Humberto Gilmer PHYS 1251 (Lisa 12:40p/1:50p): Midterm 2 Review Sheet

The overarching concept behind the material for midterm 2 is magnetostatics. Static magnetic fields are
generated by steady currents which can flow in circuits with simple elements like resistors or capacitors.
These circuits are governed by the Kirchhoff loop and junction rules. Given a certain configuration of
currents I (or current densities ~) it is possible to find the magnetic field in space by means of the
Amp`ere or Biot-Savart law, mirroring the procedure for electrostatics. Then, we can let the magnetic
fields change in time. Nature will seek to keep magnetic flux constant, and so will generate currents that
counter any change in the flux. This a phenomenon known as induction, governed by the Faraday law.
Time-dependent fields are connected to time-dependent currents, which can give rise to more complicated
circuits, involving not just resistors, but also capacitors and inductors.

Time-independent circuits
The three main quantities for time-independent circuits are the voltage (V ), current (I) and resistance (R).
These three are related by
V = IR
A resistor dissipates power (P )
(V )2
P = I(V ) = I 2 R =
R
A resistor may be hooked up in a circuit with other resistors. Recall that, in parallel, resistors must have the
same voltage drop across them; meanwhile, in series, capacitors must have the same current flowing through
them. The voltage, current and resistance rules are

n
1 1 1 1 X 1
Parallel: Vi = Vj = + + + = Ii 6= Ij
Req R1 R2 Rn i=1
Ri
n
X
Series: Vi 6= Vj Req = R1 + R2 + + Rn = Ri Ii = Ij
i=1

The above rules will suffice for simple circuits, but more complicated ones require the Kirchhoff rules. The first
is the junction rule. Suppose there are N currents flowing into and out of a junction. Let I1 . . . Ij be the currents
flowing in, while Ij+1 . . . IN flow out. Then the junction rule states that
X
Ii = I1 + I2 + + Ij Ij+1 Ij+2 IN = 0
| {z } | {z }
currents in currents out

or, pictorally

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Humberto Gilmer PHYS 1251 (Lisa 12:40p/1:50p): Midterm 2 Review Sheet

The second rule is the loop rule. Simply put, the loop rule states that the sum of voltage drops and increases
along closed loops must be 0: X
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + + VN = 0
loop

where Vi is the voltage increase or drop due to a battery or resistor. The trickiest part here is determining the
signs. In general, going from a region of high voltage to low voltage (a voltage drop) will carry a minus sign,
while going from low to high voltage will carry a plus sign. For a battery, this looks like:

where the blue arrow is the direction of the Kirchhoff loop across the battery. For a resistor, this looks like

Note that for the resistor, two things are necessary to find out the sign: the direction of the current flow (the
red arrow) and the direction the Kirchhoff loop is moving at the resistor (the blue arrow).

The general procedure for using the Kirchhoff rules is

1. Assign currents to all the branches of a circuit. This is completely arbitrary; theres no need to try
to guess which way the currents will go. Recall that a branch is the stretch of wire between two
junctions. A battery or a resistor does not change the current!

2. Draw all the Kirchhoff loops and dont forget to specify the direction for the loop; usually the
simplest loops will do the trick, but make sure you hit each piece of the circuit with at least one
loop. The loop direction is completely arbitrary and has nothing to do with the current flow.

3. Using the currents from step 1 and the loops from step 2, write down the loop equations using
the loop rule and the junction equations using the junction rule. Remember that if there are n
unknowns (like n currents or voltages), youll need n independent equations.

4. Solve for the unknowns. Remember that if you get a negative current, its okay. All that means is
that your initial guess for that currents direction in part 1 was wrong.

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Humberto Gilmer PHYS 1251 (Lisa 12:40p/1:50p): Midterm 2 Review Sheet

Magnetic fields
Lorentz force law
The Lorentz force law gives the force F~B on a charge q moving at a velocity ~v through an external magnetic field
~ as
B
F~ = q~v B
~

Note the presence of the cross product. Recall that the direction of the force can be found using the first right-
hand rule. With your hand completely flat, point your fingers in the direction of ~v . Then bend your fingers
(keeping the thumb tucked in) 90 , and rotate your whole hand so that your fingers point in the direction of B.~
When you stick your thumb out, that will be direction of the magnetic force. Now suppose instead you have a
segment of wire d~l carrying a current I through a magnetic field B.
~ Then the Lorentz force law takes the form

dF~ = Id~l B
~

For a long wire of length l, this becomes

F~ = I~l B
~

Lastly, consider a loop of wire with area A. Then, the magnetic dipole moment
~ is

~
~ = IA

where A ~ is the vector perpendicular to the surface of the loop. So which way does it point? Again, theres a
right-hand rule for that. Point your fingers in the direction the current is circulating around the loop and stick
your thumb out; that is the way the vector A ~ points. If a magnetic dipole is immersed in an external magnetic
~ The dipole will experience a torque ~
field, B.

~
~ B
~ =

The potential energy of the system of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field is

~
U = ~ B

Biot-Savart law
There are two methods to find the magnetic field, given a current I. The first such method is the analogue of
the brute-force method from electrostatics. The Biot-Savart law is
Z ~
~ 0 I dl r
B=
4 r2
The sequence to use this equation is as follows

1. Use the right-hand rule to figure out which way the B-field due to the current I points

2. Calculate the cross product. Remember that kd~l rk = kd~lk k

rk sin where is the angle between
~
r and dl

3. Rewrite sin using the components of ~r

4. Compute the integral

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Humberto Gilmer PHYS 1251 (Lisa 12:40p/1:50p): Midterm 2 Review Sheet

Amp`
ere law
Like with electrostatics, brute-force integrating with the Biot-Savart law is not the only method to compute
the magnetic field; in fact, it may be impossible. The Amp`ere law works in analogy to the Gauss law, making
computing the B-field very easy in situations with high degrees of symmetry.
I
~ d~l = Ienc
B

Lets remember what this actually means. Recall that d~l is a small vector parallel to a small segment of some
closed loop (also known as am amp`erian loop); therefore the dot product measures how much the magnetic
field is parallel to the loop:
~ d~l = 0, that means that B
If B ~ is perpendicular to d~l and is thus parallel to the loop.

~ d~l = Bdl that means that B

If B ~ is parallel to d~l and thus parallel to the loop.

Integrating this dot product over the whole loop gives us how much the magnetic field circulates around the
loop.
So how do we use this to find the magnetic field?

1. Find the direction of the magnetic field given the currents using the right-hand rule

2. Choose an amp`erian loop. A good rule of thumb here is that the loop should be chosen so that each
side of the loop is either parallel or perpendicular to the B-field

3. Simplify the integral using the loop chosen in step 2

4. Compute Ienc . This is very similar to finding Qenc in that the Amp`ere law only cares about currents
that flow through the amp`erian loop. In other words, if I doesnt go through the amp`erian loop,
then dont count it for any part of this calculation.

Induction
Induction is a phenomenon governed by the Faraday-Maxwell law:
I Z
~ ~ d ~ dA
~
E dl = B
dt
On the left-hand side, we see an object thats very similar to the integral from the Amp`ere law; it measures how
much the E-field circulates around some closed loop. On the right-hand side, we see something that looks very
much like the electric flux from the Gauss law. In fact, its the magnetic flux
Z
= B ~ dA~

So, in plain words the Faraday-Maxwell law tells us that a time-changing magnetic flux generates a circulating
E field. Notice that the integral on the left-hand side looks very similar to our definition of the electric potential
from electrostatics. In fact, it is a potential of sorts, called the electromotive force (this is a bad name; this
quantity has nothing to do with forces...) I
E= E ~ d~l

Putting these two definitions together, we get an equation known as the Faraday law of induction
d
E =
dt

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Humberto Gilmer PHYS 1251 (Lisa 12:40p/1:50p): Midterm 2 Review Sheet

What physical implications does this have? These are best summarized by the following:

NATURE HATES A CHANGE IN FLUX

In fact, nature hates changing fluxes so much, it will actually set up currents that in turn generate B-fields to
make for a lost flux or act against an increasing flux. This is known as Lenzs law. This phenomenon gives
rise to a new circuit element that exploits induction: the inductor. Inductors are coils of wire; a coil of wire
has a non-trivial magnetic flux, and so when the current through the inductor changes, by Lenzs law, a voltage
opposing this change in flux (and thus opposing the changing current) will be generated. Therefore, the voltage
of an inductor is proportional to the change in current; if the current isnt changing, an inductor behaves like an
ordinary wire!
dI
VL = L
dt

Time-dependent circuits
When dealing with time-independent circuits, nothing much more complicated than a resistor could be put in the
circuit since other elements involve currents that change in time. Consider a capacitor charging up: as the charge
builds on the plates, the voltage drop across the capacitor changes. The changing voltage changes the current
flowing to the capacitor! Inductors, whose voltage drop is proportional to the derivative of the current. In other
words, when the switch leading to an inductor is opened, the sudden change in the current causes a huge voltage
drop across it (the back EMF), leading in turn to a current that, again, changes in time as the inductor settles
down. These elements can be combined with resistors in various arrangements, leading to different behaviors.

RC circuits
The two main configurations for circuits involving resistors and capacitors are those with the capacitor charging
up and those with the capacitor discharging. Lets examine the first configuration. Suppose our circuit consists
of a capacitor with capacitance C and no charge (initially, in series with a resistor with resistance R and a battery
with voltage V . If we write a simple Kirchhoff loop equation for this circuit, we get a differential equation for Q:
Q
0 = V IR
C
dQ Q
=V R
dt C
V dQ 1
= + Q(t)
R dt RC
Then the charge on the capacitor will build up over time, approaching some maximum charge Q0 . The charge
Q(t) on the plates is given by the solution to the above differential equation:
 t

Q(t) = Q0 1 e

Note that as t , the exponential decays to 0 and thus Q(t = ) Q0 . What are Q0 and ? Q0 is the
maximum charge on the capacitor. Remember that eventually, the charge on the capacitor will build up and
match the voltage pumped in by the battery. Therefore, the maximum charge on the capacitor in this case
is given by Q0 = CV (but other configurations could have more complicated expressions; see Quiz 5 for an
example). is the time constant of the circuit, given by the expression
= RC
What about discharging capacitors? As the capacitor discharges, it will eventually lose all its charge. The
equation governing this loss is very similar to the equation governing the charging capacitor:
t
Q(t) = Q0 e

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Humberto Gilmer PHYS 1251 (Lisa 12:40p/1:50p): Midterm 2 Review Sheet

LR circuits
An inductor with inductance L in series with a resistor R will also exhibit time-dependent behaviors, very similar
to those exhibited by RC circuits. However, inductors dont charge or discharge, so whats the equivalent for
inductors? Recall that inductors voltage is proportional to the change in current; therefore, anytime theres an
abrupt change in current (like, say, when a switch is opened), the voltage due to an inductor will change. If we
write down the Kirchhoff loop for this circuit, we get a differential equation in I, not Q:
dI
0 = V IR L
dt
V R dI
= I(t) +
L L dt
The solution, as with RC circuits, is  
t
I(t) = I0 1 e

where is
L
=
R
Lets explore what this equation means. The absolute instant the switch is thrown shut, the abrupt change in
current (from 0 to not-0) creates a huge back EMF through the inductor. Therefore, no current flows since the
back EMF is counteracting the battery. As the inductor settles down, however, the current slowly ramps up,
until it reaches a steady state (when the inductor is nothing more than an ordinary wire). The same situation
holds when the switch is opened:
t
I(t) = I0 e
except now, the current dies off, just like it did with the discharging capacitor.

LC circuits
Circuits with inductors and capacitors arguably exhibit the most interesting behaviors. Whereas RC and RL
circuits both had exponential decay or growth behaviors, LC circuits exhibit oscillatory behaviors not unlike
simple harmonic motion. If we write a Kirchhoff loop equation for a circuit with an inductor and a charged
capacitor, we get
dI Q
L + =0
 dt C
d dQ Q
L + =0
dt dt C
d2 Q 1
2 Q=0
dt LC
the solution of which are sines and cosines:
 
t
Q(t) = Q0 cos

where is a time constant

= LC

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