1. Stylistics as a linguistic discipline. The subject-matter of stylistics and its basic notions.

The word stylistics is derived from style which originates from the Latin stylus/stilus a slender
pointed writing instrument (a small stick with a pointed end) used by the ancient Greeks and Romans as
they scratched letters on wax-covered plates (or wax tablets).
The scope of problems stylistics is to solve is up to discussion at the present day.
Stylistics is a linguistic discipline which studies nominative and communicative language units and the
principles according to which the units of all language levels are selected for achieving a certain
pragmatic aim in different communicative situations. (Morokhovsky).
Stylisticsis the study of style, which can be defined as the analysis of distinctive expressions in language
and the description of its purpose and effect (Peter Verdonk).
Stylisitics is a branch of general linguistics, which deals with the following two interdependent tasks:
a) studies the totality of special linguistic means ( stylistic devices and expressive means ) which secure
the desirable effect of the utterance;
b) studies certain types of texts "discourse" which due to the choice and arrangement of the language are
distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of communication (functional styles).Galperin
The subject-matter of stylistics can be outlined as the study of the nature, functions and structure of
stylistic devices, on the one hand, and, on the other, the study of each style of language as classified, its
aim, its structure, its characteristic features and the effect it produces, as well as its interrelation with
other styles of language.
Branches in stylistic: Linguistic Stylistics, Literary Stylistics, Corpus Stylistics, Feminist Stylistics,
Film Stylistics, Functionalist Stylistics, Historical Stylistics, Multimodal Stylistics
We do stylistics to
-enrich our ways of thinking about language by shedding light on the language system, as well as
learning the rules of language (stylistics often explores texts where those rules are bent);
-acquire the skills of adequate comprehension and accurate interpretation of texts used in different
spheres of human communication (mass media, editorials, brief news, analytical articles, scientific
prose, poetry, drama, etc.)

2. General scientific background of linguo-stylistics. Information theory and stylistics.The

definition of information. Different types of information.
The Sources of Stylistics:
Rhetoric the art of creating speech;
Poetics the process of artistic creation;
Dialectics the study of methods of persuasion.
The futher development of stylistics was based on the three above-mentioned sources, form which
poetics went its own way and developed into what is now known as literary critisism.
The term stylistics is a broad notion. Most linguists define such major types of stylistics, such as: lingvo-
stylistics, literary stylistics, applied stylistics, contrastive stylistics.
Lingvo-stylistics is a science of functional styles (f.s.) and the expressive potential of a language.
Information theory - decoding stylistics
In terms of information theory the authors style may be named the stylistics of encode the language
being viewed as the code to shape the information into the message and the supplier of information
respectively, the author is the encoder (addresser). The audience in this case plays the part of the decoder
of the information contained in the message and the problem connected with the adequate reception of
the message without any information loses and deformation that is with adequate decoding other concern
of decoding stylistics.
Information, in terms of philosophy, is the inner content of the process of reflection which results in
changing the characteristics of some objects due to the influence of other objects they interact with.
Denotative information - is the contential nucleus of a language unit which 1) names the subject-matter
of communication; 2) is not predetermined by the communication act; 3) directly or indirectly refers to
the object or notion of reality.
Connotative information is the contential periphery of a language unit which: 1) depends upon
different aspects of communication act (time, participants, etc). 2) expresses the speaker's attitude to the
subject-matter of communication, to the listener os to the social status of the interlocutors.
Message is the information which the speaker intends to transmit to (or, rather, to provoke in) the
listener. Signal is the information materialized verbally (e.g. in a sound form) or non-verbally (e.g.
dance, a piece of music etc.), as a text etc.
Communication channel is constituted by the physical, situational, cultural, social, economic, or
political environment in which the signal is transmitted.
3. Information theory and linguistics. The major types of information from a linguo-stylistic
prospective.
In terms of information theory the authors style may be named the stylistics of encode the language
being viewed as the code to shape the information into the message and the supplier of information
respectively, the author is the encoder (addresser). The audience in this case plays the part of the decoder
of the information contained in the message and the problem connected with the adequate reception of
the message without any information loses and deformation that is with adequate decoding other concern
of decoding stylistics.
Information, in terms of philosophy, is the inner content of the process of reflection which results in
changing the characteristics of some objects due to the influence of other objects they interact with.
Denotative information - is the contential nucleus of a language unit which 1) names the subject-matter
of communication; 2) is not predetermined by the communication act; 3) directly or indirectly refers to
the object or notion of reality.
Connotative information is the contential periphery of a language unit which: 1) depends upon
different aspects of communication act (time, participants, etc). 2) expresses the speaker's attitude to the
subject-matter of communication, to the listener os to the social status of the interlocutors.
Message is the information which the speaker intends to transmit to (or, rather, to provoke in) the
listener. Signal is the information materialized verbally (e.g. in a sound form) or non-verbally (e.g.
dance, a piece of music etc.), as a text etc.
Communication channel is constituted by the physical, situational, cultural, social, economic, or
political environment in which the signal is transmitted.

4. The principal model of information transfer. Its constituents.

oral: sender-receiver
literary: the author - the reader
encoding device - coding systems (verbal, non-verbal) - mind - organ of speech (if it is oral speech).
decoding device - message - block of memory of the receiver - the receiver
communication challenges:
1) codeinedequacy (other language, unknown word);
2) change of code (changed meaning);
3) cultural changes;
4) physical factors (noise, defects of speech).

5. The principal model of information transfer. Basic processes involved. Information loss and
accumulation.
The notions of encoding and decoding
Decoding stylistics is the most recent trend in stylistic research that employs theoretical findings in such
areas of science as information theory, psychology, statistical studies in combination with linguistics,
literary theory, history of art, literary criticism, etc.
Decoding stylistics makes an attempt to regard the esthetic value of a text based on the interaction
of specific textual elements, stylistic devices and compositional structure in delivering the authors
message. This method does not consider the stylistic function of any stylistically important feature
separately but only as a part of the whole text. So expressive means and stylistic devices are treated in
their interaction and distribution within the text as carriers of the authors purport and creative idiom.
Decoding stylistics helps the reader in his or her understanding of a literary work by explaining or
decoding the information that may be hidden from immediate view in specific allusions, cultural or
political parallels, peculiar use of irony or euphemy, etc.
In a rather simplified version this theory presents a creative process in the following mode. The
writer receives diverse information from the outside world. Some of it becomes a source for his creative
work. He processes this information and recreates it in his own esthetic images that become a vehicle to
pass his vision to the addressee, his readers. The process of internalizing of the outside information and
translating it into his imagery is called encoding.. The reader is supposed to decode the information
contained in the text of a literary work.
However to encode the information does not mean to have it delivered or passed intact to the
recipient. There are more obstacles here than meet the eye. In contrast to the writer who is always
concrete the reader who is addressed is in fact an abstract notion, he is any of the thousands of people
who may read this book. This abstract reader may not be prepared or willing to decode the message or
even take it. The reasons are numerous and various.
 From the readers point of view the important thing is not what the author wanted to say but what
he managed to convey in the text of his work.
Thats why decoding stylistics deals with the notions of stylistics of the author and stylistics of the reader.

6. Types and kinds of stylistics.

Types: As in modern linguistics 3 areas of language are distinguished, namely, language system
(langue), speech activity (performance) and speech material/speech (parole), the notion of function has
certain peculiarities applied to each of these areas. Understanding of style is different, too, as applied to
language, speech activity and speech. Accordingly, 3 types of stylistics may be distinguished: stylistics
of language, stylistics of activity, stylistics of speech.
Kinds: (but I'm not sure!!!)
- phonographical stylistics
-morphological stylistics
- lexical stylistics
- syntactical (stylistic syntax).
7. Basic notions of stylistics: language, speech activity, and speech; syntagmatics and
paradigmatics; marked and unmarked members of stylistic opposition.
Language is the system of signs, the relations between them and the rules of their usage.
Speech activity is the process of converting the language system into speech in accordance with fixed
rules and patterns. Speech is the materialization of language in communication.
Paradigmatics is a set of relations between the language units of one class which are based on
association. Syntagmatics is a set of linear relations between the speech units of one level within a unit of
a higher language level.

8. Basic notions of stylistics: style, individual style; norm; variant, context.

Style is a distinctive way of using language for some purpose and to some effect (P. Verdonk)
Individual style a writers individual manner of using language means to achieve the effect he desires.
Can be recognized by peculiar combination of language means and SD.
Deliberate choice must be distinguished from habitual idiosyncrasy.
Idiolect the speech of an individual, characterized by peculiarities typical of that particular individual.
It is next to impossible to work out universal language norms because each functional style has its own
regulations: I aint got no news is considered normal in colloquial style.
Norm set of language rules which are considered to be the most standard and correct in a certain epoch
and a certain society.
Types of norm: language norm
stylistic norm
ethic/ecological norm

9. Linguistic vs stylistic context, other types of context.

A linguistic context is the encirclement of a language unit by other language units in speech. Such
encirclement makes the meaning of the unit clear and unambiguous. It is especially important in case
with polysemantic words.
Types of linguistic context:
Microcontext is the context of a single utterance (sentence).
Macrocontext is the context of a paragraph in a text.
Megacontext is the context of a book chapter, a story or the whole book.
Stylistic context unity of stylistic element and its surroundings.
Micropoetic the context limited by a complete sentence.
Macropoetic the context of paragraph or the whole text.
An extralingual (situational) context is formed by extralingual con-ditions in which communication takes
place. Besides making the meaning of words well-defined, a situational context allows the speaker to
economize on speech efforts and to avoid situationally redundant language signs. The com-mands of a
surgeon in an operating room, such as "scalpel", "pincers" or "tampon", are understood by his assistants
correctly and without any addi-tional explanations about what kind of tampon is needed.
Extralingual context can be physical or abstract and can significantly affect the communication Such
surroundings form a physical context. A dialogue between colleagues can be affected by the nature of
their relationship. That is, one may be of higher status than the other. Such nature forms an abstract
context. Historical accounts are more easily understood when evoked in the context of their own time.
Such context is called temporal or chronological. There would be a psychologi-cally advantageous
context within which to tell one's spouse about that dent-ed bumper on the new car. Such context may be
called psychological.
10. EM and SD.
Expressive means is a marked member of stylistic opposition which has an invariant meaning in
language.
-language
-paradigmatic relations
-stylistic meaning is not contextually bound
Expressive means of a language are those phonetic, lexical, morphological and syntactic units and forms
which make speech emphatic. Expressive means introduce connotational (stylistic, non-denotative)
meanings into utterances. Phonetic expressive means include pitch, melody, stresses, pauses,
whispering, singing, and other ways of using human voice. Morphological expressive means are
emotionally coloured suffixes of diminutive nature: -y (-ie), -let (sonny auntie, girlies). To lexical
expressive means belong words, possessing connotations, such as epithets, poetic and archaic words,
slangy words, vulgarisms, and interjections. A chain of expressive synonymic words always contains at
least one neutral synonym. For ex-le, the neutral word money has the following stylistically coloured
equivalents: ackers (slang), cly (jargon), cole (jargon), gelt (jargon), moo (amer. slang), etc. A chain of
expressive synonyms used in a single utterance creates the effect of climax (gradation). To syntactic
expressive means belong emphatic syntactic constructions. Such constructions stand in opposition to
their neutral equivalents. The neutral sentence "John went away" may be replaced by the following
expressive variants: "Away went John" (stylistic inversion), "John did go away" (use of the emphatic
verb "to do"), "John went away, he did" (emphatic confirmation pattern), "It was John who went away"
("It is he who does it" pattern).
Stylistic device an intentional change of fixed distribution of language unit in speech.
-speech
-syntactical relations
-stylistic meaning is contextually bound
Stylistic devices (tropes, figures of speech) unlike expressive means are not language phenomena. They
are formed in speech and most of them do not exist out of context. According to principles of their
formation, stylistic devices are grouped into phonetic, lexico-semantic and syntactic types. Basically, all
stylistic devices are the result of revaluation of neutral words, word-combinations and syntactic
structures. Revaluation makes language units obtain connotations and stylistic value. A stylistic device is
the subject matter of stylistic semasiology.

11. Foregrounding: the evolution of the notion, major types.

Foregrounding is - a stylistic device that includes the principles of formal textual organization that focus
the readers attention on some certain fragments of the message.
- a stylistic device that draws attention to itself by defamilarization from everyday speech.
The term is borrowed from art criticism which distinguishes between the foreground and the background
of a painting.
2 ways of producing foregrounding:
- parallelism: unexpected regularity, more of the same
- deviation: unexpected irregularity
These are relative concepts, because something can only be unexpectedly regular or irregular within a
particular context.
Types of foregrounding:
- convergence: combination or accumulation of stylistic devices promoting the same idea (e.g. and
heaved, and heaved, still unrestingly heaved the black sea, as its vast tides were a conscience simile,
repetition, inversion)
- coupling: semantically relevant appearance of equivalent elements in equivalent position.
Coupling is based on the affinity of elements that occupy similar positions throughout the text. The
affinity may be different in nature: phonetic, structural, semantic. Phonetic affinity is provided by the
phonetic stylistic devices (alliteration, assonance, paronomasia), as well as such prosodic features as
rhyme, rhythm and meter. Syntactical affinity is achieved by all kinds of parallelism and syntactical
repetition anadiplosis, anaphora, framing, chiasmus, epiphora, etc. Semantic coupling is demonstrated
by the use of synonyms and antonyms, both direct and contextual, root repetition, paraphrase, sustained
metaphor, semantic fields, recurrence of images, connotations or symbols.
- defeated expectancy: some element of the text receives prominence due to an interruption in the
pattern of predictability. (e.g. Miss Fairfax, ever since I met you I have admired you more than any girl
I have met since I met you. (O. Wilde)
12. The theory of image. The image structure, types of images.
Image a speech fragment that contains image-bearing information.
- any word expression that imparts picturesqueness and vividness.
In verbal art imagery is embodied in words used in a figurative way to attain a higher artistic
expressiveness.
Unlike the words in literal expressions which denote, or say directly what they mean according to
common verbal practice or dictionary usage, words in figurative expressions connote, or acquire
additional layers of meaning in a particular context.
Thus, the literal (dictionary, logical) meaning is the one easily restored irrespective of the context, while
the figurative (contextual) meaning is the one materialised in the given context.
So, the verbal image is a pen-picture of a thing, person or idea expressed in a figurative way, i.e. by
words used in their contextual meaning. Images due to their frequent use often become recognized
symbols.
E.g. a bridge for transition from past to future, from bad to good, from danger to rescue (Old Man at
the Bridge by E. Hemingway).Linguistic figurativeness or linguistic imagery can be found in various
lexical lingual means that are termed either tropes (Ancient Gk. tropos to turn), or like in our course
lexical stylistic devices.
A trope can be defined as a sort of transfer based on the interplay of lexical meanings of a word that
results in establishing connections between different or even opposite notions or things, which are
understood to have some similarity in the given context .NB! Imagery can be created by lexical SDs
only.
The rest of stylistic devices (morphological and syntactical, phonetic, graphic) do not create imagery, but
serve as intensifiers: they can add some logical, emotive, expressive information to the utterance.
In rhetoric the verbal image is described as a complex phenomenon, a double picture generated by
linguistic means, which is based on the co-presence of two thoughts of different things active together:
the direct thought the tenor (T).
the figurative thought the vehicle (V).
E.g. She (T) is a bird of passage (V).The tenor is the subject of thought, while the vehicle is the concept
of a thing, person or an abstract notion with which the tenor is compared or identified.
As I.V. Arnold points out, the structure of a verbal image also includes:
the ground of comparison (G) the similar feature of and V;
the relation (R) between and V;
the type of identification/comparison or, simply, the type of a trope.
Images may be:
general (macroimages), e.g. The Moon and Sixpence by W.S. Maugham
individual (microimages), e.g. that great ocean of deep depression. (Priestley)
I.R. Galperin divides images into three categories:
 visual, e.g. It was a feast of colour. (Maugham)
aural (acoustic), e.g. He sprang to the machine, which was now going pocketa-pocketa-queep-
pocketa-queep. (Thurber)
relational, e.g. a man of figures, a man of great dignity. (Priestley)

13. Style and meaning. Types of connotations.

Word meaning - constant relations between the object (as a referent or an idea about a referent), the
notion named and the name itself: its sound form and contents, or the reflection of the object or notion in
our mind. (V.I. Shakhovsky)
Grammatical refers our mind to relations between words or to some forms of words or constructions
bearing upon their structural functions in the language-as-a-system. (Galperin)
Lexical refers the mind to some concrete concept, phenomenon, or thing of objective reality, whether
real or imaginary. Can be denotative and connotative.
Denotative represents the most important aspect of communication because it refers to the notional basis
of information conveyed by the speaker to the listener; establishes correlation between the name (word)
and the object, phenomenon, process or qualification of concrete reality or thought as such, which is
detonated by the word;
Connotative refers to socio-cultural and personal associations of the sign Conveys information about
the situation and the participants of communication; Does not exist independently of denotation but
simultaneously with it
onnotative meaning may be of 4 types:
- functional stylistic meaning which is the result of the constant usage of the word in definite speech
spheres: foe, maiden in poetry, chap colloquial.
- evaluative meaning which bears reference to things, phenomena or ideas through the evaluation of
the denotate: e.g. The concept dwelling is represented:slum, house, building, barrack, hut, mansion,
palace, etc.
- emotive meaning which expresses the speakers emotional attitude to the denotate (chit, puppet,
jade) e.g. She sounds a bit of a swine, the boy said. Oh! Hell! Damn! Bloody!
- expressive meaning which does not refer to directly to things or phenomena of the objective
reality, but to the feelings and emotions of the speaker; aims at intensification of the meaning both
emotional and logical; it either increases or decreases the expressiveness of the language. e.g. pig-headed
very stubborn and obstinate (speaking of a man cockerel, bully, buck)
14. Phonetic and graphic stylistic means and devices in English.15.Forms and varieties of
language. The notion of received standard.
In sociolinguistics a variety is a specific form of a language or language cluster. This may include
languages, dialects, accents, registers, styles or other sociolinguistic variation, as well as the standard
variety itself. Variation at the level of the lexicon, such as slang and argot, is often considered in relation
to particular styles or levels of formality (also called registers), but such uses are sometimes discussed as
varieties themselves
Dialect is a regional or social variety of a language characterized by its own phonological, syntactic, and
lexical properties. Although the words dialect and accent are sometimes used interchangeably in
everyday English speech, linguists and scholars define the two terms differently. Accent, in technical
usage, refers only to differences in pronunciation, especially those associated with geographic or social
differences. Dialect, which refers to differences in syntax, morphology, and vocabulary, as well as
pronunciation, is the broader term.
Most languages have a standard variety; that is, some variety that is selected and promoted by either
quasi-legal authorities or other social institutions, such as schools or media. Standard varieties are more
prestigious than other, nonstandard varieties and are generally thought of as "correct" by speakers of the
language. Since this selection constitutes an arbitrary standard, however, standard varieties are only
"correct" in the sense that they are highly valued within the society that uses the language.
An idiolect is defined as "the language use typical of an individual person." An individual's idiolect may
be affected by contact with various regional or social dialects, professional registers, and in the case of
multilinguals, various languages.

16. Stylistic differentiation of the English word stock: neutral, literary, colloquial words

Differentiation of English :NEUTRAL, LITERARY, COLLOQUIAL

Neutral words- Possess no stylistic connotation;Suitable for any communicative situation (can be
employed in all styles of language and all spheres of human activity)
Literary strata- 1)Common literary words (words mainly used in written and polished speech);
2)Special literary vocabulary:terms and learned words; poetic words; archaic words; barbarisms and
foreign words; literary coinages including nonce-words
Colloquial vocabulary:general (common) colloquial words; Special colloquial words(slang;
jargonisms; professional words; dialectal words; vulgar words; colloquial coinages):

Basis for the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary; stylistic and functional style.
Two criteria are used for stylistic classification of vocabulary:
- paradigmatic criterion: absence or presence in the word semantics of the additional information
(connotation)
- syntagmatic criterion: character of syntagmatic relations between the lexical meaning of the word and
its context.
English vocabulary is divided into:
1) words having a lexico-stylistic paradigm which are characterized by :
- an indirect reference to the object
- subjective evaluative connotations
- synonyms and antonyms
2) words having no lexico-stylistic paradigm:
- a direct reference to the object
- absence of subjective evaluative connotations
- strict referential borders
- lack of synonyms and antonyms
17. Stylistic potential of neutral words.
Neutral words are:
Terms words and word combinations expressing scientific and scholarly notions. Terms are generally
associated with a definite branch of science.
Nomenclature words refer to a definite branch of human activity, e.g. names of minerals, chemical
elements.
Historical words denote objects and notions referring to the past.
Exotic words denote notions unknown or rarely met in the given language community.
Lexical neologisms are new words denoting new objects.
Being used in special text, neutral words have no stylistic function. In fiction they are used to create the
life-like setting, e.g. of the hospital, laboratory, etc. When incompatible with their context, terms may
create satirical or humorous effect.

18. Literary words and their stylistic functions.

Stylistic functions of literary words.
Poetic diction: archaic words, archaic forms, historic words, poetic words proper (brine, anarch)
Poetic words are stylistically marked, they form lexico-stylistic paradigm. Their main function is to mark
the text in which they are used as poetic. In modern poetry such words are seldom used.
Archaic words:
- archaic words proper: no longer recognized (troth faith, losel worthless)
- archaic forms: corse instead of corpse, an instead of and.
Used to create the effect of antiquity, providing a true-to-life historical background.When incompatible
with conversational words, might lead to humorous effect.
Stylistic neologisms are new names that denote already existing objects or notions (ageism).
Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not been entirely assimilated into the English
language preserving their former spelling and pronunciation. Most of them have corresponding English
synonyms (chic, chagrin, en passant). Used to create local colouring.
Bookish words are used in official and high-flown style. (catenate, depicture, disimprove)
19. The interrelations between archaic word, historic words, stylistic and lexical neologisms.
Stylistic classification of the vocabulary of any language is a very complicated problem. The existing
classifications are based on different criteria, which take into account common semantic and stylistic
characteristics of words in the given period of time (synchronic approach). The two criteria used for our
classification are as follows:
1) paradigmatic criterion, i.e. the absence or presence in the word semantics of the additional
information (evaluative, emotive or expressive meaning);
2) syntagmatic criterion, i.e. the character of syntagmatic relations between the lexical or lexical-
stylistic meaning of the word and its context.
Both criteria are interconnected. Proceeding from them and using N.D.Arutyunova's ideas of the word
semantics, we may divide all words of the English vocabulary into two major groups:
1. words having a lexico-stylistic paradigm which are characterised by:
a) an indirect reference to the object: fat cat (coll.) => a provider of money for political uses (neutral)
=>denotatum;
b) subjective evaluative connotations;
c) referential borders which are not strict: these words are of a qualifying character so they may be used
to characterise different referents; d) synonyms; e) possible antonyms.
To this group we refer poetic diction; archaisms (archaic words); barbarisms and foreign words; stylistic
neologisms; slang; colloquialisms; jargonisms (social and professional); dialectal words; vulgarisms.
2 words having no iexico-stylistic paradigm are characterised by:
a) a direct reference to the object;
b) the absence of subjective evaluative connotations;
c) strict referential borders;
d) the lack of synonyms. Synonyms that they may have are purely denotative;
e) the lack of antonyms.
Here we refer stylistically neutral words; terms; nomenclature words; historical words: lexical
neologisms; and exotic words.
Words having a lexico-stylistic paradigm are not homogeneous; they may enter the following
oppositions:
colloquial vocabulary bookish vocabulary
non-literary words literary words
general literary vocabulary social or dialectal elements special vocabulary-contemporary vocabulary
archaic vocabulary.
However, the mentioned groups of words are not closed; they are intersecting - one and the same word
may belong to two or more groups.
?
? Archaisms
historical archaisms - archaic words denoting historical phenomena no more in use (yeoman, vassal,
falconet) - historical words
poetic words (steed for horse, woe for sorrow)
? material archaisms archaic words proper (ousted by newer synonymic words or forms): to
deem - to think; nay - no; brethren - brothers; thou wilt - you will
? Archaic words.
? Archaic words, i.e. out-dated words that denote existing objects, are divided into two groups:
? a) archaic words proper: words which are no longer recognised in modern English. They
? were used in Old English and have either dropped out of language use entirely or completely
changed (troth - faith, losel - worthless);
? b) archaic forms of the words: corse instead of corpse, an instead of and, annoy instead
? of annoyance.
? Speaking of archaic words we should distinguish "ageing/newness" of the word form and
"ageing/newness" of the denotatum. And then, accordingly, we may correlate archaic words and historic
words on the one hand as well as lexical and stylistic neologisms on the other.

Lexical neologisms are new words that denote new objects (laser, shopping, pop promo, killer, satellite).
Stylistic neologisms are new names that denote already existing objects and notions (mole - a spy who
successfully infiltrates an organisation; ageism - discrimination of a person on the ground of age).
? Historical words are associated with definite stages in the development of a society and cannot be
neglected, though the things and phenomena to which they refer no longer exist. Historical words
(yeoman, thane, baldric, goblet) have no synonyms as compared to archaic words which may be replaced
by their modern synonyms.
? Historical words and lexical neologisms having no stylistic meaning, do not form lexico-stylistic
paradigms. But archaic words and stylistic neologisms mark the text stylistically, distinguishing it from
neutral speech.
? In fiction, together with historical words, archaisms create the effect of antiquity, providing a true-
to-life historical background and reminding the reader of past habits, customs, clothes etc. The usage of
archaisms, incompatible with conversational words, might in some cases lead to a humorous or satirical
effect.
? Barbarisms and foreign words.
? There are many borrowings in every language, some of them being assimilated. We may
distinguish four groups of such words in English: foreign words, barbarisms, exotic words, and
borrowings.
? Foreign words are close to barbarisms, but they are characterised by occasional usage only, mainly
in literary speech. They do not form a lexico-stylistic paradigm, though they may be used to create some
stylistic effect.
? Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not been entirely assimilated into the English
language preserving their former spelling and pronunciation. Most of them (e.g. chic, chagrin, en
passant) have corresponding English synonyms.
? Exotic words are borrowed foreign words denoting objects characteristic of a certain country
(canzonet, matador). They have no synonyms in the language-borrower, do not form a lexico-stylistic
paradigm and therefore are not considered to be lexical EM, but nevertheless they may be used for
stylistic purposes.
? Borrowings, if they are assimilated, do not differ much from native words as far as their stylistic
aspect is concerned. They are usually high-flown synonyms of neutral native words (to commence to
begin, labour- work, female - woman).
? The stylistic functions of barbarisms and foreign words are similar, they are used to create a local
colouring, to identify a personage as a foreigner, or to show his/her mannerism.
? Bookish (learned) words are mostly used in official or high-flown style (catenate, depicture,
disimprove, dalliance). In official usage, they mark the text as belonging to this or that style of written
speech, but when used in colloquial speech or in informal situations, they may create a comical effect.

20. Conversational words and their classification. Their stylistic functions.

Conversational words of all kinds are widely used for stylistic purposes. There are four speech spheres
in which they are mostly largely used: everyday speech, newspaper language, poetry, and fiction.
In newspaper language, colloquial words and word combinations, and sometimes general slang words,
are used to give an expressive evaluation of facts and events. In modern poetry, words of all layers are
most widely used. Lyrical poetry allows the usage of various non-poetic words to create the atmosphere
of sincerity, confidence etc. Slang words in fiction (mostly in dialogues) add to the informality and
emotiveness of the character's speech alongside with indicating social and speech peculiarities of the
personages.

21. The notions of EM and SD on the syntactic level.

Stylistic syntax deals with specific patterns of syntactic usage, i.e. syntactical expressive means (EM)
and stylistic devices (SD). In stylistic syntax, EM arerecognised by less rule-bound modelling of
sentences. All the deviations from the stylistically unmarked sentence pattern (S - P - O - D) are treated
as its transforms that may acquire stylistic connotations, in which cases they are regarded as EM. The
transformation of the pattern in question info negative and interrogative sentences rarely leads to any
stylistic changes. Other transformations might create stylistically marked sentence patterns.

22. General characteristics of the English syntactical expressive means.

According to the type of transformation of the neutral syntactical pattern, all EM in English fall info
three groups:
1. EM based on the reduction of the syntactical pattern that results from the deliberate omission of some
obligatory element(s) of the sentence structure. This group includes ellipsis, aposiopesis, nominative
sentences, and asyndeton.
2. EM based on the redundancy of the syntactical pattern that results from the addition of
some sentence elements or their deliberate repetition. To this group we refer repetition, enumeration,
syntactic tautology, polysyndeton, emphatic constructions, parenthetical clauses or sentences.
3. EM based on the violation of the grammatically fixed word order within a sentence or a deliberate
isolation of some parts of the sentence. Here belong stylistic inversion, syntactical split, and detachment.

23. Syntactical EM based on the redundancy of elements of the neutral syntactic model.
EM BASED ON THE REDUNDANCY OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Repetition is a reiteration of the same word or phrase to lay an emphatic stress on certain parts of the
sentence.
Various types of repetition can be found in fiction:
1) ordinary repetition, i.e. a repetition of a word in close succession, e.g. She talked, in fact, and
talked, and talked
2) framing or ring repetition, i.e. a repetition in which the opening word or phrase is repeated at the
end of the sentence or a group of sentences, e.g. / cooled off where Frank was concerned; he didn't
notice, but I cooled off (V. Pritchett);
3) anadiplosis or catch repetition, i.e. a repetition of the last word in a sentence or clause at the
beginning of the next one, e.g. Yes, but I was afraid, afraid I'd go to one who'd tell Paul. I didn't know
who to go to, who I could trust
4) chain repetition, i.e. a combination of catch repetitions, e.g. A smile would come into Mr.
Pickwick's face. The smile extended into laugh; the laugh into roar, the roar became genera! (Ch.
Dickens).
Enumeration is a repetition of homogeneous parts of the sentence, aimed at emphasising the whole
utterance, e.g. / found battlers, secondmen, chauffeurs, cooks, maids, upstairs girls, downstairs girls, and
a raft of miscellaneous flunkies - he had enough servants to run a hotel (D.Hammett).
Syntactical tautology is a superfluous repetition of semantically identical words or phrases to Say stress
on a. certain part of the sentence e.g. She's always one for a change, Gladdie is... (A.Christie).
Polysyndeton is a repetition of conjunctions in close succession which are used to connect sentences,
clauses, or words and make the utterance more rhythmical, e.g. She had herself a rich ruby look, for what
with eating and drinking, and shouting and laughing and singing her face was crimson and almost
steaming (J.Priestley).
Emphatic constructions may intensify or contrast any part of the sentence, giving it an emotive charge.
The emphatic construction with "do" is used as a predicate intensifier. The construction "it is smb/smth
who/that intensifies the subject; the construction "it is then that" stresses the adverbial modifier of time;
"it is by/with/through smth that' makes prominent the adverbial modifier of manner. "It is to that/smth
there that" brings to the foreground the object of the sentence, e.g. That evening it was Dave, who read to
the boys their bed-time story (D. Carter); It was then that Poirot received a brief note from Sady Willard
(A.Christie); / do know it! (D.Hammett).
Parenthetical clauses are sentences or phrases inserted into a syntactical structure without being
grammatically connected with it. The functions of parenthesis are those of exemplification, deliberation,
or reference. Parenthetical clauses may produce various stylistic effects:
1) creating two layers of the narrative, e.g. He tried to shake Wynant down by threatening to shoot
him, bomb his house. Kidnap his children, cut his wife's throat - / don't know what all - if he didn't come
across (D.Hammett);
2) emphasising this or that fact, e.g. He laughed - not loud but in complete delight - and stood up
exclaiming: "Judith herself!" (D.Hammett);
3) exemplifying certain points, e.g. The dog - a shapeless monster in the night - buried itself at the
other side of the gate and barked terrifically (D.Hammett).

24. Syntactical EM based on the violation of word order of elements of the neutral syntactic model.
Inversion is the violation of the fixed word order within an English sentence. There are two major kinds
of inversion:
1. that one which results in the change of the grammatical meaning of a syntactic structure, i.e.
grammatical inversion (exclamatory and interrogative sentences), and
2. that one which results in adding to a sentence an emotive and emphatic colouring, i.e. stylistic
inversion, e.g. And the palm-trees I like them not (A.Christie).
Inversion may be of two types:
1) complete, i.e. comprising the principal parts of the sentence, e.g. From behind me came Andrews
voice (S. Chaplin);
2) partial, i.e. influencing the secondary parts of the sentence, e.g. Straight into the arms of the police
they will go Separation or syntactical split is the splitting of a noun phrase by the attribute adjunct
which is removed from the word it modifies. Stylistically, syntactical split is used to emphasise the
phrase which was separated, e.g. He had never seen the truth before, about anything (R. Warren).
Detachment is a separation of a secondary part of the sentence with the aim of emphasising it, e.g.
Formidable and ponderous, counsel for the defence arose (A.Christie).
Detachment is to be regarded as a special kind of inversion, when some parts of the sentence are
syntactically separated from its other members with which they are grammatically and logically
connected.

25. SyntacticSD based on the interaction of several syntactic constructions within the utterance.
Parallelism is a repetition in close succession of the constructions formed by a similar syntactical
pattern. Like inversion, parallelism may be complete and partial. Complete parallelism is observed when
the syntactical pattern of the sentence that follows is completely similar to the proceeding one, e.g. He
door-bell didn't ring. His telephonebell didn't ring (D. Hammett).
Parallelism is considered to be partial when either the beginning or the end of several neighbouring
sentences are structurally similar, e.g. / want to see the Gorgensens together at home, I want to see
Macawlay, and I want to see Studsy Burke (D.Hammett).
Chiasmus (reversed parallelism) is a kind of parallelism where the word order of the sentence or clause
that follows becomes inverted, e.g. He sat and watched me, I sat and watched him (D.Hammett).
The main stylistic function of chiasmus is to emphasise this or that part of the utterance , to break the
rhythm and monotony of parallelism, e.g. Guild waited for me to say something, I waited for him (D.
Hammett).
Anaphora is a repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences, e.g.
Ergo, she didn't. Ergo, there never was such a bet. Ergo, Beresford was lying. Ergo, Beresford wanted to
get hold of those chocolates for some reason other than he stated (A.Berkley).
Anaphora contributes greatly to creating a certain rhythm of the narrative.
Epiphora is the repetition of the final words or word-groups in succeeding sentences or clauses, e.g. /
come to you on the level. Studsy says you are on the level. Be on the level (D. Hammett).

26. Syntactic SD based on the interaction of forms and types of syntactic connections between
words, clauses, sentences.
Parcellation is a deliberate break of the sentence structure into two or more isolated parts, separated by a
pause and a period. Parcellation is typical of colloquial speech. The main stylistic functions of
parcellation are as follows:
1) specification of some concepts or facts, e.g. His wife had told him only the night before that he
was getting a habit of it. Curious things, habits (A. Christie);
2) characterisation of the personages' emotional state, e.g. It angered him finally. With a curious sort
of anger. Detached, somehow, separate from himself (C.B.Gilford);
3) description of the events or giving the personages' portrayal, e.g. I'd say he was thirty-five or -six.
Sallow, dark hair and eyes, with the eyes set pretty close together, big mouth, long limp nose, bat-wing
ears - shifty-looking (D. Hammett); A touring car, large, black, powerfully engined and with lowered
curtains, came from the rear... Possibly a scout
The usage of coordination instead of subordination helps the author to show different planes of narration,
in this case the connection itself is more important stylistically than the contents of the sentence, e.g. He
was more enthusiastic about America than ever, and he was not so simple, and he was not so nice (E.
Hemingway).

27. SyntacticSD based on the interaction of the syntactic construction meaning with the context.
Parcellation is a deliberate break of the sentence structure into two or more isolated parts, separated by a
pause and a period. Parcellation is typical of colloquial speech. The main stylistic functions of
parcellation are as follows:
4) specification of some concepts or facts, e.g. His wife had told him only the night before that he
was getting a habit of it. Curious things, habits (A. Christie);
5) characterisation of the personages' emotional state, e.g. It angered him finally. With a curious sort
of anger. Detached, somehow, separate from himself (C.B.Gilford);
6) description of the events or giving the personages' portrayal, e.g. I'd say he was thirty-five or -six.
Sallow, dark hair and eyes, with the eyes set pretty close together, big mouth, long limp nose, bat-wing
ears - shifty-looking (D. Hammett); A touring car, large, black, powerfully engined and with lowered
curtains, came from the rear... Possibly a scout (D. Hammett).
The usage of coordination instead of subordination helps the author to show different planes of narration,
in this case the connection itself is more important stylistically than the contents of the sentence, e.g. He
was more enthusiastic about America than ever, and he was not so simple, and he was not so nice (E.
Hemingway).
28. General characteristics of the English semasiological means of stylistics.
Semasiology- is a linguistic science which studies the meaning of language units of different levels
(words, word combinations, utterances, texts) a part of stylistics which investigates stylistic phenomena
in the sphere of semantics, i.e. in the sphere of meanings, regardless of the form of linguistic units. It
investigates the rules and laws of shifts of meanings; the patterns according to which the meanings are
shifted or various combinations of meaning.
different means of secondary nomination which are based on the usage of existing words and words
combinations to denote new notions or to give new names to the already known objects.
Metaphor A figure of speech in which one thing is described in terms of another. A comparison is
usually implict.
Similes compare two things using the words like or as, seems, as if, such as. Similes realize
intensification of some one feature of the concept . Simile compares 2 objects of different classes,
entirely different except for one feature in common:
We use metaphors because:
They make language more interesting,
They are generous to readers and listeners; they encourage interpretation.
They are more efficient and economical than ordinary language; they give maximum meaning
with a minimum of words.
They create new meanings; they allow you to write about feelings, thoughts, things, experiences,
etc. for which there are no easy words; they are necessary.
They are a sign of genius.
Allegory a story which represents an idea or belief, is a form of extended metaphor, in which
objects, persons, and actions in a narrative, are equated with the meanings that lie outside the narrative
itself. The underlying meaning has moral, social, religious, or political significance, and characters are
often personifications of abstract ideas as charity, greed, or envy. Thus an allegory is a story with two
meanings, a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning
A metonymy involves substitution of one by another or the association of one thing with another which
often occurs with or near it.
Metonymy is based on a different type of relationship between the dictionary and contextual logical
meanings, a relationship based on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which the
meanings present
Synectoche -involves the substitution of a part for the whole, or the whole for a part
Irony- The essence of irony consists in the foregrounding not of the logical but of the evaluative
meaning. The context is arranged so that the qualifying word in irony reverses the direction of the
evaluation, and the word positively charged is understood as a negative qualification and vice versa.
Oxymoron - is a stylistic device the syntactic and semantic structures of which come to clashes. It
combines, in one phrase, two words (usually: noun + adjective) whose meanings are opposite and
incompatible:
a living corpse; sweet sorrow; a nice rascal; awfully (terribly) nice; a deafening silence; a low
skyscraper.

29. Classification of figures of substitution. EM based on the notion of quantity an EM based on

the notion of quality.
F. of subst: Figures of Quantity :hyperbole- is a deliberate exaggeration which is aimed at
intensification one of the features of an object to such extent that will show its absurdity., meiosis-is the
figure of speech, contrary to hyperbole, consists in lessening, reducing the real quantity of the object of
speech , litotes-is a rhetorical diminishing which includes the negative particles no, not before a word
with a negative meaning (such a word may possess a negative prefix). /)Figures of
Quality:metaphorical group:metaphor-asecondary nomination unit based on likeness; similarity- ,
antonomasia-the use of the name of a historical, mythological, or biblical personage applied to a person
whose characteristic features resemble those ,personification-is attributing human properties to lifeless
objects; allegory-means expressing abstract ideas through concrete pictures, epithet- is based on the
interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase, sentence, used to characterize an
object. metonymical group: metonymy-based on the real association of the object of nomination,
synecdoche-the transfer is based on the ass. between a part and a whole, periphrasis, euphemism- used to
replace an unpleasant word, irony-is based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings
dictionary and contextual, but two meanings stand in opposition to each other.

30. General characteristics of figures of substitution as expressive means of semasiology.

Semasiological EM are figures of substitution = different means of secondary nomination (based on the
usage of existing words and word combinations to denote new notions or to give a new name to the
already known objects).

31. General characteristics of figures of combination as stylistic devices of semasiology.

Semasiological SD are figures of combination = stylistically relevant semantic means of combining
lexical, syntactical and other units (including EM) belonging to the same or different language units.+28
32. Figures of quality: general characteristics.
Tropes and figures of speech based on comparison of features and qualities of 2 objects belonging to
different areas or classes, which are perceived as having a common feature.
Figures of quality:metaphorical group:metaphor-asecondary nomination unit based on likeness;
similarity- , antonomasia-the use of the name of a historical, mythological, or biblical personage applied
to a person whose characteristic features resemble those ,personification-is attributing human properties
to lifeless objects; allegory-means expressing abstract ideas through concrete pictures, epithet- is based
on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase, sentence, used to
characterize an object. metonymical group: metonymy-based on the real association of the object of
nomination, synecdoche-the transfer is based on the ass. between a part and a whole, periphrasis,
euphemism- used to replace an unpleasant word, irony-is based on the simultaneous realization of two
logical meanings dictionary and contextual, but two meanings stand in opposition to each other.
33. Figures of quantity: hyperbole, meiosis.
Figures of Quantity :hyperbole- is a deliberate exaggeration which is aimed at intensification one of the
features of an object to such extent that will show its absurdity., meiosis-is the figure of speech, contrary
to hyperbole, consists in lessening, reducing the real quantity of the object of speech , litotes-is a
rhetorical diminishing which includes the negative particles no, not before a word with a negative
meaning (such a word may possess a negative prefix). Mainly used in oral speech where it usually
emphasizes the insignificance of an object.(She wore a pink hat the size of a button)

34. Figures of equivalence: simile-is a stylistic device based on partial identification of two unlike
objects. Stucture: tenor, vehicle, ground for comparison.Comparison markers: conjunctions and
prepositions(like,as),verbs(seem,like), nouns(a sort of,some kind of)adjectives(the same as, similar to).
Types: based on analogy, on a parable, based on contrast. Substituting - synonyms substitutes
(replacers) are words used to denote object or thing, supplementing new additional details(to be so
trembly and shaky from head to foot.)Specifying synonyms -Synonyms-specifires clarifying synonyms)
a chain of words which express similar meaning.(Joe was a mild, good-natured, sweet-tempered, easy-
going, foolish dear fellow)

35. Figures of non-equivalence: based on actualization the emotional power of the utterance :climax-
consists in arranging the utterance so that each consequent component of it increases significance,
importance or emotional tension of narration , anticlimax- consists in arranging the utterance so that
each subsequent component of it decreases significance, importance or emotional tension of narration.
(Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested);based
on two different meanings of words and word-combinations: pun- is a device based on polysemy,
homonymy, or phonetic similarity to achieve a humorous effect(Money doesn't grow on the trees. But it
blossoms at our branches), zeugma- parallel constructions with unparallelmeanings(At noon Mrs. Turpin
would get out of bed and humor).

36. Metaphorical group. Mechanism of metaphoric transfer of name.Types of metaphor.

Metaphorical group:metaphor-asecondary nomination unit based on likeness; similarity- ,
antonomasia-the use of the name of a historical, mythological, or biblical personage applied to a person
whose characteristic features resemble those ,personification-is attributing human properties to lifeless
objects; allegory-means expressing abstract ideas through concrete pictures, epithet- is based on the
interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase, sentence, used to characterize an
object. Structural types of metaphor: simple (elementary)(But nothing happened. He was stalemated; and
he was burning up with marble fever);Prolonged. Semantic types of m.: Trite (, dead) (flight of fancy;
floods of tears, generation of efforts, to fly into passion).Genuine ( Through the open window the dust
danced and was golden.)
37. Metonymical group. Syntactic and semantic difference between metonymy and metaphor.
Metonymical group: metonymy-based on the real association of the object of nomination(There are a lot
of good heads in the university), synecdoche-the transfer is based on the ass. between a part and a whole,
periphrasis(Hes got five mouths to feed), euphemism- used to replace an unpleasant word(merry
(drunk); to possess a vivid imagination (to lie).Metonymy is more often found in subject and object
groups, while metaphor is commonly found in predicate groups. When metaphor is used as a subject, it
takes on an anaphoric pronoun(He is a bear. A bear broke the vase.)Metaphor is based on similarity,
metonymy on contiguity(, )

38. Figures of opposition: antithesis- denotes any active confrontation, emphasized co-occurrence of
notions, really or presumably contrastive (it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness),
oxymoron-a combination of words with contrasting meanings which results in the creation of a new
notion(the lowest skyscrapers, a damned saint, a plain beauty).is a stylistic device the syntactic and
semantic structures of which come to clashes. It combines, in one phrase, two words (usually: noun +
adjective) whose meanings are opposite and incompatible:awfully (terribly) nice; a deafening silence;

39. Irony. Context types of irony.

Irony is the use of a word having a positive meaning to express a negative one. It must be delightful to
find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in ones pocket.
In contrast with metaphor and metonymy, irony does not employ any particular syntactical structure or
lexical units. In context, there are usually some formal markers of irony pointing out the meaning
implied.
In oral speech, a word used ironically is strongly marked by intonation and other paralinguistic means. In
written speech, such markers are not easily found.
Language irony comprises words, word-combinations and utterances which, due to regular usage, have
acquired connotative ironical meaning which does not depend on context, e.g. a speechmaker, too clever
by half.
The three types of irony that occur most frequently in drama are:
verbal irony, in which there is a contrast between what a character literallysays and what he
means; situational irony, which occurs when an event or situation turns out to be thereverse of
what is expected or appropriate; dramatic irony, which occurs when the audience knows
something that oneor more of the characters on stage do not know. Dramatic irony is often used
toadd humour or suspense to a scene.
More often, however, words or word-combinations acquire ironical meaning due to particular
syntagmatic relations between the meaning of different speech units in macrocontext (a fragment of a
text) or megacontext (the whole text), e.g. An Ideal Husband, A Devoted Friend. The ironical meaning
appears, when lexical units expressing positive evaluation in a certain context acquire a negative
meaning, e.g. This naturally led to some pleasant chat aboutfevers, chills, lung deseasesand
bronchitis.

40. The problem of functional style in English.

Stylistics regards a language as a certain functional system.
English is represented by functional and non-functional variants of language.
Function is defined either as a relation of one element to another or as a role () of an
element in a system as well a role of the whole system in wider environment.
As in modern linguistics 3 areas of language are distinguished, namely, language system
(langue), speech activity (performance) and speech material/ speech (parole), the notion of
function has certain peculiarities applied to each of these areas.
Understanding of style is different too as applied to language, speech activity and speech.
Accordingly, three types of stylistics may be distinguished: stylistics of language, stylistics of
activity, stylistics of speech.
The notion of functional style is interpreted in stylistics differently. There are 2 main approaches to its
definition, both originating from Ac. V.V.Vinogradovs conception. According to the first approach, style
is defined on the criterion of function as a socially accepted, functionally conditioned and internally
organized system of the ways of usage, choice and combination of communicative verbal means which
correlate with other similar systems serving other aims and fulfilling other functions in speech practice of
a nation. According to the second approach, style is defined with regard to its components. It is regarded
as a system of language means united by the similarity of their function or by sphere of usage.
Prof. Arnold I. V. FSs are subsystems of language which possess their specific peculiarities in
vocabulary, phraseology, syntactical constructions and sometimes phonetics.
Prof. Galperin I. R. FS of language is a system of interrelated language means which serve a
definite aim in communication. A FS is thus to be regarded as the product of a certain concrete
task set by the sender of the message.
Prof. Screbnev Y. M. considers that FSs are descriptive features of subsystems of language
which serve different spheres of communication. FS is construed with the help of specific
constituents of these or those sublanguages.

41. Functional and non-functional variants of the English language.

English is represented by functional and non-functional variants of language. Non-functional variants
of English are conditioned not by pragmatic aims or role relations of speakers but exceptionally by the
sphere of the language use:
territorial (local dialects London Cockney, the Southern dialect in the USA);
social and professional (social and professional jargons teenagers / students jargon, jargon of
sportsmen / criminals / drug addicts, etc.
Functional variants of English or FSs are conditioned by pragmatic aims and social relations of
speakers.
Aim is a conceivable desirable practical result of human activity. There are two types of
hierarchically related aims: the main aim and the supplementary (intermediate) one.
The main aim of verbal communication is of pragmatic (nonlingual) character. It presupposes not
just conveying information but achieving some pragmatic aim (aim in a concrete speech
situation).
The supplementary aim is of constructive (lingual) character. It presupposes creating and
applying definite means to achieve the main aim.

Non-functional aspects of speech

territorial
social
professional. (dialects and jargons)

Functional aspects of speech

are determined by functions (roles) linguistic units play in speech;
make upfunctionalstyles;
One and the same thought can be rendered by different linguistic means.
Functional types of language constitute the basis for the stylistic differentiation of speech activity and
speech which serve the ground for defining functional style.

42. The notion of functional style.

The notion of functional style is interpreted in stylistics differently. There are 2 main approaches to its
definition, both originating from Ac. V.V.Vinogradovs conception. According to the first approach, style
is defined on the criterion of function as a socially accepted, functionally conditioned and internally
organized system of the ways of usage, choice and combination of communicative verbal means which
correlate with other similar systems serving other aims and fulfilling other functions in speech practice of
a nation. According to the second approach, style is defined with regard to its components. It is regarded
as a system of language means united by the similarity of their function or by sphere of usage.
Prof. Arnold I. V. FSs are subsystems of language which possess their specific peculiarities in
vocabulary, phraseology, syntactical constructions and sometimes phonetics.
Prof. Galperin I. R. FS of language is a system of interrelated language means which serve a
definite aim in communication. A FS is thus to be regarded as the product of a certain concrete
task set by the sender of the message.
Prof. Screbnev Y. M. considers that FSs are descriptive features of subsystems of language
which serve different spheres of communication. FS is construed with the help of specific
constituents of these or those sublanguages.
Quite different interpretation of FS was suggested by Prof. MorokhovskyO. M. and his followers who
regarded FS as the property of stylistics of speech activity.
The speech functional style is defined as a socially accepted stereotype of speech behaviour
conditioned by social situation of communication (formal or informal), social roles of
communicants (equal or unequal; a parent and a child, a teacher and a student, a scientist, a
journalist and the audience) and theirpragmatic aims.

43. Deductive classification of functional style.

Thedeductive approachis based on the classification criteria which are regarded as given but not
directly extracted from the speech material. According to this approach functional styles are classified on
the basis of the language function, the sphere of usage and the set of differential signs.
The functional style classification on the basis of the language function
Sticking to this classification, the linguists recognize not only two basic language functions
(communicative and cognitive) but also additional / specific ones.
A. M. Peshkovskiys classification
belles-lettres style the purpose of which is to influence the readers imagination to evoke aesthetic
feelings;
oratorical style and the style of advertisement the purpose of which is to influence the recipients
wills;
the style of lecture speech aimed at popularization of some ideas and making them easy for
understanding.
Ac. Vinogradov V. V. singled out 3 language functions communication, informing and influence. Thus,
the function of communication is realized in colloquial style, of informing in official-documentary
style and of influence in belles-lettres and publicistic styles.
The functional style classification on the basis of the sphere of language use
There was an attempt to classify functional styles in accordance with all possible spheres of their usage
social and speech situations of human communication. As the number of such situations is extremely
large, they were generalized and typified. So firstly, two historically formed spheres of communication
were singled out: oralandwritten and correspondingly colloquial and bookish speeches were
distinguished. Then the styles of oral and written communication were classified further (written into
scientific and belles-lettres styles; colloquial into literary-conversational and familiar-colloquial).
The functional style classification on the basis of three differential features
Emotionality/ non-emotionality -> belle-letters and Publicistic styles/ official, scientific styles
Spontaneity/ non-spontaneity -> styles of oral/ written types of speech
Norm adherence/ lack of norm adherence -> literary colloquial/ conversational
and combinations of the enumerated features

44. Inductive classification of functional style.

The criteria for classification according to the inductive approach are not given but they are extracted
from a certain speech material. The procedure is the following: the researcher having a certain number of
utterances and texts classifies them into groups on the basis of lexical, syntactical and other parameters of
resemblance. Thus, each group of texts will represent a certain functional style.
Irrespective of the approaches adopted, scholars usually distinguish the following styles:
conversational,official or documentary, scientific, publicistic and oratorical, newspaper style,
and belles-lettres style.
The status of belles-lettres style, newspaper style and conversational style is still controversial.
Belles-lettres style following the differentiation of the primary and secondary semiotic systems it is
possible to assume that the poetic language and the language of fiction does not constitute a functional
style comparable with other functional styles but it constituteps a specific type of language.
The status of newspaper style is also doubtful. Some scholars consider that the existence of this style is
conditioned by the specific aims of mass media and by the peculiarities of the linguistic means used in
newspaper. But these peculiarities manifest themselves only in limited newspaper units headlines, brief
news (briefings) and editorials. Thus, it is more reasonable to speak about the newspaper language rather
than about the newspaper style.
Prof. Galperin I. R. excluded conversational style from the inventory of FSs, because his classification
was based on entirely the written type of language. Though conversational style in Modern English is
used even more widely than written language and is not homogeneous at all.
Generally, the following functional styles can be distinguished: official style, scientific style, publicistic
style, literary conversational style, colloquial style.
Functional styles are represented by different types of utterances and texts. These are different
classes of texts within a FS which differ in their semantic and topical characteristics. Thus the
texts of publicistic style may be subdivided into texts on politics, economics, moral, art, religion,
health, etc.
Each type of the texts is realized in a certain genre of the text. These are types of the text
subdivided according to their compositional and stylistic peculiarities. The military texts for
instance are divided into orders, reports, instructions and regulations.
Each of the enumerated styles is exercised in two forms written and oral: an article and a
lecture are examples of the two forms of the scientific style, an essay and a public speech of
the publicistic style, etc.
45. The style of official documents in Modern English.
Official style is devoid of expressiveness, emotiveness and subjective modality (except business
correspondence where conventional phrases of greeting or close are to be found such as Dear Sir, For
the attention of Mr. E. Wilson, Sincerely T. W. Thomas, Chairman, Yours faithfully). This styleis the
most conservative one. It preserves cast-iron forms of structuring and uses syntactical constructions and
words long known as archaic and not observed anywhere else.
Its special language forms are rather peculiar:
The graphical level of this style is distinguished by specific rules of making inscriptions, using
capital letters and abbreviations.
E. g.A/C, acc. (account current) , adsd (addressed) , B/E, b.e. (bill of
exchange) , , Co. (company), CV (curriculum vitae) ,
LOC (letter of commitment) , IOY (I owe you) , urgt (urgent)
, etc.
The lexical level is characterized by domination of bookish, borrowed, archaic and obsolescent
words, terms and clichs, such as aviso (), interest-free (), fidejussor
(), flagrante delicto (), status quo; In reply to your letter, We
are pleased to enclose our order, We are sorry to inform that our client became insolvent.
The morphological features of the style: the usage of Subjunctive I(It is urgent you confirm the
arrival of the delegation) and the Suppositional Mood(It is requested that you should confirm
your order), wide use of non-finite forms of the verb, impersonal and indefinite pronouns.
The syntactical level is distinguished by long and super-long sentences of all structural types,
always two-member and no elliptical, complicated by complexes of secondary predication,
detachments (), parenthetic insertions and passive constructions.

46. The publicistic style and oratorical style in Modern English.

Publicistic style
Is mainly based on the practical language, being personal;
May widely employ elements of the poetic language;
Lexical peculiarities: the use of newspaper clichs, neologisms, abbreviations;
Syntactical peculiarities: the use of complex sentences and the use of attributive noun groups.

Publicistic style is mainly based on the practical language, being personal. It may widely employ
elements of the poetic language. The aim is to influence public opinion, to convince the reader or the
listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one, and to cause him
to accept the point of view not merely by logical argumentation, but by emotional appeal as well
(brain-washing function).
Publicistic style is characterized by combination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal
(we find in the publicistic style a blend of the rigorous logical reasoning, reflecting the objective
state of things and a strong subjectivity reflecting the authors personal feelings and emotions
towards the discussed subject).
This style falls into the following variants:
the oratorical style (speeches, lectures and reports; radio and TV programs; the essential feature of
oratorical style is the direct contact with listeners);
the style of essays (moral, philosophical, literary; book review in magazines, pamphlets; essay is a
literary composition of moderate length on subjects. It goes deep into the subject but merely touches
upon the surface, a series of personal and witty comments);
journalistic articles (political, economic, social).
In oral speeches, to establish and maintain the direct contact, the speaker continuously resorts to various
language means of address: ladies and gentlemen, honourable guests, dear colleagues, dear friends,
, , .
Public speeches, radio and TV commentaries are crammed with syntactic stylistic devices of
repetition (ordinary, synonymic, anaphoric, epiphoric, framing, linking), parallelisms and
polysyndeton. These devices aim at making information persuasive.
E.g. 1. This is the price and the promise of citizenship. This is the source of our confidence - the
knowledge that God calls on us to shape an uncertain destiny.This is the meaning of our liberty
and our creed (Parallelisms).
The choice of language means in journalistic articles depends on the subject described (political,
social, ethical, religious, cultural, etc.).
The use of expressive means and stylistic devices is quite frequent (The collapse of the 3.7-
meter-tall monster in Berlin on Nov. 9, 1989), but a kind of paradox happens newly coined
words, expressions, phrases aimed at creating emotional resonance, soon lose this expressiveness,
turning into a clich (a stock phrase). E. g. freedom fighters, the Iron Curtain,ladies in green,
brain drain
Individual element is possible but generally toned down and limited.
Brevity of expression (sometimes epigrammatic) is a leading feature.
In journalistic articles the principle of a turned upside down pyramid is observed. It means that the
most important information is given in the title complex and the lead.
47. The style of scientific prose.
Scientific style
Is mainly based on the practical languages, being mostly impersonal
Includes a metaphoric language
Compositionally every scientific text includes three parts ( the introduction, main body,
conclusion)
Lexical peculiarities: the use of terms, neutral words;
Syntactical level: complex sentences; a developed system of connectives.

The style of scientific prose has 3 subdivisions:1) the style of humanitarian sciences;2) the style of
"exact" sciences;3) the style of popular scientific prose.Its function is to work out and ground
theoretically objective knowledge about reality. The aim of communication is to create new concepts,
disclose the international laws of existence.The peculiarities are: objectiveness; logical coherence,
impersonality, unemotional character, exactness. The scientific prose style consists mostly of ordinary
words which tend to be used in their primary logical meaning. Emotiveness depends on the subject of
investigation but mostly scientific prose style is unemotional. Grammar: The logical presentation and
cohesion of thought manifests itself in a developed feature of scientific syntax is the use of established
patterns. - postulatory; - formulative; - argumentative; The impersonal and objective character of
scientific prose style is revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions, impersonal sentences.
Personal sentences are more frequently used in exact sciences. In humanities we may come across
constructions but few. Some features of the style in the text are: - use of quotations and references; - use
of foot-notes helps to preserve the logical coherence of ideas. Scientific popular style has the following
peculiarities: emotive words, elements of colloquial style.

48.Literary conversational style in Modern English.

Literary conversational style is mainly based on the practical language. Mostly it widely employs
elements of the poetic language. It is used in formal situations, where social roles of the communicants
may be equal or non-equal.
The vocabulary of the literary conversational style mainly corresponds to norm and comprises neutral,
bookish and literary words, though exotic words (fjord, wigwam), barbarisms (protg, beau monde,
alter ego) and colloquialisms are also possible.
C.f.: infant (bookish) child (neutral) kid (colloquial); parent father daddy.
!!!!!Slang, dialecticisms and vulgarisms are rarely used.
socially accepted contracted forms and abbreviations, e.g. fridge, ice, TV, CD;
etiquette language and conversational formulas, e.g. nice to see you, my pleasure, on behalf of ,
etc.;
an extensive use of intensifiers and gap-fillers, e.g. absolutely, definitely, awfully, kind of, so to
speak, I mean, if I may to say so.
interjections and exclamations, e.g. Dear me, My God, Goodness, well, why, now, oh;
phrasal verbs: let sb down, put up with, stand sb up;
the avoidance of slangs, vulgarisms, dialect words, jargon;
the use of phraseological expressions, idioms, figures of speech.
Morphological level :

The abundance of contaminated forms:

contraction (demo demonstration, comp comprehensive school, disco discotheque, pub
public house, ad advertisement, vet veterinarian);
contamination of word combinations (slong so long, cmon come on, gimme give me,
gonna going to, wanna want to, kina kind of);
contamination of grammatical forms (I dont, I aint, shell, theyd, hes done it, theres, etc.).

Syntactical level
is characterized by the use of:
simple sentences;
ellipsis (elliptical sentences),
asyndeton (compound sentences are frequently joined without conjunctions) (asyndeton),
contaminated forms.
49. Familiar colloquial style in Modern English.

Phonetic features:
casual and often careless pronunciation, the use of deviant forms, gonna, whatcha, dunno;
reduced and contracted forms: youre, theyve, Id;
the omission of unaccented elements due to quick tempo, e.g. you hear me?
the emphasis on intonation as a powerful semantic and stylistic instrument capable to render
subtle nuances of thought and feeling;
the use of onomatopoeic words, e.g.: whoosh, hush, yum, yak.
Morphological features:
the use of evaluative suffixes, nonce words formed on morphological and phonetic analogy with
other nominal words: e.g.: baldish, mawkish, moody, hanky-panky, helter-skelter.
the use of stylistically marked words of a low stylistic tone:
literary colloquial (pal and chum are colloquial equivalents of friend; girl, when used colloquially,
denotes a woman of any age, bite and snack for meal; start, go on, finish and be through are also
literary colloquialisms);
familiar colloquial (the borderline between literary colloquial and familiar colloquial vocabulary is
not always clear. It is considered that familiar colloquial is used by the young and semi-educated
(ta-ta for good-bye, to pick up somebody to make a quick and easy acquaintance, shut up keep
silent, beat it go away, goings on bad behavior, etc.);
Low colloquial (used mainly by uneducated people)
Syntacticalfeatures:
the use of simple short sentences;
question-answertypedialogues;
echoquestions;
parallelstructures;
repetitionsofvariouskinds;
coordinationprevailsoversubordination;
extensive use of ellipsis, syntactical tautology, abundance of gap-fillers and parenthetical
elements.
Lexicalfeatures:
the combination of neutral, familiar and low colloquial vocabulary, including slang, vulgar and
taboo words;
limited vocabulary resources: the use of the same word in different meanings it may not possess:
e.g.: nice - impressive, fascinating, high quality: nice music;
an extensive use of words of general meaning, specified in meaning by the situation: guy, job, get,
do, fix, affair;

the abundance of specific colloquial interjections: boy, wow, hey, there, ahoy;
 hyperbole, epithets, evaluative vocabulary, trite metaphors and simile, e.g.: if you say it once more
Ill kill you;
tautological substitution of personal pronouns and names by other nouns, e.g.: you-baby, Johnny-
boy;
a mixture of curse words and euphemisms, e.g.: damn, dash, darned, shoot.

53. Basic notions of literary text interpretation: textual reference and artistic model of the world.
Fictitious time and space. components of the text:
the message (idea/concept) - the theme (thematic planes) - the author's image (including the narrator and
the narrative, the dominant point of view) - the image of the reader - characters and non-human images -
the compositional and genre unity (setting, conflict, plot lines and turns, text partitioning) - the tonal
system (EM and SD, language).
Authenticity of the writer's interpretation of reality and idiosyncrasy of his/her vision of the world are
significantly dependent on the way time and space are reproduced in the text.
In literary works conceptual time and space, which embrace universal ideas based on physical laws and
historical conventions, as well as perceptual or emotive time and space are modelled in the form of
fictitious time and space.
Fictional time and space are not direct representations od conceptual and perceptual time and space,
primarily because literary descriptions of time spans do not correspond to their real duration: a sequence
of several years or travel around the world can be described on one page, while one day can be
outstretched through the whole novel. Secondly, while conceptual time is linear, fictional time is usually
multidimensional and shifting from past to future within one text. Thirdly, depiction of the same
historical span or the same area is usually achieved through fragmentary images, not to mention the fact
that different authors may approach the depiction of the same epoch or locale using different stratagems.
Shifts to the multidimensional time are termed flashbacks (deviations into the past) and flash-
forwards/forshadowing(deviations into the future).
Temporal and spatialsettings(immediate-pertaining to a certain fragment, and broad - to the whole text)
.
Setting in fiction contribut significantly to create atmosphere - the mood or subjective impression
produced by a literary work. In this way that readers imagine (visualise and feel) the fictional world in
which characters exist.