How Mufflers Work

If you've ever heard a car engine running without a muffler, you know what
a huge difference a muffler can make to the noise level. Inside a muffler,
you'll find a deceptively simple set of tubes with some holes in them. These
tubes and chambers are actually as finely tuned as a musical instrument.
They are designed to reflect the sound waves produced by the engine in
such a way that they partially cancel themselves out.

Mufflers use some pretty neat technology to cancel out the noise. In this
article, we'll take a look inside a real car muffler and learn about the
principles that make it work.

But first, we need to know a little about sound.

Where Does the Sound Come From?

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Sound is a pressure wave formed from pulses of alternating high and low
air pressure. These pulses makes their way through the air at -- you
guessed it -- the speed of sound.
In an engine, pulses are created when an exhaust valve opens and a burst
of high-pressure gas suddenly enters the exhaust system. The molecules
in this gas collide with the lower-pressure molecules in the pipe, causing
them to stack up on each other. They in turn stack up on the molecules a
little further down the pipe, leaving an area of low pressure behind. In this
way, the sound wave makes its way down the pipe much faster than the
actual gases do.
When these pressure pulses reach your ear, the eardrum vibrates back
and forth. Your brain interprets this motion as sound. Two main
characteristics of the wave determine how we perceive the sound:
 Sound wave frequency - A higher wave frequency simply means
that the air pressure fluctuates faster. The faster an engine runs, the
higher the pitch we hear. Slower fluctuations sound like a lower pitch.

Air pressure level - The wave's amplitude determines how loud

the sound is. Sound waves with greater amplitudes move our
eardrums more, and we register this sensation as a higher volume.

It turns out that it is possible to add two or more sound waves together and
get less sound. Let's see how.

How Can You Cancel Out Sound?

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The key thing about sound waves is that the result at your ear is the sum of
all the sound waves hitting your ear at that time. If you are listening to a
band, even though you may hear several distinct sources of sound, the
pressure waves hitting your ear drum all add together, so your ear drum
only feels one pressure at any given moment.
Now comes the cool part: It is possible to produce a sound wave that is
exactly the opposite of another wave. This is the basis for those noise-
canceling headphones you may have seen. Take a look at the figure below.
The wave on top and the second wave are both pure tones. If the two
waves are in phase, they add up to a wave with the same frequency but
twice the amplitude. This is called constructive interference. But, if they
are exactly out of phase, they add up to zero. This is called destructive
interference. At the time when the first wave is at its maximum pressure,
the second wave is at its minimum. If both of these waves hit your ear drum
at the same time, you would not hear anything because the two waves
always add up to zero.
How sound waves add and subtract
In the next section, we'll see how the muffler is designed to create waves
that cause as much destructive interference as possible.
Inside a Muffler
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Located inside the muffler is a set of tubes. These tubes are designed to
create reflected waves that interfere with each other or cancel each other
out. Take a look at the inside of this muffler:
The exhaust gases and the sound waves enter through the center tube.
They bounce off the back wall of the muffler and are reflected through a
hole into the main body of the muffler. They pass through a set of holes into
another chamber, where they turn and go out the last pipe and leave the
muffler.
A chamber called a resonator is connected to the first chamber by a hole.
The resonator contains a specific volume of air and has a specific length
that is calculated to produce a wave that cancels out a certain frequency of
sound. How does this happen? Let's take a closer look ...

The Resonator
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When a wave hits the hole, part of it continues into the chamber and part of
it is reflected. The wave travels through the chamber, hits the back wall of
the muffler and bounces back out of the hole. The length of this chamber is
calculated so that this wave leaves the resonator chamber just after the
next wave reflects off the outside of the chamber. Ideally, the high-pressure
part of the wave that came from the chamber will line up with the low-
pressure part of the wave that was reflected off the outside of the chamber
wall, and the two waves will cancel each other out.
The animation below shows how the resonator works in a simplified muffler.
Waves canceling inside a simplified muffler
In reality, the sound coming from the engine is a mixture of many different
frequencies of sound, and since many of those frequencies depend on the
engine speed, the sound is almost never at exactly the right frequency for
this to happen. The resonator is designed to work best in the frequency
range where the engine makes the most noise; but even if the frequency is
not exactly what the resonator was tuned for, it will still produce some
destructive interference.
Some cars, especially luxury cars where quiet operation is a key feature,
have another component in the exhaust that looks like a muffler, but is
called a resonator. This device works just like the resonator chamber in the
muffler -- the dimensions are calculated so that the waves reflected by the
resonator help cancel out certain frequencies of sound in the exhaust.
There are other features inside this muffler that help it reduce the sound
level in different ways. The body of the muffler is constructed in three
layers: Two thin layers of metal with a thicker, slightly insulated layer
between them. This allows the body of the muffler to absorb some of the
pressure pulses. Also, the inlet and outlet pipes going into the main
chamber are perforated with holes. This allows thousands of tiny pressure
pulses to bounce around in the main chamber, canceling each other out to
some extent in addition to being absorbed by the muffler's housing.
Backpressure and Other Types of Mufflers
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The exhaust from a NASCAR race car: There are no mufflers here, because reducing
backpressure is the name of the game.

One important characteristic of mufflers is how much backpressure they

produce. Because of all of the turns and holes the exhaust has to go
through, mufflers like those in the previous section produce a fairly high
backpressure. This subtracts a little from the power of the engine.
There are other types of mufflers that can reduce backpressure. One type,
sometimes called a glass pack or a cherry bomb, uses only absorption to
reduce the sound. On a muffler like this, the exhaust goes straight through
a pipe that is perforated with holes. Surrounding this pipe is a layer of glass
insulation that absorbs some of the pressure pulses. A steel housing
surrounds the insulation.
Diagram of glass pack muffler

These mufflers produce much less restriction, but don't reduce the sound
level as much as conventional mufflers.

Active Noise-Canceling Mufflers

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There have been a few experiments with active noise-canceling mufflers,
especially on industrial generators. These systems incorporate a set
of microphones and a speaker.
The speaker is positioned in a pipe, which wraps around the exhaust pipe
so that the sound from the exhaust comes out in the same direction as the
sound from the speaker. A computer monitors a microphonepositioned
before the speaker and one positioned after the speaker. By knowing some
things about the length and shape of the pipes, the computer can generate
a signal to drive the speaker. This can cancel out much of the sound
coming from the generator. The downstream microphone lets the computer
know how well it is doing so it can make adjustments if needed.
For more information on mufflers, sound and related topics, check out the
links on the next page.