg h 's ex p ed itio n to the o u te r b a n k s o f the A tla n tic seab oard a n d estab lish
m ent o f an E n g lish co lo n y o n R o a n o k e Islan d le d d ire ctly to T h o m a s H a rio t's
eth n o g ra p h ic and eco n o m ic su rv ey o f the A lg o n q u in p e o p le , B riefe an d True
R ep ort o f the Nezu Fou n d Lan d o f V irginia, first p u b lish ed in 1588 (see G reen b latt
d iscu ssio n s in R o bso n , C h a p te r 5 ; H o p k in s, C h a p te r 8 , th is v o lu m e). It w as
rep rin ted th e fo llo w in g y e a r in R ich ard H a k lu y t's co m p en d io u s Pr'mcipaU
N av igation s, V oiages, a n d D iscoveries o f th e E n glish N ation , a n d co n tin u ed to
ca p tu re th e p u b lic im agination . T h is co llectio n m a y w ell h a v e in flu en ced
S h a k e sp e a re 's T h e Tem pest, in p a rt b ec a u se o f th e en g ra v in g s m ad e from
d ra w in g s b y Jo h n W h ite and p u blished b y T h e o d o re d e B ry in 1590. A ll the
sam e, 'E n g lish m aritim e exp an sio n d u rin g the ce n tu ry w a s ch a ra cteriz ed less
b y m ercan tile co n sid era tio n s th an by th e co m p lex g ro w th o f p iracy and
p riv a te erin g ' (A d am s 2002: 210). W h ilst th e sta te p ap ers from E lizab eth 's
reign co n tain h u n d red s o f co m p la in ts ab o u t a cts o f p iracy , little w a s done
u n less a sig n ifican t E n glish m erch an t su ffered lo sses o r th e re w as risk o f a
m ajo r in cid en t w ith foreign p o w ers. Ind eed , the q u ee n h e rse lf loaned sh ip s
a n d resou rces for so m e o f th ese v en tu res, a n d in v a ria b ly ex p ected a su b sta n
tia l retu rn fo r h er 'in v estm en ts'.
36
H istorical Contexts for the A g e o f Shakespeare
37
The Shakespeare H andbook
E liz a b eth 's foreig n p o licy in v o lv ed m ain tain in g a d elica te b a la n ce betw een
the C ath o lic p o w ers o f F ran ce and S p a in , eith e r o f w h ich co u ld intervene
in E n g lan d , w h ile su p p o rtin g th e P ro testan t D u tch in th e ir stru g g le to w in
in d ep en d en ce from S p a in . A fte r 1585 th is led to a lo n g stru g g le w ith S p a in
a t sea w h ich , m o st fam ou sly , in v o lv ed th e d e fe a t o f th e A rm a d a , th e v a st
S p a n ish fleet o f in v ad in g w a rsh ip s sen t by P h ilip II. B etw een 1589 a n d 1591,
E lizab eth sp en t 14 4 ,7 8 6 on m ilitary o p eratio n s in F ra n ce, 100,000 p e r y ear
for troop s in the N eth erlan d s, 1 0 0 0 p e r m onth for C h a n n el g u a rd s o f sev en
frig ates, a n d a n o th e r 5 0 0 0 p er m o n th fo r ad d itio n a l su m m e r g a rriso n s in
Ireland (G u y 1988: 347). B u t th e d em o ra liz in g co st in h u m a n lives w a s ev en
m o re d isastro u s to E liz a b e th 's reig n : o w in g to d ise a se and in su fficien t su p
p lies, elev e n th o u san d E n g lish so ld iers d ied in F ra n ce , o f th ese o n ly about
elev e n hu nd red h av in g fallen in b attle. T h e n atu re o f so m e o f th e responses
a t th e tim e to su ch co stly w ars m ay b e w itn essed in S h a k esp e a re's scen es
38
H istorical Contexts for the A g e o f Shakespeare
39
The Shakespeare H andbook
40
H istorical Contexts for the A g e o f Shakespeare
C e le b ra tio n s fo r a W in te r B rid e
U r b a n G r o w th in th e C a p ita l
B y the tim e H am let and T w elfth N ight w ere in rep ertoire, Ix m d o n had
b eco m e o n e o f th e m o st p o p u lo u s u rban ce n tre s in E u rop e, ju s t b eh in d Paris
a n d N a p les (deV ries 1984: 140). A t th e b eg in n in g o f th e reig n o f H en ry V III,
L on d on w as still w ith in its a n cien t w alls o n th e n o rth b a n k o f th e T h am es;
W estm inster, th e se a t o f th e em erg in g n atio n al g o v ern m en t, w a s w est o f the
city , a n d S o u th w ark , th e so u th ern ap p ro ach to L o n d o n B rid g e, w a s bey o n d
the C ity 's ju risd ictio n o n the so u th b an k . C ro ssin g th e b rid g e in to the city , you
w o u ld h a v e b een w ith in ea rsh o t o f the b e lls o f m o re th an o n e hundred
ch u rch e s fro m b o th sid e s o f th e river, a n d y o u w o u ld in all likelih o od h ave
s e e n h ead s o f tra ito rs and crim in als o n sp ik es, rem in iscen t o f P ericle s's
en tra n ce in to A n tio ch w here 'd e a d c h e e k s a d v ise th e e to d e s is t' (P ericles, 1 .8 2 ,
p. 2 7 20). B y th e end o f E liz a b e th 's reig n there w a s ex ten siv e d ev elo p m en t
o u tsid e the w alls: g rea ter L o n d o n had ab o u t 50 ,0 0 0 p eop le at th e b eg in n in g o f
th e six tee n th ce n tu ry and 200 ,0 0 0 b y th e end (W ard 2004: 347). T h is con trasted
sh a rp ly to S h a k e sp e a re 's m a rk et to w n o f Stratfo rd -u p o n -A v on , w ith only
e ig h t o r nin e streets, tw o h u nd red a n d fifty h o u se h o ld s a n d fifte en h u n d red
in h abitants. H is to w n w as still g u id ed by sea so n a l rh y th m s, m a rk et d ays,
sh ee p festiv als and lam b ale s - m u ch lik e P e rd ita 's g ree n w o rld id ealized
in T h e W inter's Tale.
T h e in crease in th e n u m b er o f p eop le (lik e Sh a k esp e a re h im self) seek in g
jo b s in th e city w as p aralleled by a larg e n u m b er o f g en tlem e n see k in g legal
train in g at the Inns o f C o u rt. T h is resu lted in a n eed for m o re ta v e rn s, sh op s
41
The Shakespeare H andbook
42
H istorical Contexts for the A g e o f Shakespeare
T h e C e c ils a n d R o ya l S e rv ic e
C o n c lu sio n
43
oh.' o f Ga jn t, Katv a*ine Swynfc'd,
Duke o Lancaster, dau. d ' Sir Roet of O vvp iTU d c - Katherine, ivioiv
>Oli o i ED W ARD 111 Guiepe (a'l ter issue fit H lJR Y V
legitim ated fcy charter
o f R iC H A S : II, U S / )
HENRY v il = tliz a b e th o f r c r t,
O'-i-l O d a j. c f ED W ARD IV
Arthur. = C ith e ri- e o f II) = HENRY VII; = !2) A n r e Boleyn, = i j ) Jar>e, aau = A n n a c b l . o i Duke o f C.eves
Pfir Atager.. au I15C-3-15C?: L . o '. ar. o i Sii ^jhn Id u . 5 4 0 , . 1557)
of Wales 3 f FERDINAND V. o f W ltsnlre Seymou:
= | 5 ) C a tn e T in e , J o u . o f L o r a E d in - r t d
id 1502) :ir.v. King o f Suflin (e*. 15361 {d .i 537
M o v;- d !e x 1 W !
(Civ. 1533, d.'53)
* i6> Catherine, dsu. crf Sir I Bornas
sarr (H fN RV v'.l w a s h e rth irc
H U P II, M ARY I ELIZA3ETH I ED W ARD VI nusband! <.'
T < if y u l S[:.il
(1353-'558> c;w- so?: (1547-1533/
I I
C h e rie slo jis, -ipert yuphia F r - t Augustus.
Elector Pala-Jne <d..68i> d. -.714 Elector o f Hanove:
(d. 1680) -e:c-*e (d 1006)
JUtfcf
ANNE)
G EO RG EI
(!714-:727J
THE TUDORS
1485-1603
C IIA R ir I : h s w i - ;* f.'i-iin.
( '6 2 5 - c fe v .o fH E N S Y I V ,
X164S) k' -vj o f
CH A R LES II
1M ary A M E S II
1
Elizab eth
!
Anne Henry H e n r it t = Philip,
W .LLIA M .1
:. -& 5 ) W .lK iO ) o f Orange l6 e j-c .e & ie d lM 8 A iw e D jx e o f
= Cacher n e of id : eso: 1 1 7 0 ) O rle a n i
braqanza
(d.l/Oi) = A ld e h y d e .
d a u .o f E a rlo t
= (2 ) M iiy . d a u . c l D u k e o f Modi-na
W ILLIA M III = M A R Y II AKKE Q<'.<fge I ..i:nu% irtivJ. Ec.vjid = M rtiy C lc iix r .lir u
<16?9-1702) !l6 8 *-1 '3 9 d ! ;1 7 0 2 -1 7 '4 ) !>'rriJf/s iTH e Old (VHfr'Wl&r) S tiu ie .k i. g rar:ti< ;Ss.ghr of
;d /.7 6 6 ', JO HN II, K ir.g o Poland
i o i m S o v e r e ig n s
Stephen Longstaffe
C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w
A cting 47
Authorship 48
Blackfriars Playhouse 48
Blazon 49
Boy Players 50
C ensorship 50
C lassical Heritage 52
C om edy 52
C ostum es 53
Court 54
Education 55
G lo b e Theatre 56
History Play 56
King Jam es B ib le 57
London 57
M asqu e 58
Earl o f O xford 59
Pastoral 59
Patronage 60
Plague 60
Playing Com pany 61
Props 62
Publishing 62
Repertoire 63
46
Shakespeare's Literary and Cultural Contexts
Rhetoric 64
R om ance 64
Scenery 65
Stage D irections 65
Stages 66
Sumptuary Laws 66
Tragedy 66
A ctin g
47
The Shakespeare H andbook
n o t striv in g for 're a lism ' in th e m o d ern sen se s o m u ch a s 'co m m u n ica tio n ',
p articu larly o f em o tio n s. A cto rs, p articu larly co m ic a cto rs, are likely to
h a v e a d d ressed au d ien ces d irectly in p laces, p articu larly in so lo s e t sp eech es
o r so lilo q u ies. A range o f sta n d a rd d ev ices co u ld d ra w th e a u d ien ce ou tsid e
the fram e o f th e story , am o n g st them a sid e s (w h ere actors sp e a k b u t are
n o t heard b y so m e o r all o f th o se o n stage), p ro lo g u e s and ep ilo g u e s (sp eech es
in tro d u cin g o r w rap p in g u p p lay s), ch o ru ses (lin k in g sp eech es d u rin g
p lays), d u m b sh o w s (w h ere acto rs m im e ev en ts), so lilo q u ie s a n d so n g s and
d an ces.
A u th o rsh ip
B la c k fria rs Playho u se
48
Shakespeare's Literary and Cultural Contexts
B la z o n
T h is w ord co m es from the French for 'c o a t o f a rm s', and refers to a literary
co n v en tio n u ltim ately d erived from G reek a n d L atin p o ets. A b la z o n ch a ra c
teristically d w ells o n o r lists p a rts o f th e b o d y . It w a s o ften u sed in love
p oetry, ty p ically co m p arin g p arts o f a w o m a n 's b o d y to n a tu ra lly b eau tifu l
th in g s (lips to ch e rries, fo r exam p le). S h ak esp e a re's S o n n et 130 b o th w ittily
p la y s o n th e co n v en tio n a n d u se s it to attack th e in sin cerity o f w ritin g o f love
u sin g tired co n v en tion s:
49
The Shakespeare H andbook
B o y Players
C e n s o rs h ip
50
Shakespeare's Literary and Cultural Contexts
51
The Shakespeare H andbook
C la s s ic a l H erita g e
Com edy
A play w ith a p red o m in an tly ligh t-h earted ton e, rep resen tin g ch aracters
b elo w a ce rtain so cia l rank, w ith a h ap p y en d in g . E lizab eth an th eo rists o f
co m e d y tend ed to em p h asize its fu n ctio n s; ty p ica lly , to in stru ct a n d delight.
M o st R en aissan ce th in kers accep ted the idea th at tru e a rt h a d to h a v e a m oral
p u rp o se. F o r u s, co m e d y m eans lau g h ter; b u t for so m e R en a issa n ce thinkers,
la u g h ter in itse lf w as d ee p ly su sp ect. L au g h ter can , a fte r a ll, b e p ro v o k ed by
n oth ing m o re th an tick lin g , a n d y e t in o th er circu m sta n ce it m ay sig n ify a
d ism issiv e resp on se. T h a t said , in h is A pology f o r P oetry (1 595), S ir P hilip
Sid n ey d o es allo w lau g hter, s o lo n g a s it is su b o rd in a ted to a m o ral, co rrectiv e
p u rp o se: the d isp lay in g o f v ices to rid icu le, th e ro le s 'w h ich w e p la y n a tu r
a lly ' (th a t is, easily , b u t also fo o lish ly , a s a 'n a tu ra l' w a s so m eb o d y born
foo lish , lik e S ir A n d rew A g u ech eek in Tw elfth N ight).
'C o rrectio n ' is the te rrito ry o f satire, a n d Ben Jo n so n , in th e p refa ce to E very
M an In H is H u m ou r (1599), ex p la in s th at in th is sa tirica l co m e d y h e offers
'd e ed s, an d lan g u ag e, su ch as m e n d o u se / A nd p erso n s, su ch a s C om ed y
w o u ld ch o o se, / W h en sh e w o u ld sh o w an Im ag e o f th e tim es, / A n d sp o rt
w ith h u m an fo llies, n o t w ith crim e s'. T h e p u rp o se is co rrectiv e; b y la u g h in g at
follies o n stag e, a n au d ien ce is d ra w n to co n sid er th e rid icu lo u sn ess o f its o w n
g ree d , e n v y o r lust. Jo n so n b eliev es th a t th e m o st effectiv e w a y o f d o in g this
a s b y m a in ta in in g th e d ram atic illu sion. In the p ro log u e to E v ery M an In, he
criticiz es th e u se o f ch o ru ses (in the sam e y e a r th at Sh a k esp e a re u sed one,
v ery self-co n scio u sly , in H en ry V ), p e o p le g ro w in g o ld d u rin g the p la y , a
co u p le o f paid h and s rep resen tin g w h o le arm ies, co n v en tion al so u n d effects
o r d escen ts o f g o d s from th e sky.
A ll o f th ese d ev ices, a n d m o re, w ere ad o p ted a t o n e tim e o r an oth er, by
Sh ak esp eare, w h o w as m u ch less co n cern ed w ith su ch q u estio n s o f rep resen
tation al d eco ru m . S h ak esp e are's co m ed ies frequ ently d o h a v e a sa tiric point,
b u t sa tire is n o t their d o m in an t m od e. B ro ad ly sp ea k in g , they are co n cern ed
52
Shakespeare's Literary and Cultural Contexts
O , rejoice
B ey o n d a co m m o n jo y ! a n d se t it d ow n
W ith gold o n lastin g p illars: in o n e v o yag e
D id C la rib el h er h u sb an d find a t Tunis,
A n d F erd in an d h er b ro th er found a w ife
W h ere h e h im se lf w as lo st; P rosp ero h is d u k ed o m
In a p o o r isle ; and all o f u s o u rselves,
W h en n o m an w a s h is o w n . ( 5 .1 . 2 0 9 -1 6 , p. 3103)
C o stu m es
53
The Shakespeare H andbook
C o u rt
54
Shakespeare's Literary and Cultural Contexts
E d u ca tio n
55
The Shakespeare H andbook
G lo b e T h e a tre
H isto ry Play
T h e 'F irst F o lio ' (see G lo ssary ) w as d ivid ed in to co m ed ies, trag ed ies and
h isto ries. T h o u g h S h ak esp e are w ro te m an y o th e r p la y s s e t in th e p ast, the
56
Shakespeare's Literary and Cultural Contexts
K in g Jam es B ib le
T h is E n g lish tran slatio n , p u b lish ed in 1611, b eca m e th e 'a u th o riz ed v ersio n '
o f th e B ib le for ce n tu rie s to co m e, b u t it w as n o t read o r u sed b y Sh ak esp eare
h im self (see E n gel, this v o lu m e, C h ap ter 2). In d eed , clo se stu d y o f S h a k e
s p e a re 's b ib lical lan g u ag e h a s estab lish ed th at h e see m s to h a v e b e e n v ery
fam iliar w ith o ne tran slatio n , the 'G e n e v a ' Bible. Sh a k esp e a re also clearly
k new o th e r tran slatio n s, su ch as the 'B ish o p s' B ib le' (1568). T h e G en ev a Bible
w a s ex trem e ly p op u lar, in p a rt b ecau se o f the q u a lity o f th e tran slatio n , bu t
also b ec a u se o f its size (m an y B ib les w ere p u b lish ed in th e larg e F olio form at,
b u t th e G en e v a B ib le w as p u blish ed in q u arto ) (see G lo ssary ). T h e G eneva
B ib le w as first p u blished in fu ll in E n g lan d in 1560. S h a k esp e a re w a s also very
fam iliar w ith the sep a ra te p u b licatio n o f the b ib lica l b o o k o f th e P salm s
(kn ow n a s th e P salter) w h ich d iffers from th e G en ev a B ib le 's tran slatio n o f
th em . S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s re fer m o st frequ en tly to M a tth ew 's G o sp el, and
th e n to th e P salm s.
H ow ever, a s th e K in g Ja m es B ib le w as b u ilt o n ea rlier tra n sla tio n s (see
E n gel, this v o lu m e, C h a p te r 2), and o ften th erefo re 'q u o te d ' th em , reading
it w ill g iv e y o u a g o o d id ea o f th e k in d o f scrip tu ra l la n g u a g e to w hich
Sh a k esp e a re a n d h is co n tem p o raries w ere accu sto m ed .
Lo n d o n
57
The Shakespeare H andbook
M asqu e
58
Shakespeare's Literary and Cultural Contexts
E a rl o f O x fo rd
Pastoral
59
The Shakespeare H andbook
P atronage
Plague
60
Shakespeare's Literary and Cultural Contexts
P la y in g C o m p a n y
61
The Shakespeare H andbook
Props
P u b lish in g
62
Shakespeare's Literary and Cultural Contexts
R e p e rto ire
63
The Shakespeare H andbook
R h e to ric
R o m a n ce
64
Shakespeare's Literary and Cultural Contexts
S ce n e ry
65
The Shakespeare H andbook
Stages
S u m p tu a ry Law s
Tragedy
A p la y w ith a p red o m in an tly so m b re tone rep resen tin g ch a ra cters p rin cip ally
from a so cia l elite and en d in g u nh ap p ily w ith a d eath . T h e o ries o f traged y in
S h a k e sp e a re 's tim e em p h asized its fu n ctio n a s a tru e rep resen tatio n o f the
n eg a tiv e asp e cts o f h u m an ex p erien ce (in S ir P h ilip S id n e y 's w o rd s, it show s
'th e u lce rs th at a re co vered w ith tissu e'). T h e m o st co m p ellin g represen tation
o f th is w as tak en to b e th e d ea th (an d , m o re im p o rta n tly , th e d o w n fall) o f
so m eo n e o f h ig h so cial statu s in w hom th e a u d ien ce had a stro n g em otion al
in v estm en t.
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Shakespeare's Literary and Cultural Contexts
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How to Read Shakespeare
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Case Studies in Reading I
Reading the Texts
C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w
Sh akespeare's English 72
Shakespeare's Verse 73
Analysing the Sonnet 75
Language and D ram atic C om m unication 77
Sh akespeare's Prose 79
The M ovem ent betw een Poetry and Prose 82
Shakespeare's Imagery 84
Plays as D ram atic Poems 86
Sh akespeare's W ord-play 87
Language and the Lower O rders 89
Sh akespeare's Language Experts 90
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The Shakespeare H andbook
S h a k e sp e a re 's En g lish
72
C ase Studies in Reading I: Reading the Texts
H ere, th e so n n e t's te n -sy llab le lin e ex p lain s w h y 'th e se a ' first 'rece iv e s rain
s till' and th en 'a d d e th ("a b u n d a n ce "] to h is sto re '. 'R e c e iv e th ' w o u ld h a v e
g iv en th e fo rm er lin e elev en sy llab les, w h ile 'a d d s ' w o u ld h a v e g iv en the
latter n in e sy llab les. In h is p lays, w h en th e requ irem en ts o f rhythm and m etre
w ere n o t at issu e, S h ak esp e are g en era lly see m s to h a v e fav ou red the en d in g '-
e th ' for h is m o re form al scenes.
F orm ality w a s also at issu e in S h ak esp e are's ch o o sin g to use th e secon d -
p erso n p ro n o u n s 'th e e ', 'th o u ', 'th y ' a n d 'th in e ' a s o p p o sed to 'y o u ' a n d 'y o u r'.
D u rin g the six tee n th ce n tu ry , frien d s, fam ily and a cq u a in ta n ces ad d ressed
o n e a n o th er u sing 'th o u ' a n d its v a rio u s form s. 'Y o u ' and 'y o u r ' w ere reserved
for m o re form al situ atio n s a n d w h en a so cia l in ferio r w a s a d d ressin g h is o r
h er su p erior. T h e m o re in fo rm al 'th o u ' co u ld co n v ersely b e u sed b y a social
s u p erio r o r eld er in resp ectiv ely ad d ressin g an in ferio r o r y ou th . H am let's
p ast in tim acy w ith O p h elia is su g g ested in h is letter to h er b y h is u se o f the
m o re p e rso n a l 'th e e ' and 'th in e ' in the clo sin g : ' "B u t th at I lo v e th ee b e s t, O
m o st b est, b elie v e it. A dieu. / T h in e ev erm o re, m o st d e a r lad y, w h ilst this
m ach in e is to h im , / H a m le t" ' (2. 2. 1 2 1 -2 4 , pp. 1 6 9 3 -4 ). In a n o th er exam p le,
O rsin o 's u se o f 'th o u ' and its fo rm s in his first in tera ctio n w ith 'C e sa rio ' (the
d isg u ised V iola) u n d ersco res h is o w n s e n se o f so cia l su p erio rity : 'C esa rio , /
T h o u k n o w 'st n o less b u t all. 1 h a v e u n clasp ed / T o th ee the b o o k e v e n o f m y
secret so u l. / T h erefo re, g o o d y ou th , ad d ress th y g a it u nto her, / B e not
d en ied access [ . . . ] / Till thou h ave a u d ien ce' (1. 4 . 1 2 -1 7 , p. 1774). O rsin o 's
u se o f th ou and thin e at th e sa m e tim e, how ever, iro n ically in v ites V io la's o w n
d esire for m o re fam iliarity w ith him a s h is belo ved .
S h a k e sp e a re 's V erse
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1.1
M u sic. E n ter O R S IN O D u ke o f Illy ria, C U R IO , a n d o th er lords
O R S IN O If m u sic b e th e fo o d o f love, play on,
G iv e m e e x c e ss o f it th at, su rfeitin g ,
T h e a p p e tite m a y sick en a n d so die.
T h at strain ag ain , it had a d y in g fall.
O , it ca m e o 'e r m y ea r lik e the sw e e t sou n d
T h at b reath es u p o n a b a n k o f violets,
Stealin g a n d g iv in g odour. E n ou g h , n o m ore,
'T is n o t so sw eet n o w a s it w as before. ( 1 . 1 . 1 - 8 , p. 1768)
1.3
E n ter S IR T O B Y [Belch] a n d M A R IA
S IR T O B Y W h at a p lag u e m ean s m y n iece to ta k e th e d ea th o f h er b ro th er
th u s? I am su re c a re 's an en e m y to life. ( 1 .3 . 1 - 2 , p. 1771)
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C ase Studies in Reading I: Reading the Texts
an ap aest (u n stre sse d /u n stre sse d /stre ss e d ) and the sp o n d ee (stre sse d /stre sse d ).
P en tam eter refers to a p o etic lin e th a t co n ta in s five m etrica l u n its. In
S h a k e sp e a re 's d a y , th e m o st co m m o n ly em p lo y ed m etres w ere trim eter (three
m etrical u n its), tetram eter (fo u r m etrical u nits), p en tam eter, h ex am eter (six
m etrical u n its) and h ep tam eter (sev en m etrical units).
S h ak esp e are's lik in g for iam b ic p en tam eter had m a n y ro o ts. Im m ortalized
in C h a u c e r's C an terb u ry Tales tw o ce n tu rie s earlier, th e m etrica l p a tte rn had
b eco m e a m ainstay o f E n g lish p o etry b y th e e n d o f th e six tee n th cen tu ry. It
had h elp ed to en liv e n th e ly ric p o etry o f W y att, H o w ard a n d S id n e y ; bolstered
the a m b itio u s in ten tio n s o f S p e n se r in h is ep ic F aerie Q u een e and u nd erpinn ed
the m igh ty lin es o f S h ak esp e are's ill-fated co n tem p o ra ry C h risto p h er M arlow e
in T am bu rlaine and D octor Faustu s. B u t p e rh ap s m o re im p o rtan tly , it w a s
also th e rh y th m ic m etre th o u gh t clo sest to ev e ry d a y sp e ech , b o th in its
u n s tre sse d /stre s se d rh y th m (rem in iscen t o f th e b e a t o f a h u m a n h e a rt - d e
d u m , d e d u m , d e d u m ) a n d in its len gth (sim ilar to th e sp an o f a n o rm al breath).
T h u s, in iam bic p entam eter, Sh ak esp eare found an id eal v eh icle for the
ex trao rd in ary y e t p aten tly h u m an p erso n alities th at he w ou ld crea te for his
co m ed ies, h isto ry p lays, trag ed ies and rom ances.
In fash io n in g th e rh y th m ic m u sin g s o f V iola, H am let, P rin ce H al, Prospero
a n d o th e rs, S h ak esp e are w as u n d o u b ted ly in sp ired b y h is e x te n siv e early
w o rk w ith th e so n n et (see G lo ssary ). In to ta l, Sh ak esp eare pen n ed 1 5 4 o f th ese
sh o rt ly ric lo v e p o em s. F irst p u b lish ed to g eth er in 1 6 0 9 , th ese so n n ets are
fam ou sly id io sy n cratic in th e ir tw o ad d ressees: th e first 126 a re d ed ica ted to
a 'y o u n g m a n '; w h ile th e la s t 2 8 are d ed icated to a 'd a rk la d y '. Follo w in g
the p o etic co n v en tio n s o f th e tim e, a lm o st all o f th em a re co m p o sed u sin g
ia m b ic p en tam eter, a n d to g eth er they d o cu m en t S h a k e sp e a re 's ch a n g in g
p o etic e n g a g e m en t w ith tw o v ery d iffere n t b elo v ed s. A s su ch , they afford
ex cellen t e x a m p les o f S h a k e sp e a re 's m eth od s o f ex p ressio n w ith in h is fav ou r
ite rh y th m ic m etre.
A n a ly sin g th e S o n n et
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W h en I b eh o ld th e violet p a st prim e,
A n d sa b le c u rls en silv ered o 'e r w ith w hite;
W h en lo fty trees I s e e b arren o f leaves,
W h ich erst from h ea t d id can o p y the herd,
A n d su m m er's g reen all g ird ed u p in sh eav es
B o rn e o n the b ie r w ith w h ite and b ristly beard:
T h e n o f th y b eau ty d o I qu estio n m ak e
T h at thou a m o n g th e w astes o f tim e m u st g o,
S in ce sw e e ts and b eau ties d o th em selv es forsake,
A n d d ie a s fa s t a s th e y see o th ers g row ;
A nd n o th in g 'g a in st tim e 's scy th e c a n m ak e d efen ce
S a v e breed to b ra v e h im w h en h e tak es th ee h en ce, (p. 1927)
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P R IN C E H A R R Y [ . . . ] T h is earth th at b e a rs th ee dead
B e a rs n o t a liv e s o sto u t a g en tlem an .
S h a k e sp e a re 's Pro se
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M A ST E R B oatsw ain!
BO A TSW A IN H ere, M aster. W h at cheer?
M A STER G o o d , sp e a k to th 'm arin ers. F a ll to 't y a rely , o r w e run
o u rselv e s ag rou n d . Bestir, bestir! Exit
E n ter M A R IN E R S
BO A TSW A IN H eigh, m y h earts! C h eerly , ch e e rly , m y h earts! Yare, yare!
T ake in th e topsail! Tend to th 'M a ste r's w h istle! - B lo w till
th o u b u rst th y w in d , if ro o m e n o u g h .' ( 1 .1 . 1 -7 , p. 3055)
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L ike M alv o lio 's lan g u ag e, F a lsta ff's p ro se reveals m u ch . H is v o cab u lary d em
o n stra tes h is ex ten siv e kno w led ge. A t the sa m e tim e, h is sy m m etrical p h ra s
ing - 'sq u ire s o f th e n ig h t's b o d y ' h as th e sa m e am o u n t o f sy llab les a s 'th ie v e s
o f th e d a y 's b e a u ty '; 'D ia n a 's fo reste rs'= 'g e n tle m e n o f th e s h a d e '= 'm in io n s o f
th e m o o n ' - sh o w s h is im p ressiv e lin g u istic artistry. A n d p erh ap s m o st
im p o rtan tly , th ese ev en ly -w eig h ed co m p o u n d co n stru ctio n s u n d ersco re his
ex p a n siv e v isio n . H e c a n eq u ally im ag in e h is crew as 'sq u ire s', a s 'th ie v e s', as
'fo re ste rs', a s 'g e n tle m e n ', a s 'm in io n s' and a s 'm e n o f good g o v e rn m en t'.
B o th o f th e ex am p les w ell illu stra te th a t S h ak esp e a re's p ro se c a n its e lf b e as
a rtfu l a s h is verse. In th e fo u r p lays th a t w e h a v e b e e n co n sid erin g , thou gh,
Sh a k esp e a re sh o w s h im self p erh ap s to b e m o st in terested in th e d ram atic
p o te n tia l o f p rose. T h o u g h it still fu n ctio n s a s th e d efin in g id io m o f h is lo w er-
o rd e r serv a n ts and clo w n s lik e M alv o lio an d T rin cu lo , it a t the sa m e tim e
is freq u en tly u sed b y h is elite ch aracters. In th ese p lays, w h o sp e a k s p rose is
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V IO L A G o o d m ad am , le t m e see y o u r face.
O L IV IA H a v e you any co m m issio n from y o u r lord to n eg o tia te w ith m y
face? Y ou a re n o w o u t o f y ou r text. B u t w e w ill d ra w th e curtain
a n d sh ow y o u th e picture.
[S he nnveils]
L ook y o u , sir, su ch a o n e I w as th is presen t. Is't n o t w ell d one?
V IO L A E x cellen tly d o n e, if G o d d id all.
O L IV IA 'T is in g rain , sir, 'tw ill en d u re w ind a n d w eather.
V IO L A 'T is b eau ty tru ly b le n t, w h o se red and w h ite
N atu re 's o w n sw e e t an d cu n n in g hand laid on.
L ad y , y o u a re th e c ru e ll'st sh e aliv e
If y o u w ill lead th e se g ra ce s to the g rav e
A n d le a v e th e w o rld n o copy.
O L IV IA O sir, I w ill n o t b e s o h ard -hearted . I w ill g iv e o u t d ivers
sch e d u les o f m y b eau ty . It sh all b e in v en to ried and every
p a rticle and u ten sil lab elled to m y w ill, a s, item , tw o lip s,
in d ifferen t red ; item , tw o g rey ey es, w ith lid s to th em ; item , on e
n eck , o n e ch in , and s o forth . (1. 5. 2 0 2 -1 8 , p. 1779)
C y n ical p rose, how ever, q u ick ly sh ifts to p o ig n a n t v e rse a fte r V iola speaks
o f O rs in o 's 'fe rtile te ars' and 'g ro an s th at th u n d er love, w ith sig h s o f fire'
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A lo n so 's v erse o u tb u rst elev ates the m ood o f the scen e, re cla im in g it from
G o n z a lo 's b u m b lin g reassu ran ces and A n to n io and S e b a stia n 's a cid ic in terjec
tio n s a n d asid es. H ere h eartfelt g rie f tem p o rarily tru m p s cy n ic ism , n o b le p as
sio n silen ces reb ellio u sn ess. In m in iatu re, this sc e n e 's m o v em en ts fro m verse
to p ro se a n d p rose to v e rse u n d ersco re th e p o w e r o f leg itim a te p o litical
au th o rity . In d o in g so , it also su b tly criticizes the p resen t truant le a d er th at is
A lo n so and the p a st truant lead er that w as Prospero.
S h a k e sp e a re 's Im agery
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T h e p o e m 's im a g e s o f 'lo fty trees [ . . . ] b arren o f le a v es' and th e 'th e v io let p ast
p rim e' o ffer sim p le p ictu re s o f n atu ral d ecay w h ile th e y at th e sa m e tim e
su b tly fig u re th e n ecessary w ith erin g o f both p o w erfu l m e n ('lo fty trees') and
b ea u tifu l w o m en ('v io le tjs ]'). A s w e sh all see , in h is p la y s S h a k esp e a re uses
im agery to ad d d ep th to h is ch aracters, to u n d ersco re m o o d s a n d th em es, and
to p ro v id e, a s h e d o es in S o n n e t 12, th e sim p le p lea su re th at co m es from
reco g n izin g sim ila rity in d ifference.
F o r a n o th er ex a m p le, w e can retu rn to 2 H enrif I V a n d lo o k m o re clo sely at
P rin ce H a l's su rp risin g rev elatio n th a t know y o u a ll'. In this A c t O ne
sp e ech , H al essen tially re v ea ls his p lan to refo rm h is 'id le ' beh av iou r, co n
ten d in g th at th is refo rm atio n w ill m ak e him seem 'm o re g o o d ly a n d attract
m o re e y e s' th an if h e had n ev e r h a d to reform at a ll. In th e ab stract, this is n o t
a d ifficu lt id ea to exp ress. H al, h ow ever, co m m u n icates it th ro u g h a serie s o f
im a g e s, th e m o st ex ten d ed o f w h ich co m es at th e b e g in n in g o f th e sp eech :
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M o v in g from h is w isp y im ag e o f 'm e ltin g ' 'sp irits', P rosp ero q u ick ly fash ion s
th e m o re p ro fo u n d im ag e o f o u r w o rld and its so cia l in stitu tio n s - th e political
('to w e rs'), th e ec o n o m ic a n d artistic ('g o rg eo u s p a la ce s') and th e religious
('te m p le s') - a s 'd isso lv in g ' in to n o th in gn ess. In th e ten sio n b etw een the range
a n d co n ten t o f its im ages, this sp e ech g iv es sh ap e to th e co n tra d ictio n s at the
h eart o f P ro sp ero 's character.
P a ttern s o f im ag ery can not o n ly b e fou n d in S h ak esp e a re's sp eech es; they can
also b e fou n d m o re b ro ad ly w ith in m an y o f h is plays, (see H is c o c k /L o n g -
sta ffe, th is v o lu m e, C h a p te r 1) T h ro u g h o u t T h e Tem pest, im a g ery h a v in g to do
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S h a k e sp e a re 's W o rd -p la y
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H A M LET W h a t's th e n ew s?
RO SEN C R A N TZ N o n e, m y Lord, b u t th at the w o rld 's g ro w n honest.
HAM LET T h e n is d o o m sd ay near. B u t y o u r n ew s is n o t true. L et m e
qu estio n m o re in p articular. W h a t h a v e y o u , m y g o o d friends,
d eserv ed a t the h an d o f Fortu ne th at she sen d s y o u to p riso n h ith er?
G U IL D E N S T E R N P rison, m y lord ?
H A M LET D en m ark 's a prison.
RO SEN C R A N TZ T h e n is the w o rld one.
H A M LET A g o o d ly on e, in w h ich th e re a re m a n y co n fin es, w ard s, and
d u n g eo n s, D en m ark b e in g o n e o ' th ' w orst.
RO SEN C R A N TZ W e th in k n o t so, m y Lord. (2. 2 . 2 3 1 ^ 3 , p. 1696)
Lan g u ag e a n d the L o w e r O rd e rs
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H A M LET [ . . . ] To d ie , to sleep .
To sleep , p erch an ce to d ream . A y, th e re 's th e rub,
F o r in th at sleep o f d eath w h a t d rea m s m ay co m e
W h en w e have sh u ffled o ff this m o rtal coil
M u st g iv e u s pau se. T h e re 's th e respect
T h at m ak es calam ity o f so lo n g life , [ . . . ] (3.1 6 6 -7 1 , p. 1705)
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From Texts to Theory
M ark Robson
C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w
Shakespeare in Theory 93
Reading Reading 95
N ew Historicism 96
'R a c e ' and Ethnicity 10 0
G end er and Sexuality 103
Psychoanalysis and D econstruction 10 5
Shakespeare After Theory 11 0
S h a k e sp e a re in T h eo ry
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R e a d in g R eading
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N e w H isto ric is m
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S o w h en th is lo o se b eh av io u r I th row o ff
A nd p ay th e d eb t 1 n ev e r prom isd ,
By h o w m u ch b e tte r th an m y w ord I am ,
By s o m u ch sh all I falsify m e n 's h o p es;
A n d lik e b rig h t m etal o n a su llen grou nd ,
M y refo rm atio n , g littrin g o 'e r m y fault,
S h a ll sh o w m o re g o o d ly a n d a ttra ct m o re eyes
T h a n th at w h ich h a th n o fo il to se t it off. (1. 2 .1 8 6 - 9 3 , p. 1357)
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Cas e Studies in Reading II: From Texts to Theory
T h is is la n d 's m in e, by S y co ra x m y m other,
W h ich th ou ta k 's t fro m m e. W hen th o u ca m 'st first,
T h o u stro k 'st m e and m ad e m u ch o f m e, w o u ld st g iv e m e
W ater w ith b errie s in 't, a n d teach m e how
T o n a m e the b ig g er ligh t, and h o w the less,
T h a t bu rn b y d ay a n d n ig h t; and th en I lo v ed thee,
A n d sh o w ed th e e a ll th e q u alities o 'th 'isle,
T h e fresh sp rin g s, b rin e-p its, b arren p la ce a n d fertile -
C u rsed b e I th at did so ! A ll th e ch arm s
O f S y co rax , toads, b eetles, b a ts, ligh t o n you;
F o r I am all th e su b je cts th at y o u have,
W h ich first w as m in e o w n k in g , and here y o u sty m e
In th is hard rock , w h iles y o u d o k eep from m e
T h e re st o 'th 'isla n d . (1. 2. 3 3 4 -4 7 , p. 3065)
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u n fo rtu n ate o r rev ealin g ch o ice o f w o rd s - is clear, a lth o u g h C a lib a n 's title to
th e island is n o t en tirely co n v in cin g . It is h is p o sse ssio n , h e cla im s, th rou gh
Sy co rax , h is m other. A n ia L o om ba su g g ests th a t th e fig u re o f S y co ra x fu rth er
g en d ers th e co lo n ial situ atio n - p ittin g a fem ale figure a g ain st b o th Prospero
a n d M iran d a - a n d th at P ro sp ero also em p h asiz e s h er n o n -E u ro p ea n orig in s
a s w ell a s h er w itch craft: 'P ro sp e ro 's tak eo v er is b o th ra cial p lu n d er and a
tran sfer to p atriarch y [ . . . ] P ro sp ero a s co lo n ialist co n so lid a te s p o w e r w h ich is
sp ecifically w hite and m ale, a n d co n stru cts S y co ra x a s a b lack , w ayw ard and
w icked w itch in o rd er to leg itim ise it' (L o o m b a in W h ite 1 9 9 9 :1 4 6 , em p h ases
in o rig in al).
C a lib a n 's d isp o ssessio n , in w h ich h e claim s h e h a s b eco m e a su b je ct w here
form erly h e w as a k in g , is m ad e ex p licit in this kind o f rea d in g at the p o in t
w h ere P rosp ero lay s c la im to C alib an him self: 'T h is th in g o f d a rk n ess I /
A ck n o w le d g e m in e ' ( 5 .1 . 2 7 8 -7 9 ). H ow w e read th is is a key to h o w w e read
the p lay. Is it a m o m en t o f reco n ciliation , in w h ich P rosp ero o ffers so m e vision
o f fo rg iv en ess (C alib an h as ju st b e e n in volved in a p lo t to k ill h im , o f cou rse)?
Is it a fu rth er ex a m p le o f P ro sp ero 's p o w e r o v e r C a lib an , o r o f h is d esire to
retain so m e p o w er o v e r him ev en as h e p rep ares to le a v e the islan d ? Is it a
reco g n itio n o f th e e x te n t to w h ich P ro sp ero 's trea tm en t o f C a lib a n m a y h a v e
sh a p e d him ? A ll o f th e se re ad in g s are p o ssib le, b u t th e ir persu asiv en ess
d ep en d s o n h o w w ell th e y fit in to a b ro ad er s e n s e o f the play a s a w h ole.
As w ith the n ew h isto ricist ch o ice o f co n tex ts, ch o o sin g w h ic h is th e m ost
'a p p ro p riate' read in g p resen ts p ro b lem s, and th is has le d to so m e critical
scep ticism w ith resp ect to th e co lo n ial read in g o f T h e Tem pest. E d w ard P ech ter
u n d erlin es that:
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C a s e Studies in Reading II: From Texts to Theory
see sex u a l sig n ifican ce in ap p aren tly in n o cen t ev e ry d a y o ccu rren ces), bu t
n ev e rth e le ss to th in k th a t su ch co n ccrn s a re th e o n ly co n trib u tio n th a t p sy
ch o a n aly tic th in kin g m ig h t m ak e to stu d ies o f Sh ak esp eare is u ltim ately
red u ctive. W hile F re u d 's e a rly w o rk ten d s to fo c u s o n q u estio n s o f sex u a lity
a n d ch ild h o o d , it d ev e lo p s in to a m u ch m o re w id e-ra n g in g se t o f con cern s.
P erh ap s m o st fru itfu lly , h e a llo w s u s to th in k ab o u t tim e and kn o w led ge in
w ays th a t p ro v id e a cle a r ch a lle n g e to th e in terests o f historicism .
In a se rie s o f p ieces w ritte n betw een the end o f W orld W ar I and aroun d
1920, Freu d m o ved aw ay from his co n cern s w ith sex u a lity to w ard s a
reco gn itio n th at n o t all h u m an actio n s w ere b ased o n th e p u rsu it o f
p leasu re. D ra w in g in p a rticu lar o n th e trau m atic effects o f w artim e
e x p e rie n ce and th e p sy ch o lo g ica l (rath e r th a n p h y sica l) sym p tom s
ex h ib ited by th o se involved in accid en ts, F reu d d ev elo p ed h is m u ch -
d iscu ssed co n cep tio n o f th e d eath d riv e. In th e co u rse o f th is w o rk , he
a lso d escribed a p a rticu lar relation b etw ee n k n o w led g e and tim e th at he
called N achtrglichkeit. W h ile there is n o d irect E n g lish eq u iv a len t to this
term , it en co m p asses sen se s o f b elated n ess, a n d cru cia lly , th e id ea th at
k n o w led g e o f an e v e n t d o es n o t n ecessarily co in cid e w ith th e m o m en t
a t w h ic h th at e v e n t is 'e x p e rie n c e d '. In th e ca s e o f tra u m a - and F reu d 's
k ey ex a m p le is sh ell sh o ck - th ere is a stru ctu re o f u nw illed repetition:
th o se w h o su ffer from trau m a are co m p elled to g o b a ck o v e r w h a t has
h ap p en ed to them ev en th o u gh , each tim e they d o so, they a g a in feel
p a in an d d isco m fo rt (w h a t F reu d c a lls 'u n p le a su re'). T h is rep etitio n can
b e b o th p sy ch o lo g ica l - n ig h tm ares, in v o lu n ta ry m em o ries, a n d s o o n -
an d p h y sical, in clu d in g sh a k in g o r ro ck in g back a n d forth . W h a t Freud
su g g ests, h ow ever, is th at th is rep etitio n is n ecessa ry b ec a u se a t th e tim e
o f th e trau m atic 'e x p e rie n ce ' it w as im p o ssib le to know fully w h a t w as
h a p p e n in g , and th at sin ce th e ex ten t o f th e e v e n t is s o overw h elm in g,
the m in d effectiv ely clo se s itse lf d o w n as a fo rm o f self-p rotection . So
th e ev e n t is n o t ex p erien ced a t th e tim e o f its o ccu rren ce, it m u st b e
g ra d u a lly p ieced to g eth er th rou gh rep etitio n s in w h ich slig h tly m o re
can be seen each tim e. O u r k n o w led g e o f su ch e v e n ts is th u s in ev itab ly
b elated and h as to b e se e n n o t a s so m eth in g w h ic h h a p p e n s o n ce and
for all, b u t in stead a s a p ro cess. R efle ct u p o n the w a y s in w h ich these
co n cern s w ith b elated n ess trau m a and re v ela tio n (N ach trglich teit)
m a y illu m in ate y o u r re ad in g s o f S h ak esp e a re's te x ts su ch a s Twelfth
N ight, H am let, a n d th e so n n ets, for exam p le.
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S h a k e sp e a re A fte r T h eo ry
th e d e m ise o f 'th e o ry ' - or, better, th e d em ise o f its p ro m ise, esp ecia lly in
e a rly m o d ern stu d ies - h a s p ro m p ted m o v es 'a fte r th e o ry ', w h ich is also to
sa y , b efo re th eo ry. N ew h isto ricism , in so fa r a s it is still p ractised , is
v irtu ally in d istin g u ish ab le from o ld h isto ricism ; early m o d ern cu ltu ral
stu d ie s d iv id e th e w o rld into p refab ricated b in a rism s and th in k them selves
lib erato ry in so d o in g . In Sh a k esp e a re stu d ies, p o stm o d ern ity has p assed ;
co n serv atism h as retu rn ed . (G o ld b erg 20 0 3 : x)
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and Film
C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w
A P la y e r's H ide
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C h a r le s L a m b o n K in g L e a r
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S h a k e sp e a re 's T h e a tre
O n 2 0 A p ril 1611, th ree d a y s b efo re S h ak esp e are's fo rty -six th b irth d a y and
n early tw en ty y e a rs a fte r G ree n e's d eath , D r S im o n F orm an m ad e a record
o f a p e rfo rm a n ce o f M acbeth th at h e h ad seen th at a ftern o o n at th e G lo b e. His
n o te s a re a m o n g the m o st d etailed reco rd s o f th e p la y s in p e rfo rm a n ce at
th is tim e and it is lik ely th a t S h ak esp e are w a s o n e o f th e p la y e rs crow d ed
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V ie w in g S h a k e sp e a re
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1611 (Sh ak esp eare h ad w ritten it, w e believ e, in 1606, aro u n d the tim e o f the
G u n p o w d er P lo t); so , it is q u ite p o ssib le th at th e co m p a n y m ad e chan ges
in p e rfo rm a n ce th at d id n o t su rv iv e in to th e prin ted text. T h e first p rin tin g o f
the p lay , in 1623, is n o w g en erally th o u g h t to b e T h o m a s M id d le to n 's abrid ged
a n d revised version o f S h a k e sp e a re 's p lay . B row n rig h tly arg u es that
S h a k e sp e a re 's texts are and h a v e a lw a y s b een 'o p e n ' to altern a tiv e w a y s o f
d eliv ery , b u t th e ch o ice s m ad e in d eliv ery h a v e critical co n se q u e n ce s for b o th
th e p a rt p e rfo rm ed and th e a u d ien ce's u nd erstan d in g o f th e p la y a s a w h o le
(Brow n 2002: 71). B y u nd erstan d in g th e co n te x t o f M acb eth 's early p erfo rm
a n ce s, w e a re b ette r ab le to ap p reciate the sh ap in g arch itectu re o f the te x ts -
b u t sev en teen th -cen tu ry p erfo rm an ces a re n o m o re d efin itiv e th an an y other.
In th e n e x t sectio n , I w ill su g g est so m e w ays in w h ich w e can b eg in to open
up the sc e n e to o u r o w n co n tem p o ra ry e x p lo ra tio n o f th e s c e n e in practice.
M a c b e th W o rk sh o p
T h e G ro u n d R u le s
1 T h e Space. A w o rk sh o p c a n ta k e p la ce an yw h ere. B u t o f a ll th e an yw h eres
th at th e y co u ld tak e p lace, th e trad itio n al classro o m is th e lea st attractive:
clu ttered w ith d esk s and ch airs, m an y h ie ra rch ica lly facing o n e w ay,
d esig n ed for sag es to lectu re to d iscip les rath er than for g ro u p s to
e m b a rk o n a sh ared exp lo ratio n o f a p ro b lem . S o if th is is w h ere y o u find
y o u rself, sta rt b y m o v in g ta b les o u t o f th e w ay and d o in g w h a t y o u can
to m a k e th e ro o m flexib le in th e w ays it c a n be u sed . It w ill n eed to be
flexib le, b ecau se w e d o n o t k n o w w h a t w e a re g o in g to d o w ith it yet.
2 T h e Tim e. T h e tim e m ay b e o u t o f jo in t in H am let and it p ro b ab ly is in
M acbeth a s w ell, b u t m o st ed u catio n al in stitu tio n s w ill rig o ro u sly p o lice
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P ractice
A cto rs a re p o sitio n ed , th e sc e n e is run, q u estio n s are ask ed and a s the group
p au ses o v e r a lin e, d iscu sse s a n actio n , th e tex t w ill g rad u ally b eco m e a p e r
form an ce. T h e g ro u p sh o u ld p ay a tten tio n to th e d ram a o f th e scen e - w h a t is
b ein g co n tested (b eca u se d ram a is alw a y s a co n flict), w h o is co n testin g it and
w h y ? A n d they sh o u ld atten d to th e p erso n al a n d p o litical d y n a m ics ev id en t
in the stag e p ictu re s th at they create a s th e tex t is b u ilt u p , lay er b y layer, into
a p erfo rm an ce. D iscu ssio n can ran g e b a ck a n d forth acro ss th e p la y ; it is ev en
p o ssib le (w ith co n fid en ce) to su g g est a n o th e r p a rt o f th e play to lo o k at to
help illu m in ate th e scene. (F o r a d etailed and th ea trica lly focu sed an alysis
o f this scen e see B ro w n 200 5 : 5 1 - 5 6 and W orster 2002.)
T h e sc e n e is d ecep tiv ely sim p le. T h e o ccasio n is a b a n q u e t in h o n o u r o f the
n ew k in g M acbeth , a m an w h o h as seized p o w e r u n ex p ected ly , violen tly ,
secre tly a n d w ith o u t rig h t. B u t M acb e th is b alan cin g tw o d ifferen t p a rtie s -
th e o n e in th e o p en , w ith th o se h e is n o w su b ju g a tin g , w h o reco gn ize th a t the
p o litics o f ty ran n y is to go alo n g w ith th e flow ; a n d th e o n e in th e sh ad o w s,
fo r n o t lo n g into th e scen e, M acbeth sk u lk s into th e corn er, a n x io u s for new s
from the m en h e sen t to m u rd er h is fo rm er ally B an qu o. T h is is a strikin g
scen e. M acb e th is m eant to b e th e triu m p h an t h ost: a s C h ris M ea d s p o in ts out,
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D o e s B an q u o A c tu a lly A p p ea r, a n d H o w d o e s M a c b e th R eact?
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M a c b e th in P e rfo rm a n ce
T h e B B C M a c b e t h (1982)
D irected b y Ja c k G o ld , th is 1982 film w as co m m issio n e d and b ro a d ca st b y the
B B C C om plete W orks series. T h e B B C M acbeth d elib era tely sh ied aw ay from
rep resentin g th e su p ern atu ral a s an y th in g o th e r th an a fig m en t o f M acb eth 's
o b sessiv e m ad n ess. T h e o n ly g h o sts here w ere in M a cb e th 's m in d . T h e
b a n q u e t sc e n e h ad n o p a rt for B a n q u o 's gory lo cks. M a cb e th railed o v e r the
ta b le, b u t o n ly at a n em p ty chair. T h ere w as n o g h o st o u tsid e h is m in d , no
w a y for th e a u d ien ce to see into th at m in d , a n d so n o a m b ig u ity about
w h eth er B an qu o is really th e re o r n o t. T h e cam era k e p t retu rn in g to th e chair,
a s if strain in g to see th e g h o st, and then b a ck to M a cb e th , sta rin g , h is sh akin g
arm p o in tin g a t a b se n t sp ace. Instead o f situ atin g th e su p rem acy o f fate, the
s c e n e w as a tip p in g p o in t in rep resen tin g how u n h in g ed M a cb e th w as. So m e
critics h a v e b een u ncon vin ced by N icol W illiam so n 's h y sterics w h ich B ern ice
K lim an (for ex am p le) d escrib ed a s 'w e a riso m e ' (K lim a n 2004: 101). T h is is
a lw a y s a risk y strateg y for an acto r d eterm in ed to ex p lo re M a cb e th a s a ch a r
a c te r full o f sou nd a n d fury - or, a s F orm an p u t it, 'a g rea t p assio n o f fea r and
fu ry '. W illiam so n 's M acb e th w as teeterin g o n th e ed g e o f m a d n ess e v e n in his
first ap p earan ce. Faced w ith th e w itch es, h e sto o d b a ck , a p p aren tly proud,
secre tly afra id . B an q u o tau nted the w itch e s, ap p ro ach ed th em , exam in ed
th em , bu t M acbeth stood b a ck , d u m b fo u n d ed . P ro p h ecies w h ich am u sed
B an qu o u n settled M acbeth . H is relatio n sh ip w ith Lad y M acbeth , su p erbly
p lay ed b y a sn ak e-lik e Ja n e L ap otaire, w as b o th sex u a l and v io len t. R ead in g
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B y in tro d u cin g th e g ho st, Sh a k esp e a re effectiv ely en d o rse s M acb eth 's
m ad n ess, for th is is a play w o rld in w h ich g h o sts d o ex ist a n d w itches
d o sh ap e th e u n iv erse in a p la ce th at is so m eh o w bey o n d tim e. M odern
p ro d u ctio n s often p re fe r to k eep M acbeth in the m aterial w orld and
re n d e r this sc e n e a s a d em o n stratio n o f h is m ad n ess. B y sta g in g the
s c e n e tw ice, o n ce w ith th e g h o st a n d o n ce w ith ou t, G o o ld k ep t open
b o th p o ssib ilities an d th e p e rfo rm a n ce n ev e r fin ally resolv ed w h eth er
M acbeth w as m ad , h au n ted o r b o th . C o n sid er th e im p lica tio n s o f
rev ersin g a p la y 's o p en in g scen es. In Tw elfth N ight a n d 1 H en ry IV , this
w o u ld rad ically affect o u r in tro d u ctio n s in to the d ra m a tic w o rld s and
the n a tu re o f th e b o n d s w e forge w ith th e ch aracters.
C o n c lu sio n
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Key Critical Concepts
and Topics
Adrian Streete
C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w
Settin g the S c e n e
L ik e any a cad e m ic d iscip lin e, Sh ak esp eare Stu d ies h a s its o w n critical
v o cab u lary w ith its o w n k ey critical co n cep ts a n d topics.
Sh ak esp earean critics u se this v o cab u lary a n d th ese k e y co n c e p ts and
to p ics in o rd e r to d iscu ss S h ak esp e are's te x ts in a ran ge o f co n texts,
in clu d in g S h a k e sp e a re 's e a rly m o d e m context.
T h is v o cab u lary and th ese co n cep ts and to p ics m ay see m d a u n tin g and
im p en etrab le a t first. B u t like a n y v o cab u lary , w ith so m e e ffo rt o n y ou r
p art, its co n cep ts a n d to p ics c a n b e le a rn t and u se d su ccessfully.
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E lsew h ere in this book, y o u w ill find ch ap ters th at d ea l w ith p a st and cu rren t
critica l ap p ro ach es to Sh ak esp eare. T h e se sh o w th a t th e critica l co n cep ts and
to p ics w h ich Sh ak esp earean critics use to d iscu ss th e p la y s a n d poem s
a re co n stan tly ch an g in g . Stu d en ts so m etim es a ssu m e th at a n y b o o k in the
lib ra ry - o r w o rse, an y d o cu m en t on the in tern e t - o n Sh ak esp eare w ill help
them w h en trying to p re p a re fo r a class o r w rite an essay. F o r exam p le,
a lth o u g h still in terestin g and w ell w o rth read in g, a b o o k su ch as M . C.
B ra d b ro o k 's T he G row th a n d S tru ctu re o f E lizabethan C om ed y, w h ich w as first
p u blished in 19 5 5 , is a p ro d u ct o f its tim e (see H isco ck a n d L o n gstaffe, this
v o lu m e). M an y o f its critical co n cep ts m a y still b e v a lid : o th ers w ill h a v e been
critiq u ed o r lo n g rejected . So , w h en y o u are try in g to m ak e sen se o f th e term s
th at Sh ak esp earean critics u se, y o u also need to b e a w a re that:
In w h a t follo w s, I w ill o u tlin e and exp lain six k e y critical co n cep ts and topics
co m m o n ly u sed b y Sh ak esp earean critics w ritin g to d ay . T h e se co n cep ts and
to p ics rep resen t a sn ap sh o t o f so m e im p o rta n t cu rre n t co n cern s and interests
w ith in Sh ak esp earean sch o la rsh ip in 20 0 8 . A s su ch , th e y o ffer n eith e r an
ex h a u stiv e list, n o r sh o u ld th e y b e read u ncritically. M y aim is n o t to give
y o u a serie s o f 'rea d in g s o r p ro v id e y o u w ith failsafe 'm e th o d s' th a t you
c a n 'a p p ly ' to an y Sh ak esp earean text. Rather, m y aim is to en co u ra g e you
to re flect critically o n how th ese k ey co n cep ts and to p ics m ig h t en a b le y o u to
b eg in to ex p lo re o th e r S h ak esp e arean te x ts n o t co v e red elsew h ere in this
b o o k . B y d ev elo p in g a critical v o ca b u la ry o f y ou r o w n , I h o p e th a t y o u w ill
feel m o re co n fid en t in ad d in g to th at v o ca b u la ry a n d ex p a n d in g y o u r u n d er
sta n d in g o f it th rou gh in d ep en d en t research.
K e y C o n c e p t O n e : A u th o rity
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K e y C ritical Concepts and Topics
king, R ich ard II, and end w ith th e assu m p tio n o f th e first T u d or m on arch
H en ry V II. Trad itionally , critics h a v e read this n a rra tiv e a s im p ly in g the res
to ra tio n o f m o n arch ical au th o rity in th e Tu d ors. H ow ev er, s in c e th e 1970s
sch o la rs h a v e fou n d a m u ch m o re co m p lex se t o f a ttitu d e s to w ard s m o n a r
ch ica l au th o rity at w o rk in the h isto ries. H e re are so m e in terestin g sectio n s to
ex p lo re further:
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K e y C o n c e p t Tw o : C a rn iv a le s q u e
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K e y C ritical Concepts and Topics
w as d ialo g ic, th at is to say , m u ltip le, p lu ral a n d 'lib e ra tin g '. T h o u g h the car
n iv al w as in v ariably a tem p o rary state, it co u ld n o n eth eless g iv e rise to a ll
k in d s o f su b v ersiv e b eh av io u rs. T h e carn iv alesq u e celeb ra ted w h a t B akhtin
term s seco n d life [ . . . ] a "w o rld in sid e o u t" ' (1 9 8 4 :1 1 ). A s su ch , it rejoices
in p a ro d y , satire, in v ersion , trav esty, p ro fan ity and a ce le b ra tio n o f bod ily
ex cess, w h at B akh tin term s th e 'g ro te sq u e b o d y ' (1984: 317). H ere, B akh tin is
n o t sim p ly referrin g to ex trao rd in ary sp e cim en s o f th e h u m a n b o d y w h ich
o fte n a ttracted crow d s to th e c a rn iv a l, b u t to a m o m en t w h ich sig n a lled a
co lla p se in h u m an and self-g o v ern m e n t - a p ro v isio n al tim e in w h ic h a ll
k in d s o f a p p e tite m ight b e u n leash ed and u nd erm in e th e d a y -to -d a y p o w er
stru ctu res w h ich u su ally h eld th at w o rld in ch eck .
In term s o f Sh ak esp earean criticism , B a k h tin 's w o rk on the ca rn iv a l has
p ro ved fru itfu l for a n u m b er o f critics. O n e su ch is N ao m i C o n n L iebler,
w h o se b o o k S hakespeare's F estiv e Tragedy: T h e R itu al F ou n d ation s o f G en re (1995)
u ses B ah ktin and o th ers to ex a m in e th e w ays in w h ich th e g en re o f traged y
d ra w s u pon m u ch o ld e r ritu als su ch a s carn iv al. A n o th e r critic w h o has
u tilized B akh tin is M ich ael B risto l. In h is d iscu ssio n o f O thello, B risto l arg u es
th at th e carn iv alesq u e en v iro n m en t w h ich is g en erated d u rin g th e cou rse
o f th e trag ed y releases a 'la te n t so cia l v io len ce' (1996: 18 0 ) w h ic h had
h ith erto b e e n rep ressed b y th e rig o ro u s p o litical o rd er o f th e V enetian w orld .
In this ch alle n g in g essay , Bristol also attem p ts to recover, v ia B akh tin , a
read in g o f O th ello n o t a s tragic h ero , b u t a s a 'co m ica lly m o n stro u s' figure,
an 'a b je ct clo w n ' w h o se h u m iliatio n an d d ea th e x p o se s the 'in v id iou s
racial sen tim e n ts' o f the p erio d th a t it w as w ritten in (1986: 181, 187, 186).
T h is essay sh o w s th e w ay in w h ich critics can u se th e in v ersion im p lied b y the
ca rn iv alesq u e to read th e p lays a n d , in s o d o in g , d isru p t d o m in an t critical
read in gs o f th e S h ak esp e arean text, w h ich all too frequ en tly h a v e co n cen
trated u pon the p sy ch o lo g ica l a n g u ish o f the p ro ta g o n ist, th e cataly tic role o f
the tem p ter Iag o, and th e p ath o s g en erated b y the d ra m a tiz a tio n o f victim
exp erien ce.
W h a t o th er S h ak esp e arean texts m ig h t b e read in relation to th e ca m iv a -
lcsq u e? H e re a re so m e su gg estions:
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K e y C o n c e p t T h re e : C o lo n ia lis m a n d R a ce
A ttitu d es to w ard s race in the e a rly m o d ern p erio d w ere co m p lex and
w ere in v ariably relig io u sly in flected . O n e im p o rta n t p o st-R efo rm a tio n stran d
o f th o u gh t, w h ich w as so m etim e s articu lated b u t in o th er p laces sim ply
a ssu m ed , h eld th at to b e E n glish w as also to b e P ro testan t a n d th u s su p e
rior to a ll o th e r ra ces a n d religion s. H ow ever, w h ile th ese a ttitu d e s could
o ften b e jin g o istic a n d /o r stere o ty p ical, they d id n o t p re clu d e serio u s and
(in e a rly m o d ern term s) resp ectfu l stu d y o f a n d ex ch a n g e b etw een foreign
nations.
T h e exam in atio n o f ra ce - a n d in d eed , th e q u estio n in g o f th e se v ery te rm s -
is a n extrem ely v ib ran t o n e w ith in Sh ak esp earean stu d ies. S ch o la rs su ch as
S tep h e n G reen b latt, A n ia L o om ba, K im H a ll, D an iel V itku s and Jy o tsn a Singh
h av e ad v an ced o u r u nd erstan d in g o f this area in im p o rta n t w ays. For
ex am p le, and d ev elo p in g a p o in t 1 m ad e earlier, A nia L o om ba h a s p o in ted out
th at th e w a y s in religion and ra ce are in tertw in ed in the early m o d ern period .
W riting o f E n glish attitu d e s to w ard s Islam , sh e notes:
3 6
K e y C ritical Concepts and Topics
K e y C o n c e p t Fo u r: D e s ire
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sin. M oreover, a s A d am and E v e w ere th e 'fir s t fa m ily ', th e ir n a rra tiv e also
u n d erw ro te th e patriarch al attitu d e s th at d o m in a te early m o d ern sex u a l and
fam ilial relatio n sh ip s, su b o rd in atin g w o m en to m en.
E arly m o d ern attitu d e s to the b o d y w ere also d ee p ly in fo rm ed b y th e w rit
in g s o f th e a n cien t G reek p h y sician G alen , w h o se th e o rie s w ere w id ely
a ccep ted acro ss E urope. T h e G alen ic sy stem w a s b a se d on th e id ea th at the
b o d y co n tain ed fou r p rin cip a l h u m ou rs. T h e se h u m o u rs w ere P h legm , B lood ,
C h o ler and B lack B ile. If an in d iv id u a l's body m ain tain ed ea ch h u m o u r in
b a la n ce w ith th e o th e rs, all w o u ld be w ell. B u t if o n e h u m o u r p red om in ated ,
the im b alan ce w o u ld ca u se a n ill hum our. F o r ex am p le, too m u ch B lack B ile
w ould lead to m elan ch o ly (see B rad ley o n H a m le t's m e la n ch o ly in H iscock
and L o n gstaffe, th is v o lu m e). C entral to this sy stem w a s th e id ea o f h ea t. M en,
it w a s b elie v ed , sh o u ld b e a ctiv e , en e rg etic and v ig o ro u s, a n d a ll th ese states
required th e ex e rtio n a n d p ro d u ctio n o f h eat. M a scu lin ity , in o th e r w ord s,
w as asso ciated w ith w arm th . F em ales, o n th e o th e r h a n d , sh o u ld be passive,
in a ctiv e and reserv ed . F em in in ity , therefore, w a s d efin ed in relation to
cold n ess.
B oth relig io u s a n d m ed ical th eo ry in th e early m o d ern p erio d serv ed to
m a in tain th e p atriarch al o rd er th a t p laced w o m en in a su b o rd in a te p o sitio n to
m en. W h ere, th en , d o es th is le a v e u s w ith resp ect to d esire? Is it th e ca s e th at
th e ex p ressio n o f h u m an d esire m ig h t p ro b lem atize th ese d isco u rse s? T h e
a n sw er is y es. F o r on e, to d esire a n o th e r h u m a n b ein g is to p o ten tia lly put
o n e s e lf in to an activ e p o sitio n , and as w e h a v e seen , a ctiv ity is traditionally
a sso ciated w ith m ascu lin ity. D u rin g th e early m o d ern p e rio d , it w a s believed
th at o n e h u m a n 's d esire for a n o th er w as co n v e y e d th ro u g h th e ey es. A m an
w o u ld lo o k at a w o m an , and via h is 'e y e b e a m s' h is g aze w o u ld co n v e y his
d esire for th at w o m a n , via h er ey es, into h er so u l. A s th e h isto rian Stu art
C la rk w rites: 'T h e d o m in an t role o f th e e y e in lo v e im a g ery w a s also m atched
b y th e th em es o f "p o sse ssio n w ith the e y e " and v o yeu rism th at flo u rish ed
m o re d a rk ly in co n tem p o rary m iso g y n y ' (2007: 23).
F u rth e r A n a ly sis: W h ic h ro le fo r th e a u d ie n c e ?
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K e y C ritical Concepts and Topics
H ow ever, th e re are also n u m ero u s in stan ces w h ere Sh ak esp eare o v ertu rn s the
'co n tem p o rary m iso g y n y ' o f su ch d isco u rse s, in v o k in g in stead d esire as
e n a b lin g fem ale self-assertio n . In a n u m b er o f th e co m ed ies, fo r ex am p le, the
role o f m e n 's p o etry in co n stru ctin g w o m en as o b jects to b e look ed at is
su b je cted to scru tin y . F o r exam p le:
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K e y C o n c e p t Fiv e : R elig io n
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K e y C o n c e p t S ix : T extu ality
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K e y C ritical Concepts and Topics
C o n c lu sio n
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Shakespeare Studies Now
This p a g e intentionally left blank
Recent Critical Responses
and Approaches
Lisa H opkins
C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w
Psychoanalysis 14 7
Feminist Criticism 15 0
N ew Historicism 153
Bakhtin 15 4
Cultural M aterialism 15 7
Q u e er Theory 15 8
Presentism 16 0
Postcolonialism 162
British Studies 163
Ecocriticism 16 6
Perform ance Studies 16 8
Beyond Theory? 171
P sy ch o a n a ly sis
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F e m in ist C ritic is m
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R ecent C ritical Responses an d Approaches
th e m o n stro u s fem ale g en italia in the p la y 's rep resen tatio n al reg ister are
n o t m erely a lo calized 'th e m e ' b u t rath er depen d o n and p ro d u ce the
e x clu sio n and d en ig ratio n o f w o m en and the rid icu le a n d p u n ish m en t
o f m en w ho a ttem p t to ch an g e th e ir statu s in th e so cial hierarch y.
T h is is n o th in g le ss th an th e m ain ten an ce a n d rep ro d u ctio n o f
patriarch y . (2 0 0 0 :3 5 )
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N e w H isto ric is m
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B a k h tin
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R ecent C ritical Responses an d Approaches
h ow ever, is lik ely to find so m eth in g v ery d ifferen t; th u s R on ald R . M acd on ald
(2 001), read in g 7 H en ry I V in term s o f h etcro g lo ssia , fin d s th a t it 're v e a ls a
w o rld th at see m s to h a v e m an y m o re m ean in g s th an an y sin g le , m o n o glot
la n g u ag e c a n read ily d isp o se o f' (81). A lth o u g h not ex p licitly u sin g Bakhtinian
term in o lo g y a t this p o in t, D a v id S c o tt K astan d ra w s o n its fu n d am en tal
assu m p tio n s w h en h e w rites o f 7 H en ry I V that
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157
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S ile n c in g a n d th e Text
Q u e e r T h e o ry
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P resen tism
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P o stco lo n ia lism
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R ecent C ritical Responses an d Approaches
A cco rd in g to A nia L oom ba: 'S h a k e sp ea re 's "o th e r s " a re rem arkab ly few
in n u m b er - O th ello , C alib an , Sh y lo ck , Je ssica , C leo p a tra and h er train,
A aro n , T am ora if w e w ish , and M o ro cco ' (180). T h is lis t leav es o u t as others
th e likes o f F lu ellen , G len d o w er, Ja m y , M acbeth a n d M acm o rris, in oth er
w o rd s th o se n o n -E n g lish o th e rs w h o a rc b o th foreig n a n d fam iliar.
(2000: 82)
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In th is resp ect, B ritish S tu d ies can ind eed lo o k like a p o w erfu l fu sion o f an
u n u su ally p articu larized form o f h isto ricism w ith an u n u su a lly en erg ized and
m o tiv ate d fo rm o f presen tism .
E c o c ritic is m
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In th is reg ard , too, th e p ro m in en t cu ltu ral p o sitio n o f ce rta in a cto rs, such
as D av id G arrick in the eig h teen th cen tu ry, H en ry Irv in g in the n in eteen th ,
o r L au ren ce O liv ier in th e tw en tieth , m ak es itself felt. (1995: 8)
To th in k a b o u t H am let in th is w ay is fa r m o re th an to th in k a b o u t a few
ep h em era l a n d lo n g -g o n e p erfo rm an ces; it is to e n g a g e w ith h o w so ciety has
b o th sh ap ed and b e e n sh ap e d b y a ce n tral cu ltu ra l ic o n o f o u r civ ilizatio n .
M ich ael C o rd n er ap p lies a ra th er d ifferently sla n ted k in d o f p erfo rm an ce
a n a ly sis w h en h e ex am in es M a cb e th 's in ju n ctio n to L ad y M acb eth to 'h o ld
th ee still':
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C o rd n er d eclares th at
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B e yo n d T h eo ry?
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New Contexts for
Shakespeare
G abriel Egan
C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w
T h is ch a p ter is co n cern ed w ith recen tly -em erg ed new co n tex ts for the w ork
o f Sh a k esp e a re a n d h o w th ese h a v e affected , and m a y co n tin u e to affect,
the criticism o f h is w o rks. In p articu lar, it w ill fo c u s o n h is b io g ra p h y and
w o rk in g h ab its, his su rv iv in g texts, and th e a rch a eo lo g ica l w o rk o n the
b u ild in g s in w h ich h is p la y s w ere first perform ed .
S h a k e sp e a re a n d B io g rap hy
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F u rth e r A n a ly sis: S h a k e sp e a re a n R o m a n ce
C a t h o lic S h a k e sp e a re
T h e b ig g est b io g rap h ical n ew s has b een th e claim recen tly ad v an ced b y sev
e ra l sch o lars th a t Sh ak esp eare w as secre tly a C ath o lic, a n d h en ce h e liv ed h is
life in p e rm a n en t ta cit o p p o sitio n to th e state-en fo rced P ro testan t orth o d o xy.
T h is id e a first a ch iev e d w id esp read cu rre n cy w h en H. A . J. H o n ig m a n n (1985)
a ttem p ted to exp lain th e so -called 'lo s t y ea rs' b etw ee n 1585, w h en the b a p
tism o f S h a k e sp e a re 's tw ins is reco rd ed in Stratfo rd -u p o n -A v on , a n d 1592,
w h en a llu sio n s to h is L o n d o n th eatre life b eg in . F o r th is m issin g period ,
H o n ig m an n p la ce d S h ak esp e are in th e fam ily h o m e o f a w ealth y C ath o lic
lan d o w n er A lex a n d er H o g h to n in L an cash ire, w h o se w ill referred to a
W illiam S h ak esh afte lo d g in g w ith h im . A t th e en d o f th e tw en tieth centu ry,
R ich ard W ilso n (1997; 200 4 a ; 2004b) d isco v ered fu rth er co n n ectio n s betw een
Sh a k esp e a re and recu san t activ ity . T h e v alid ity o f these co n n ectio n s rem ain s
a m a tter o f d isp u te, a n d R ich ard B earm an 's research has u n d erm in ed the
ev id en tial v a lu e o f th e re b e in g a 'S h a k e sh a fte ' in H o g h to n 's w ill by sh o w in g
th at it w as a co m m o n n a m e in L an cash ire (B earm a n 2002).
H ow ever, w h a t w o u ld it m atter if Sh ak esp eare w ere secretly C ath olic?
H ow w o u ld this affect th e in terp retation o f h is p la y s? F o r on e th in g, it
w o u ld p u t an en d to the lo n g -ch erish ed id e a th at Sh a k esp e a re sa w both
sid e s o f ev ery arg u m en t, and in d eed w a s ca p a b le o f a rticu la tin g b o th sides,
w ith ou t e v e r fin ally co m in g d o w n in fav ou r o f either. T h is a lleg ed n eu trality
o f Sh a k esp e a re is so m etim es k n o w n as his 'n e g a tiv e c a p a b ility ', a p h rase
co in ed b y the p o et Jo h n K eats, w h o saw Sh a k esp e a re as h a v in g an unusual
ca p a city to su sp en d ju d g em en t, 'o f b e in g in u n certain ties, M y steries, d oubts,
w ith o u t an y irritab le reach in g a fte r fact and re a so n ' (W h ite 1987: 34). B u t the
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id e a o f a Sh ak esp eare w h o secre tly favou red o n e sid e in th e g rea test in tel
lectu al a rg u m e n t o f h is d ay n o t o n ly forces u s to reco n sid er h is rep resen ta
tio n s o f relig iou s co n tro v ersies - sa y , in 1 H en ry V I w h ere C ard in al B eau fort
d are n o t a p p e a r at co u rt in h is ro b es u n til H en ry V is lo n g b u ried
(W en tersd o rf 2006) and in K in g John w here th e k in g o v ertly d en ies th e p o w er
o f R om e and co m es to regret it - b u t also to reco n sid er all th o se m om en ts
w h ere h e see m s to refu se fin al co n clu sio n s to an y d eb ate. C o u ld it b e th a t we
a re ju st to o in se n sitiv e to th e su b tle h in ts th a t te ll u s w h ich sid e h e w as on?
In a n y ev en t, th e v ery fa ct th a t h e had assid u o u sly b u ried h is o w n feelings
(else h e w o u ld n o t h a v e s o lo n g passed a s the p oet o f 'n eg a tiv e ca p a b ility ')
w ould requ ire a re-exam in atio n o f e v e ry lo n g stan d in g critical assu m p tio n
o f n eu trality.
L e t u s tak e a co n crete ex am p le. T h e g h o st in H am let cla im s to co m e from
P urgatory:
G H O ST I am th y fa th er's sp irit,
D oo m ed for a ce rtain term to w a lk th e n igh t,
A nd for th e d a y confined to fast in fires
Till th e fo u l crim es d o n e in m y d a y s o f n atu re
A re b u rn t and pu rged aw ay.
(1. 5. 9 - 1 3 , p. 1684)
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S h a k e sp e a re as C o lla b o ra to r
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N e w Contexts for Shakespeare
Read the first twro scen es o f M easu re f o r M easu re, m ak in g a lis t o f the
p ro b lem s w ith th e d ra m a tic m aterial, in p a rticu la r rep etitio n s and co n
fu sio n s in th e ev en ts. (E d ito rs o ften try to fix th ese th in g s, s o y o u m ay
w a n t to read th e tex t a s it ap p eared in th e first, v irtu a lly uned ited ,
ed ition : the F olio o f 1623. You w ill find im ages and electro n ic te x ts o f
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S h a k e sp e a re as A u th o r?
(K IN G H EN RY ]
W hat m a n n er o f m an are y ou ? M y lord, I looked
You w ou ld h a v e g iv en m e y o u r p e titio n that
I sh o u ld have ta'en so m e pain s to b rin g to g eth er
Y o u rself an d y o u r accu sers, a n d to h a v e h ea rd you
W ithout in d u ran ce further.
( 5 .1 .1 1 8 - 2 2 , p. 3 1 8 0 -1 )
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T extual T ra n sm issio n
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A lth o u g h o ccasio n ally critics exp ressed co n cern th at th e 'b a d ' q u a rto s w ere
n o t s o bad a fte r all (M cM illin 1972), from th e 1980s m o re and m o re critics
arg u ed th a t w e sim p ly can n o t tell w h ere th ese sh o rt v ersio n s o f the plays
co m e from , and th at th e y m ig h t sim p ly b e altern a tiv e v ersio n s w ith d ram atic
m e rits o f th e ir o w n (U rk ow itz 1988; W erstin e 1990; W erstine 1999; Ira c e 1994;
M agu ire 1996). M o st recently, L u k as E rn e (20 0 2 ; 20 0 3 ) h a s p resen ted an
en tire ly new th esis th at m ig h t a cco u n t for the 'b a d ' q u a rto s. C o n tra ry to the
o rth o d o x y th a t b eg an to em erg e in th e 1950s a n d a ch iev ed d o m in an t ex p res
sio n in th e 1986 O xfo rd C o m p lete W orks o f Sh ak esp eare, p erh ap s th e plays
w ere n o t, a fte r a ll, essen tially scrip ts for th e th eatre. W hat if Sh ak esp eare
co n scio u sly w rote fo r re ad ers o f h is p la y s ra th er th an (or p erh ap s as w ell as)
for p erform ers?
F u rth e r A n a ly sis: W h ic h H a m le t1
.
M an o f th e T h e a tre ?
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Ed itin g S h akesp ea re
W ells, fresh from g rad u ate stu d y a t the Sh a k esp e a re In stitu te, w orked o n the
N ew P en g u in Sh ak esp eare w ith T. J. B. S p e n ce r in th e 1960s and d ev elo p ed
n ew id eas ab o u t stag e-cen tred e d itin g th at receiv ed th e ir fu llest ex p ressio n in
the 1 9 8 6 O xfo rd C o m p lete W orks. W h ereas th e ir p red ecesso rs seem ed to
w a n t to h elp th e re a d e r im agin e th e fictional lo ca tio n in w h ich th e actio n to o k
p la ce , th e n ew stag e-cen tred ed ito rs w an ted th eir read ers to im a g in e the
a ctio n o ccu rrin g o n the k in d o f sta g e th at S h ak esp e a re w o u ld h a v e assu m ed
h e had at h is d isp osal. K n o w in g th a t for m o st o f S h a k esp e a re's career
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p erfo rm an ces w ere u n in terru p ted by in terv als, th ese ed ito rs m ark ed act-
b rea k s a s u n o b tru siv ely a s p o ssib le, rejectin g the 's ta rt a new p a g e ' la y o u t th at
h a d lo n g g o v e rn ed ed itio n s o f Sh ak esp eare. W h en it b eg an to be a p p a ren t in
the 1970s th at Sh ak esp eare ten d ed to retu rn to th e p lays h e had w ritte n and
re v ise them , the n ew stag e-cen tred ed ito rs h ad to d e c id e ju s t w h a t it w a s they
w ere try in g to rep resen t: th e p lay a s o rig in ally co n ceiv ed , o r the p la y as
Sh a k esp e a re later preferred it, p erh ap s w ith ch a n g es m a d e in the lig h t o f
reh earsals and early p erform ances.
E ver sin ce ed ito rial p ractices b eg an to be prop erly th eo rized in th e late-
n in eteen th cen tu ry, it h ad b een assu m ed that th e id e a l to w h ich o n e w as
e d itin g - the d o cu m en t, now lo st, th at o n e w o u ld lik e to recreate - w ou ld b e the
tex t a s it stood in the first co m p lete au th o rial version . B u t w ith Sh ak esp eare
n o w co n ceiv ed as a w o rk in g a n d p ractical m a n o f th e th eatre, th is ideal
n eed ed to b e ad ju sted . R ad ically , th e O xfo rd C o m p lete W orks a ttem p ted to
rep resen t th e play a s it w as first perform ed. If there w ere tw o e a rly printings,
s a y a q u arto th at seem ed to b e b a se d o n au th o ria l p a p e rs and a fo lio tex t that
seem ed to be b a se d o n a d o cu m en t u sed in th e th eatre, th e la tte r m igh t w ell be
preferred e v e n if it om itted p a ssag es in th e q u arto . T h u s, H a m le t's so lilo q u y
b eg in n in g 'H o w all o cca sio n s d o in fo rm ag ain st m e ' (u su a lly ap p earin g at
th e e n d o f iv. 4 ), fro m th e seco n d q u arto b u t a b se n t in th e fo lio , is d em o ted to
a n a p p e n d ix in th e O xfo rd C o m p lete W orks, o n th e g ro u n d s th a t (g o o d as
it is) it see m s n o t to h a v e m a d e it in to th e first p erfo rm an ces.
T h e se a re th e p ractical ed ito rial im p licatio n s o f in sistin g on a stage-cen tred
stu d y o f S h ak esp e are (see H am p to n -R eev es' C h a p te r 6 and K in g 's C h a p ter
11, th is v o lu m e). H ow ever, L u k a s E rn e's th eory th at S h a k esp e a re, a t least
from a b o u t 1 6 0 0 w h en h e w rote H am let, h ad re ad ers a s m u ch a s p la y g o ers in
m in d , ch allen g es the idea th at te x ts sh o u ld attem p t to record early o r first
p erfo rm an ces. In the five y ears sin c e E rn e an n o u n ced h is th e o ry th ere has
b e e n n o serio u s attem p t to refu te it and w e a re cu rren tly in a p erio d o f
u n co m fo rtab le vacan cy: flaw s in th e theatre-cen tred o rth o d o x y h a v e been
rev ealed , b u t n o new o v erarch in g p arad igm h a s b een p ro p o sed . W h a t seem s
likely to o ccu r n e x t is at least a p artial re h ab ilitatio n o f lite ra ry -critica l sen s
ib ilities w ith in S h ak esp e are stu d ies. E d w ard P ech ter (2003) h a s arg u ed th at
m isgu id ed id eas ab o u t rad icalism a n d th eatrical a n ti-elitism u n d erv alu e the
literary in relation to theatre. In e ssen ce th is, lik e E rn e's, is an arg u m en t for
a revalu ation o f S h a k e sp e a re 's literarin ess. T h e arg u m en t th a t the sh o rt q u a r
tos a re th eatricalized (cu t fo r a fast p ace, lo sin g th e w o rd y stu ff n o t need ed
in th e th eatre) is , P ech ter claim s, b a se d o n an im p o v erish ed sen se o f w h at
the th e atre can d o . F ou rth a cts a re o ften re flectiv e, g iv in g s p a c e to fem a le
ch a ra cters, and cu ttin g there (as m an y sh o rten ed v ersio n s d o) d oes n o t ju st
in crease th e p ace, it ch a n g es th e g en d er b alan ce. T h u s, w e sh o u ld n o t be
afraid to lau d the p la y s' literary q u alities. P o litics also g ets in th e w ay: w e
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T h e G lo b e
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V irt u a l S h a k e sp e a re
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189
Recent Issues in
Shakespeare Studies:
From Margins to Centre
W illy M aley
C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w
W h at's at Issue? 19 0
Issue: Family, Lineage, Su ccession 19 5
N ationalism , C olonialism and R ace 19 8
Republicanism 203
Sexuality 204
W h a t's at Issu e?
In h is 'A fterw o rd ' to Jo n ath an D o llim o re a n d A lan S in ficld 's P olitical S h ake
sp eare (1985), R ay m o n d W illiam s ad d ressed th e issu e o f p o liticizin g an au th or
w h o se w o rk a ttra cts a b o d y o f criticism u np aralleled in w o rld literature:
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R ecent Issues in Shakespeare Stu dies: From M argins to Centre
1 H en ry IV , 4. 3. 5 4 -1 0 7
F IO T SP U R : T h e kin g is k in d ; a n d w ell w e know th e K ing
K n o w s at w h a t tim e to p ro m ise, w h e n to pay.
M y fath er and m y u n cle a n d m y self
D id g iv e him th at sa m e ro y alty h e w ears;
A nd w h en h e w as n o t six -a n d -tw en ty stron g ,
Sick in the w o rld 's regard , w retch ed and low,
A p o o r u n m in d ed outlaw sn eak in g hom e,
M y fath er g av e h im w elco m e to the shore;
A n d w h en h e h eard h im sw ea r and v o w to G od
H e ca m e bu t to b e D u k e o f L ancaster,
T o s u e h is liv ery , and b e g h is p eace
W ith tears o f in n o cen cy a n d term s o f zeal,
M y father, in k in d h eart and pity m o v ed ,
Sw o re him assistan ce , and p erfo rm ed it too.
N o w w h en th e lo rd s a n d b aro n s o f the realm
P erceiv ed N o rth u m b erlan d d id lean to h im ,
T h e m o re a n d le ss cam e in w ith ca p and knee,
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T h e Tem pesI, 2 .1 .1 4 7 - 5 8
G O N Z A L O : (to A n to n io ) I'th ' co m m o n w ea lth I w ou ld by
co n traries
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R ecent Issues in Shakespeare Stu dies: From M argins to Centre
H ere the qu estio n o f issu e and o th ern ess is p lain ly p resen ted . G en ital
m u tilatio n o f E n glish so ld ie rs b y W elsh w om en b rin g s th e is su e in to sh arp
relief. T h e K in g 's p lan s to sta rt a w a r 'in stra n d s a fa r re m o te' (1. 1. 4) is short-
circuited :
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So dom y
1 96
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a re tran sfo rm ed in to selv es. O th er Sh ak esp earean texts h ith erto read for th eir
e x p lo ra tio n o f 'se lfh o o d ' - H am let, th e so n n ets, T h e T em pest - a re in creasin gly
read in te rm s o f th e relatio n s b etw een se lf a n d other.
T h e p lay is in terestin g in th at it h as a ll th e im a g e s th a t a re la te r to b e
rew o rk ed in to a racist trad ition p articu larly in p o p u la r E u ro p ean literatu re
ab o u t th e co lo n ised p eop le: th e sav ag e a s a rap ist, lazy , a lo v er o f w h isky,
stu p id , can n ib alistic. B u t th e m ain th in g is th at S h a k esp e a re d oes g iv e to
C a lib a n th e cap acity o r v o ice to say 'n o '. C a lib a n is in v ested w ith en ergy.
A n d re m em b er th at at th e tim e, E u ro p e h as o ccu p ied o n ly a little co rn er o f
th e globe. (1 9 9 3 :1 5 )
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p o la rizatio n s o f its cu ltu re, fo reg ro u n d in g its m a teria l " fo ils " , in a co n tex t in
w h ich em p ire itself is iro n ized ' (E rick so n 20 0 2 ; P a rk e r 2 0 0 3 :1 5 1 ). G ary T aylor
h a s also sh o w n th e ex ten t to w h ich th e play en g a g e s from its e a rliest p er
form an ces as w ell a s its o p en in g lin es w ith th e q u estio n o f the ou tsid er. In
'H am let in A frica 1607', T aylor p resen ts ex tracts 'fro m th e o n ly su rv iv in g jo u r
n a ls k ep t o n th e R ed D ragon in 1607, e n ro u te from E n glan d to In d ia and the
S p ice Isla n d s o n th e T h ird V oyage o f the E ast In d ia C o m p a n y ' (2000: 211).
T a y lo r's e x p lo ra tio n o f the e a rliest n o n -E u ro p ean p e rfo rm a n ce o f S h a k e
s p e a re 's m o st fa m o u s trag ed y - o ff th e co a st o f S ierra L eo n e - ad d s w eig h t to
the g ro w in g b o d y o f w o rk en v isag in g H am let, th at g rea t p la y o f se lf and
psy ch e, a s a p lay a s so p h isticated ly en g aged w ith n a tio n and ra ce as H en ri/ V
o r O thello.
M u ch o f th e n ew w o rk o n S h ak esp e are b o rro w s freely from the o ld , p ick
in g u p o n h in ts d ro p p ed lik e h an d k erch iefs b y ea rlier critics. P a rk e r points
o u t th a t alth o u g h D over W ilso n a s early a s 1934 m a d e th e co n n ection
b etw een C lau d iu s an d colour, 'it h as n o t y e t p en etrated th e co n scio u sn e ss o f
m o st critics, read ers, a n d au d ien ces o f th is m o st can o n ica l o f p lays - from a
co rp u s in w h ich M o ors are assu m ed to b elo n g o n ly to T itu s A ndronicus,
A n ton i/ an d C leopatra, T h e M erchan t o f V enice, o r O thello' (127). W h ile P ark er
h arks b a ck to D over W ilson, in 'H a m le t a n d th e S co ttish S u ccessio n ?' (1994),
S tu a rt K u rlan d bo rro w s h is title from a b o o k p u b lish ed in 1921 b y Lilian
W in stanley. W 'here W instanley h ad id en tified H am let w ith Ja m es V I, K u r
lan d a v o id s su ch sim p listic o n e-to -o n e co rresp o n d en ces, b u t tak es seriously
the claim th at H am let is a p lay ab o u t the su cce ssio n crisis w h o se h istorical
co n te x t is th e im m in en t su ccessio n o f Ja m es, a S co ttish k in g , to a new B ritish
th ron e. K u rlan d a rg u es th a t th e S co ttish su ccessio n c a n b e read a s im p in g in g
o n th e p lay in a v ariety o f w a y s. D u rin g th e co m p o sitio n o f H am let betw een
1599 a n d 1601 there w ere ru m o u rs Ja m es V I m ig h t ta k e th e E n glish crow n b y
force, w ith th e help o f h is b ro th er-in -law , C h ristia n IV o f D en m ark . K u rland
co n clu d es th at H am let can in stru ctiv ely b e read in rela tio n to the struggle
su rro u n d in g the im p en d in g U n io n o f C ro w n s b etw een E n glan d a n d Sco t
lan d , s o th a t 'th e p o litical w o rld o f th e play is in fo rm ed by th e u ncertain ty
en g en d ered b y Ja m e s V i's m an eu v ers a n d threats to secu re th e E n g lish su c
c e ssio n ' (1994: 293). A n d rew H ad field p u rsu es K u rla n d 's a rg u m e n t further,
re v ea lin g th e ex ten t to w h ich a S co ttish h isto rica l co n tex t can b e establish ed
for a p lay in creasin g ly regard ed a s o n e o f S h a k e sp e a re 's B ritish p lays, p re
o ccu p ied w ith u n io n and su ccessio n . H ad field p resen ts the ca s e gingerly:
'W h y S h ak esp e are w ou ld n o t h a v e b een a b le to w rite a p la y th a t d e a lt d ir
e c tly w ith the S co ttish su ccessio n is rath er e a sie r to co m p reh en d : E lizabeth
h a d forbid d en an y d iscu ssio n o f the su cce ssio n and b y the la s t y e a rs o f the
six tee n th ce n tu ry the m o st lik ely su cce sso r to E liz a b eth w a s Ja m es V I o f
S c o tla n d ' (2004: 93).
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R ecent Issues in Shakespeare Stu dies: From M argins to Centre
C lea rly , a good d eal o f clo w n in g is g o in g o n h ere, b u t sin c e th e w ord 'clo w n '
itse lf h as a co lo n ial co n tex t it is clo w n in g o f a p articu larly p u rp o sefu l kind.
T h e O E D cite s F u lle r's W orthies II, 177: 'C lo w n fro m C o lo n u s, o n e th at
p lo u g h e th th e g ro u n d ', bu t m u ch earlier, in H o lin sh e d 's C hron icles (1577),
R ich ard S ta n y h u rst o b serv ed th at the Irish ca lle d th e E n g lish settlers 'C o llon -
n es o f th e L atin w ord C olon i, w h ereu n to the d ip t E n g lish w o rd e, C low n e,
see m eth to be a u n sw e ra b le ' (M aley 1997: 32). A ll th e ed ito ria l d ism issa ls o f
th e se lin es a s p u re n o n sen se are rendered p ro b lem a tic o n c c on e b eg in s to see
the g ro w in g m atrix o f cro ss-cu ltu ral referen ces in th is p lay. E lsew h ere, in
T roilus a n d C ressida, w e a re rem in d ed th at A ch illes is 'th e G rea t M yrm id o n '
(1. 3 . 371), le a d er o f th at m y th ica l n atio n . T h e ea rlier ed ito ria l trad ition that
sa w this w h o le p a ssa g e a s p u re n o n sen se o r ju s t th e d rin k talkin g is now
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R ecent Issues in Shakespeare Stu dies: From M argins to Centre
T he N orton S hakespeare g lo sses B arbary a s 'N o rth A frica n reg io n from w hich
E n gland acquired su g a r' (1180, n. 4 ), m ak in g n o m en tio n o f Ia g o 's d en igration
o f O th ello a s 'a B arbary h o rse' ( 1 .1 .1 1 3 ) , D e sd em o n a 's m o th er h a v in g 'a m aid
ca lle d B a rb a ry ' (4. 3. 25), o r C lau d iu s w ag erin g 'six B arb ary h o rses' o n
H a m let's q u arrel w ith L aertes ( 5 .2 .1 0 8 ). G re e n b la tt's essa y , 'In v isib le B ullets',
re fe rs to H a l's 'fe w w o rd s o f calcu lated o b scu rity ', and 'd e lib e ra te ly m y stify
ing w o rd s' (1985a: 3 1 ,3 2 ), b u t w ith B illin g s's rea d in g o f Tivelfth N ig h t in m ind
it m ig h t be w o rth rev isitin g th o se lines.
R e p u b lic a n ism
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p e rsp ectiv es an tip a th e tic to m o n arch al ru le, m ak in g the th e a tre a cru cib le o f
co m p etin g id eas: 'D esp ite th e ir ro y al lab el, the K in g 's M en o w e d m o st o f th eir
rev en u e to p u blic p erfo rm an ces; S h ak esp e are's p lays w ere th u s a b le to p it
d ifferen t d isco u rse s ag ain st each o th e r w ith fa r g reater freed o m th an co u rtly
lite ra tu re ' (1992: 45).
Se x u ality
R ecen t critica l w o rk co n cern ed w ith q u estio n s o f m a scu lin ity , effem in a cy , the
rep resen tatio n o f w o m en , p atriarch y , cro ss-d ressin g and sex u a l p o litics has
b lu rred g en re b o u n d a ries a s w ell a s g en d er d iv isio n s (see R o b so n , th is volu m e,
C h a p te r 5). F o r ex am p le, alth o u g h there w as a tim e w h e n g en d er w a s se e n as
a n issu e relev an t ch iefly to th e co m ed ies - b earin g in m in d th e h ierarch ical
a p p ro ach th at m ig h t w an t to ra n k the p la y s in te rm s o f, first, trag ed ies, s e c
o n d , h isto ries a n d third , co m ed ies - it is n o w arg u ed th a t q u estio n s o f g en d er
a n d sex u a lity a re ce n tral to ev er}' treatm en t o f n atio n al id en tity , and s o it is
hard to see h o w a full acco u n t o f H am let, for ex a m p le, co u ld fa il to take
a cco u n t o f th e g e n d e r p o litics o f th at p lay , esp ecia lly in term s o f the a n xiety
ra ised b y th e qu estio n o f fem ale su ccessio n . A n x iety a b o u t fem a le ru le w as
in ten se in th e p erio d , a n d Jo h n K n o x 's F irst B last o f th e T rum pet ag a in st the
M on strou s R egim en t o f W om en (1558) w as p a rt o f a n a ssa u lt o n w o m en rulers.
W hat d o y o u d o w h en th e re's n o m ale heir, a p ro b lem th at faced E lizabeth an
E n gland (see H o p k in s, this volu m e, C h ap ter 8)? M oreover, if cross-d ressin g
is an issu e in th e co m ed ies w h ere a b o y d ressed a s a w o m a n d resses a s a
m an, th en it m u st also b e an issu e in the o th er p lays, w h ere all the p a rts in
th e o rig in al p ro d u ctio n s w ere played by m ale actors. T h e w ork o f Jo n a th a n
G o ld b erg (1992), L au ra L ev in e (1994) and S tev en O rgel (1989) forces u s to
reth in k th e b o u n d aries o f the v ario u s g en res, and to d w ell in p a rticu la r o n the
w a y in w h ic h issu es o f g en d er and g en re interact.
A rth u r M a ro tti's essay , ' "L o v e is N o t L o v e ": E liz a b eth a n S o n n e t Sequ en ces
a n d th e So cial O rd e r', fo r ex am p le, reads th e E liz a b eth a n so n n et seq u en ce as
b e in g p reo ccu p ied ch iefly n o t w ith sex u a l b u t so cia l d esires: 'B o th h isto rical
p reced en t an d co n tem p o rary u sa g e san ctio n ed su ch poetry a s a m e a n s o f
ex p ressin g p e rso n a l am bition , and n o t sim p ly th at o f the a rtistic k in d . From
the tim e o f th e trou bad o u rs, co u rtly a u th o rs in p a rticu la r u sed lo v e p o etry as
a w a y o f m e tap h o rizin g th e ir riv alry w ith so cia l, eco n o m ic, and p o litical
co m p e tito rs' (1982: 398). M aro tti cite s S ir Jo h n H a rin g to n , w h o in 1591 ch arac
te riz ed lo v e riv als a s 'th o se th a t b e su te rs to o n e w o m a n , a s a re co m p etito rs to
o n e o ffice' (1982: 399). T h e p u n o n 'o ffice ' a n d 'o rifice ' w a s a co m m o n one.
M a ro tti's alleg o rical stu d y a rg u es th at p o litica l a m b itio n is represented
th rou gh ro m an tic asp iration .
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Making Meanings:
Shakespeare's Poetry for
the Theatre
Ros King
C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w
W o rd s a n d So u n ds
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M e m o ry a n d P e rfo rm a n ce H isto ry
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T ext a n d P e rfo rm a n ce
S h a k e sp e a re : Lite ra ry A u th o r
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P u b lish in g S h a k e sp e a re , P erfo rm in g S h a k e sp e a re
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D r F au stu s; a n d T h e S pan ish T ragedy (B layn ey 1997: 38 8 ). D esp ite th is, E rn e's
b o o k is h eavily d ep e n d en t o n th at a rtic le a n d q u o tes from it liberally.
H e g ath ers a co m p reh en siv e co llectio n o f th e a lb eit sc a n ty ex ta n t ev id en ce,
y e t e v e n w h ile a ck n o w led g in g that less th an h a lf o f S h a k esp e a re's plays
w ere p u blish ed in h is lifetim e, h e sta te s re p ea ted ly and em p h a tica lly that
Sh a k esp e a re w ro te sp ecifically for p u b licatio n in prin t. T h e e v id en ce ju s t does
n o t su p p o rt th at assertion.
P erh ap s th e m ajo r p roblem w ith E rn e 's th esis is th e fact th a t o rd in ary
read ers find p lay-texts d ifficu lt to read. M o d ern re a d ers a scrib e th a t d ifficu lty
to th e ag e o f th e lan g u ag e a n d th e co m p lex ity o f the p o etry ; th e y frequ en tly
e x p ress am azem en t th at th e y can u nd erstan d th e p la y s p e rfectly w ell w hen
they see them p erfo rm ed in th e th e atre o r o n v id e o , a n d , so m etim e s, if they
read th em o u t lo u d . R ead ers also re m ark o n the la c k o f sta g e d ire ctio n s in
Sh ak esp eare, w h ich th e y find m ak es it d ifficu lt to p ictu re w h a t is g o in g
o n .5 T h e rem ain d er o f th is ch ap ter w ill be d ev o ted to d em o n stra tin g th at
S h a k e sp e a re 's stag e d ire ctio n s are in fact em b ed d ed in th e d ia lo g u e to a far
g rea ter ex ten t than is n o rm ally ap p reciate d e v e n b y critics. It is n o t so m u ch
the lan g u ag e th a t is th e p ro b lem , b u t th e sh o rtco m in g s o f th e p ro cesses o f
silen t read in g w h en d ea lin g w ith this p articu lar k in d o f text.
T h e title p ag e o f D am on a n d P ythias (1571), o n e o f th e e a rliest o f E lizab eth an
p rin ted p lays, g iv es a clu e a s to w h a t m ig h t h a v e b een h ap p en in g . It appears
th at th e in ten d ed readersh ip fo r the p rin ted ed itio n o f th at p la y w a s n o t the
sin g le , silen tly read in g in d iv id u al o f tw en ty -first-cen tu ry ex p erien ce, b u t the
g ro u p . It states b o th the o ccasio n o f its in ten d ed first p erfo rm a n ce and its
fu n ctio n as a p rin ted book: 'N ew ly im p rin ted , a s th e sam e w a s sh ew ed before
th e Q u cen es M aie stic, by th e C h ild ren o f h er G ra ce s C h a p p ell, ex cep t th e
P ro lo gu e th a t is so m ew h a t altered for the p rop er use o f th em th a t h ereafter
sh a ll h a v e o ccasio n to p la ie it, eith e r in p riv ate, o r o p en a u d ie n c e .' In o th e r
w o rd s, it w as p u b lish ed w ith th e e x p e ctatio n th at it w o u ld b e perform ed, p er
h a p s in a m a teu r th eatricals at h o m e, o r p e rh ap s in the s c h o o l classro o m , since
p articip atio n in th eatrical p erfo rm an ce, w h eth er in L a tin o r in E n glish , w a s an
ex p e cted p a rt o f a sixteen th -cen tu ry h u m a n ist ed u catio n . T h is th en m a y also
b e th e reason w h y s o m an y o f S h a k e sp e a re 's p lays ch o sen fo r p u b lica tio n in
p rin t a re im p ro v in g h isto ries o r th o se w ith cla ssica l co n n ectio n s.
S h a k e sp e a re : P e rfo rm a n ce Poet
C oriolan u s is fam o u s for p o sse ssin g on e o f th e v ery few p e rfo rm a tiv e stag e
d ire ctio n s in th e w h o le o f Sh ak esp eare: 'H e holds h e r b y th e h an d , silent'
(5. 3 . 183). It is a n ag o n izin g m o m en t, and n o t o n ly b eca u se o f the ten se
em o tio n b etw een m o th er an d son at this point. S h e h a s ask ed him in the
n a m e o f fam ily and R om an lo y a lty to call o ff his atta ck o n R om e. T h e silence
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F o rg iv e m y tyrann y: b u t d o n o t say
F or th a t fo rg iv e o u r R om an s. (F tex t, T L N 3 3 8 5 -9 3 ; 5 . 3 . 3 5 -4 4 )
21 4
Glossary of Critical and
Theoretical Terminology
Peter Sillitoe
215
G lossary o f Critical an d Theoretical Terminology
216
G lossary o f Critical a n d Theoretical Terminology
217
G lossary o f Critical an d Theoretical Terminology
Islam /Islam ic: M uslim religion usually associated w ith the O ttom an Empire in
R enaissance literary discourse. See also o t h e r s .
Jaco b ean : Refers to cultural events during the reign o f King Jam es I.
Jo in t-S to ck : See also 'guild'. Sim ilar to the guilds of Renaissance London, bu t the
joint-stock com panies consisted o f shareholders and are view ed a s forerunners
o f capitalist enterprise and m ercantile trade.
Jon so n , B en : Along w ith Shakespeare and M arlow e, probably o n e o f the best-
know n Renaissance playw rights. Jonson w rote and published poetry as well
as plays for the public theatre, including the Rom an tragedy Sejcmus (1603) and
the city com edy Volpone (1606). However, Jonson is associated w ith the Jacobean
court more than any other dram atist, as he w rote m asques for the co u rt at
W hitehall Palace and beyond, including The M asque o f Blackness (1605) for
Q ueen Anna. Jonson's career spanned the late Elizabethan period through to
the reign o f C harles I, and h e published, along the w ay, h is collected Works
in 1616.
M ach iav elli, N iccolo: Enorm ously influential Italian political thinker associated
w ith statecraft through h is im portant 1513 text The Prince, a w ork o f political
theory. M achiavelli fam ously urged rulers to dom inate through fear and vio
lence, though h is m essage w as often exaggerated and taken out o f context by
English Renaissance writers. M any dram atic villains may be seen a s stereo
typical 'stag e M achiavels', including Shakespeare's Richard III and Iago.
M aterialism : An influential aspect o f M arxism that prioritizes the physical and
m aterial form s o f existence over spiritual thought. For instance, a m aterialist
reading o f a Shakespeare play m ight foreground the depiction o f industrial
a n d /o r labour forces in the text. See also c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l i s m .
M etadram a/M etatheatre: A m ode o f dram a w hich com pels audiences to reflect
the m echanics o f play-m aking and perform ance. An exam ple o f this is a 'play
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G lossary o f Critical a n d Theoretical Terminology
w ithin a play' scene in a text such a s the fam ous 'M ousetrap' in Ham let. In such
a scenario, the real audience w ill be w atching an onstage audience o f actors
'w atching' a play.
M id d leton, T hom as: H ighly influential Renaissance dram atist, know n particu
larly for his Jacobean tragedies and city com edies. M iddleton often collaborated
w ith other playw rights, particularly W illiam Row ley, and, alm ost certainly,
Shakespeare. H is best-know n plays include the controversial G am e at Chess
(1624) and the Revenger's Tragedy (1606), though the authorship o f the earlier
play has often been questioned. Like Ben J o n s o n (see above), M iddleton also
w rote Jacobean m asques and civic entertainm ents for the city o f London.
M etaphor: figurative trope in w hich two things are com pared that would
usually be seen to have little in com m on w ith the oth er (such as, for instance,
'su n ' and 'king').
M on archical: Refers to the dom inance o f a king o r queen. For instance, 'm onar
chical discourse' a s opposed to 'republican discourse'.
M orrano: Spanish Jew s forced to conceal their cultural identity in the period.
M ystery C ycles/M ystery Plays: H ighly didactic religious plays performed
through the m edieval period until the 1560s. Surviving exam ples include those
from York, C oventry, W akefield and Chester. Su ch plays fell o u t o f favour
during and after the R e f o r m a t i o n , though they were perform ed during the
early part o f Shakespeare's life. Along w ith the m orality tradition, this genre
w as influential o n early Elizabethan public theatre, including the w ork of
M arlow e.
N ew H istoricism : C ritical theory that places the literary text in a deep-rooted
historical narrative draw ing upon the ideas o f the cultural theorist Michel
Foucault. Best exem plified by the w ork o f Stephen G reenblatt and Stephen
Orgel.
N ine Years W ar in Irelan d (1594-1603): The conflict betw een the native Irish,
guided by H ugh O 'N eill, and the Elizabethan settlers and soldiers. See also
F l i g h t o f t h e E a r l s (above) for inform ation on the Irish defeat and the resulting
problems.
O thers: A relatively recent critical term that suggests the opposite o f the 'se lf'. For
instance, an Elizabethan traveller m ight be the 'self' to the colonized 'other' in
an Am erican settlem ent. Sim ilarly, critics often refer to the period's fascination
w ith the 'se lf/o th e r dichotom y'.
Patriarchy: Refers to any m ale-dom inated society in w hich equality betw een the
sexes is not prioritized. Thus, the rule o f Q ueen Elizabeth I m ay be seen to have
problem atized the p eriod 's patriarchal codes.
P lan tation : A settlem ent on foreign soil in w hich the m em bers have to farm
crops for sustenance. In the early m odern period there w ere various American
plantations, including the first, Jam estow n.
P ostcolonialism : C ritical and cultural theory' influenced by the w ork o f Edward
Said, particularly h is volum e Orientalism (1978). O ften applied to Shakespeare's
Othello, and , particularly, The Tempest. T he use o f this theory w ould typically
include an exam ination o f early m odem England a n d /o r Europe and an
encounter w ith the 'N ew W orld' su ch as the Americas.
219
G lossary o f Critical an d Theoretical Terminology
220
G lossary o f Critical a n d Theoretical Terminology
221
G lossary o f Critical an d Theoretical Terminology
222
Appendix: Shakespeare: Teaching,
Curriculum and Learning
D avid W ebb
C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w
C ore Topics
W ays o f Teaching
T h is ch a p te r is a v a ila b le o n lin e at
\v>y^::.cimtinuumbi>Qk^,..c.Qm/^gQyxcg.A9Z$0$26495785
223
Notes on the Contributors
224
N otes on the Contributors
the M H R A 's 2008 Yearbook o f English Studies devoted to Tudor literature and
co-editcd Palgrave's Teaching Shakespeare an d Early M odern Dramatists. H e is also
Co-Hditor for the journal English (OUP).
225
N otes on the Contributors
226
Notes
C h a p te r 2
1 The author wishes to express his gratitude to W. B. Patterson for offering helpful
suggestions on this essay.
C h a p te r 9
1 You can take a 'virtual tour' o f the interior of the Globe at h ttp ://
www.shakespeares-globe.org/virtualtour/stage/.
C h a p te r 11
1 The production, in a French prose translation, w as performed in London at the
Adelphi in June 1899.
2 h t t p :/ / uk.youtube.com/watch?v=7jiAs5gGl A A, accessed 1 September 2008.
3 Shaksper, 11 June 2008; http://w w w .shaksper.net/archives/2008/0349.htm l.
4 Productions by Tower Shakespeare Company in London in the 1980s, and
Shenandoah Shakespeare Express, touring campuses in the US have performed
uncut Folio text versions of even the longest plays in approximately three hours;
see also the almost entirely uncut production of Cymbeline by Shakespeare Santa
Cruz (2000); discussed by King (2005:173-80) and rgel (2001).
5 Copious descriptive stage directions are found in the works of Henrik Ibsen and
George Bernard Shaw, but this was an innovation forced on those playwrights
who had found it difficult to get their plays performed for reasons o f censorship
and had prepared their texts specifically for the reading public.
227
Annotated Bibliography
Robert C. Evans
T h e follow ing bibliography, w hich o f course can only skim the surface o f valuable
scholarship on Shakespeare, attem pts to focus (a) on classic studies; (b) on recent
overview s and on com prehensive guides; (c) on m ulti-author collections offering
a v ariety o f critical perspectives; (d) on critical controversies; and (e) on works
likely to be especially helpful to new er students o f Shakespeare. T h e bibliography
is broken into the following sub-sections: (1) one-volum e editions; (2) multi
volum e editions; (3) reference w orks; (4) biographies; (5) history o f criticism ;
(6) criticism : im portant general studies; (7) perform ance on stage and film; (8) the
plays: com edies; (9) the plays: histories; (10) the plays: rom ances and other late
plays; (11) the plays: tragedies; (12) the poems.
E d itio n s: O n e -v o lu m e V ersio n s
Shakespeare, W. (1996), The Riverside Shakespeare (2nd edn), ed. G. B. Evans. New
York: I Ioughton Mifflin. Includes essays on m o d em criticism and on the plays
in perform ance.
------ (2001), Arden Shakespeare: Com plete Works (revised edn), ed. D. S. Kastan,
R. Proudfoot and A. Thom pson. London: A rd en /T h om son Learning.
Em phasizes historical attitudes tow ards the w orks, Shakespeare's life and
reading and the w ays h is plays were originally performed.
------ (2004), Com plete Works o f W illiam Shakespeare (5th edn), ed. D. Bevington.
N ew York: Pearson Longman. Em phasizes historical data, language, cultural
contexts and interpretive issues.
------ (2005), The O xford Shakespeare: The Com plete Works (2nd edn), ed. S. Wells,
G. Taylor, J. Jow ett and W. M ontgom ery. Oxford: O xford U niversity Press. C on
troversial bu t highly influential edition em phasizing textual dilemmas.
------ (2008), T he Norton Shakespeare: Based on the O xford Edition (2nd edn), ed. S.
G reenblatt, W. Cohen, J. E. Howard and K. E. M aus. N ew York: W. W. Norton.
Em phasizes Shakespeare's w orld, theatrical environm ent, life and art and text
ual issues.
228
Annotated Bibliography
edits the series; individual volum es are edited by particular experts. See also
the Oxford School Shakespeare series, w hich em phasizes w ays to engage
students.
------ (1984-), N ew Cam bridge Shakespeare, ed. B. G ibbons. C am bridge: C am bridge
U niversity Press. Thorough introductions and notes; em phasizes theatrical
issues. See also T he Neiu Cam bridge Shakespeare Q uartos as well the C am bridge
School Shakespeare series (general editor: Rex G ibson), w hich em phasizes ways
to teach the plays.
------ (1992-2006), N ew Folger Library Shakespeare, ed. B. M ow at and P. Werstine,
P. 31 vols. N ew York: W ashington Square Press. N otes and splendid illustrations
appear on pages facing the texts. Each volum e presents detailed plot sum m ar
ies, copious textual notes, annotated lists o f secondary sources and an essay
offering a 'M od em Perspective'.
------ (1995-), The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series), ed. R. Proud foot, D. S. Kastan
and A. Thom pson. Volumes offer m eticulously edited texts, substantial introduc
tions, helpful appendices and volum inous notes.
R e fe re n c e W o rks
229
Annotated Bibliography
Shakespeare and history; the p lays' theatrical history; films; relations between
p age and stage; Shakespeare's w orldw ide im pact; the history o f Shakespeare
criticism and im portant reference books.
Dobson, M. and W ells, S. (eds) (2005), O xford Companion to Shakespeare (new edn).
Touches on nearly all things Shakespearean.
Donker, M. and Muldrow, G. M. (1982), D ictionary o f Literary-Rhetorical Conventions
o f the English Renaissance. D iscusses num erous kinds o f w riting o f the era.
H arbagc, A. (1963), W illiam Shakespeare: A Reader's Guide. N ew York: N oonday
Press. (A lso published a s A Reader's G uide to William Shakespeare.] Provides
sensible close readings; especially valuable for beginners.
Kastan, D. S. (ed.) (1999), A Com panion to Shakespeare. Oxford: Blackwell. Covers
such topics as Shakespeare's culture; Shakespeare the m an; Shakespeare's
England and London; religious identities; the family and household; political
thought and culture; readers and reading; reading the bible, the classics, history
and vernacular literature; playw righting; the English language; dram atic verse;
rhetorical culture; genre; the econom ics o f playing; Shakespeares acting com
panies; his repertory; his playhouses; licensing and censorship; Shakespeare in
print, 1593-1640; m anuscript playbooks; the craft o f printing; the book-trade;
press censorship; and Shakespeare: the myth.
Klin, P. C . (1991), Shakespeare and Feminist Criticism : An A nnotated Bibliography
and Commentary. New York: G arland. C overs the years 1975-1988.
M cDonald, R. (2001), The Bedford Com panion to Shakespeare: An Introduction with
Docum ents (2nd edn). Boston: B ed fo rd /St M artin's. An exceptionally helpful
overview, w ith chapters on the life and the authorship controversy; dram atic
language; theatre and dram atic genres; perform ance, playhouses and players;
textual issues; Shakespeare's reading; life in Shakespeare's England; gender
issues and social structure; politics and religion; and the history o f perform
ances. C ontains num erous excerpts from prim ary docum ents as well as many
illustrations.
Q uinn, E. G ., Ruoff, J. and G rennen, J. (1973), The M ajor Shakespearean Tragedies:
A Critical Bibliography. N ew York: Free Press. Dated bu t still valuable.
Rivers, I. (1994), Classical and Christian Ideas in English Renaissance Poetry: A
Student's Guide. London: Routledge. Intelligently organized chapters deal w ith
the gold en age and the G arden o f Eden; the pagan gods; Platonism and neo-
Platonism ; stoicism ; view s o f history; cosm ology; Reform ation and C ounter-
R eform ation; Protestant theology; hum anism ; biblical exegesis and typology;
theories o f poetry; allegory; and numerology.
Shaughnessy, R. (ed.) (2007), The Cam bridge Com panion to Shakespeare and Popular
Culture. Cam bridge: C am bridge U niversity Press. Topics include relations
betw een popular entertainm ent and literature; Shakespeare abbreviated;
Shakespearean stars; Shakespeare illustrated; Shakespeare: m yth and bio
graphical fiction; narration and staging in H am let and its after-novels;
Shakespeare serialized; m usical Shakespeares; rad io adaptations and perform
ances; Shakespeare and tourism ; perform ing Shakespeare in digital culture;
and Shakespeare's popular face: from playbill to poster.
230
Annotated Bibliography
B io g rap h ies
C ham bers, E. K . (1930), W illiam Shakespeare: A Study o f Facts and Problems. 2 vols.
Oxford: C larendon Press. C lassic early biography; the second volum e brim s w ith
contem porary docum ents and data, including early references to Shakespeare
and evidence concerning the developm ent o f h is reputation into the mid
nineteenth century.
H onan, P. (1998), Shakespeare: A Life. O xford: O xford U niversity Press. A sane,
thorough stud y that em phasizes Shakespeare's life as a theatrical professional.
Acknow ledges the lim its o f our know ledge and deals sensibly w ith the stand
ard controversies.
Schoenbaum , S. (1975), W illiam Shakespeare: A D ocum entary Life. N ew York: Oxford
U niversity Press. Includes and discusses photographic reproductions o f more
than 200 documents.
------ (1981), William Shakespeare: Records and Images. N ew York: O xford University
Press. A dds more than 150 further docum ents to those included in Schoen-
b au m 's 1975 volume.
------ (1991), Shakespeare's Lives (new edn). O xford: Clarendon. Traces the bio
graphical tradition and discusses claim s that various other persons may have
been the 'real' authors o f Shakespeare's works.
H isto ry o f C r itic is m
231
Annotated Bibliography
232
Annotated Bibliography
M urphy, A. (ed.) (2007), A Concise Com panion to Shakespeare and the Text. Twelve
essays on histories o f the books, theories o f editing and practicalities.
N eely, C. T. (1985), Broken Nuptials in Shakespeare's Plays. N ew Haven: Yale
U niversity Press. D iscusses m arriage in plays from various genres.
O rgel, S. (1996), Im personations: The Perform ance o f G ender in Shakespeare's England.
C am bridge: C am bridge U niversity Press. A n influential critic considers such
m atters as cross-dressing and boy-actors playing fem ale roles.
Parker, P. and H artm an, G. (eds) (1985), Shakespeare and the Question o f Theory.
London: M ethuen. Em phasizes recent linguistic, political and fem inist
perspectives.
Paster, G. K. (1993), The Body Em barrassed: Drama an d the Disciplines o f Sham e in
Early M odern England. Ithaca: Cornell U niversity Press. Em phasizes the im port
an ce o f contem porary 'hum ours' theory.
Pechter, E. (1995), W hat Was Shakespeare?: Renaissance Plays and Changing Critical
Practice. Ithaca: Cornell U niversity Press. C onfronts and com m ents on the
dizzying variety o f approaches that have arisen in recent decades.
Rabkin, N. (1967), Shakespeare and the Com m on Understanding. New York: Free
Press. Em phasizes the paradoxical nature of the plays.
------ (1981), Shakespeare and the Problem o f M eaning. Chicago: U niversity o f Chicago
Press. Em phasizes the com plexities and contradictions the plays em body.
Righter [Barton], A. (1962), Shakespeare and the Idea o f Play. London: Chatto and
W indus. Relates the plays to both earlier and Elizabethan ideas about theatre.
Skura, M . (1993), Shakespeare the A ctor and the Purposes o f Playing. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press. Explores depictions o f acting in various plays
and the w ays Shakespeare's experiences as an actor m ay have helped shape
his texts.
Spurgeon, C . F. E. (1935), Shakespeare's Im agery and What It Tells Us. Cam bridge:
Cam bridge U niversity Press. A pioneering study.
Styan, J . L. (1967), Shakespeare's Stagecraft. Cam bridge: C am bridge U niversity
Press. Influential early study o f the plays a s w orks for the theatre.
Tillyard, E. M . W. (1943), The Elizabethan World Picture. London: Chatto and Windus.
B rief bu t highly influential overview em phasizing order and orthodoxy;
frequently attacked by m ore recent critics.
Vickers, B. (1968), T he A rtistry o f Shakespeare's Prose. London: M ethuen. Examines
d ifferent uses o f prose in the com edies and tragedies and in different periods
o f Shakespeare's career.
------ (1993), A ppropriating Shakespeare: Contem porary Critical Quarrels. Criticizes
short-com ings of recent approaches, especially deconstruction, new historicism,
fem inism and M arxism as w ell a s psychological and C hristian perspectives.
Wayne, V. (ed.) (1991), The M atter o f Difference: M aterialist Feminist Criticism o f
Shakespeare. Ithaca: Cornell U niversity Press. Essays em phasizing the political
dim ensions o f feminism.
233
Annotated Bibliography
T h e P lay s: C o m e d ie s
234
Annotated Bibliography
H uston, J. D. (1981), Shakespeare's Com edies o f Play. N ew York: C olum bia U niversity
Press. Em phasizes playfulness and playing.
Kirsch, A. C . (1981), Shakespeare an d the Experience o f Loue. Cam bridge: C am bridge
U niversity Press. Em ploys both religious and psychoanalytical approaches.
Leggatt, A. (ed.) (2002), The Cam bridge Companion to Shakespearean Comedy.
C am bridge: C am bridge U niversity Press. Topics include traditional theories
o f com edy; Rom an com edy; Italian stories on the stage; Elizabethan com edy;
popular festivity; Shakespeare's forms o f confusion; love and courtship; lau gh
ing at 'others'; com edy and sex; language and com edy; sexual disguise and
the theatre o f gender; m atters o f state; and the experim ent o f romance.
------ (1973), Shakespeare's Comedy o f Love. London: M ethuen. D iscusses the dis
tinctiveness o f each play by relating it to standard patterns.
M cFarland, T. (1972), Shakespeare's Pastoral Com edy. C hapel Hill: U niversity of
North Carolina Press. Relates a handful o f plays to ideals of rural life.
Nevo, R. (1980), Com ic Transformations in Shakespeare. Exam ines the ways
Shakespeare transform s earlier traditions o f comedy.
Phialas, P. G. (1966), Shakespeare's Romantic Comedies: The Developm ent o f Their
Form and M eaning. Em phasizes the central them e o f love.
Salingar, L. (1976), Shakespeare and the Traditions o f Com edy. Cam bridge: Cam bridge
U niversity Press. C onnects the plays to classical, m edieval and Renaissance
precedents.
Sm ith, E. (2003), Shakespeares Com edies: A G uide to Criticism. Oxford: Blackwell.
Part I covers 1590-1914; Part II stresses the tw entieth-century studies.
Waller, G. (ed.) (1991), Shakespeare's Comedies. London: Longman. Emphasizes
recent critical trends, especially Freudianism , fem inism and new historicism.
W heeler, R. P. (1981), Shakespeare's Development and the Problem Comedies: Turn
and Counter-Turn. Berkeley: U niversity o f California Press. Relates these plays
to the earlier and later com ic works.
Wilson, J. D. (1962), Shakespeare's Happy Comedies. Evanston: Northwestern
U niversity Press. Em phasizes the joyful, non-satiric aspects o f various plays.
235
Annotated Bibliography
H attaw ay, M . (ed.) (2003), Cam bridge Companion to Shakespeare's H istory Plays.
C am bridge: C am bridge U niversity Press. Topics include Shakespearean and
o th er early m odern history plays; pageants and m asques; Elizabethan histori
ography and Shakespeares sources; w om en 's roles; relevant royal dynasties;
discussions o f specific plays; Shakespeare's ancient Rom e; h is other historical
plays; and theatrical productions.
Leggatt, A. (1988), Shakespeare's P olitical Drama: The H istory Plays an d the Roman
Plays. London: Routledge. D etailed readings o f eleven plays, focusing on ten
sions betw een realities and ideals and the need for rules to create scripts and
act roles.
Rackin, P. (1990), Stages o f History: Shakespeare's English Chronicles. London:
Routledge. Em phasizes the silenced voices o f w omen and com m on folk.
Reese, M. M. (1961), T he C ease o f M ajesty. London: Edw ard Arnold. R elates the
plays to previous dram as and to preceding w orks o f history; also links them
to Elizabethan issues.
Ribner, I. (1965), The English H istory Play in the Age o f Shakespeare (revised edn).
London: M ethuen. Synthesizing and responding to earlier scholarship, this
w ork em phasizes the influence of previous kinds o f plays about history and
the different purposes they could serve.
Saccio, P. (1977), Shakespeares English Kings: History, Chronicle, an d Drama. London:
O xford U niversity Press. Provides reliable historical inform ation, discusses how
the various reigns w ere view ed by Shakespeare's predecessors, and indicates
how Shakespeare him self shaped and altered previous facts and interpretations.
A standard reference source.
Sm ith, E. (2003), Shakespeare's H istories: A G uide to Criticism. O xford: Blackwell.
Topics covered include the developing critical tradition; genre; language; gen
d er and sexuality; history and politics; and perform ance.
Tillyard, E. M. W. (1944), Shakespeare's H istory Plays. London: M acm illan. Argues
that the plays form an English ep ic in w hich order (culm inating in the Tudor
dynasty) evolved out o f preceding disorder thanks to divine providence. A
highly influential early study that has been significantly challenged b y more
recent scholars.
Traversi, D. A. (1957), Shakespeare: From 'Richard IT to 'Henry V . Stanford: Stanford
U niversity Press. Exam ines traits o f the kings and kingship.
Dutton, R. and H ow ard, J. (eds) (2003), A Com panion to Shakespeare's Works, Volume
IV: The Poems, Problem Comedies, I Ate Plays. O xford: Blackwell. Topics include
the sonnets and sexuality; O vids im pact on Venus and A donis; the problem plays
and the dram a o f Shakespeare's tim e; scatology and satire; early m odern mar
riage; varieties of collaboration; generic issues; Shakespeare and Beaum ont
and Fletcher; place and space in three late plays; politics and the technology
o f spectacle; and explorations o f individual works.
Felperin, H. (1972), Shakespearean Rom ance. Princeton: Princeton U niversity Press.
Exam ines the influence o f classical and m edieval precedents on the romance
genre.
236
Annotated Bibliography
Foakes, R. A. (1971), Shakespeare: The D ark Com edies to the Last Plays: From Satire to
Celebration. Charlottesville: U niversity of Virginia Press. Em phasizes perform
an ce issues and changes in characterization.
Frye, N. (1965). A Natural Perspective: The D evelopm ent o f Shakespearean Comedy and
Romance. N ew York: Colum bia U niversity Press. Stresses m ythic patterns of
rebirth and renewal.
H artw ig, J. (c. 1972), Shakespeare's Tragicomic Vision. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State
U niversity Press. Em phasizes the com plex responses these plays provoke and
their com m on elem ents o f plot.
Kay, C. M. and Jacobs, H. E. (eds) (1978), Shakesepeare's Rom ances Reconsidered.
Lincoln: U niversity o f N ebraska Press. Contains eleven essays, a critical over
view and a lengthy bibliography.
Knight, G. W. (1947), T he Crown o f Life: Essays in Interpretation o f Shakespeare's Last
Plays. London: Oxford U niversity Press. Em phasizes the p lays' visionary qual
ities and their real artistic success.
Tillyard, E. M. W. (1938), Shakespeare's Last Plays. Focuses on three plays, linking
them to related kinds o f w riting (particularly tragedy).
Traversi, D. A. (1954), Shakespeare: The Last Phase. N ew York: Harcourt, Brace.
Stresses patterns o f reconciliation.
Yates, F. A. (1975), Shakespeare's Last Plays: A N e Approach. London: Routledge.
C onnects the plays to developm ents in the royal family.
T h e P lay s: Tragedies
237
Annotated Bibliography
Dutton, R. and H ow ard, J. (eds) (2003), A Com panion lo Shakespeare's Works, Volume
I: The Tragedies. Oxford: Blackwell. Topics include the idea o f tragedy; tragedies
o f Shakespeare's contem poraries; em otions; divided subjects; disjointed times;
tragedies o f love; changing conceptions o f H am let; m ultiple-text tragedies;
religious issues; geography; classic films; contem porary film s and individual
plays.
Farnham , W. (1950), Shakespeare's Tragic Frontier: The W orld o f H is Final Tragedies.
Berkeley: U niversity o f C alifornia Press. Stresses the paradoxical nature o f the
flawed bu t noble tragic heroes.
Felperin, H. (1977), Shakespearean Representation: M im esis and M odernity in
Elizabethan Tragedy. Princeton: Princeton U niversity Press. D iscusses how
Shakespeare's use o f dram atic traditions helped him m akes h is plays seem fresh
and realistic.
Frye, N. (1967), Fools o f Time: Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy. Toronto: University
o f Toronto Press. Em phasizes tragedies of order, passion and isolation.
G arner, S. N. and Sprengnether, M. (eds) (1996). Bloom ington: Indiana U niversity
Press. Topics include history and tragedy; m adness and gender; maternal
pow er; various studies o f Othello; liberal hum anism ; and Shakespeares con
tem porary relevance.
G oldm an, M . (1985), A cting an d A ction in Shakespearean Tragedy. Princeton:
Princeton U niversity Press. Argues that each play's great tragic role has its
defining se t o f acting challenges and rewards.
H ollow ay, J. (1961), The Story o f the N ight: Studies in Shakespeare's M ajor Tragedies.
Lincoln: University o f N ebraska Press. Em phasizes how the protagonists are
expelled and scape-goated.
Hunter, R. G. (1976), Shakespeare and the M ystery o f God's Judgm ents. Athens:
U niversity o f G eorgia Press. Em phasizes religious controversies o f the time.
Knight, G. W. (1949), The W heel o f Fire: Interpretations o f Shakespearian Tragedy
(revised edn). O xford: O xford U niversity Press, 1949. Em phasizes imagery,
sym bolism and atm osphere and focuses especially o n m atters o f tim e and space.
Lawlor, J. (1960), T he Tragic Sense in Shakespeare. London: Chatto and W indus.
Em phasizes the dilem m as the protagonists face and the revelations the
plays provide.
M ack, M . (1993), Everybody's Shakespeare: Reflections C hiefly on the Tragedies. Lincoln:
University o f N ebraska Press. N ew and collected essays by a m ajor scholar.
M cEachern, C. (ed.) (2002), The Cam bridge Com panion to Shakespearean Tragedy.
C am bridge: C am bridge U niversity Press. Topics include defining Shakespear
ean tragedy; the language o f tragedy; tragedy in Shakespeare's career;
Shakespearean tragedy printed and perform ed; religion and Shakespearean
tragedy; tragedy and political authority; gender and fam ily; the tragic subject
and its passions; tragedies o f revenge and am bition; tragedies o f love;
Shakespeare's classical tragedies; the tragedies' critical reception; and A ntony
and Cleopatra in the theatre.
M cElroy, B. (1973), Shakespeare's M ature Tragedies. Princeton: Princeton U niversity
Press. Em phasizes the psychological traits and experiences the protagonists
share.
Muir, K. (1972), Shakespeare's Tragic Sequence. London: H utchinson. Resists efforts to
provide hom ogeneous interpretations; em phasizes each play's distinctiveness.
238
Annotated Bibliography
T h e Poem s
Booth, S. (ed.) (1977), Shakespeare's Sonnets: Edited w ith Analytic Com m entary. New
Haven: Yale U niversity Press. Contains extraordinarily detailed annotations.
Cheney, P. (ed.) (2007), T he Cam bridge Com panion to Shakespeare's Poetry. Cambridge:
Cam bridge U niversity Press. Includes chapters on the separate narrative poem s
and o n the sonnets. Topics also include Shakespeare's poetry in the twenty-first
century'; Shakespeare and the developm ent o f English poetry; rhetoric, style
and poetic form ; p rint and m anuscript; poetry, politics and religion; love,
beauty and sexuality; classicism ; poetry in the plays; poetry and perform ance;
and m atters o f reception and influence.
I lubler, E. (1952), T he Sense o f Shakespeare's Sonnets. Princeton: Princeton University
Press. C lassic discussion o f techniques and them es, including love, friendship,
poetry, m orality and change.
Landry, H. (1963), Interpretations in Shakespeare's Sonnets. Berkeley: U niversity of
C alifornia Press. D iscusses them es, ordering and techniques.
Leishman, J. B. (1961), Themes and Variations in Shakespeare's Sonnets. London:
Hutchinson. R elates the poem s to earlier w orks by classical w riters and
Renaissance authors on the continent and in England.
Schoenfeldt, M. (ed.) (2006), A Companion to Shakespeare's Sonnets. Oxford:
Blackwell. Topics include sonnet form and sonnet sequence; predecessors; edi
torial theory and biographical inquiry; m anuscript and print; m odels o f desire;
ideas o f darkness; m em ory and repetition; relations w ith the plays; and the
sonnets and A Lover's Complaint.
Vendler, H. (1997), The A rt o f Shakespeare's Sonnets. C am bridge: H arvard University
Press. Detailed readings o f all the poems.
239
Works Cited
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