Unit 1 History of sports.

Sports and
Society

Text 1
The development of sport throughout history can teach us a great deal about social
changes, and about the nature of sport itself.
There are many modern discoveries in France, Africa and Australia of cave art (e.g.
Lascaux) from prehistory which provide evidence of ritual ceremonial behaviour. Some of these
sources date from over 30,000 years ago, as established by carbon dating. Although there is scant
direct evidence of sport from these sources, it is reasonable to extrapolate that there was some
activity at these times resembling sport.
There are artifacts and structures which suggest that Chinese people engaged in activities
which meet our definition of sport as early as 4000 BC. Gymnastics appears to have been a
popular sport in China's past. Monuments to the Pharaohs indicate that a range of sports were well
developed and regulated several thousands of years ago, including swimming and fishing. Other
sports included javelin throwing, high jump and wrestling. Ancient Persian sports such as the
traditional Iranian martial art of Zurkhaneh had a close connection to the warfare skills. Among
other sports which originate in Persia are Polo and jousting.
A wide range of sports were already established at the time of the Ancient Greece.
Wrestling, running, boxing, javelin, discus throwing, and chariot racing were prevalent. This
suggests that the military culture of Greece was an influence on the development of its sports and
vice versa. The Olympic Games were held every four years in Ancient Greece, at a small village in
Pelopponisos called Olympia.
Sport has been increasingly organised and regulated from the time of the Ancient Olympics
up to the present century. Activities necessary for food and survival became regulated activities
done for pleasure or competition on an increasing scale, e.g. hunting, fishing, horticulture. The
Industrial Revolution and mass production brought increased leisure which allowed increases in
spectator sports, less elitism in sports, and greater accessibility. These trends continued with the
advent of mass media and global communication. Professionalism became prevalent, further
adding to the increase in sport's popularity. (retrieved from www.wikipedia.org)

Text 2
The origin of the ancient Olympic Games has been lost, although there are many legends
surrounding its origins. One of these legends associates the first Games with the ancient Greek
concept of ekeicheiria or Olympic Truce. The first recorded celebration of the Games in Olympia
was in 776 BC, although this was certainly not the first time they were held. The Games were then
mostly a local affair, and only one event was contested, the stadion race.
From that moment on, the Games slowly became more important throughout ancient
Greece, reaching their zenith in the sixth and fifth centuries BC. The Olympics were of
fundamental religious importance, contests alternating with sacrifices and ceremonies honouring
both Zeus (whose colossal statue stood at Olympia), and Pelops, divine hero and mythical king of
Olympia famous for his legendary chariot race, in whose honor the games were held. The number
of events increased to twenty, and the celebration was spread over several days. Winners of the
events were broadly admired and were immortalised in poems and statues. The Games were held
every four years, and the period between two celebrations became known as an Olympiad. The
Greeks used Olympiads as one of their methods to count years. The most famous Olympic athlete
lived in these times: The sixth century BC wrestler Milo of Croton is the only athlete in history to
win a victory in six Olympics.
The Games gradually lost in importance as the Romans gained power in Greece. When
Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, the Olympic Games were seen as a
"pagan" festival threatening Christian hegemony, and in 393 the emperor Theodosius outlawed the
Olympics, ending a thousand year period of Olympic Games.

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 During the ancient times normally only young men competed. Performers were usually
naked, not only as the weather was appropriate but also as the festival was meant to be, in part, a
celebration of the achievements of the human body. Upon winning the games, the victor would get
not only the prestige of being in first place but also a crown of olive leaves.
During competition for some of the events, many of the participants would use oils to keep their
skin smooth, as well as provide an appealing luster to anyone who saw them.(retrieved from
www.wikipedia.org)

Text 3
One way of thinking about sports place in society involves setting up a model identifying
the main features of sport in the traditional or preindustrial world and placing it alongside one of
modern or industrial society. Sport in the former is characterised by its periodic, unorganised and
essentially local nature. There is no generally accepted way of playing nor any widely agreed set of
rules. No controlling organisations exist. Sport is not a separate activity pursued for its own sake
but closely bound up with the hierarchy, ritual and symbols of the wider social life. Sport in
particular, in what was largely an agrarian society, was governed by the religious and seasonal
rhythms of that society. It usually took place on the festivals associated with those rhythms.
Sport in modern society, on the other hand, is almost everything which sport in earlier
times was not. It is highly organised, structured and regulated. A regular programme of fixtures
exists at every level of activity, local, regional, national, even international. Sport at the highest
level is specialised, bureaucratised, and increasingly commercialised. The goal of the athlete, who
for a period of his life does nothing else but prepare for and compete in his or her chosen sport, is
victory. Sport has taken on an important role in education, the promotion of health and the making
of profits. Sporting performance has contributed to the status of individuals, towns, institutions and
countries. What had happened to sport in the change from agrarian to industrial society reflected
those societal changes. A backward-looking, traditional, customary way of life had been replaced
by a new order based on reason, individual striving and achievement. The transition from
traditional to modern sport, so the argument goes, was one of the cultural expressions of a new
scientific view of the world. (extracted from Sport in Britain, A Social History, Tony Mason)

READING COMPREHENSION

I. Read the texts quickly and choose a title for each one of them:
A. Sports and society
B. History of sport
C. The Ancient Olympic Games

II. Read the texts 1 and 2 carefully and choose the correct answer:

Text 1
1. In which of the following countries javelin throwing was a well-known sport during ancient
times?
A. Persia, B. China, C. Egypt
2. Which of the following sports is not an Olympic sport nowadays?
A. boxing
B. running

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C. chariot racing
3. How does text 1 characterize the relationship between sports and the ancient Greek military
culture?
A. There was no connection between the two.
B. They influenced each other.
C. The military culture totally controlled the development of sports in ancient Greece.
4. Which of the following sports originates from activities pursued for survival?
A. football
B. shooting
C. basketball

Text 2
5. When were the ancient Olympic Games held for the first time?
A. in 776 BC
B. before 776 BC
C. after 776 BC
6. What period of time is considered to have been the acme of the ancient Olympic Games?
A. between the 6th and the 5th centuries BC
B. between the 3rd and the 2nd centuries BC
C. between the 1st and the 2nd centuries BC
7. What caused the end of the ancient Olympic Games?
A. the rise of Christianity
B. lack of financial funds
C. the Greeks lost their interest in watching the games
8. When were the ancient Olympic Games declared illegal?
A. in the 3rd century BC
B. in the 3rd century AD
C. in the 4th century AD
9. Besides honouring Zeus and Pelops the ancient Olympic Games represented:
A. an opportunity to kill people in a fight without being punished.
B. an opportunity to celebrate the beauty of the human body.
C. an opportunity to warship the god of war.

III. In the table below provide as many characteristics of sport as you can find in text 3:

Sport in the traditional world Sport in the modern society

IV. Choose the variant that best reflects the meaning of the following words in the texts (look
for the words written in bold):
Text 1
1. scant means:
A. sufficient, B. amazing, C. insufficient
2. leisure means:
A. time spent in or free for relaxation or enjoyment, B. show business, C. TV programme
3. advent means:
A. development, B. decadence, C. degeneracy
Text 2
4. truce means:
A. truth, B. an agreement between enemies to stop fighting for a certain time, C. competition

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5. broadly means:
A. scarcely, B. slightly, C. widely
6. to outlaw means:
A. to ban, B. to permit, C. to implement
7. smooth means:
A. soft, B. moist, C. soaked
Text 3
8. to set up means:
A. to create, B. to analyze, C. to describe
9. bound up with means:
A. separated from, B. connected with, C. established by
10. fixture means
A. repair, B. a sporting event which takes place on a particular date, C. a piece of equipment or
furniture which is fixed on a position in a building or a vehicle

VOCABULARY
1. Write the names of the sports illustrated in the first column of the table below, then put
+ where appropriate:
SPORTS TEAM INDIVIDUAL COMBATIVE INDOOR OUTDOOR

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1 2 3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10

11 12 13 14 15

16 17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24 25

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2. Complete the following sentences with the words or phrases from the list below.
captain, pitch, goal, referee, coach, footballer, kick-off, score, draw, fouls, league, soccer, fair, free
kick, opponents
1. What Europeans call football, Americans call .. .
2. The instructor of the team is the .. .
3. When you play in a football team you are a .. .
4. The games take place on a .. .
5. The leader of the team is the .. .
6. The man in the .. is the goal-keeper.

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7. The beginning of the match is the .. .
8. During the match each team tries to .. as many goals as possible.
9. When the teams have scored the same number of goals we say its a .. .
10. The players of the other team are the .. .
11. The man who enforces the rules during the game is the .. .
12. Playing correctly is called .. play.
13. Unfair moves are called .. .
14. When a player brakes the rules the other team may get a .. .
15. A federation of football clubs is called a football .. .

3. Look at the groups of four words below. Try to decide in which sport all four words would
be used. Then try to add a word of your own to each group. In one or two cases, more than
one sport may be associated with the four items.
1. table, net, racket, backhand, 2. court, baseline, serve, volley, 3. pool, butterfly, breaststroke,
turn, 4. foil, epe, saber, hit, 5. course, hole, flag, clubs, 6. reins, fence, whip, winning post, 7.
bow, arrow, target, bull, 8. boat, rope, ramp, tricks, 9. mat, horse, bars, beam, 10. table, pocket,
cue, red, 11. track, pedals, handlebars, lap, 12. corner, goal-kick, striker, goalkeeper, 13. ring,
ropes, corner, bell, 14. board, square, pawns, queen, 15. racket, shuttlecock, smash, lob, 16. rink,
puck, stick, goal.

4. Match the clothes and accessories with the sportsmen/women you would expect to find
wearing them.
1. helmet, thigh and shoulder pads, boots a. fencer
2. cap, goggles, trunks b. sprinter
3. shorts, gloves, gumshield c. boxer
4. shorts, vest, spikes d. American footballer
5. mask, breastplate, gym shoes e. swimmer

5. Read the following list of sports and create a crossword puzzle. It will contain five words
across and five words down.

Athletics
Track and field athletics.
Jumping: Triple jump, Long jump, High jump, Pole vault

Running: Sprints, Middle distance, Long distance, Relay races, Hurdling, Steeplechase

Throwing: Discus, Hammer throw, Horseshoe, Javelin, Atlatl, Shot put

Walking
Animal sports
Sports in which animals play a role.

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 Bullfighting

Camel racing

Cockfighting

Pigeon sport

Equestrianism: Quarterhorse racing, Steeplechase, Equestrianism, Thoroughbred racing

Harness racing, Polo, Buzkashi
Combat sports: Aikido, Ba Gua, Boxing, Brazilian jiu jitsu, Capoeira, Fencing, Hapkido,
Iaido, Judo, Ju-jitsu, Karate, Kempo, Kendo, Kung-fu, Mixed martial arts,Muay Thai,
Naginata-do, Pencak Silat, Sambo, Sumo, Taekwondo, Tai Chi Chuan, Tang Soo Do,
Wing Chun, Wrestling, Wushu, Yal Gre
Cycling: Bicycle polo, BMX racing, Cycloball, Cyclocross, Mountain bicycling, Mountain
unicycling, Road bicycle racing, Track cycling, Triathlon, Unicycle trials
Extreme Sports: Adventure racing, Base jumping, Bodyboarding, Bungee jumping, Kite
Surfing, Indoor Surfing, Motocross, Paragliding, Parkour, Rock climbing,
Skateboarding, Snowboarding, Wakeboarding, Surfing
Gymnastics
Gymnastic sports: Artistic gymnastics, Rhythmic gymnastics, Sports acrobatics, Sports aerobics,
Trampolining
Motorised sports
Sports based on motorised transportation, also not really considered "sports" by the
majority of people: Air Racing, Auto racing, Karting, Motorboat racing, Motorcycle racing

Sports not in any of the other categories: American handball, Children playground sport,
Combat robot, Dance sport, Disabled sports, Fives, Foosball, Footbag (hacky sack), Haggis
Hurling, Jai-Alai, Keysport (La Llave), Modern pentathlon, Ringo, Tetherball, Triathlon

Outdoor sports
Sports not based on a specific field: Aerobatics, Aeromodelling, Ballooning, Caving, Casting,
Canyoning, Fell running, Flying disc, Geocaching, Gliding, Hang gliding, Mountaineering,
Orienteering, Parachuting, Paragliding, Scuba diving, Skydiving, Sled-dog sports, Sport fishing,
Surfing, Zorbing
Power sports
Sports mainly based on sheer power: Bodybuilding, Dwarf throwing, Powerlifting, Tug of war,
Weightlifting, Zurkhaneh

Racket sports
Sports where players use rackets to hit a ball or other object:Badminton, Ball Badminton,
Paddleball, Pington, Racquetball, Racquets, Racketlon, Real tennis, Soft tennis, Squash, Squash
tennis, Stick, Table Tennis, Tennis, Tennis Polo, Xare
Skating

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Sports in which skates are used: Artistic roller skating, Figure skating, Ice hockey, Inline speed
skating, Rink hockey, Roller derby, Roller hockey, Roller skating, Inline skating, Roller speed
skating, Short track speed skating, Speed skating, Synchronized skating

Skiing / Snowsports
Sports in which skis or snowboards are used: Alpine skiing (also known as Downhill skiing),
Backcountry skiing (also known as Off Piste skiing), Biathlon, Cross country skiing (together with
ski jumping and nordic combined also known as Nordic skiing), Firngleiten, Freestyle skiing,
Grass skiing, Nordic combined, Roller skiing,Skibob, Ski flying, Skijoring, Ski jumping, Ski
touring, Speed skiing, Telemark skiing, Snowboarding, Freestyle snowboarding, Extreme
snowboarding

Sleighing
Sports that use sleighs: Bobsleigh, Land luge (also known as street luge and road luge), Luge,
Skeleton, Wok Racing
Sports Entertainment: Professional Wrestling
Target sports
Sports where the main objective is to hit a certain target: Archery, Kyudo, Atlatl, Billiard
Sports, Billiards, Bar billiards, Carambole billiard, Pool, Snooker, Trick Shot Snooker, Bocce,
Boccia, Bowling, Croquet, Curling, Darts, Golf, Disc golf, Speed golf, Golfcross, Horseshoe
throwing, Laser Tag, Lawn bowls, Marbles, Pall mall, Pelota, Petanque, Shooting, Skittles, Trugo

Team sports
Sports that involve teams: Airsoft, American football, Australian rules football, Bandy, Baseball,
Basketball, Beach Handball, Beach Soccer, Beach Rugby, Basque pelota, Broomball, Camogie,
Canadian football, Canoe Polo, Cricket, Curling, Danball, Eton Wall Game, Faustball, Fistball,
Floorball, Football (soccer), Futsal, Gaelic football, Goalball, Handball, Hit the Green Thing, Field
Hockey, Hornusser, Hurling, Ice Hockey, Kabaddi, Kickball, Korfball, Lacrosse, Mesoamerican
ballgame, Netball, Paintball, Petanque, Polo, Roller Hockey, Rounders, Royal Shrovetide Football,
Rugby League, Rugby Union, Scuffleball, Sepak Takraw, Shinty, Skittles, Softball, Speedball,
Takraw, Tennis Polo, Tchoukball, Throwball, Ultimate, sometimes called "Ultimate Frisbee",
Volleyball, Water polo

Mind sports
Sports that require little or no physical abilities: Bridge, Chess, Checkers (draughts), Poker, Go,
Scrabble, Shogi, Dominoes

Water sports: Swimming, Triathlon is usually a combination of swimming, cycling and running,
Modern pentathlon includes epee fencing, pistol shooting, swimming, a show jumping course on
horseback, and a cross-country run, Rescue swimming is swimming with the goal to rescue other
swimmers or the practice thereof, Surf lifesaving is a competitive sport which evolved from the
training activities of lifeguards at Australian surf beaches, Water polo is a team ball sport played in
water, Synchronized swimming is a hybrid of swimming, gymnastics, and ballet, Fin swimming is
swimming with fins, Water aerobics is aerobics in the water,Water gymnastics is gymnastics in the
water ,Snorkeling is the practice of swimming at the surface (typically of the sea) being equipped
with a mask and a short tube called a snorkel, Diving off springboards or off platforms, A water
slide is a slide with water flowing down it, Synchronized diving

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Under water: Diving under water, Scuba diving is swimming under water using a (self
contained) breathing apparatus, Free-diving is the aim to maximize the depth dived using no
breathing apparatus, Apnea is the practice of not breathing for extended times,
Underwater rugby is rugby played under water with a ball that has been rendered neutrally
buoyant. Breathing is done through a snorkel, and tackling is only allowed if you have the
ball or are tackling the one holding it, Underwater hockey is hockey played under water
with short wooden curved sticks and a heavy puck. Players wear diving masks, snorkels, and
fins, and must surface to breathe while team mates continue the game on the pool bottom,
Underwater photography is photography done under water. Numerous contests locally and
worldwide are arranged every year. The digital cameras have revolutionized how many
divers participate in UW-photography.

On the water: Boating is the use of boats, Bodyboarding is similar to surfing, but the board is
smaller and the person lies down on the board, Canoeing, Canoe Polo is polo using a canoe,
Dragon Boat Racing is a team paddling sport on water, Fishing is the recreation and sport
of catching fish, Hydroplane racing, Jet sprint boat racing, Kayaking, Kite surfing on
flat water using a kite for propulsion, Motor boating, Offshore powerboat racing,
Outrigger Canoe racing, Parasailing where a person is towed behind a vehicle (usually a
boat) while attached to a parachute, Rafting, Rowing propels a boat by means of oars,
Sailing using the wind for propulsion, Surfing downhill on waves, Splash Padding games
on zero depth Splash Pad, Tubing down a river or behind a boat, Wakeboarding is similar
to water skiing, but using only one board attached to the feet, Wake skating is similar to
wakeboarding, but the board is NOT attached to the feet, Water skiing is using skis to slide
over the water while being pulled by a boat or other device, Windsurfing on flat water using
wind for propulsion in combination with sails

6. A. Read the following sport and fitness metaphors.

I scored an own goal when I told my boss it had only taken me a day to write the report. Now she
wants me to write several a week. (made things worse rather than better)
My boss always seems to be moving the goalposts, which makes it very difficult to know what he
wants. (changing the rules)
The new EU laws aim to provide a level playing field for all member states. (fair situation)
Hes too young to be in the running for such a job. (seriously considered)
The two main parties in the election are still neck and neck in the opinion polls. (level with each
other and equally likely to win)
Politicians often skate around a subject. (dont talk directly about it)
The students all sailed through their exams. (passed very easily)

B. Rewrite the following sentences using these metaphors.

1. Sarah passed her exams without any difficulty at all.
2. I wish hed get directly to the point.
3. Ive been told that they are seriously considering me for the job of supervisor.

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4. Although he meant it as a compliment, Rick didnt improve his chances with Helen when he told
her as if she had put on some weight.
5. The situation is hardly fair when 18-year-olds take the same exam as 15-year-olds.
6. Its hard to know what to do when the regulations seem to be constantly changing.

7. Read and translate into Romanian the following boxing metaphors.

not up to scratch -- subpar, not able to do the task at hand (in the old days of boxing,
boxers started the round by stepping over a scratch made in the ring, but if a boxer could
not do this to keep the round going, he/she was said to be "not up to scratch")

saved by the bell -- rescued from defeat by dint of time running out, an unexpected turn of
events, etc.

on the ropes -- on the verge of being defeated

throw in the towel -- to quit, give up

in one's corner -- on someone's side, to help or cheer him on

down for the count -- knocked out, defeated

sucker punch -- hitting an opponent who is off his guard, unfairly taking advantage of a
vulnerability

hitting below the belt -- a grossly unfair attack (in everyday life, usually of a verbal nature)

punch drunk -- dazed or incoherent (originally, from being repeatedly struck, can refer to
dazes generally)

pull one's punches -- to hold back, withhold full force or attack

keep your guard up -- to remain alert, on the defensive

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