Zbornik 47 Kongresa 47th Congress Proceedings

47.
MEUNARODNI 47th INTERNATIONAL

KONGRES I IZLOBA CONGRESS & EXHIBITION
O GREJANJU HLAENJU ON HEATING, REFRIGERATION
I KLIMATIZACIJI AND AIR CONDITIONING
Beograd, Sava centar, Belgrade, Sava Center,

30. novembar 2. decembar 2016. 30 November 2 December 2016
ZBORNIK RADOVA PROCEEDINGS

ZBORNIK RADOVA
47. MEUNARODNI KONGRES O GREJANJU,
HLAENJU I KLIMATIZACIJI
2016
ZBORNIK RADOVA
47. meunarodni kongres o grejanju,
hlaenju i klimatizaciji
(Beograd, 30.11. 2.12.2016)
IZDAVA
Savez mainskih i elektrotehnikih
inenjera i tehniara Srbije (SMEITS)
Drutvo za grejanje, hlaenje i klimatizaciju (KGH) Srbije
Kneza Miloa 7a/II,11000 Beograd
2016. god.
UREDNIK
Prof. dr Branislav Todorovi, dipl. in.
RECENZENTI
Branislav Todorovi, Marija Todorovi,
Bratislav Blagojevi, Aleksandar Anelkovi,
Slobodan Pejkovi, ivojin Perii,
Petar Vasiljevi, Bojan Bogdanovi
TIRA
ISBN 978-86-81505-82-3
TIRA
300 primeraka
CD UMNOAVA
SMEITS
CIP -
,
697(082)(0.034.2)
628.8(082)(0.034.2)
621.56/.59(082)(0.034.2)
620.9(082)(0.034.2)
, (47 ; 2016 ; )
Zbornik radova [Elektronski izvor] = Proceedings / 47. meunarodni kongres i izloba o grejanju, hlaenju
i klimatizaciji, Beograd, 30. novembar - 2. decembar 2016. = 47th International Congress & Exhibition on
Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, Belgrade, 30 November - 2 December 2016 ; [urednik Branislav
Todorovi]. - Beograd : Savez mainskih i elektrotehnikih inenjera i tehniara Srbije (SMEITS), Drutvo za
grejanje, hlaenje i klimatizaciju (KGH) Srbije, 2016 (Beograd : Savez mainskih i elektrotehnikih inenjera
i tehniara Srbije (SMEITS)). - 1 elektronski optiki disk (CD-ROM) : ilustr. ; 12 cm
Sistemski zahtevi: Nisu navedeni. - Nasl. sa naslovnog ekrana. - Radovi na srp. i engl. jeziku. - Tira 300. -
Bibliografija uz veinu radova.
ISBN 978-86-81505-82-3
a) - b) -
c) - d) -
COBISS.SR-ID 227995148
SADRAJ CONTENTS
1. Plenarna predavanja Keynote Lectures

1. VODA KAO RASHLADNI FLUID
USE OF WATER AS REFRIGERANT
Alexander COHR PACHAI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2. Standardizacija Standardization
2. EKSERGIJA KAO FIZIKA MERA ODRIVOSTI ENERGETSKOG SISTEMA
EXERGY AS PHYSICAL MEASURE OF SUSTAINABILITY OF ENERGY SYSTEM
Peter NOVAK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3. DOSTIZANJE CILJA PROTIV SIROMATVA U SVETLU STRATEGIJA
ZA POVEANJE ENERGETSKE EFIKASNOSTI
MEETING THE ANTI-POVERTY TARGET IN THE LIGHT OF
INCREASING ENERGY EFFICIENCY STRATEGIES
Livio de SANTOLI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4. STANDARDIZACIJA U PODRUJU TERMALNE SREDINE
STANDARDIZATION IN THE FIELD OF THE THERMAL ENVIRONMENT
Francesca Romana dAmbrozio ALFANO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5. ISTRAIVANJE PERFORMANSI SISTEMA I OPTIMIZACIJA RETROFITA
POSTOJEEG SISTEMA GSTP U OTRO HLADNOJ KLIMATSKOJ ZONI KINE
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE INVESTIGATION AND OPTIMIZATION RETROFIT
OF AN EXISTING GSHP SYSTEM IN THE SEVERE COLD ZONE IN CHINA
Ping CUI, Haipeng AN, Haiyang JIANG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3. Daljinsko grejanje i hlaenje District Heating and Cooling

6. ULOGA DALJINSKOG GREJANJA U BUDUIM
PAMETNIM ENERGETSKIM SISTEMIMA
THE ROLE OF DISTRICT COOLING IN THE FUTURE SMART ENERGY SYSTEMS
Oddgeir GUDMUNDSSON, Jan Eric THORSEN, Marek BRAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7. REENJA ZA NISKOTEMPERATURNO SNABDEVANJE
TOPLOTNOM ENERGIJOM U ZGRADARSTVU
BUILDING SOLUTIONS FOR LOW TEMPERATURE HEAT SUPPLY
Oddgeir GUDMUNDSSON, Jan Eric THORSEN, Marek BRAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5
8. POVEANJE STEPENA KORISNOSTI KOTLA I TEHNO-EKONOMSKA ANALIZA
UGRADNJE UTILIZATORA NA VRELOVODNOM KOTLU
SNAGE 116 MW NA TOPLANI KONJARNIK U BEOGRADU
INCREASING THE BOILER COP AND TECHNO-ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
OF UTILIZATOR IMPLEMENTATION ON 116 MW HOT BOILER
IN KONJARNIK HEATING PLANT IN BELGRADE
Vladimir TANASI, Marko MLADENOVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
9. POREENJE GUBITAKA VODE IZ TOPLOVODNE MREE
U TOPLANAMA RAZLIITIH RADNIH PARAMETARA
COMPARISON OF WATER LOSES FROM PIPELINE NETWORK
IN HEATING PLANTS WITH DIFERENT OPERATION MODE
Nenad MILORADOVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
10. PREMOAVANJE RAZLIKE IZMEU STVARNE I PROJEKTOVANE
POTRONJE ENERGIJE ZA GREJANJE PRILIKOM BOTTOM-UP
MODELIRANJA STAMBENIH ZGRADA
BRIDGING THE GAP OF ACTUAL AND CALCULATED HEATING ENERGY
CONSUMPTION IN BOTTOM-UP RESIDENTIAL BUILDING STOCK MODELING
Constantinos A. BALARAS, Elena G. DASCALAKI,
Kalliopi G. DROUTSA, Simon KONTOYANNIDIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
11. PREDNOSTI GREJANJA JAVNIH I STAMBENIH OBJEKATA
SISTEMOM TOPLOTNIH PUMPI (SMMS-e)
ADVANTAGES OF HEATING AND HOUSING FACILITIES
HEAT PUMPS SYSTEM (SMMS-e)
Dragan OKI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12. MOGUNOSTI INDIVIDUALNOG ISKLJUENJA
SISTEMA DALJINSKOG GREJANJA
POSSIBILITIES OF INDIVIDUAL DISCONNECTION
FROM THE DISTRICT HEATING SYSTEM
Milan MITRI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
13. CFD MODELIRANJE HIDRODINAMIKIH POJAVA
I PRENOSA TOPLOTE U KANALIMA PLOASTIH RAZMENJIVAA TOPLOTE
CFD MODELING OF HYDRODYNAMIC PHENOMENA
AND HEAT TRANSFER IN CHANNELS OF PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS
Dragan MANDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4. Forum: Poboljanje energetske efikasnosti u novim tehnologijama hlaenja

pogodnim za ouvanje klimatskih uslova i ozonskog omotaa
Forum: Improving Energy Efficiency in Climate and Ozone Friendly Latest
Refrigeration Technologies
14. SISTEMI SA BUOTINAMA ILI TOPLOTNE PUMPE VAZDUH-VODA
KOJE REENJE KORISTITI I NA KOJOJ LOKACIJI
BOREHOLE INSTALLATIONS OR AIR-TO-WATER HEAT PUMPS.
WHAT TO USE AND WHERE?
Gert NIELSEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6
15. UPOTREBA GEOTERMALNE ENERGIJE U ORGANSKOM
RANKINOVOM CIKLUSU (ORC)
USE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IN ORGANIC RANKINE CYCLE
Milena OTOVI, Mirko KOMATINA, Nedad RUDONJA,
Uro MILOVANEVI, Sran OTOVI, Sneana STEVANOVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
16. ISPITIVANJE PERFORMANSI HLADNJAKA VAZDUHA SA OREBRENIM CEVIMA
PERFORMANCES INVESTIGATION OF FINNED TUBE AIR COOLER
Uro MILOVANEVI, Srbislav GENI, Milena OTOVI, Sneana STEVANOVI . . . . . . 193
17. UPOTREBA R32 KAO RASHLADNOG FLUIDA U OPREMI ZA KGH
USE OF R32 REFRIGERANT IN HVAC-R EQUIPMENT
Hrvoje KRAPANI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5. Rashladne maine i sistemi Refrigeration machines and systems

18. AMONIJANE UNUTRANJE REVERZIBILNE
TOPLOTNE PUMPE/ILERI VAZDUHVODA
INTERNAL REVERSIBLE AMMONIA AIR-TO-WATER HEAT PUMP/CHILLER
Gert NIELSEN, Carl RASMUSSEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
19. SINTETIKE ALTERNATIVE ZA RASHLADNO SREDSTVO R404A
SYNTHETIC ALTERNATIVES FOR REPLACEMENT OF R404A REFRIGERANT
Milan STOJANOVI, Uro MILOVANEVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
6. Obnovljivi izvori energije Solar and Other Renewables

20. OSNOVNE POSTAVKE STANDARDA ZA OSTVARENJE KVALITETA
VRSTIH BIOGORIVA IZ SEKUNDARNIH SIROVINA
BASIC QUALITY STANDARDS OF SOLID BIOFUELS
FROM WOOD SECONDARY RAW MATERIALS
Predrag PETROVI, Marija PETROVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
21. KONCENTRISANI SUNEVI TOPLOTNI PRIJEMNICI
ZA HLAENJE ZGRADA: PROCENE ZA GRKU
CONCENTRATING SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS
FOR COOLING OF BUILDINGS: AN ASSESSMENT FOR GREECE
Vassiliki DROSOU, Elli KYRIAKI, Argiro DIMOUDI, Agis M. PAPADOPOULOS . . . . . . . . 243
22. EKSERGETSKA OPTIMIZACIJA ZGRADA
RAZLIITIM SOLARNIM SISTEMIMA
EXERGY OPTIMIZATION OF BUILDINGS
WITH DIFFERENT SOLAR SYSTEMS
Danijela NIKOLI, Jasna RADULOVI, Jasmina SKERLI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
23. OPTIMIZACIJA GEOMETRIJSKIH PARAMETARA SUNEVIH PRIJEMNIKA
POMOU HEURISTIKIH METODA OPTIMIZACIJE
OPTIMIZATION OF SOLAR COLLECTOR GEOMETRIC PARAMETERS
USING A HEURISTIC OPTIMIZATION METHODS
Nenad KOSTI, Milo MATEJI, Nenad PETROVI,
Mirko BLAGOJEVI, Nenad MARJANOVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7
24. MOGUNOSTI I NAINI KORIENJA
SUBGEOTERMALNE ENERGIJE U BEOGRADU
POSSIBILITIES AND MANNERS OF USAGE OF
THE SUBGEOTHERMAL ENERGY IN BELGRADE
Ivan MATI, Stevan AMALOVI, S. URI,
G. KOVAEVI, Z. MARKOVI, I. TANASKOVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
25. ANALIZA I OCENA SOLARNIH SISTEMA BUDUNOSTI
ANALYSIS AND ASSESSMENT OF SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS
FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
Jasmina SKERLI, Danijela NIKOLI, Jasna RADULOVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
7. Projektovanje energetski efikasnih i zdravih sistema za KGH

HVAC Systems Design for Energy Efficiency and Health
26. ODRIVO PROJEKTOVANA KLIMATIZOVANA DAMIJA
RADI TOPLOTNE UGODNOSTI
SUSTAINABLE DESIGNED AIR-CONDITIONED MOSQUE
FOR THERMAL COMFORT
Redhwan N. AL-GABRI, and Essam E. KHALIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
27. HLAENJE OTVORENOG PROSTORA RADI POSTIZANJA TERMIKE UGODNOSTI
GLEDALACA U KLIMATIZOVANIM SPORTSKIM OBJEKTIMA
OUTDOOR COOLING FOR THERMAL COMFORT AROUND SPECTATORS
IN AIR CONDITIONED SPORT FACILITIES
Essam E. KHALIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
28. EFIKASNI SISTEMI KGH U BOLNICAMA
EFFICIENT HVAC SYSTEMS IN HOSPITALS
Egon VENKO, Damjan MAKUC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
29. ZIMSKI POVRAAJ TOPLOTE U VENTILACIONIM SISTEMIMA:
POTENCIJALI I OGRANIENJA OSETNE TOPLOTE I UKUPNI POVRAAJ
U USLOVIMA EVROPSKIH KLIMA
WINTER HEAT RECOVERY IN VENTILATION SYSTEMS:
POTENTIAL AND LIMITATIONS OF SENSIBLE AND TOTAL RECOVERY
IN THE EUROPEAN CLIMATES
Stefanie TAFELMEIER, Giacomo PERNIGOTTO,
Giovanni PERNIGOTTO, Andrea GASPARELLA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
30. PROMJENA TERMIKE UGODNOSTI U FAZI
POTHLAIVANJA UNUTRANJOSTI VOZILA
CHANGE OF THE THERMAL COMFORT IN THE
COOLING PHASE OF A VEHICLE INTERIOR
Svetozar GRAHOVAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
8
8. Predvianje i validacija sistema za KGH
HVAC Systems Performance Prediction and Validation
31. POREENJE ENERGETSKIH PREGLEDA KOMERCIJALNIH OBJEKATA
PO EU DIREKTIVI I ASHRAE METODOLOGIJI
COMPARISON AND EXPERIENCE FROM ENERGY AUDITS ACCORDING TO EU
DIRECTIVE AND ASHRAE METHODOLOGY WITH RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
DEVELOPMENT OF SERBIAN METHODLOGYOF ENERGY AUDITS
Rade UKANOVI, Milan UKANOVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
32. ENERGETSKI EFIKASNI PROJEKTI KGH POTVRIVANJE UTEDA ENERGIJE
ISPLATIVI ARANMANI SUB-MERENJA
HVAC ENERGY EFFICIENCY PROJECTS VERIFICATION OF ENERGY SAVINGS
COST EFFECTIVE SUB-METERING ARRANGEMENTS
Aleksandar KONAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
33. SAMOPODEAVANJE PID KONTROLERA POMOU VETAKE INTELIGENCIJE
AUTO-TUNING OF PID CONTROLLER USING ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Velimir ONGRADAC, Slaana LAZAREVI, Dubravka BOJANI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
34. KVANTITATIVNE I KVALITATIVNE PROCENE TEMPERATURE I KVALITETA
UNUTRANJEG VAZDUHA U DVEMA KANCELARIJSKIM ZGRADAMA
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE EVALUATION OF INDOOR
THERMAL AND AIR QUALITY IN TWO OFFICE BUILDINGS
Panagiota ANTONIADOU, Christina KONSTANTINIDOU,
George MANTIKAS, Agis M. PAPADOPOULOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
35. POBOLJANJE PONAANJA ZGRADE OPTIMIZACIJOM
KONTROLNE STRATEGIJE SISTEMA ZA KGH
IMPROVEMENT OF BUILDING PERFORMANCE
BY OPTIMIZATION OF HVAC CONTROL STRATEGY
Alojz TOVAROVI, Duan GOLUBOVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
9. Pribliavanje zgradama i gradovima nulte emisije CO2 tehnologije i rizici

Approaching Zero CO2 Emission Buildings and Cities Technologies and Risks
36. METODOLOKI PRISTUP OPTIMIZACIJI OMOTAA ZGRADE POMOU PCM
METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH ON THE
BUILDING ENVELOPE OPTIMIZATION USING PCM
Christina V. KONSTANTINIDOU, Werner LANG, Agis M. PAPADOPOULOS . . . . . . . . . 425
37. STUDIJA SLUAJA PRIMENE PRIRODNIH RASHLADNIH FLUIDA
NATURAL REFRIGERANTS STUDY CASE APPLICATION
Gratiela-Maria TARLEA, Ana TARLEA, Mioara VINCERIUC, Ion ZABET . . . . . . . . . . . 439
38. ANALIZA MERA ZA UTEDU ENERGIJE POTREBNE
ZA ZAGREVANJE POSTOJEE STAMBENE ZGRADE
ANALYSIS OF ENERGY SAVING MEASURES
FOR AN EXISTING RESIDENTIAL BUILDING
Novak NIKOLI, Neboja LUKI, Zoran KONALOVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
9
39. UTICAJ TROMBOVOG ZIDA NA POTRONJU ENERGIJE
ZA GREJANJE I HLAENJE KUE NETO-NULTE POTRONJE ENERGIJE
THE INFLUENCE OF THE TROMBE WALL ON ENERGY CONSUMPTION
FOR HEATING AND COOLING OF NET-ZERO ENERGY HOUSE
Jovan MALEEVI, Dragan CVETKOVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
10. Program za studente, mlade inenjere i profesionalni razvoj

kombinovano sa prezentacijama glavnih sponzora
Program for Students, Young Engineers & Professional Development
Combined with Main Sponsors Companies Presentations
Internship and Employment Prospects
40. INTEGRALNI I ODRIVI PRISTUP PROJEKTOVANJU U ZGRADARSTVU
IDEJNO REENJE OBJEKTA JAVNE UPRAVE U PEKINGU
INTEGRAL AND SUSTAINABLE BUILDING DESIGN
CONCEPTUAL SOLUTION OF A MUNICIPAL BUILDING IN BEIJING
ivanovi VLADISLAV, Franceko LUKA, Berec GABOR, Dragan BOTI,
Vladimir MUNAN, Igor MUJAN, Aleksandar ANELKOVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
41. BIOGORIVO LIGNOCELULOZNE SIROVINE
BIOFUELS FROM LIGNOCELLULOSIS FEEDSTOCKS
Vladan MII, Sabina BEGI, Zoran PETROVI, Darko MANJENI . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
42. PROBLEMI KONDENZACIJE VLAGE NA ZASTAKLJENJU
BAZENSKIH OBJEKATA I LCCA RAZLIITIH TIPOVA KLIMA KOMORA
PROBLEMS OF MOISTURE CONDENSATION ON POOL FACILITIES
GLAZING AND LCCA OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF HVAC CHAMBERS
Aleksandar PJEVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
43. UNAPREENJE OBRAZOVANJA I ZAPOLJAVANJA STUDENATA INENJERSTVA
U OBLASTI UPRAVLJANJA ODRIVOU ENERGIJE
ENHANCE LEARNING AND EMPLOYABILITY OF ENGINEERING STUDENTS
IN BUILDING SUSTAINABILITY/ENERGY MANAGEMENT AREA
44. ENERGETSKI ASPEKTI SUENJA DRVETA
ENERGY ASPECTS OF WOOD DRYING
Vuk MAROVI, Damir AKOVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
11. Optimizacija i predvianje energetskog ponaanja zgrada

Buildings Energy Performance Optimization And Predictions
45. BMS UPRAVLJANJE POTENCIJALI ZA BOLJE KORIENJE
EKONOMSKOG CIKLUSA U KLIMATIZOVANIM USLOVIMA
POBOLJANJE ENERGETSKE EFIKASNOSTI SISTEMA ZA KGH
I KVALITETA UNUTRANJEG VAZDUHA
BMS CONTROLS POTENTIAL FOR ENHANCED USE OF ECONOMY CYCLE IN
TEMPERATE CLIMATE CONDITIONS IMPROVED ENERGY EFFICIENCY
OF HVAC SYSTEMS AND (IEQ) INDOOR AIR QUALITY
10
46. AKTIVNI PCM SISTEMI SKLADITENJA TOPLOTNE ENERGIJE
ZA SLOBODNO GREJANJE I HLAENJE ZGRADA
ACTIVE PCM THERMAL STORAGE SYSTEMS
FOR FREE HEATING AND FREE COOLING OF BUILDINGS
Uro STRITIH, Vincenc BUTALA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
47. OMOTA ZGRADE KLJUNI PARAMETAR ZA ODRIVE ZGRADE
BUILDING ENVELOPE A KEY ROLE PARAMETER
FOR SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS
Elli KYRIAKI, Effrosyni GIAMA, Agis M. PAPADOPOULOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
48. IZMEU TEORIJE I PRAKSE NA KONKRETNOM PRIMERU
ENERGETSKE SANACIJE OBJEKTA
BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE CASE STUDY
ON ENERGY SANATION ON AN OBJECT
Marija ILI, Aleksandar SAVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
49. OBRAZUJTE SE VIDETI ILI NE
GET LEDUCATED TO SEE OR NOT TO SEE
Aleksandar SAVI, Marija ILI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
50. UTICAJ KOEFICIJENTA TRANSFORMACIJE PRIMARNE ENERGIJE
NA NISKOTEMPERATURNE PANELNE SISTEME GREJANJA
THE IMPACT OF PRIMARY ENERGY COEFFICIENT
ON LOW TEMPERATURE PANEL HEATING SYSTEMS
Dragan CVETKOVI, Aleksandar NEOVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
12. Analytical and Experimental Methods Advances

51. INSTALACIJA ZA EKSPERIMENTALNA ISTRAIVANJA
PRIRODNE I PRIRODNO-PRINUDNE (MEOVITE) KONVEKCIJE
DU VERTIKALNE TERMO-AKTIVNE SOBNE POVRINE
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS FOR EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF NATURAL AND
MIXED CONVECTION ALONG VERTICAL THERMO ACTIVE ROOM SURFACE
Samo VENKO, Erik PAVLOVI, Ciril ARKAR, Sao MEDVED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
52. ZAPTIVENOSTI KANALSKIH MREA KGH
TIGHTNESS CANAL NETWORK HVAC
Milovan IVKOVI, Milo GOLUBOVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
53. PRIMENA LINEARNE REGRESIONE ANALIZE U PRAKSI
POSTROJENJE ZA GREJANJE OBJEKATA TOPLOTNIM PUMPAMA,
EFIKASNOST TOPLOTNIH PUMPI
USAGE OF LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS IN PRACTICE
PLANT FOR HEATING OBJECTS WITH HEAT PUMPS,
EFFICIENCY OF HEAT PUMPS
Miroslav VULI, Kristijan VUJIIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
11
54. ODREIVANJE SADRAJA VLAGE U OTPADNOM GASU
EKSPERIMENTALNA I TEORIJSKA METODA
DETERMINATION OF THE WATER VAPOR CONTENT IN FLUE GAS
STANDARD REFERENCE METHOD AND MATERIAL BALANCE METHOD
Marko PAVLOVI, Sandra PETKOVI, Milan GOJAK,
Mihajlo GIGOV, Veselin ANELKOVI, Lazar ANELI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
13. FORUM: Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa and America

Harmonised Rurban Development Needs HVAC & Cold Chain, Healthy
EnergyPlus Buildings, Smart Zero CO2 Settlements, Sustainability, Security and
Resilience Towards 5 Continents Cooperation Science, Research & Development,
Standardization, Certification, Education Engineering & Manufacturing
(KGH-SMEITS & ECS, UNEP, UNDP, IIR, ASHRAE-Danube, REHVA, IBPSA-
Danube, ABOK, Chinese and Australian Engineers)
55. ADAPT TODAY TO SHAPE TOMORROW
Tim WENTZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
56. IN SEARCH FOR URBAN RESILIENCE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Eva VANISTA LAZAREVIC, Branislav ANTONI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
57. ADVANCES IN ENVIRONMENTAL PRESERVATION:
THE ROLE OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Doaa M. El-SHERIF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
58. PROJECT ON DISTRICT ENERGY, DEEP IMPROVEMENT
OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY, UTILISATION OF RENEWABLE SOURCES
AND DISTRIBUTED ENERGY GENERATION AS A STRATEGIC ANSWER
OF BELGRADE AND UNEP ON CLIMATE CHANGES
Miodrag GRUJI, Petar VASILJEVI, Bojan BOGDANOVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
59. THE ROLE OF FACADE ON FIRE SPREAD
Milovan VIDAKOVI, Barbara VIDAKOVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
60. DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN SMART SETTLEMENT
RESILIENCE APPROACH AND LAYERED APPROACH TO (DISASTER)
RESILIENCE ANALYSIS OF URBAN SETTLEMENTS
Zoran KEKOVI, Ozren DZIGURS, Vladimir NINKOVI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
61. SOME POWER QUALITY AND ELECTROMAGNETIC
COMPATIBILITY ISSUES IN HVAC EQUIPMENT
Mircea Ion BUZDOGAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
12
VODA KAO RASHLADNI FLUID
WATER AS REFRIGERANT
Alexander Cohr PACHAI
Sabroe Factory, Johnson Controls
Christian Xs Vej 201, 8270 Hoejbjerg, Denmark
e-mail: alexander.c.pachai@jci.com
Mi koji smatramo injenicom da je voda jedan od najee korienih

sekundarnih rashladnih fluida, u poreenju sa vazduhom, nismo u veini. Radi upo-
trebe ispod take smrzavanja mi esto dodajemo neko sredstvo za ublaavanje take
smrzavanja, kao to su glikol ili razne soli. Voda je ranije koriena u apsorpcionim
sistemima kao jedan deo radnog para, dok su amonijak ili litijum-bromid bili drugi
par.
Ovaj rad e razmatrati upotrebu vode kao primarnog rashladnog fluida u
kompresionom sistemu.
Voda kao rashladni fluid nije novost, ali ju je veina kompanija godinama
ignorisala kao primarni rashladni fluid. Nova tehnoloka unapreenja i povean
pritisak na konvencionalne rashladne fluide na bazi fluora, zbog briga o klimatskim
promenama, na amonijak zbog toksinosti i zapaljivosti i na ugljovodonike zbog
visoke zapaljivosti znae da je danas fokus pomeren na ugljen-dioksid i na vodu i
vazduh zbog izuzetno niskih temperatura.
Voda kao rashladni fluid u istom obliku pogodna je samo za temperature
iznad take smrzavanja vode, ili nekoliko stepeni iznad. Za specijalnu primenu, na
primer kada se morska voda koristi kao toplotni izvor za proizvodnju ledene kae
zimi, to je izuzetak od opteg pravila. Tehnologija ledene kae moe se primeniti za
klimatizaciju, hlaenje u rudniku i prelazno hlaenje/smrzavanje hrane, npr. ribe.
Kljune rei: voda; rashladno sredstvo; primena; kompresor; ispariva
Not many of us consider the fact that one of the most commonly used second-
ary refrigerants is water, in competition with air. For use below the freezing point,
we often add some freezing point suppressant, such as glycol or various salts. Water
has previously been used in absorption systems as one part of the working pair, with
ammonia or lithium bromide as the other. This paper will discuss the use of water as
a primary refrigerant in a compression system.
Water as refrigerant is not new, but the majority of companies have neglect-
ed it as a primary refrigerant for many years. New advances in technology and the
increased pressure on conventional fluorine-based refrigerants due to climate con-
cerns, on ammonia due to toxicity and flammability and on hydrocarbons due to
high flammability, mean that the focus is now more on carbon dioxide, and on water
and air for extremely low temperatures.
Water as a refrigerant in its pure form is only for temperatures above the wa-
ter freezing point, or some degrees over. For special applications, for example when
13
using seawater as a heat source to produce ice slurry in the winter, this is an exemp-
tion from the general rule. The ice slurry technology can be applied for air condi-
tioning, mine cooling and for intermediate cooling/freezing of foods, such as fish.
The advantages of water as refrigerant are many, including toxicity and
flammability not being issues. The environmental benefits are evident, as it is not
causing ozone depletion or global warming. Water is available in large parts of the
world. In some parts, seawater can be used, and the technology can even help pro-
duce potable water as a side product. This enhances the benefits of the system. Even
water that might have some micro algae can be used, because the temperatures can
be as high as 150C in the compressor, which will kill any bacteria.
Key words: water; refrigerant; application; compressor; evaporator
Introduction
Water has a very high latent heat, higher than any other refrigerant: 2257
kJ/kg, as indicated in Table 1.
Table 1 Properties of selected refrigerants

Critical Critical Atmospheric
temperature pressure boiling point Molar mass
kJ/kg C bar C M kg/kmol
Water 2257 373.95 221.2 100 18.015
Ammonia 1367 132.35 11.28 -33 17.03
CO2 574 31.05 73.9 -78 44.01
Propane 428 96.85 42.6 -44 44,097
R22 232 96.15 49.9 -40.81 86.42
R134a 215.9 100.95 40.6 -26.55 102.03
R32 360.24 78.4 53.8 -51.65 52.02
R600a 365.1 134.66 36.29 -11.75 58.122
Table 1 also shows that the critical temperature and critical pressure are high-
er than for other refrigerants. The atmospheric boiling point is 100C under normal
conditions. This indicates that, in the future, we may see heat pumps working well
over the conditions we see today.
Figure 1 shows how the pressure increases for water as the saturation temper-
ature increases.
Figure 2 shows the density of water vapour as the temperature increases.
When the temperature is low, you will use a high swept volume. For higher tempera-
tures, you will be able to change technology. When reaching temperatures around
350C, the density is about the same as for other refrigerants often used with radial
compressors.
Figure 3 shows that the volume decreases drastically until about 60C, and
then the curve flattens out. If you use an axial compressor for the first stage, you
14
could continue with a radial compressor in two or more stages. For water recom-
pression or heat recovery, a heat pump is a good solution. Water is one of the very
few refrigerants that can be used at temperatures above 160C, potentially going up
to 360C, or maybe even higher?
Pressure
400
Pressure [bar]
200
0
0
17
34
51
68
85
102
119
136
153
170
187
204
221
238
255
272
289
306
323
340
357
Temperature [C]
Figure 1. The X axis is the saturation temperature, and the Y axis is the pressure for
water (Refprop 9.1)
Vapor Density [kg/m3]

500
Density [kg/m3]
0
1
18
35
52
69
86
103
120
137
154
171
188
205
222
239
256
273
290
307
324
341
358
Temperature [C]
Figure 2. Vapour density of water, a parameter used when selecting compressor

technology (Refprop 9.1).
Vapor volume (m/kg)

250
Volume [m3/kg]
200
150
100
50
0
1
18
35
52
69
86
103
120
137
154
171
188
205
222
239
256
273
290
307
324
341
358
Temperature [C]
Figure 3. Vapour volume of water vapour: high volume at low temperatures, and
low at high temperatures (Refprop 9.1).
15
Currently, a chiller unit is being field-tested in a factory where it will be op-
erating for a year to verify that the concept can operate automatically for many hours
under actual production conditions. The preliminary test results are promising. The
concept shows that it is possible to achieve the same efficiency as an R134a chiller
under the same conditions. The unit has a cooling capacity about 850 kW@9/16C
under Danish weather conditions.
The compressor and the concept

The compressor is of an axial type. It is specifically designed to work with
water as refrigerant, and it is using water for the required lubrication. The compres-
sor is sensitive to water droplets, and it is therefore very important to have proper
droplet separation before the vapour reaches the compressor impellers; otherwise,
there will be erosion, especially on the first impeller.
One might think that the compressor from a jet engine could be used, but
they are designed for air compression meaning that they are only tolerant to water
entering the impellers, but not optimised for it. Besides, the materials used in a jet
engine are more expensive than would be acceptable in a refrigeration compressor.
Figure 4. Compressor Figure 5. The unit. The Figure 6. Boiling in the

suction side. vessel to the right/far end is water. The vapour that is
the evaporator vessel. boiled away represents
about 1% of the water.
There is not a big difference between a normal chiller circuit and the water
vapour system. In principle, the water vapour system is more simple than a system
with conventional refrigerants because there are less components.
Figure 7 shows a blue evaporator and a red condenser. In the evaporator,
about 1% of the circulated water is evaporated. The vapour travels through the com-
pressor and enters the red condenser. There is a negative pressure in both the evapo-
rator and the condenser, but in the condenser, it is slightly higher to reflect the con-
densing temperature. The water then runs to the cooling tower where it evaporates to
the surroundings to release the heat. All top-up water resulting from this way of
cooling is now entered on the low side of the system instead of the cooling tower, as
is normally the case. This, however, requires a possibility to drain what may collect
16
at the bottom of the evaporator. Through a sight glass in the vessel, you can see the
water boiling in the surface (Figure 6), but most is boiling from the falling water.
Figure 7. In principle, the water vapour system is very simple.

The unit is relatively compact. The field test unit (Figure 5) is equipped with
many measure points, which will not be on the commercialised model. There are
many nice-to-know things, which will not be needed on the final product.
It is important that water droplets do not get in contact with the impellers,
Figure 4. With the speed (14,500 rpm) and the pressure, there will be cavitation and
material erosion, and the damage shows very quickly. The droplets can be prevented
in various ways, but there is not room for any significant pressure drop as the pres-
sure is already very low.
The water returning from the cooling tower is saturated with air, and this air
must be removed to keep the pressure down in the condenser. Otherwise, the con-
densing pressure will be pushed up like in any other refrigeration circuit.
Figure 6 shows boiling in the water in the lower part of the vessel. It is harder
to see the boiling that takes place in the drops injected at the top of the evaporator.
When the water enters the evaporator (Figure 8), it expands before it goes through a
pressure reduction that again makes the droplets smaller. In this way, we get a very
large surface enabling heat to boil out and cool the water.
Between the falling droplets (Figure 8) and the compressor suction opening,
there is a droplet separation filter. This is to avoid droplets reaching the impeller.
17
Figure 8. The first water entering the evaporator. There are many ways to further
increase the surface of the water with smaller drops.
Capacity and other details

Table 2. Test data for water vapour unit at the design point for the demonstration
site.
Cooling capacity including lubricant cooling 811.6 kW
Compressor shaft power 139.8 kW
Power input to compressor and vacuum system 153,3 kW
Total power input to unit including water pumps, etc. 182.2 kW
Evaporator inlet (plate heat exchanger in) 12 (20)
Evaporator out, Te (plate heat exchanger out) 7.5 (9.2) C
Condenser in 25.5 C
Condenser out, Tc 31.2 C
EER (Power input to compressor and vacuum system) 5.29
The cooling capacity of the test unit is approximately 800 kW at 12/7C

i
(in/out temperatures) (Table 2) . At full speed, the compressor rotates at 14,500 rpm.
The electric motor is water-cooled with water from the warm side. Condensation in
18
the motor must be avoided by keeping up the temperature of the cooling water on
the pump.
Notice in Table 2 that the vacuum pumps are included in the absorbed power
consumption. Total absorbed power includes water pumps, which is unusual when
discussing chiller COP/EER. The EER value here includes the compressor power
and the vacuum system.
Table 1. Comparison between the water vapour unit and a standard propane chiller.
H2O prototype SABlight
industrial chiller Propane chiller
Evaporator Open Closed Closed
Condenser Closed Closed Closed
(dry cooler) (dry cooler) (dry cooler)
To in 18 18 18
To out 13 13 13
Tc in 40 40 40
Tc out 45 45 45
Cooling capacity 1170 kW 1030 kW 477 kW
Power input inverter, vacuum, 240 kW 229 kW 123 kW
etc.
COP (compressor, vacuum, 4.88 4.50 3.88
etc.) (5.27*) (4.84*)
*) Redesigned thrust bearing
Table 3 compares two types of water vapour with a standard propane chiller
under the same working conditions. The capacity is quite different, but this is not
relevant when discussing COP/EER. The table shows that the water vapour system
is approximately 14% better than the propane system at worst-case, and about 20%
better at best-case scenarios. During the field test, we found that some modifications
of the thrust bearing could increase efficiency to 20% and 23% respectively. Natu-
rally, these modifications will be implemented in the final commercial version.
The water vapour chiller can be configured in various ways, which will result
in different efficiency levels. In many air conditioning applications, the trend is to
increase the water temperatures from the current 12/7C water to 18/13, or, in some
cases, higher. This is the main difference between refrigeration for food and vegeta-
bles and air conditioning. Table 4 shows systems in different configurations and at
different running conditions. As for any other chiller, regardless of the refrigerant,
you will notice that the lower the condensing temperature and higher evaporating
temperatures, the higher COP/EER. The sub-conclusion is that water is just another
refrigerant.
19
Table 4: Chiller unit performance at various system configurations
and temperature level
Evaporator Open Closed Open Closed Open Closed
Condenser Open Open Closed Closed Open Open
(cooling (cooling (dry cool- (dry cool-
tower) tower) er) er)
To in 18 18 18 18 12 12
To out 13 13 13 13 7 7
Tc in 23 23 40 40 32 32
Tc out 28 28 45 45 37 37
Cooling capacity 1170 kW 1030 kW 1170 kW 1030 kW 820 kW 715 kW
Compressor shaft power 115 kW 115 kW 220 kW 210 kW 155 kW 150 kW
Power input inverter, 127 kW 127 kW 240 kW 229 kW 170 kW 164 kW
vacuum etc.
Total power input 160 kW 160 kW 272 kW 262 kW 203 kW 197 kW
COP (compressor, 9.24 8.13 4.88 4.50 4.83 4.35
vacuum, etc.)
COP (total input) 7.33 6.45 4.29 3.93 4.05 3.62
COP* (re-design thrust 8.09 7.12 4.54 4.17 4.37 3.92
bearing)
Other applications
Another example could be an application using water from either a river or
open sea.
In many countries, water is plentiful and, even though it may not be immedi-
ately potable, it is still useful as a heat source. The advantage of using a water va-
pour compressor is that the condensed water can be used as potable water after add-
ing salt to it. This is important to remember, because the water is both deaerated and
desalinated. During the compression process, it is possible to reach a temperature
well over the 120C required to effectively kill bacteria, and this is therefore a way
to ensure potable water while having a never-ending heat source. This helps to make
a better business case for the system.
20
Figure 9. For a district heating system in Denmark, seawater is used as heat source.
During cold winters, the water will produce ice slurry. The condensing takes place
in a heat exchanger connected to an ammonia heat pump, which can compress the
gas to a higher leaving temperature. The trend for district heating in Denmark is
moving towards 60C.
Conclusion and further work

After many years of research and development, the concept of a water chiller,
using water as refrigerant and lubricant, is close to reaching market readiness. This
does not stop here. There are many other areas in which water can make an excellent
replacement for high GWP refrigerants. To begin with, the obvious main areas to
focus on are cooling of processes in the industrial segment and air conditioning
systems in high ambient temperature regions, where you can benefit from the ther-
modynamic properties of water.
This technology opens up to a wealth of opportunities in other applications
than the ones described in this paper. The future as a refrigerant has only just begun
for water, and there is a lot of work to do in the years to come, both for one-
compressor systems and for systems with two or more compressors in serial connec-
tion.
i
Madsboell, H., Pachai, A.C.: First field-test results from a full-scale industrial water vapour chiller. 12th
Gustav Lorentzen 2016 conference, Edinburgh, August 2016.
21
EKSERGIJA KAO MERA ODRIVOSTI
ENERGETSKOG SISTEMA
EXERGY AS MEASURE OF SUSTAINABILITY
OF ENERGY SYSTEM
Prof Dr Peter NOVAK
Faculty for Technology and System, Novo mesto, Slovenia,
peter.novak@energotech.si
Da li nam je potrebna energija ili eksergija? Koliina eksergije u nosiocima
energije prilino se razlikuje i cena obuhvata samo vrednost kvantiteta ali ne i kvali-
teta energije. Eksergija predstavlja meru kvaliteta energije, zbog toga to je eksergi-
ja samo jedan deo energija koji je na raspolaganju za obavljanje rada. Za razliite
potrebe potrebna nam je energija sa razliitom koliinom eksergije: za grejanje i
hlaenje potrebna je energetska meavina manje koliine eksergije i veeg dela
anergije. Prelazak na odrivi energetski sistem, koji je bez emisije gasova sa efektom
staklene bate i koji je zasnovan na odrivoj energiji, otvara pitanje kako vrednovati
eksergiju iz solarne energije. Solarna energija u svim oblicima (iradijacija, vodni
tokovi, vetar i biomasa) sastoji se skoro 100% eksergije. Solarna energija je best-
platna, ali sistemi za njeno pretvaranje nisu. Da bi se maksimalno iskoristila posto-
jea infrastruktura, svi se slau da je potreban odrivi energetski sistem sa etiri
glavna nosioca energije: elektrina energija, gasovito, teno i vrsto gorivo.
Nau viziju predstavlja novi odrivi energetski sistem (OES) zasnovan na
recikliranju ugljenika iz biomase korienjem solarne i planetarne energije za proi-
zvodnju elektrine energije i vodonika. OES se zasniva na postojeoj infrastrukturi i
poznatim hemijskim procesima. U pogledu raspoloivosti obnovljivih izvora energije
(OIE), nema ogranienja u potreenju sa sadanjom upotrebom fosilnih goriva.
Predloeni OES se sastoji od tri glavna nosioca energije: elektrine energije, sinte-
tikog metana (CH4) i sintetikog metanola (CH3OH).
Kljune rei: energija, eksergija, vrednovanje, energetski sistem, odrivost
Do we need energy or exergy? Amount of exergy in energy carriers is very

different and price includes only the value of quantity and not the quality of energy.
Exergy is measure for quality of energy, because the only part of energy available to
do work is exergy. For different purposes we need energy with different amount of
exergy: for heating and cooling energy mixture between small amount of the exergy
and large part anergy is needed. Transition to sustainable energy system, without
GHG emissions, based on RE, open the questions how to evaluate exergy from solar
energy. Solar energy in all form (irradiation, water flows, wind, and biomass) con-
sists from nearly 100% of exergy. Solar energy is for free, conversion systems are
not. To exploit at maximum the present infrastructure there is common agreement
23
that we need sustainable energy system with four main energy carriers: electricity,
gaseous, liquid and solid fuels.
Our vision is the new Sustainable Energy System (SES) based on the biomass
carbon recycling using solar and planetary energy for electricity and hydrogen
production. SES is based on the existing infrastructure and known chemical proces-
ses. With regards to availability of renewable energy resources (RES) it is unrestric-
ted in comparison to present fossil fuels use. The proposed SES consists of the three
main energy carriers: electricity, synthetic methane (CH4) and synthetic methanol
(CH3OH).
Key words: energy, exergy, evaluation, energy system, sustainability
1 Introduction
In last years EU has adopted many regulations and decision with regard
energy management [1] including EU Council decision on 40% GHG reduction and
27% RE in FE until 2030 and Paris Agreement. Common goal of this regulation is to
change present energy system to sustainable one. In Energy Union document is one
of most important statement: To reach our goal, we have to move away from an
economy driven by fossil fuels, an economy where energy is based on a centralized,
supply-side approach and which relies on old technologies and outdated business
models.[2]
There are different ways and timing to achieve proposed goals. One
possibility is to integrate all those activities in to Circular Economy [3]. What sho-
uld be a sustainable development in the case of energy supply, distribution and
use? How we can measure the sustainability of energy system?
Can we have a sustainable energy system with circulation of organic carbon,
going away from expression low carbon society to carbon recycling economy?
We presented one of possible solution including tools for evaluation of their
sustainability. Based on previous research results and proposals [4, 5, 6, 7, 8) we
find, that one of the best criterion for measure the sustainability of energy system is
exergy approach.
Normally we are selling fuels, electricity, heat and cold. amount of exergy in
these energy carriers is very different and in theirs prices is included only the
quantity and not the quality of energy. this means the value or amount of exergy in
it is not always included in the price. but in real life we need energy with different
amount of exergy: for heating and cooling energy mixture between small amount of
the exergy and large part anergy is needed. For work and lighting the 100% of
exergy is needed.
Transition to sustainable energy system, without GHG emissions, based on
RE, open the questions how to evaluate exergy from solar energy. How important
are the irreversibilitys of our processes in solar energy conversion system. Answer
is only possible if we know what type of processes will be used. There is common
agreement that we need in practice sustainable energy system with four main energy
24
carriers: electricity, gaseous, liquid and solid fuels to exploit at maximum the pre-
sent infrastructure.
2 Exergy
The word exergy was introduced by Zoran Rant [9] and present common
definition is: exergy of a system in a certain environment is the amount of mecha-
nical work that can be maximally extracted from the system in this environment.
According Rant the energy W is a sum of exergy E and anergy A (~energy of
environment)
W=E+A (1)
Exergy is a measure of quality of energy. Energy is always conserved and
can neither be produced nor consumed. Exergy can be very easily converted in
anergy trough irreversibilitys in the conversion processes.
Our attention will be given to the exergy of renewable sources of energy as
the core of future energy system. With regard to energy carriers, exergy in the
system can be also quantified into several different type of exergy, such as: chemi-
cal, nuclear, physical, potential (g gravitational constant, Z-height above the lowest
level in environment), kinetic (v-velocity) and radiation exergy.
E = Ech + Enu + Eph+ v2/2 + gZ + Er (2)
In real energy conversion processes we always have a loss of exergy. This
mean that energy can be balanced but the exergy in closed system cannot be. Exergy
destruction or vanishing of exergy because of irreversibilitys is natural phenomena
which can be to some extent controlled by design of our energy conversion
equipment. Exergy efficiency is therefore a quality measure of our processes.
Quotient between output exergy Eout and input exergy Ein is standard definition of
exergy efficiency.

ex = (3)

Using standard data for exergy content in different energy carrier and embed-
ded exergy in materials used in practice [10] we can calculated this efficiency. Besi-
de the exergy efficiency is important also to analyse the exergy destruction in pro-
cesses during the time.
Exergy analysis can clearly indicate the locations of energy degradation in a
process that may lead to improved operation or technology. It can also quantify the
heat quality in a rejected streams. The main aim of exergy analysis is to identify the
causes of irreversibilitie's and to calculate the true magnitudes of exergy losses.
Exergy, sustainability and resource accounting
Resource consumption and /or depletion cannot be evaluated only accor-
ding to mass and energy balance, because they not disappear. Using the exergy as
25
measure of resource depletion we can evaluate quality of our processes taking into
account the conservation of mass and energy.
Exergy is close connected with sustainability. Sustainable development
means les exergy destruction or depletion. Circular economy promoted in the last
years is policy to minimize the resource destruction, to minimize the
thermodynamics irreversibilitys with higher exergy efficiency. To push the circular
economy on the top of society development we need a serious exergy analysis of
present technologies and economic patterns.
Millennium goal living well within the limits of the planet, set out in EU
can be reduced to conclusions that any citizen have a minimum of sustainable com-
modities as: exergy or/and adequate mixture anergy-exergy, food (secondary type of
exergy), drinking water, home and jobs with salary able to cover cost for those
commodity.
The exergy destruction during a process is proportional to the entropy created
due to irreversibilities associated with the process. Exergy analysis [8] is a
methodology that uses the conservation of energy principle (embodied in the first
law of thermodynamics) together with non-conservation of entropy principle
(embodied in the second law) for the analysis, design and improvement of energy
and other systems.
The exergy method is useful for improving the efficiency of fossil and
renewable energy-resource use, for quantification of the destruction locations, types
and magnitudes of wastes and losses.
LCEA (Life Cycle Exergy Analysis) can be used as a method to quantify
depletion of natural resources and to assess the efficiency of natural resource used. It
can be used for energy system with fossil and renewable sources of energy, for diffe-
rent materials and in broader sense for exergy of societies. In our case LCEA will be
used to analyse sustainable energy system, based on organic carbon circulation in
future circular economy.
Life Cycle Exergy Analysis of Renewable Energy
The use of exergy in life cycle assessments (ELCA or LCEA) has been
suggested by many different researchers since the late 1990s. Based on work of
Davidsson using LCEA for wind energy system analysis [7], where the renewable
resources are separated from non-renewable, we accept same methodology.
Natural resources are classified as natural flows and stocks. Stocks are then
divided into deposits (dead stocks) and funds (living stocks). Natural flows and
funds are renewable while deposits are nonrenewable. All in and outflows during
the life cycle of production, use and disposal or recycling, are then considered as
exergy power over time. The direct exergy input (e.g. solar, water, wind) of
renewable sources can be disregarded since they represent a natural flow and
are therefore renewable. If not used natural exergy flows will be wasted and lost.
Nonsustainable use of exergy funds, like clearing of forests in a nonsustainable
fashion and use of exergy deposits are regarded as nonrenewable resources.
26
The simple presentation of LCEA is given in [7] and is shown on the Figures
1, 2 and 3.
Figure 1. Exergy flows from sun to society [6]

The life cycle analysis of a system usually consists of three separate stages
with different exergy flows that are analogous to the three steps in the life cycle of a
product in an LCA:
1- construction phase, 2 - operational phase and 3 - clean up phase.
During the construction phase, exergy is spent and none is created besides
eventual byproducts. The exergy used for construction combined with the exergy
used for maintenance and clean up make up the total indirect exergy. It is also very
important at what moment in time the exergy is needed (storage problem at RES).
A fossil fuels power plant takes the exergy from the fuels used during the
operational phase. The exergy of output electricity will always be lower than the
exergy of the fuels used. A power plant using fossil fuels can therefore never be
sustainable since it uses more exergy than it generates. The exergy flow over the
lifetime of a fossil fuel power plant is illustrated in Figure 2.
Power plant using the renewable energy sources for production of electricity,
on the other hand, convert the natural flows exergy to a useable form of exergy. As
an example, a PV panel use solar exergy to convert it into electricity (same do the
wind generators).
During the operational phase it will hopefully produce more exergy than the
indirect exergy needed during the life cycle. The exergy flow over the life cycle of a
renewable energy is illustrated in Figure 3. The fact that the exergy utilized during
the operational phase of the life cycle comes from a renewable source does however
not automatically mean that it is sustainable. Some solar heat conversion
27
technologies using high exergy demanded materials can actually use more indirect
exergy than it will ever generate during its life cycle (some solar collector design).
With LCEA method is possible to investigate this kind of issues.
Figure 2. Exergy flow diagram for LCEA of a power plant

using nonrenewable fuels [6].
Figure 3. Exergy flow diagram for LCEA of a

renewable energy power plant [6].
LCEA method enable us also to analyze the influence of intermittency of
RES taking into account the power factor CP and capacity factor CF by producing
heat and electricity. In this contest we have to include storage systems, what influen-
ce the exergy needed in the construction phase.
The exergy (energy) conversion and use is usually presented either as exergy
payback time (EPBT) or exergy return of invested exergy (EROI). The way the
energy is compared can be a bit different between different assessments. In case of
exergy produced from RES the EPBT should be defined as:

EPBT = (4)

And for
28

EROI = = (5)

The use of EPBT and EROI defined in (4) are fairly good indicators that an
exergy producing process actually produces more exergy than it use during its life
cycle, without regard of source of exergy required.
Cumulative exergy generated includes exergy generated during the operati-
on time.
If the EPBT should be used also for the presumptions of the costs of exergy
(in practice as cost of energy), the MJ or kWh of exergy must be multiplied with
agreed costs in time of analysis or agreed costs changes during the life cycle time.
Cumulative exergy required includes exergy of construction materials,
maintenance, exergy needed for destruction, minus exergy available because of
recycling of some materials.
The value of EPBT for fossil fuels is always less than 1 (un-
sustainable).Value of EPBT over 1 means sustainable conversion of exergy
(energy). Break-even point between sustainable and un-sustainable energy device
is EROI value of 1 (Figure 4.)
Figure 4. Exergy balance for any production scheme
29
3 The exergy of renewable energy
Renewable energy forms considered in our study are: solar irradiation on the
Earth surface, wind, water flows, waves, and planetary (geothermal, tidal) energy.
Biomass is accumulated solar energy and is taken as reserves. In literature are given
different data about global resources of RE on the Earth surface. From [11] we
accept the following data (Table 1):
Table 1. Renewable exergy (energy) resources on the Planet Earth with present
conversion technologies in electricity [11, 12, and 13]
Resource in TWex = TWex TWex TWex
TWh/8760 h/y ideal Technical possible Present delivery
as electricity
Solar irradiation 11500 580 1640 0,00176
Wind 1700 40 170 0,02
Water flows 1,9 1,6 1,9 0,32
Waves 2,7 0,5 2,7 0,000002
Geothermal- shallow 45 0,07 0,2 0,0065
Geothermal - deep 55 0,035 2 0,0065
Tidal 3,7 0,02 0,8 0,00006
Biomass (dry) 33,4 5,8 11,7 0,039
Total 13.341,7 628,0251829,3 0,387322
Present needs of TPES (2013) 17,79 2,5877
Zamfirescu and Dincer [5] shows, that ideal conversion effectiveness of total
normal solar radiation is depended on time and also from the relation of scattering in
the atmosphere Obtained value of ex,S are between 0, 82 to 0, 95. From real solar
irradiation data for Italy Neri find out [6] the average exergy efficiency of ex,S,IT =
0,839. Some other authors [4] find out that we have to include the entropy producti-
on at solar exergy conversion at device, if the temperature mismatch between the
incoming radiation temperature and the temperature of the surface of the device
(similar to entropy production in heat transfer). The entropy production can
approach zero if the receiver surface approaches the average thermodynamic
temperature of the incoming radiation. For South European region (latitude 37 to
47) we can use the relation for exergy loss from incoming solar energy to the
surface level ex developed from [6; diagram Figure 5]:
ex, S = 0,820 + 1,76.10-5. (Etot 4500) (6)
2
Where Etot = ED + Ed [MJ/m /year] is sum of yearly direct (D) and diffuse (d)
radiation that reaches a horizontal surface on analyzed location. Equation (6) is valid
for Etot = 4500 to 7000 MJ/m2/year.
Wind and water flow are the secondary and wave are the tertiary exergy form
of solar irradiation. Waves are the result of wind exergy transfer on the water surface
because of shear forces between air flow and water [12]. The available exergy is
time and location depended and calculation can be done only on the basis of measu-
30
red data in given period of time, normal more than 2 typical meteorological years.
Yearly data of wind velocity distribution and for yearly water flow distribution at
given height differences are input to calculate the available theoretical exergy poten-
tial on the given location.
4 Sustainable energy system

Concept
Different sustainable energy system has been proposed using only water,
wind and solar with or without geothermal, with hydrogen or methanol as a basic
energy carriers [11]. Sustainable energy system (SES) as proposed in [13] consists
of the three main renewable exergy (energy) carriers, needed in any settlement:
renewable electricity, gas (synthesized methane CH4; s-methane), liquid
(synthesized methanol CH3OH; s-methanol) and as fourth solid fuels from biomass
(less important in developed countries). The methane and methanol are the only
exergy carriers in nature with one carbon (in our case used from biomass)
chemically connected with four hydrogens. Necessary hydrogen and oxygen will be
produced with electrolysis of water or other processes, equalizing the sun daily and
yearly irradiation variations). They represent the chemical storage of solar exergy
(like do the nature in biomass) with efficiency close to the storage of atmospheric
carbon in biomass.
To these three exergy carriers we can add transitional hybrid fuels: ethanol
(C2H5OH) dimethyl-ether (CH3OCH3), consisting of two carbons, six hydrogen and
one oxygen atoms and synthetic diesel, produced with catalytic de-polymerization
process from biomass rests and organic waste. As fourth energy carrier - solid fuels
in SES we propose to use, if necessary, only the wood log.
In this way, natural circle of carbon dioxide and water is closed. Proposed
SES has no GHG emissions, because CO2 and water are recycled in natural
photosynthesis process and vapor cycle. We muss stress out that these exergy carri-
ers can be used using the existing energy conversion equipments and infrastruc-
ture in industry, buildings and transportation.
Characteristics of sustainable (renewable) energy system - SES
To fulfil the daily energy needs of different consumers, the new energy
system has to response to the following six main requirements:
1. Source of exergy must be inexhaustible, available everywhere on the
planet;
2. Zero emission of GHG by burning of the new fuels;
3. Available any place and any time (in all present forms of energy: solid,
liquid, gaseous fuels and electricity);
4. Must be compatible with existing infrastructure with minor adaptation;
5. In transition period the present energy system and SES has to work in
parallel with no interference (coexistence of two system);
31
6. Should be competitive with fossil fuels system if all external none
acknowledged environmental costs will be included in their exergy carri-
ers price.
4.3. How the proposed SES comply with the six requirements?
1-Primary exergy sources
First primary exergy source in the system is solar energy (including direct
irradiation and all secondary forms of solar exergy: biomass, water, wind, waves),
second is planetary energy (geothermal heat and tide). This exergy sources are
inexhaustible, generally available for the lifetime of mankind (see the data in T-2 in
[13]). Solar irradiation on the planet is about 174.103 TW. In 2013 TPES (Total
Primary Energy Supply) on the planet was only 17,98 TW. Converting only
0.01033% of solar irradiation we can cover all present exergy needs for world
population.
2-No emission of GHG
Burning product of synthesized (s- ) methane and methanol are water and
CO2. Water is normally circulated in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is released
back into the atmosphere and is used for plants growth (200 Gt/y).
Intermittent solar radiation is chemically stored in two chemicals (methane
and methanol) which can be used as standard gaseous and liquid fuels. At the same
time they can be used for production of electricity during winter and night time. Part
of biomass (in form of log, exceptionally as pellets) can be used as solid fuels in
transition period.
3-These four energy carriers can be used any time in any place
Renewable electricity, s-methane, s-methanol and wood can be used anytime
and anywhere.
4-For proposed system we dont need a new infrastructure
Solar electricity can be transported through existing grid on low and high
voltage AC and DC lines. New HVDC lines can be constructed and smart grid will
be introduced. Synthetic gas can be supplied via existing gas pipelines for natural
gas (hybrid system).
Hydrogen can be also locally used in gas turbines for additional supply of
electricity. Oxygen for burning and/or syntheses processes can be available in the
same place as hydrogen production. In this way high efficient combined gas-steam
power plant cycle can be realized with efficiency of over 60%.
Distribution of liquid methanol is well developed and normal gas stations can
be (with minor adaptation) used for cars and trucks with adopted or new methanol
engines. New engines for hybrid cars can be very efficient because of high possible
pressure ratio of methanol. Using the two stroke engine with turbocharger, its
power/weight ratio can be doubled.
32
Heating systems based on s- gas dont need any adaptation or new
infrastructure. Boiler using heating oil can be used further, modifying only the
burner to use the methanol.
5-Coexistence with present energy system
All four energy carriers can coexist with the present energy system.
Transition from the present system to a sustainable one is simple and can be
implemented very smoothly. In towns and buildings it doesnt require a new local
infrastructure. Bio-ethanol can also be used in transition period in the system if the
production and distribution will be competitive to s-methanol.
6-Should be competitive
The answer on this requirement is difficult. All technologies for the
conversion are almost well developed (solar cells, wind generator, hydro PP,
electrolysis, etc.). Methane and methanol synthesis are old, known processes. New
processes for direct conversion of CO2 and hydrogen to methanol are under
development.
Solar electricity is more expensive, except large hydro and in some cases
wind, than electricity from fossil or nuclear fuels. Situation can change if
environmental impacts of burning fossil fuels will be included in their price. Some
storage system must be developed for electricity (bateries), if storage in s-methane
and s-methanol will not satisfy the consumption patern.
It is well known that world pretax subsidies for fossil fuels are distorting
energy market and expand considerably.In year 2011fossil fuels subsidies go up to
$523 billion/y (up 30%), compared to all subsidies for renewable energy which
amounted only $88 billion/y. According to IMF report (January 2013), the world
fossil fuel pre-taxsubsidies in 2013 have been $480 billion/y and post-tax subsidies
$1.9 trillion/y. Including the $1.4 trillion/y environmental damages, total direct and
indirect costs, not included in the price of fossil fuels used are $2.78 trillion/y.
Including this subsidies in the final price of fossil fuels, competitiveness of RE will
be out of question.
Investment in RE conversion technologies must be based on LCCEA, but
taking in to account the fossil fuels subsidies wich will slowly disapear. Investment
in SES should be primary goal for abatement of GHG emissions. Energy
independency and security of supply is the second most important reason for such
decision. Proposed SES is not totally new, but enables smooth transition to a new
sustainable carbon recycling society, which is not on political agenda as low
carbon society. SES is sustainable part of promoted circular economy. Costs of
all form of exergy will be in begining of transition period higher, but at the end of
transformation of present energy system to SES will be lower and stable for ever
with a minor or no impact on the planet climate [11].
33
5 Exergy as measure of sustainability of SES
Exergy efficiency and sustainability indicator EROI for proposed SES
Some energy and exergy efficiency of present electrical devices, calculated
according to second law of thermodynamic, are given in Table 2. Sustainability
indicator of the conversion device EROI, based on LCEA methodology are for RES
defined as quotient of life time of conversion device and expected EPBT (Eq.5). It
can be defined also as quotient of life time exergy produced and cumulative
exergy required for construction, maintenance and destruction in the life time,
based on meteorological data. In transition period the exergy for construction will be
mixture from non-sustainable exergy from fossil fuels and sustainable exergy from
renewable energy. In first approximation the construction exergy can be calculated
as:
Ec = (1-a). Ect (7)
Where: Ec construction exergy; a percentage of country exergy produced
from renewables; Ect total needed construction exergy
Table 2. Energy and exergy efficiency for selected electrical devices [8, 10]
Device Energy efficiency % Exergy efficiency %
Generation
Coal fired power plant 40 64 38 62
Nuclear power plant 30 28
Hydro power plant 90 90
Wind turbine 0,475 0,576 0,475 0,576
PV system 6 25 6 25
Solar thermal 10 30 8 25
Co , trigeneration system
Cogeneration 74 31
Trigeneration 94 28
Resistance space heater ~ 100 6
Hot water heater 90 10
Heat pump* 380 19
*COP = 3,8
Exergy for operation, if not from renewable exergy, can be calculated on the
same principles. Exergy for equipment destruction or de-commissioning is
expecting to be from renewable sources at a life time over 30 years.
Exergy efficiency of biomass can be calculated as fund, or as exergy of used
biomass.
In first case (fund) we have to include the efficiency of solar exergy conver-
sion by plant. If we use the biomass as exergy flow, we have to include exergy for
harvesting. Using biomass for final product e.g. electricity or sin-fuel we have used
all conversion efficiencies. This methodology should be used when we compare
34
floor area or land use for biomass growth with conversion of solar radiation to final
exergy with other conversion technologies. (PV on the land compared with biomass
for biofuel or electricity, e.g.). In this case the plant biomass exergy content (high or
low heating value of biomass) must be multiplied with this conversion efficiency.
ex ,b = S-p . h. fc (8)
Where: ex,b - total exergy efficiency for biomass: from solar to final exergy
(e.g. electricity); S-p - efficiency solar irrad. to the plant; h - efficiency harvesting;
fc - conversion efficiency
Calculations of sustainability indicator EROI for SES
1.1.1Electricity production
Photo voltaic system
PV system consists of PV panel from glass und plastics, under construction
in standard design from aluminium profiles, cables and converters. The mean
harmonized EPBT varied from 1.0 to 4.1 years; from lowest to highest, the module
types ranked in the following order: cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium
gallium diselenide (CIGS), amorphous silicon (a:Si), poly-crystalline silicon (poly-
Si), and mono-crystalline silicon (mono-Si). The mean harmonized EROI varied
from 8.7 to 34.2[16, 17, 22] and from [28] from 3 to 10, with mean 6,6.
Hydro
EPBT for hydro power plant differ from the size of installation, storage
capacity and land use.
Hydropower clearly has the highest performance, with exergy ratios
exceeding EROI = 170, compared to energy ratios between 1.6 and 7 for power
plant for fossil fuels. For projects assessed in Quebec, the EROI = 205 for hydro
with reservoir and 267 for run-of-river hydro (assuming a lifespan of 100 years).
Destruction energy is from renewables so the last term in equation 9 goes to zero.
EROI for hydropower plant is according the [20] ~170 to 267 and according to [27]
21 to 35 what can be for small hydro. Gupta [28] present the value of EROI from
11, 2 to 267.
Wind
Large wind turbines also perform very well. According the analysis in [7, 22]
EROI is about 19 to 34 for good on-shore sites, depending on wind generator design
and meteorological situation. However, this ratio is overestimated because the asses-
sments do not consider the capacity factor or need for backup capacity to compensa-
te for fluctuations in wind turbine output. On the other hand in [27] EROI for wind
is evaluated from 27 to 70, in [28] the EROI is given in the range of 18,1 to 24,6.
35
Geothermal
According to analysis in [19] the exergy efficiency of GPP with high tempe-
rature (165C) source without re- injection is 47,6 % and with re-injection is 51,5%.
Expected life time is over 50 years. In [27,28] geothermal EROI is evaluated from
15 to 40 and for HDR 632. For for ground source heat pumps (GS HP) the EROI
is 57 [21, 22, 25 and 28 ].
1.1.2 Biomass for fuel
Biomass performs well. EROI is of 27 when power is produced from
forestry wastes [21]. But when trees are planted for the purpose of producing
electricity, the EROI is much lower (about 3 to 5), because biomass plantations
require high energy inputs. For all biomass options, the distance between the source
of biomass and the power plant must be short; otherwise the energy payback ratio
drops to very low values.
Based on real data in case of bioethanol production in Brasilia the total
efficiency from solar irradiation to ethanol, presently achievable with the BAT, is
only 0,032% [24]. In [28] the data for ethanol from corn are EROI is 0, 8 to 2,1.
1.1.3Hydrogen, oxygen
Hydrogen will be produced from if renewable electricity supply overrides the
electricity consumption. For hydrogen we need storage. The hydrogen can be
economically stored if

> 1- (9)

Where:
ESOI is analogous to EROI, it is the ratio of exergy electricity- stored
over the lifetime of a storage device to the amount of embodied electrical
energy required to build the device. ESOI is specially defined for the
purpose of comparison of different storage.
is surplus of exergy electricity - needed to be stored.
In this condition one should store the electrical output from the renewable
energy technology.
For production of hydrogen using the water electrolysis we need 54 67
kWh /kg of H2.
Efficiency is 0,73 to 0.56, depending on conversion technology [25,26].
EROI for hydrogen from fossil fuels is less than 1,5 [27]. Exergy for water splitting
from renewable energy is free flow and is not taken into account. EROI for
hydrogen conversion with RES is not available.
ESOI for Pb batteries is 5, for Li-ion batteries 32 and for PHS (pumping
hydro storage) 704.
Oxygen, as by-product of electrolysis can be used for production of methanol
36
1.1.4 Methane
Methane production from biomass is known process which can be realized
with different technologies. Present technology is known as power to gas using
the renewable electricity for conversion in hydrogen and hydrogen to methane with
CO or CO2. Biomass can be a source of carbon. Total efficiency of exergy conversi-
on from electricity to electricity is 30-38 % and for CHP from 43 to 54 %, depend
on used technologies [29], what is comparable to the present fossil fuel PP. EPBT
and EROI are not published, but it is expected EROI to be over 1, 5 5.
1.1.5Methanol
The biomass is gasified and the resulting synthesis gas, a mixture of CO, H2
and CO2 is adapted to the quality requirements of MeOH synthesis. During synthesis
the following reactions occur:
CO + 2H2 CH3OH
CO2 + 3H2 CH3OH + H20
CO2 + H2 CO + H20
The formation of methanol is exothermic and is favoured by high pressures
and low temperatures. For reasons of process simplification, investment cost
reduction and energy consumption reduction, alternatives are under development,
which could also be used for methanol from biomass.
Direct oxidation of Methane is the next possibilities: 2CH4 + O2
2CH3OH using oxigen from the electrolysis [30]. EROI for methanol production
using renewable exergy is not published, but expected value to be 2-5.
Using the present devices in SES the sustainability is guaranteed that
present technology is not optimized. Exergy costs are higher as from fossil fuel,
whose production and use are always unsustainable and doesnt include the
externalities
6 Conclusions
Exergy approach to evaluate the quality of sustainable energy system using
the EROI as sustainability indicator gives us the possibility to make a distinction
between fossil fuels conversion technologies and technologies for conversion of
renewable sources of energy.
Most important fact is, that EROI of RES are time in-depended, even
more, with better technologies will be grown within the time. On the other hand
EROI of fossil fuels are descending with the time, because of growing costs for
fossil fuels mining from the Earth.
All proposed energy carriers in the new SES have the EROI more than 1.
This mean that proposed sustainable energy system is long term sustainable and
from social point of view acceptable for all countries on the planet Earth.
37
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39
POSTIZANJE CILJA BORBE PROTIV ENERGETSKOG
SIROMATVA U SVETLU STRATEGIJA ZA
POVEANJE ENERGETSKE EFIKASNOSTI
MEETING THE ANTI POVERTY TARGET IN THE LIGHT
OF INCREASING ENERGY EFFICIENCY STRATEGIES
Livio de SANTOLI1 and Luca Alberto PITER2
1
Sapienza Universit di Roma, RM, presidente AiCARR
2
Segretario Tecnico AICARR, Milano, MI
Svi su saglasni sa stratekom ulogom koju ima energetska efikasnost: indus-
trijalci, koji je vide kao alatku kojom se prodire na trite i izlazi iz godina nedavne
krize, politiari, koji u njoj vide aspekte razvoja zemlje i zapoljavanja, graani,
koji plaaju raune za energiju , i nacionalna udruenja za grejanje, hlaenje i
klimatizaciju, poput AiCARR, koji unapreuju i promoviu kulturu ouvanja energi-
je. Evropa je energetsku efikasnost postavila kao jedan od svojih ciljeva 20-20-20:
paradoksalno je to to je energetska efikasnost jedini cilj koji se nee postii, iako
mu se stremi u sektoru zgradarstva, koji moe da smanji potronju izmeu 30 40
%. Meutim, postizanje takvog smanjenja zahteva mehanizme za simplifikaciju i
ekonomsku podrku. U ovoj fazi potrebno je vrednovati steena iskustva i definisati
nove ciljeve za budunost. U ovom radu se analizira status quo i daje pregled
buduih akcija potrebnih na nivou zakonodavstva, uvoenja novina (na primer
agregatora), novih scenarija za energetsku efikasnost u zgradama, a posebno se
razmatraju drutveni ciljevi. Sprovoenje ovih zamisli u konkretne akcije podrazu-
mevae kontrolu nad naom budunou: energetska efikasnost je motor koji e
takoe promeniti i nae drutvo.
Kljune rei: energetska efikasnost, nacionalna strategija, energetsko si-
romatvo; 2020 - 2050
We all agree on the strategic role of energy efficiency: industrialists, who

view it as a tool to penetrate the market and emerge from the recent crisis years, for
politicians, who see therein aspects of the country's growth and employment, for the
citizen who pays the energy bills and National HVAC Associations like AiCARR,
which promote energy culture. Europe established energy efficiency as one of its 20-
20-20 objectives: it is paradoxically the only goal which will be not achieved, despi-
te its being aimed at the building sector, which has a potential consumption reducti-
on of between 30 40 %. However to reach that reduction simplification mecha-
nisms and economical support are necessary. At this stage the experiences achieved
should be treasured and new goals defined for the future. This paper analyses the
status quo and outlines future actions needed at the legislative level, how the intro-
41
duction of new figures, (for example the aggregator), how new scenarios for energy
efficiency in buildings and more particularly also considers the social objectives.
Turning all these things into concrete actions will mean having control over our
future: energy efficiency is the engine to also change our society.
Key words: Energy efficiency, National strategy, Energy poverty; 2020 - 2050
1. The context
The engagement of the Member States on an average reduction in emissions
for 2030 of 40% (on 1990 values) means for Italy an annual rate of reduction for the
period 2016 2030, more than double that actually registered in the period 1990
2015. Independently of the EU's choices, this thus means significant concentration
on energy efficiency, assigned more ambitious objectives (40% instead of 27%) for
2030, just as has moreover been specifically requested by the European Parliament
(European Parliament 2016c).
In Europe 40% of final energy consumption and 36% of CO2 emissions can
be ascribed to buildings; moreover 50% of final energy consumption is represented
by heating and cooling services and 80% of that is used by buildings. This sector can
therefore contribute significantly to energy efficiency action and to emissions reduc-
tion. The heating and cooling sectors (European Parliament 2016c) represent on the
other hand a priority for the Energy Union, the mechanism which should contribute
to the respect of the COP21 engagements. The condition for facing up to this chal-
lenge seems then to be equipping oneself with a medium-to-long term planning
capable of identifying the time-frames and procedures for stabilising the rules con-
cerning:
improving building energy performance
supporting the efficiency and the sustainability of heating, cooling and
domestic hot water production systems
seizing the benefits of the integration of heating and cooling, also in
terms of electrification in order to limit dependence upon a single fossil
fuel such as natural gas.
From the financing point of view the theme of energy efficiency is strategic.
Apart from Horizon 2020 which earmarks 2,5 billion euro to this sector (as opposed
to 1,8 billion euro for renewables), there are 300 billion euro guaranteed by the EU
through an European Fund for Strategic Investments (EFSI). Exactly in this area
the contribution of the National Promotional Institutes will permit an increase in
the volume of investments from 315 to 825 billion euro and Italy will be able to
benefit from a National Institute for Promotion and Development (role which the
stability law of 2016 assigns to the Deposits and Loans Bank) which already is
mobilising investments to the tune of 160 billion euro for the 5year period 2016-
2020 to support the creation of networks and strategic infrastructural nodes and for
the upgrading of buildings.
42
2. The objectives
"To achieve our decarbonisation objectives,
buildings must be decarbonised"
(European Commission, 2016)
Air conditioning is responsible for half of the EU's energy consumption

where 45% of the energy for wintertime and summertime air conditioning is used in
the residential sector, 37% in industry and 18% in the services sector. The said sec-
tors have great potential and even the Institutional Investors Group on Climate
Change (IIGCC), a network composed of 400 members, amongst the most impor-
tant pension funds, real estate administrators and investment funds, has proposed to
the Commission the introduction of the objective of zeroing the energy consumption
of all the building stock by 2050.
What are the objectives which must be assigned to Italy through coherent and
shared programming? Several of them are decisive:
a diminution in energy consumption (objective: 50 % reduction by 2050,
on 2010 base);
an increase in electrification of the energy demand (objective: 50 % of
final
consumption by 2050);
completion of the programme for distributed generation by 2050;
the attainment by 2050 of 80 100 % of coverage of total consumption
by Renewable Energy Sources (RES);
support for the market penetration of the adoption of accumulation
systems above all in the domestic sector (10 kWh 100 kWh).
The achievement of these objectives is also linked to the necessity of a chan-
ge in the construction industry's business model. The displacement of the system of
financing towards the long term envisages a direct relationship between such inves-
tments (ELTIF, European Long Term Investment Fund) and realising the strategic
plan for the infrastructures of the Member States, with particular reference to the
energy efficiency market. As stated by the EEFIG (Energy Efficiency Financial
Institutions Group), instituted by the Commission and by the UN, the project promo-
ters and the investors should receive clear assurances that the energy saving transla-
tes into an increase in the cash-flows available and that the improved energy perfor-
mances determine an increase in the value of the assets. With an added value of
extraordinary and unheard of importance: this financial intervention must also cover
projects which are poorly remunerative for investors, and which thus struggle for
financing in the traditional marketplace, but which have a high socio-economical
return.
Turning these opportunities into concrete actions means controlling the futu-
re: energy efficiency which becomes a long-term business for investors because it
has finally become a real asset, because it represents the engine to change our
society.
43
3. Legislative and standards strategies
The building sector must proceed with a systematic reduction in specific con-
sumption (more than double the average achieved in recent years) with an increase
in the annual number of renovations and energy efficiency improvement, in the
general context of establishing intelligent networks of renovated buildings. An
aggregation of demand-side consumption in packets to negotiate with the distributor
should be allowed (in line with the definition of the role of aggregator, see below),
this also to activate, according to demand-response logic, the role of the consumer-
produce in accordance with the European Commission's requirements (European
Parliament, 2016c).
Moreover investing in energy efficiency means, as is well recognised, redu-
cing our dependence upon energy imports, creating new jobs, reducing energy
poverty, improving health and well-being and stimulating the economy.
In this manner the legislator is encouraged to:
re-examine the laws of ownership and find a way of dividing out
between owners and occupiers the gains deriving from energy efficiency
improvements in rented private property and to allocate benefits and
costs between the residents of joint-ownerships. Such dispositions could
be inserted in the regulations of joint-ownerships and of building asso-
ciations;
guarantee that a quota of financing in favour of energy efficiency is allo-
cated to families in a situation of energy precariousness or for people
who live in the poorest areas, for example by investing in efficient hea-
ting and cooling equipment;
actuate as a matter of priority energy efficiency measures for those fami-
lies in a situation of energy vulnerability and precariousness (and
penury) with the aim of guaranteeing that their energy costs are reduced
in a sustainable manner;
sensibilise end-users about the efficient and sustainable forms of heating,
cooling and thermal insulation of buildings;
stimulate the usage of recommendations on energy diagnoses of large
and medium-sized companies;
support the active figures at local and regional level who are capable of
improving the financial attractiveness of investments, by regrouping sin-
gle projects within bigger investment packages, initiatives such as the
ELENA (European Local ENergy Assistance), Smart Cities and Com-
munities mechanism and the new Mayors' Pact integrated for climate and
energy could encourage this approach.
On the topic of the transposition of the European Directives on EPBD, RES
and Energy Efficiency it will be appropriate to propose, amongst other things:
the elaboration of a series of measures suitable for facilitating renovation
in joint-ownership apartment blocks;
44
the diffusion of energy efficiency models for public-property school
buildings and hospitals;
the institution of a unique plant registry at national level to provide the
necessary information on the efficiency of the current heating and coo-
ling systems and thus evaluate correctly the related increase over the
years;
the possibility of facilitating the spread to the market of voluntary
sustainability certification schemes for residential and non-residential
buildings;
to not limit the objective of renovation of 3% of buildings of public
administration services only at the centralised level but extend it to all
the PA sector buildings.
The energy efficiency directive 2012/27/EU has enshrined the right of con-
sumers to be informed about energy consumption for heating and cooling. However
information about measurement frequency and billing could be insufficient to provi-
de consumers with data in real (or nearly real) time. In particular one must identify
supporting measures aimed at responsibilizing demand through:
information to the consumers in real time about their own energy con-
sumption by means of advanced measurement and billing systems in
order to be able to actuate an effective energy efficiency strategy;
the possibility for consumers to participate actively in demand manage-
ment with the possibility of reducing their own electricity bill;
simplification of the rules for the calculation of energy savings; the
European Parliament suggests to the Commission modifications to intro-
duce in the revision of the directive (Canete, 2015).
To all this must be added a revision of the Italian D.Lgs. 28/2011 on the use
of renewable sources of energy (AiCARR, 2012) with the aim of:
resolve the problems linked to the coverage by renewables for cooling
services;
promote renewables by means of an organic approach to accelerate the
replacement of fossil fuels in favour of the usage of renewable sources
also in the district heating and CHP sector;
aid local authorities in the preparation of their strategies of promotion of
heating/cooling based on renewable energy sources;
provide instruments to compare the cost and the benefits in the life-cycle
of heating and cooling systems in order to be able to evaluate the best
technology from the point of view of both cost and efficiency;
further evaluate the impact on air quality caused by the production of
particulates, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and dioxins by domes-
tic heating plant.
45
4. Actions
4.1. The Regulatory Framework for on-site Generation
Only an attentive re-examination of the attitude of the electricity market and
of the directives on renewables and on energy efficiency will be able to permit the
attainment of the objectives indicated. More particularly one must introduce and
evaluate:
the standards for integrating thermal storage (in the heating of buildings
and in district heating) into the mechanisms of flexibility and re-
equilibration of the networks;
the ways of providing incentives to plant owners (and householders) to
participate in the energy market through decentralised production and
consumption of electrical energy (SEU, efficient user systems);
the ways of providing incentives for the use of renewables for the pro-
duction of heat, including CHP;
the ways of providing incentives for the spread of solutions, systems and
equipment which is fully inter-operable for intelligent buildings;
a revision of energy billing; currently this is composed for 50% of direct
and indirect taxes (also subject to VAT, a tax on a tax), which, if applied
as fixed elements of the bill, can render it difficult for consumers to per-
ceive the advantages of energy saving, thus being an obstacle to perfor-
ming energy efficiency improvement works.
Many parties have already pointed out the potentially critical aspects which
derive from the excessive increase in the fixed components, in comparison with the
variable components, of the general system charges (which penalise energy
efficiency and electricity generation solutions in auto-production) which obliges a
general reflection about the regulatory framework of on-site generation, with
reference also to CAR (which in Italian stands for high-efficiency CHP) and
renewables.
An imbalanced system of tariffs for the fixed components would prove to
penalise on site electricity generation solutions, in an auto-production regime,
upon which would be imposed additional charges such as to render uneconomical, in
the worst cases, the operation of plant already installed and the pursuit of any new
initiatives 1.
The operators of this sector have moreover noticed, for low voltage users,
how these have a greater incidence in the payment of system charges when compa-
red with other voltage levels. The incidence of the fees typical for grid services
expressed in /kW|year compared to the total expenditure for energy distribution is
already rather high (50-80 %). The degressivity applied to the charges, united with
the greater number of non-domestic users in LT, will bring a further deformity in
terms of the contribution of para-fiscal fees to the overall payment.
46
4.2. The Figure of the Aggregator
The active role of the consumer on the energy market proves to be strategic
in triggering the evolutionary mechanism of the electricity grid. An essential charac-
teristic of intelligent electricity grids will be two-directional communication between
the electrical utility and the active end-users (the so-called prosumers, producers-
consumers), exploiting both the infrastructure of the electronic meters and further
(public or, less preferably, private) communication infrastructures.
Sending to prosumers precise and timely information on their consumption
will permit them to take reasoned and informed decisions, also on the basis of eco-
nomic incentives, in order for them to actively participate in guaranteeing system
stability.
To maximise participation in the market of active customers new figures will
become available, energy partners, who will allow all customers, even the simple
domestic consumers to aggregate modulation capacity via new actors (called in
fact aggregators of supply and demand) and to make it available to the system in a
manner which is competitive with the bigger players of the system (de Santo-
li,2015).
In Italy for example the figure of aggregator is disciplined by the D.Lgs.
102/2014 (attuative of the EU Directive on energy efficiency) as modified and inte-
grated by the D.Lgs. 141/2016 which defines the aggregator as a service provider
who, on request, incorporates a multiplicity of consumption units, that is to say con-
sumption units and production units, to then sell or auction them on the organised
energy markets.
The aggregators will be a support and guide for the active customers; on the
one hand they will offer modulation capacity to the system, and on the other will
promote an optimum energy management at the active customer level. The energy
management systems in use for a number of years will finally be able to be utilised
to promote the birth of a synergy between the requirements of the grid managers, the
vendors of the supply service and the users of that service.
In this vision of things the end-user also becomes an intelligent node,
capable of offering services to increase the safety and availability of the electrical
system in its entirety. Domotic systems will therefore be able be enriched with new
functions capable of better employing the pricing signals (prizes, even variable of
electrical energy) and system signals (set-points for the generators) coming from
the various stakeholders of the Smart Grid (in particular the DSO, distribution
system operator). They will thus be able to offer functions for supporting the active
customer in changing his/her habits and at the same time optimise the use of energy
sources in the residential or industrial, environment, guaranteeing that the preferen-
ces established by the customer himself are satisfied.
The aggregator is seen as an intermediary body capable of regrouping and
coordinating the distributed energy resources (generation, loads, storage), offering
energy services to a diversity of participants in the electrical system who wish to
utilise them for an appropriate remuneration. In other words, the aggregator is a
subject who acquires system services (load reduction, variation of the active
47
power input to the grid network by generators/storage units, etc.) from a diffuse
clientele to sell them to the Transmission System Operator (TSO) or to the Distribu-
tor (DSO), guaranteeing to its own customers (the TSO and DSO) that the services
offered by its suppliers (the diffuse clientele) are available when they are necessary.
The aggregator will be able to provide the following energy services:
control of the frequency, control of the voltage,
reduction of the load imbalance,
energy supply on organised markets (wholesale market, ancillary servi-
ces market),
reduction in the peak loads (load shaving) and power reserve.
Differently from the ESCo (Energy Saving Companies), already widespread
in a traditional grid context with a mission of increasing the end-user's efficiency,
the aggregator provides a communication channel between the end-users and the
other actors of the electricity system. This not only consents an increase in energy
efficiency (like the ESCo), but also introduces the possibility of controlling the
behaviour towards the grid of the end-users, who thereby become an active node. In
this sense, the concept of aggregator is totally new and intrinsically correlated with
the active grid.
Demand Response Market
Contract Contract
Demand Demand Re-

Response sponse Services
Consumer Consumer
Aggregat Payment for
Financial or Demand Re-
Figure1 Interaction between consumers, intermediaries and proxies of

Demand Response services (He,2013)
To enable integration of renewables on a large scale, with the aim of procee-
ding in the decarbonisation of electricity systems without putting at risk the safety of
supply, a greater flexibility must be provided to the demand side, through suitable
Demand-Response (DR) programmes. Another aspect to consider is the availability
of renewable (and hence at low cost) electrical energy on the grid can induce the
reconsideration of some energy usages, above all starting from an initial condition of
low electrification such as is the case of Italy.
The DR service can be of the explicit or implicit type. In the explicit DR
schemes (incentive-based) the aggregated load is exchanged on the electrical energy
markets, together with analogous services on the supply side, and receives the same
prices. Usually this happens within the balancing markets; the consumers receive
direct payments for changing their consumption following a request, which is
generally triggered by the activation of the balancing services, of differences in
electrical energy prices or of a constraint on the grid. The consumers can gain from
their flexibility in electrical energy consumption either singly or by contracting out
through an aggregator.
48
In the implicit type of DR schemes (prices-based) the consumers who have
chosen to be exposed to electrical energy prices which are variable over time or grid
tariffs (or both) react to these price differences according to their own possibilities
and their own constraints without a binding engagement.
It is important to note that the two DR schemes are not one the replacement
of the other. Consumers can participate in the explicit DR through an intermediary,
and, at the same time, also participate in the implicit DR programme, via tariffs
which are more or less dynamic. One must with such an aim examine diverse
systems of dynamic tariffication, on the basis of already-existing schemes with the
objective of optimising the regulatory instrument. The requirements and the advan-
tages of each are different and can be summed, since the two schemes have different
aims within the markets and are evaluated in different ways. Whilst consumers
generally receive a lower bill in a dynamic tariffication system, they receive a direct
payment for the participation in an explicit DR programme.
On principle, users are able to offer their demand services without the inter-
vention of an intermediary; however, the single users, above all if called on directly
to face up to the investments, could decide to not participate. This is the reason for
which the figure of an intermediary can become necessary, facilitating the residenti-
al consumers in providing flexibility in their own electrical energy demand. The
intermediaries, indicated also as aggregators, are subjects who facilitate the DR
operation between the consumers, who endeavour to provide flexibility and who
employ the flexibility to optimise their own activities.
Various entities can take the role of aggregator for DR and the impacts that
these various entities can have on consumers do differ.
A piece of research by ENEA with the Sapienza Rome University (de Santoli
2016) has effected a classification of domestic users as a function of the nature of
the load, aimed at quantifying the DR potential realisable, in function of the load
type. Thereafter, with reference to the load classification, the storage potentials have
been estimated.
On the basis of the first data available of this theme, the legislator's interven-
tion must be such as to give value to the aggregator's intervention.
4.3. BAU and BAT Scenarios for Energy Efficiency in Buildings
The calculation of the energy savings to be obtained from energy renovation
works of the building sector effected by hypothesizing that are maintained unaltered
in the period (2010 - 2030) the primary energy savings obtainable thanks to the
combined effect of the transposition of the Directive 2002/91/EC, the actuation of
the D.Lgs. 192/05 and of the recognition of the 55% fiscal detraction (ENEAa,
2012), confirms the great potential in Italy for energy efficiency. In particular if one
considers only the energy renovation works in the building sector, in 2010 the
saving obtained has been evaluated as 31.900 GWh/year (ENEAb, 2012), equivalent
to 2,74 Mtep/year, which over the whole residential and tertiary category represents
a quota of nearly 90%. It is possible to conduct this analysis articulating it in the two
scenarios (see figure 2):
49
1. Business As Usual (BAU) Scenario. With the starting point of 31.900 GWh|year
attained in 2010, maintaining the current situation until 2030, and considering a
lower energy saving than that registered by ENEA, equating to approximately
4.000 GWh|year as opposed to the 4.800 GWh|year. Such a cautious hypothesis
derives from a dual consideration: the first concerns the uncertain about the actu-
al confirmation of the 55 % fiscal detractions for energy renovation works; the
second is related to the slow and gradual saturation of the renovation possibilities
in existing buildings. In such a scenario one obtains a saving, in the projections
to 2020, of about 60.000 GWh|year, equating to approximately 5,2 Mtep|year : in
percentage terms with reference to energy requirements for the heating/cooling
of buildings equating that is about 8,5 %. In the projections up to 2030 one obta-
ins a saving of around 87.000 GWh|year, equating to approximately 7,5 Mtep|year:
in percentage terms with reference to energy requirements for the hea-
ting/cooling of buildings this is about 11,8 %.
Figure 2 Energy Saving Attainable in the Period 2010 2020

between Scenarios BAU and BAT
2. BAT Best Available Trend Scenario which compared to the previous scenario
considers a favourable incentive system (such as for example the extension until
2030 of the 55% detractions) and an overall number of renovation works up to
2030 on 50 % of national building stock. From the starting point of 31.800
GWh|year registered in 2010, and considering a higher energy saving than that
registered by ENEA, equating to approximately 5.000 GWh|year one obtains a
saving, in the projections to 2020, of about 70.000 GWh|year, equating to
approximately 6 Mtep|year. In percentage terms with reference to energy
requirements for the heating/cooling of buildings this equates to about 9,9%. In
the projections up to 2030 one obtains a saving of about 107.000 GWh|year,
equating to approximately 9,3 Mtep|year: in percentage terms with reference to
50
energy requirements for the heating/cooling of buildings this is then about
14,5%.
It should be noted that also in the BAT scenario the 2030 data point proves to
be that indicated by PAEE 2011, already attainable in 2020. To obtain the most
optimistic results one must necessarily guarantee the stability of the regulatory and
standards framework, administrative simplification and the assurance of adequate
structural financing for research and development activities in order to guarantee a
high standard of innovation. The support measures can be identified in tax relief for
industry, in incentives for replacements made by consumers, in tax deducti-
ons/detractions, in subsidised-rate loans, in accompaniment to the 55% detraction
which must anyway be reconfirmed for the medium term. The access for families to
preferential loans must occur via ad hoc credit programmes, as well as any guarantee
funds instituted with their own allocations by the Regions, the Provinces (counties)
or by the municipalities. The loan to individual citizens could also be partly suppor-
ted with voluntary allocations from industry, to be used as company tax deductions.
4.5. Social Objectives
The European Parliament has recently emphasized with two resolutions
(European Parliament, 2016a and 2016b) the strategic role of the end-user in the
attainment of the 20/20/20 objectives, above all where energy efficiency is concer-
ned, however also paying attention to the social aspect, by expressly speaking of
energy poverty.
We are spectators to a rise in the energy access costs of the end-user,
principally owing to:
the prices for energy raw materials lingering at a high level;
the effect of policies aimed at contrasting climatic change;
restrictive budget measures which are resolved by greater energy
taxation with the aim of finding resources.
All this converts into an increase in energy poverty, to be understood as the
incapacity of the end-user to purchase goods and energy services which are part and
parcel of a consumer's minimum necessities. This then renders even more difficult
the attainment of the objectives which are the basis of simultaneous pursuit of
energy security, environmental sustainability and social equality of access to energy
sources. The terms of the problem are destined to increase over the years in the
absence of suitable instruments to combat energy poverty (today: 100 million people
in the EU):
the energy efficiency directive imposes upon the Member States the ela-
boration of programmes against social inequality and inaccessibility to,
and insecurity of energy sources;
the investments in energy efficiency and RES must admissible within the
framework of the SIE funds as of (2014 - 2020);
each Member State must attribute 20 % of the FSE Social Funding reso-
urces to energy efficiency programmes for social inclusion;
51
one must pursue a funding set-up which tends to give value to the inves-
tments with high socio-economic returns.
The legislator's necessity to deal with the theme of the connection between
social objectives and energy policies has pointed out the need to operate in close
contact with the different objectives through:
the improvement of public sector building stock destined for community
services and for local council housing;
the adoption of future lines of research to monitor the phenomenon of
fuel poverty and the distributive impacts of energy policies;
the consolidation and re-enforcement of action for social support to low-
income families.
Every programme has a need to be supported by an adequate plan of commu-
nication, education and training: the information turns members of the population
into actors who are more aware of the opportunities, whilst the education and trai-
ning permit the transfer to a diversity of people the knowledge and competence
which are indispensable to ensure the effectiveness of the measures and the impro-
vement works which are selected and then implemented.
This proves to be particularly true when a measure exists which is
specifically dedicated to the improvement of energy efficiency, whose full operation
depends upon the degree of awareness and operating knowledge possessed by the
persons who implement them.
To complement public sector policies developed over the last few years
such as the tax bonuses on energy efficiency works and the system of white certifi-
cates which have permitted the development of specific initiatives of a regional or
local nature, based upon the requirements of the area in question and from the
analysis conducted on good practices in Europe, several measures useful in comba-
ting fuel poverty can be identified (FederEsco, 2016):
full implementation of the European directive 2012/27/EU;
the need both to define and for appropriate socio-economic indicators;
identification of the technical tasks to be effected;
constitution of a specific social fund for energy renovation;
institution of a national agency for the management of all the aspects lin-
ked to fuel poverty.
It appears evident that a theme which includes the economic and social
vulnerability of many families (a particularly critical phenomenon at this historical
moment), just as the generalised inadequacy of the energy quality of the building
stock, as well as the strict correlation existing between the health of the population
and the availability of a comfortable domestic environment, has a need of an appro-
ach organised into an Action Plan.
The adoption of a Plan against fuel poverty should as its first important effect
create a transversal cooperation link-up (at the national, regional and local level)
between the various Ministries, offices, departments which are effectively able to
make an efficient contribution. But it is also the capacity for synergy between public
and private entities to face up to the subject in an organic and programmatic manner.
52
With this in mind the creation of an Observatory imposes itself as the funda-
mental first step, considering the specific necessity to:
measure and monitor the phenomenon over time;
equip oneself with up-to-date knowledge of the energy consumption of
families;
have available reliable socio-economic indicators;
cross-reference these with other information/data banks.
Conclusions
AiCARR has decided to respond to this collective need, and is a candidate
through her Technical commissions for the development of an energy efficiency
strategy on the long-term basis for the period 2020 2050 and present it to the
appropriate parliamentary channels. This should ensure that a clear message is tran-
smitted to the legislator about the necessity to face up to the theme of the connection
between social objectives and energy policies.
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N.1 Gennaio Febbraio 2012.
54
STANDARDIZACIJA U PODRUJU
TERMALNE SREDINE
STANDARDIZATION IN THE FIELD OF
THE THERMAL ENVIRONMENT
Francesca Romana dAmbrosio ALFANO1,
Bjarne Wilkens OLESEN2, Giuseppe RICCIO3
1)
DIIn, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale, Universit degli Studi di Salerno, Via
Giovanni Paolo II 132, Fisciano (Salerno), Italy. email fdambrosio@unisa.it
2)
International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy (ICIEE), Department of Civil
Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU),
Nils KoppelsAll 402, DK-2800 Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark
3)
DII Dipartimento di Ingegneria Industriale Universit degli Studi di Napoli Federico II,
Piazzale Vincenzo Tecchio 80, 80125 Napoli, Italy
Ovaj rad se bavi hronolokom rekonstrukcijom osnova koje ine naunu bazu
meunarodnih standarda za procenu toplotne sredine. Prvi deo je posveen opisu
evolucije ove teme s posebnom panjom posveenom najaktivnijim akterima u pro-
losti. U drugom delu se daje pregled glavnih meunarodnih standarda u ovoj oblasti
s posebnom panjom na njihov nastanak i pitanja o kojima se i dalje vode debate.
Kljune rei: standardizacija; toplotni komfor; toplotna sredina
This paper deals with a chronological reconstruction of fundamentals for-

ming the scientific base of International Standards for the assessment of thermal
environments. The first part is devoted to description of the evolution of the topic by
paying a special attention to the most active players in the past. The second summa-
rizes the main International Standards in the field by focusing the interest on their
genesis and still debated issues.
Key words: Standardization; thermal comfort; thermal environment
1 Introduction
The thermal environment is one of the crucial facets of the living and
working environments. In particular, the physiological response of the man with
respect to the thermo-hygrometric parameters affects the thermal sensation with its
consequences in terms of well-being and productivity. In addition, its prediction or
assessment is required to avoid health risks in extreme cold and hot environments.
For this reasons thermal environment are usually classified into moderate, where the
main goal is achieving thermal comfort conditions, and severe (cold and hot) where
heat strains can occur and the workers safety and health has to be guaranteed.
55
2 The origins
Since Antiquity, more or less complex theories have been developed to iden-
tify the essential functions responsible for the life (e.g. respiration, heart, blood).
Hippocrates believed that blood was warm at a fixed temperature by divine will,
whereas Plato concluded that blood circulation was due to a fire diffusion. In the
second half of the Second Century Galen ruled that contrarily to ematocentric and
cardiocentric theories - there is no air in the blood vessels and theorized the exist-
ence of capillaries. In later centuries, other scientists devoted great attention to calor-
ic theories and physiological studies, but only in the Modern Age meaningful results
were achieved [1].
Sanctorio Sanctorio obtained the first important results leading the way for
the modern thermo-physiology at the beginning of the 1600. He was among the first
to use physical measurements in medicine. By means of a scale of his invention, he
postulated the existence of the perspiratio insensibilis, which is one of the mecha-
nisms of heat exchange between man and environment.
A.L Lavoisier and P.S. Laplace Among are among the pioneers of the studies
on the response of the man to the thermal environment. Equipped with a special ice
calorimeter made up themselves, in 1780 they carried out experiments on the pro-
duction of thermal energy in animals by finding a relationship between heat loss and
breathing.
In 1865 Claude Bernard was the first to realize the idea of human body
homeostasis reprised only in 1932 by W.B. Cannon.
Thanks to the evolution of knowledge in the field of physiology, in the first
half of the twentieth century studies progressed quickly. In 1923 Yaglou, assisted by
F.C. Houghten, formulated the Effective Temperature index ET based on the ther-
mal sensation felt by a subject in movement between two conditioned environments.
At the beginning, ET was referred only to a homogeneous environment and standard
clothing conditions.
In 1924, the John B. Pierce Laboratory was founded in Yale, where under the
guidance of CE.A. Winslow the first director L.P. Herrington and A.P. Gagge
began their studies on the energy flows between man and his surrounding environ-
ment, creating one of the most famous and prolific schools.
In 1941 the J.B. Pierce Laboratorys group [2] formulated the most used (and
incoherent with respect to SI) units for the metabolic rate and the clothing insulation:
the met and the clo, respectively. In this paper are also mentioned two important
issues: the reduction of clothing insulation due to wind and body movements (one
on the most studied topics in the 80s), and the optimal temperature values as a func-
tion of metabolic rate and clothing insulation (still opened matter among researchers
in the field).
In the same year, Burton in the UK formulated and validated experimentally
the first mathematical model simulating the thermoregulatory response: the body is
assimilated to a homogeneous cylinder and thermal field within it is obtained by
Bessels functions [3].
56
World War II and Koreas War pressed some US research centers to organize
support to the troops who were engaged in military operations in none-tempered
climatic areas [4]. In fact, during those conflicts US had significant human losses
due to extreme weather conditions in which the troops were fighting. Consequently,
J. B. Pierce and Naticks Base laboratories started to carry out a series of studies on
the physiological response of the body to extreme conditions and on the role of
clothing in protection against thermal stress [5]. These studies continued over the
years [6, 7] favouring the development of collateral researches as clothing.
In the 50s other players as HVAC engineers were involved in research [4]
and several studies on comfort conditions in confined environment were carried out
in cooperation with ASHRAE (American Society for Heating, Refrigeration, and Air
Conditioning Engineering). This cooperation helped Gagges team (Y. Nishi, in
particular, Gonzales and Berglund) deepened moderate thermal environment theori-
es until to the formulation of ET* and SET indices.
European studies on moderate thermal environments were developed at the
Technical University of Denmark, thanks to Ole Fanger who published in 1970 his
famous book entitled Thermal Comfort [8] where the definition of PMV and PPD
indices is reported.
Studies on severe environments started during the wars of the twentieth cen-
tury led to the definition of the IREQ index, for cold environments, and WBGT and
SWreq for hot environments. Generally, indices are classified into rational, - based on
the heat balance on the human body and empirical, derived on experimental base.
3 The Standardization
Established in 1947, ISO (International Organization for Standardization) is
the international body for regulations. It groups 162 National regulatory bodies. The
European body CEN (European Committee for Standardization) in cooperation with
CENELEC (European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization) and ETSI
(European Telecommunications Standards Institute) develops standards in force at
European level. CEN cooperates with ISO thanks to Viennas Agreement. National
Standardization bodies (e.g. ANSI in US, DIN in Germany, UNI in Italy and so on)
compulsorily accept within six months CEN Standards which are published as UNI
EN (This is the case of Italy). If a CEN standard exists, you cannot have a different
national standard on the same topic. For ISO standards there is no obligation to use
them, but they can be adopted by National bodies as national standards (e.g. in case
of UNI) or used in contracts. However, National bodies can prepare and publish
National standards not in conflict and non-overlapping with CEN.
All regulatory bodies are organized in Management Bodies and Commissions
or Technical Committees (also Subcommittees if needed), composed by working
groups who prepare the drafts to be discussed and approved by the Management
Bodies.
57
4 International Standards in the field
of the Thermal Environment
Since the 80s, the ISO TC 159 SC5 WG1 (Ergonomics of the Thermal Envi-
ronment) released a series of Standards aimed to regulate the field of the thermal
environment. At CEN level, the TC 122 WG 11 (Ergonomics of the Physical Envi-
ronment) was formed later and is also active and, apart from a couple of cases, they
adopt the ISO standards for thermal environments as EN standards. Designers of
HVAC systems have to be aware of these standards, which represent the basis
required for the ergonomic assessment of environments where people live and work.
This is also because they affect the values of thermo-hygrometric design parameters.
In addition, the compliance with these standards strongly interferes with energy
saving requirements. Therefore, it is more and more important to have a close coo-
peration among building and equipment designers, ergonomics and occupational
health experts [9].
Presently, the field of the Thermal Environment is regulated by a set of 21
Standards divided in categories according to Figure 1. The full list is reported in
Table 1.
Figure 1 Map of the main ISO and CEN standards in the field of the Ergonomics of
the Thermal Environment.
In truth, the first standard on the thermal environment was the American
ASHRAE 55 (Conditions for thermal Comfort) issued in 1996 after two years of
work and periodically revised until the last version dated 2013. Based upon Houg-
htens and Yaglou studies [10], it prescribed the effective temperature as comfort
index and, firstly, it defined the thermal comfort as a condition of the mind.. Since
1975, the document has been often revised. The main innovation are the adoption of
the two-nodes Gagges model [11], the New Effective Temperature index ET* [12]
and, finally, in 2004 the adoption of PMV/PPD index and local discomfort indices
based on ISO 7730. Due to its authoritativeness, ASHRAE 55 is a reference
worldwide. At ISO level, the first Standard was the ISO 7243, issued in 1982.
58
Table 1 Standards presently under force.
(a)
Ergonomics of the Thermal Environment series.
(b)
Ergonomics of the Physical Environment series.
Number Year Title
(a)
ISO 7243 1989 Hot Environments - Estimation of the heat stress on working man, based
EN 27243 1993 on the WBGT-index (wet bulb globe temperature)
ISO 11399(a) 1995
Principles and application of relevant International Standards
EN ISO 11399 2000
ISO 10551(a) 1995 Assessment of the influence of the thermal environment using subjective
EN ISO 10551 2001 judgment scales
ISO 7726(a) 1998 Ergonomics of the thermal environment - Instruments for measuring
EN ISO 7726 2001 physical quantities
ISO 12894(a) 2001 Medical supervision of individuals exposed to extreme hot or cold envi-
EN ISO 12894 2001 ronments
ISO 13731(a) 2001
Vocabulary and symbols
EN ISO 13731 2001
Methods for the assessment of human responses to contact with surfaces -
ISO/TS 13732-2(a) 2001
Part 2: Human contact with surfaces at moderate temperature
ISO 15265(a) 2004 Risk assessment strategy for the prevention of stress or discomfort in
EN ISO 15265 2004 thermal working conditions
ISO 7933(a) 2004 Analytical determination and interpretation of heat stress using calcula-
EN ISO 7933 2004 tion of the predicted heat strain
EN ISO 8996(a) 2004
Determination of metabolic rate
ISO 8996 2004
EN ISO 9886 2004
Ergonomics - Evaluation of thermal strain by physiological measurements
ISO 9886 2004
Analytical determination and interpretation of thermal comfort using
ISO 7730 (a) 2005
calculation of the PMV and PPD indices and local thermal comfort crite-
EN ISO 7730 2005
ria
ISO 14504-2(a) 2006 Evaluation of thermal environments in vehicles - Part 2: Determination of
EN ISO 14504-2 2006 equivalent temperature
ISO 14504-3(a) 2006 Evaluation of the thermal environment in vehicles - Part 3: Evaluation of
EN ISO 14504-3 2006 thermal comfort using human subjects
ISO 13732-1(a) 2006 Methods for the assessment of human responses to contact with surfaces -
EN ISO 13732-1 2008 Part 1: Hot surfaces
ISO 13732-3(a) 2006 Methods for the assessment of human responses to contact with surfaces -
EN ISO 13732-3 2008 Part 3: Cold surfaces
ISO 11079(a) 2007 Determination and interpretation of cold stress when using required
EN ISO 11079 2007 clothing insulation (IREQ) and local cooling effects
ISO 15743(a) 2008 Ergonomics of the thermal environment - Cold workplaces - Risk assess-
EN ISO 15743 2008 ment and management
ISO 9920(a) 2007 Estimation of thermal insulation and water vapour resistance of a clothing
EN ISO 9920 2009 ensemble
Assessment of environments by means of an environmental survey in-
ISO 28802(b) 2012
volving physical measurements of the environment and subjective re-
EN ISO 28802 2012
sponses of people
ISO 28803(b) 2012
Application of international standards to people with special requirements
EN ISO 28803 2012
59
4.1 The Standards for hot environments
ISO 7243, the first standard in the field of the thermal environment was issu-
ed in 1982 and adopted by the CEN in 1993. It was based upon the WBGT (Wet
Bulb Globe Temperature), an empirical index for the assessment of hot environ-
ments. The origin of the index WBGT is usually traced to 1957. Based on an inves-
tigation to control heat illnesses in training camps of the US Army and Marine
Corps, Yaglou and Minard [13] introduced the WBGT index, accepted by ISO and
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists as a preliminary tool
for the assessment of hot thermal environments [9].
This empirical index combines the measurement of two derived quantities,
the natural wet bulb temperature and the globe temperature together with the
air temperature and claims therefore to take into account the main heat tran-
sfer phenomena (evaporation, convection, and radiation) affecting the thermal sensa-
tion and strain. In 1989, the early version of the standard was revised. It is currently
in advanced stage of review.
In the same year ISO released the ISO 7933 entitled Hot environments:
Analytical determination and interpretation of thermal using calculation of
Required Sweat Rate. Published by the CEN in 1997 as EN 12515, the standard
adopted the Required Sweat rate index SWreq. This is a rational index taking into
account a simplified thermoregulation model and the heat transfer mechanisms
within the body and between the outer surface of it and the surrounding environ-
ment.
Considering the major limitations of EN 15215, as well as the fact that this
standard appeared to be little used in practice [14], a joint research project between
some of the main European research teams in the field of thermal factors was sta-
rted in the period 1996-1999. The European Union supported this project (entitled
Assessment of the risk of heat disorders encountered during work in hot conditions)
within the Program BIOMED II. As a result of this research a new model was deve-
loped: the PHS (Predicted Heat Strain) adopted since 2004 in the new version of
ISO 7933 Standard. Formulated on a rational basis [15] with new equations and
boundary conditions, and robustly validated both in the field and under laboratory
conditions, PHS model provides results very different from those exhibited by the
SWreq with high levels of reliability. Nevertheless, PHS exhibits some weaknesses
[16]: this is the reason why ISO 7933 is presently under revision.
4.2 The Standards for cold environments
As stressed by Leblanc [17], the first studies devoted to the topic dealt with
military operations or expedition activities and that only in the past years the interest
has moved to the working both outdoors and indoors (freezer rooms, special kit-
chens or industrial operation carried out at lower temperature), and to the health
safeguarding during the climatic cold waves. As a matter of fact, working in cold
environments not only results in accidents and injuries but also affects the perfor-
mances of work due to the required protective measures.
60
The only standard devoted to the matter, is the ISO 11079, issued in 1993 as
ISO/TR and entitled Evaluation of cold environments: Determination of required
clothing insulation (IREQ). It has been revised in 2007. The standard is based upon
the studies conducted primarily in the US and in Scandinavia and defines the IREQ
index for global cooling and a series of indices of local risk. IREQ model proposed
by Holmr [18] integrates the effects of air temperature, mean radiant temperature,
relative humidity, air velocity, and metabolic rate and specified the required clothing
insulation of the clothing ensemble consistent to the actual environmental conditions
and activity of the body to maintain its thermal equilibrium.
4.3 The Standards for moderate environments
ISO 7730 was the first International Standard addressed to moderate thermal
environments. Entitled Determination of the PMV and PPD indices and specifica-
tion of the conditions for thermal comfort, it was published on August 15, 1984. The
chairman of the ISO workgroup (TC159SC5WG1) on the thermal environments was
led by Aubertin, while the work on ISO 7730 was led by Prof. Fanger. It was based
on the use of PMV and PPD indices (for thermal comfort conditions for the body as
a whole) formulated on a rational basis in the well know Fangers book entitled
Thermal Comfort. These indices depend upon four environmental parameters (air
temperature, air velocity, relative humidity, mean radiant temperature) and two
personal quantities (metabolic rate and clothing insulation). Concerning local dis-
comfort ISO 7730 was based upon the draught rate model also reporting discomfort
due to vertical difference of air temperature and radiant asymmetries. All the rec-
ommended criteria was based on studies with human subjects [19-23].
The development of studies on comfort, in particular those concerning the
naturally ventilated environment and on clothing, has led to some fundamental
changes that can be found in the 2006 version presently in force (it also exhibit a
different title as reported in table 1). In 2015, a new revision process has started
accounting all observations arising from the practice [24] and the new scientific
achievements in the field of moderate environments [25].
According to ASHRAEs definition, thermal comfort is affected by the sub-
jective perception of the environment. This is the reason why, as complementary
approach to the objective assessment of thermal comfort (ISO 7730), in 1995 was
published the ISO Standard 10551. This document, also revised by CEN in 2001,
defines the scales for the subjective evaluation of moderate thermal environments
and gives important information for the formulation and the elaboration of question-
naires.
4.4 The Standards for vehicles
Due to small volumes, wide transparent envelope and highly variable and non-
uniform conditions all vehicles are special environments. Consequently, it is not pos-
sible directly to use PMV and PPD indices. To provide effective methods for their
assessment, in 1996 started the European Program Development of standard test met-
hods for evaluation of thermal climate in vehicles, whose results led to the publication
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of the ISO Standards 14505-2 and -3. Part 2 defines four Equivalent Temperature
Indices (global, segmental, directional, and omnidirectional) and illustrates respective
measurement methods, also based upon the use of thermal manikins. Part 3 provides a
method to assess the thermal comfort performance of a vehicle under certain conditi-
ons on the base of questionnaires administered with special criteria.
4.5 The Standards for people with special requirements
The first draft of the ISO 28803 Standard is dated 2007 and has required a
long period of preparation. This high social value document is aimed to apply the
Standards in the field of the Indoor Environmental Quality (as a result of thermal,
visual, acoustic comfort and indoor air quality) to categories of subjects with parti-
cular requirements (e.g age, gender, inabilities). Consequently, it deals with many
issues (e.g. the difference in thermal sensation generally felt by an elderly compared
to that experienced by a young, changes in the temperature perception do to spinal
cord diseases, etc.).
4.6 The Standards for the contact with surfaces
Since the early 2000s, there has been an increasing interest to the issues relat-
ed to the temperature of the surfaces the human body or its parts may come in con-
tact with. Main results from the studies have merged into the ISO 13732 series of
standards, which all are based on experiments, with some weaknesses.
4.7 The Standards for the assessment of thermal environment
The increased interest in the occupational safety and health gave rise to the
update of the legislation and the promotion of public awareness, education and inves-
tigation in this field [26]. This approach resulted in the formulation of a special four-
phases strategy called SOBANE [27], which resulted in a new standard ISO 15265
devoted to the evaluation of the risk for the prevention of constraints or discomfort
under thermal working conditions. This Standard provides a protocol of analysis cha-
racterized by an in-depth analysis of the working conditions aimed to identify quick
solutions for easy problems or special investigations in complex situations.
Some years later ISO Standard 15743, addressed to cold environment and
inspired by the SOBANEs Strategy adapted to cold stress risks, was published
These are very important documents especially because the assessment of
non-residential environments as industrial workplaces or technical spaces of ships
[28] should be assessed with special protocols to minimize health risks and accident
(mainly for people with special requirements). It is important to highlight that both
ISO and EN workgroups are preparing two other standards for the assessment of
moderate and hot environment.
4.8 Supporting Standards
These documents are crucial because they provides basic input parameters for
the measurement/assessment, the calculation of indices and, finally, for medical
issues related to the assessment of thermal environments.
62
ISO EN 11399
The purpose of this document, issued in 1995, is to specify information to al-
low the correct, effective and practical use of all standards concerned with the ergo-
nomics of the thermal environments. Despite several standards here mentioned have
been revised and new standards have been published, this standard is now outdated.
ISO EN 13731
The peculiarity of this standard - issued in 2001 and presently under revision
is the unification of terms and definitions adopted by the standards of the field.
Consequently, users and workgroups who have the task of writing the rules have a
clear picture on the name of the different quantities, their significance and the sym-
bols. This is not easy, especially because the field of the thermal environment in-
volves a wide variety of skills (e.g. ergonomists, architects, doctors, engineers) and
creating a common language is the precondition for a mutual comprehension and a
correct application.
ISO EN 9920
Clothing is a behavioral thermoregulation factor: it affects the heat balance
on the human body (in terms of thermal insulation and vapor resistance) and,
consequently, comfort and stress indices [29].
The first version of ISO Standard 9920 appeared in 1995 with the title Ergo-
nomics of the thermal environment: Estimation of the thermal insulation and evapo-
rative resistance of a clothing ensemble. It was mainly based upon studies carried
out in US at the Kansas State University [30] and J.B. Pierce Laboratories [31] and
in Denmark at the DTU [32].
The document has been strongly revised taking into account results from
researches on the effects of body movements and wind [33-35] and the characteriza-
tion of thermo-physical properties of clothing [36]. The present version has issued in
2007, revised in 2008 ad adopted by the CEN in 2009. It is an exhaustive document
about clothing, with more than one hundred pages and about 60 references. It reports
the definition and the meaning of the quantities involved in the thermo-physical
characterization of clothing (e.g. air insulation, total insulation, basic insulation), the
measurement methods, the formulas to be used for the correction of basic values
and, finally, special tables reporting clothing thermal insulation and the water vapor
resistance of garments and clothing ensemble with different levels of detail.
ISO EN 8996
Metabolic rate is one of the two personal parameters affecting the heat balan-
ce on human body and related comfort/stress indices. ISO Standard 8996, issued in
1990 with the title Ergonomics - Determination of metabolic heat production, it has
been revised and published in 2004. At screening level, it provides the data to use
for simply and easily characterizing the mean workload for a given occupation or for
a given activity by means of special tables (mainly based upon studies carried out
by Spitzer et al. [37]) at different detail. It is presently under revision.
63
ISO EN 7726
ISO Standard 7726, firstly issued in 1985, has remained unchanged since
1988. New advances of the research on instruments, measurement methods and
more and more miniaturized sensors have leaded to a revision, presently under pro-
gress.
ISO 12894 and ISO 9886 Standards
The application of ISO 12894 and ISO 8996 Standards is restricted to severe
environments. The first deals with screening methods for persons exposed to hot and
cold conditions, the second with measurement and interpretation methods of
physiological quantities (e.g. skin temperature, core temperature, heart rate and
gross body mass loss).
5 Conclusions
Despite the history of standardization in the field of the thermal environment
is quite young, it is very complex and in continuous evolution. This is mainly due to
the progresses in research and the impressive activity of ISO and CEN involved
groups. Here is only discussed standards in force, but new ones are already in prepa-
ration.
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ASHRAE Transactions, 88 (1982), 1, pp. 1077-1094.
[31] Nishi, Y., Gonzalez, R.R., Gagge, A.P., Direct measurement of clothing heat
transfer properties during sensible and insensible heat exchange with thermal
environments, ASHRAE Transactions, 81 (1975), 2, pp. 183-199.
[32] Olesen, B.W., Sliwinska, E., Madsen, T.L., Fanger, P.O., Effect of Body
Posture and Activity on the Thermal Insulation of Clothing: Measurements by a
Movable Thermal Manikin, ASHRAE Transactions, 88 (1982), 2, pp. 791-805.
[33] Havenith, G., Holmr, I., den Hartog, E.A., Parsons, K.C., Clothing evapo-
rative heat resistance. Proposal for improved representation in standards and
models, Annals of Occupational Hygiene, 43 (1999), pp. 339-346.
[34] Parsons, K., Havenith, G., Holmr, I., Nilsson, H., Malchaire, J.B., The
Effects of Wind and Human Movement on the Heat and Vapour Transfer Pro-
perties of Clothing, Annals of Occupational Hygiene, 43 (1999), 5, pp. 347-352.
[35] Havenith, G., Nilsson, H., Correction of clothing insulation for movement and
wind effects, a meta-analysis, European Journal of Applied Physiology, 92
(2004), pp. 636-640.
[36] ASTM F2370-10, Standard Test Method for Measuring the Evaporative Re-
sistance of Clothing Using a Sweating Manikin, American Society of Testing
and Materials International Philadelphia, 2010.
[37] Spitzer, H., Hettinger, T., Kaminsky, G., Tafeln fr den Energieumsatz bei
krperlicher Arbeit, Beuth Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1982.
66
ISPITIVANJE KARAKTERISTIKA SISTEMA I
REKONSTRUKCIJA U CILJU OPTIMIZACIJE
POSTOJEEG SISTEMA SA GEOTERMALNOM
TOPLOTNOM PUMPOM U ZONI SA OTRIM
KLIMATSKIM USLOVIMA U KINI
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE INVESTIGATION AND
OPTIMIZATION RETROFIT OF AN EXISTING GSHP
SYSTEM IN THE SEVERE COLD ZONE IN CHINA
Ping CUI,
Shandong Jianzhu University, sdcuiping@sdjzu.edu.cn
Haipeng AN
Shandong Jianzhu University, anhaipeng1992@163.com
Haiyang JIANG
Shandong Jianzhu University, 932927750@qq.com
Neki sistemi sa geotermalnom toplotnom pumpom koji se trenutno koriste u
hladnim regionima imaju prilino veliku potronju energije zbog neodgovarajueg
projekta, konstrukcije ili drugih razloga. U ovoj studiji izabran je postojei sistem
sa geotermalnom toplotnom pumpom za analizu stvarnih radnih karakteristika u
hladnom regionu merenjem temperature na ulazu/izlazu vode, protoka fluida koji
cirkulie i potronje energije. Korienjem profesionalnog programa za geotermal-
ne toplotne pumpe Geostar, izvrena je simulacija procesa prenosa toplote izme-
njivaa geotermalne toplote za 20 godina rada. Na osnovu rezultata analize utvr-
eno je sledeih nekoliko problema u postojeem sistemu: (1) Godinja neravnotea
podzemne toplote je prilino velika usled dueg perioda grejanja i veeg grejnog
optereenja u poreenju sa sezonom hlaenja. U ovom projektu godinja ekstrakcija
toplote tokom zime bila je tri puta vea od koliine odbaene toplote tokom leta. (2)
Broj buotina u tlu je vei za sluaj hlaenja, a nedovoljan za sluaj grejanja, to
dovodi do velikog protoka fluida i manje tempraturne razlike tokom leta. (3) Nedos-
tatak neophodne automatske opreme za monitoring i neodgovarajue strategije
upravljanja takoe su uzrokovali veliku potronju energije. (4) Na osnovu izmere-
nih podataka ukupan koeficijent uinka (COP) sistema sa geotermalnom toplotnom
pumpom bio je 1.8 u sluaju hlaenja i 1.4 u sluaju grejanja.
Kljune rei: zona sa otrim klimatskim uslovima, geotermalna toplotna
pumpa, toplotni bilans, vrednovanje karakteristika (uinka), mera za utedu energije
The energy consumption of some ground source heat pump (GSHP) systems
which are currently used in cold regions is significant high due to the improper
67
design, construction or other issues. In this study, an existing GSHP system was
chosen to analyze the actual operating performance in cold region by measuring the
inlet/outlet water temperatures, circulating fluid flow rate and the power consump-
tion. The heat transfer process of the ground heat exchanger was simulated for 20
years operation by means of a professional GSHP program Geostar. The following
several problems of the existing system have been found according to the diagnosis
results: (1) The annual underground thermal imbalance is quite serious, due to the
longer heating time and the larger heating load compared to the cooling season. In
this project, the annual extraction heat in winter was over 3 times amount of the
heat rejected during the summer. (2) The number of the buried boreholes is larger
for cooling case and insufficient for heating case, which leads to a large fluid flow
rate and small temperature difference in summer. (3) Lack of the necessary automa-
tic monitoring equipment and improper management strategies also caused high
energy consumption. (4) According to the measured data, the overall COP of the
GSHP system was 1.8 in cooling and 1.4 in heating case.
Key words:severe cold zone, ground source heat pump, thermal balance, per-
formance evaluation, energy-saving measure
1 Introduction
In recent years, the air quality in China is becoming serious partly because of
the increase of coal-fired heating system, especially in the severe cold area[1]. It is
urgent to find renewable or sustainable energy to replace the conventional coal-fired
boiler. In this situation, the ground source heat pump (GSHP) technology recently
has been popularized in northern China. However in the early years when GSHP
technology was just applied in building heating/cooling system in China, some pro-
jects were conducted with the incorrect design method, construction and wrong
commissioning because of the lack of design/construction specifications. The GSHP
potential problems have been gradually exposed, especially the GSHP systems in
cold regions [2-3].
The most serious problem of the single GSHPGSHP system in the cold area
is the annual thermal imbalance of underground heat ex-changer, which may cause
other problems. Therefore, it is necessary to diagnose and find the common prob-
lems for the GSHP systems in the cold area. Based on this background, this paper
takes the project of GSHP system in a freight train station in the northern part of
Shanxi Province, China as a case study. The data collection system of GSHP project
was designed to measure the operating data and the performance.
The GSHP system in this case was designed to provide heating/cooling for
two office buildings with 4 floors and a total construction area of 7850m2. The
system was installed in August 2010 and put into use in November 2010. The gro-
und heat exchanger consists of 216 boreholes with 100 m depth. Three sets of screw
GSHP units were designed to provide summer cooling and winter heating and 1 set
of GSHP unit with scroll compressor was used to provide the annual domestic hot
water (not currently used). Figure 1 is the photo of the GSHP equipment plant in the
68
station. The heating time is up to 165 days, and the summer cooling time is only 30
days. The GSHP system has been running for 4 years, which showed some serious
problems such as high power consumption, high initial cost and low operating cost.
Fig.1 Photo of GSHP equipment plant
2 Data collection system

The basic situation of the system was mastered through the site survey inclu-
ding the basic information of the operation mode, on/off sequence, the operation and
management of the system. Based on the results of site survey, the data acquisition
system for GSHP system was designed and constructed in order to install the flow
rate meters, temperature sensors and the electric transformer. The objectives of the
data collection systems are as follows:
(1) To monitor the real-time operating data which includes the inlet and out-
let water temperature and flow rate, equipment power consumption.
(2) To calculate the system COP and the unit COP according to the data col-
lected.
(3) To measure the system operation effect. The actual heating and the coo-
ling effect can be estimated by testing the temperature and humidity of the indoor
air.
The basic parameters of the sensors and equipment are listed as follows:
Table 1 system testing instruments and accuracy

sensors Sensor model Test range Test accuracy
Temperature sensor JWB/PT100 0100 0.2
flow rate meter KLDL-150 0.2m/s10m/s 0.5% of full scale
Current transmitter WEI919(10A) 0A100A 0.5% of full scale
(10A,30A,50A,100A
69
2.1 The design of data acquisition system
The data acquisition system consists of a data collector and storage center,
sensors, communication cable and other equipment. The measured data can be tran-
sformed to the storage center through the communication cable. The data center
converts the AC signal to DC 24V signal through the conversion module and tran-
smits back to the data storage center.
Fig. 2 flow chart of data collection system

2.2 Installation of the test equipment
The data collection system includes 5 temperature sensors, 3 flow sensors
and 14 current transmitters. The position of each sensor was determined according to
the test requirements, as shown in the following figure.
Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of measuring point positions of data collection system
70
3 Data analysis
The operation data of the GSHP system were collected during a whole coo-
ling and heating season, and the collection time step is 10min.
3.1 Analysis of flow rate
Fig. 4 The measured circulating fluid flow rates of load

and source sides in cooling mode
Fig. 5 The measured circulating fluid flow rates of load

and source sides in heating mode
The designed flow rate of the pump in the load side was calculated to be
73.6m3/h in cooling mode and 63m3/h in heating mode. It can be seen that the ave-
rage value of the measured flow rate is much greater than the designed value both in
cooling and heating modes. The designed flow rate of pump in ground side is
93.8m3/h in cooling mode and 77m3/h in heating mode. It is estimated that the
pump head is too large; resulting in the actual flow rate is greater than the designed
value. The measured data shows that the whole system is operating under the poor
mode of "large flow rate and small temperature difference", which definitely causes
a high energy consumption. The comparison between the calculated flow rate and
the measured flow rate is given in the table.
71
Table 2 Comparisons of designed and measured flow rates
Heating or Load/source Designed flow rate Measured flow rate
cooling season side m3/h m3/h
summer load side 73.6 112.8
source side 93.8 98.15
winter load side 63 125.8
source side 77 105.8
3.2 Temperature variation analysis

Because of the large amount of data, the temperature data were averaged
every three days in the summer and every five days in winter to analysis the whole
variation trend of the temperatures. Figures 6-7 describe the variations of the return
temperature and the temperature differences between the supply and return water of
the source side and source side in cooling mode. Figures 8-9 describe the temperatu-
res in heating mode.
Fig. 6 Fluid temperature variation of source side in cooling mode

The return water temperature of the source side was increased from 10.5 to
12.1 during the whole cooling season, with a small increase of 1.6; the tempe-
rature of the source side was decreased from 9.4 to 7.3 during the heating mode
with a drop of 2.1. It can be seen that the extraction heat from the ground in
winter is much larger than the heat rejected into the ground in summer because of
the large difference of the heating and cooling loads. Therefore, the heat imbalance
is very difficult to supplement through the heat transfer from the surrounding soil
during the non heating season. Therefore, the water temperature from the ground in
heating mode is decreased year by year.
72
Fig. 7 water temperature differences of load and source sides in cooling mode
Fig. 8 Fluid temperature variation of source side in heating mode
73
Fig. 9 Water temperature differences of load and source sides in heating mode
3.3 Analysis of system performance
Fig. 10 system performance in cooling mode (COP)
Fig. 11 System performance in heating mode (COP)
74
It can be seen from the figures that the average value of the system perfor-
mance (COP) was only 1.8 in cooling mode and 1.4 in the most time of heating
season The low performance of the system was caused by the following two reasons,
one is the thermal imbalance of the underground and the other is the poor operation
mode of "large flow and small temperature difference" which caused a large amount
of pump power consumption.
3.4 Thermal imbalance analysis
Fig. 12 Underground temperature variation curve

The underground soil temperature was simulated by Geostar simulation
software [4-5]. It can be seen from the simulation results that the temperatures inclu-
ding the soil temperature are decreased with the operation time because of the large
heat extraction and small heat rejection. The inlet temperature of the heat pump
reaches negative value after 13 years' operation. The simulation results demonstrate
that the system may be collapsed after a few years operation.
4 Diagnostic conclusions
The following several problems of the existing system have been found
according to the diagnosis results:
(1) The annual underground thermal imbalance is quite serious, due to the
longer heating time and the larger heating load compared to the cooling season. In
this project, the annual extraction heat in winter was over 3 times amount of the heat
rejected during the summer.
(2) The number of the buried boreholes is larger for cooling case and insuffi-
cient for heating case, which leads to a large fluid flow rate and small temperature
difference in summer.
75
(3) Lack of the necessary automatic monitoring equipment and improper
management strategies also caused high energy consumption.
(4) According to the measured data, the overall COP of the GSHP system
was 1.8 in cooling and1.4 in heating case. The winter heating consumption index
reached 0.33GJ per square meter, far more than the 0.24GJ index under local energy
conservation standards.
5 Transformation measures
According to the diagnostic conclusions and the simulation results, the
following reasonable energy-saving renovation measures have been pointed out to
improve the system performance:
(1)An air source heat pump (ASHP) is suggested to solve the problem of
thermal imbalance in the underground as an auxiliary heating source; and the opti-
mal operation strategy of the hybrid system has been proposed;
(2) It is suggested that only part of the boreholes take part in the heat rejecti-
on process since the number of the buried boreholes is over sized, which can allevia-
te the effect of cooling accumulation in the underground and improve the efficiency
of heat transfer in the tube;
(3) The existing circulating pumps are suggested to optimize to further redu-
ce the transmission energy consumption.
The study results show that: only by increasing the number of buried pipes
cannot fundamentally solve the problem of thermal imbalance of GSHP system in
the cold area. In order to keep the GSHP system high operating efficiency in the
cold area, some necessary measures should be taken to maintain the thermal balance
of the underground throughout the year. In this case where there is no suitable hea-
ting source in winter except the geothermal energy, the seasonable heat storage of an
ASHP can operate to release heat to the underground to alleviate the cooling accu-
mulation during summer or transition seasons. However, this kind of hybrid system
may increase the overall energy consumption since the thermal storage process also
consumes power by the ASHP.
Reference
[1] Yanling Wang, Fang Wang, Haiyan Wang. Heating Energy Consumption
Questionnaire and Statistical Analysis of Rural Buildings in China. Procedia
Engineering, Volume 146, 2016: 380-385.
[2] Zhijian Liu, Wei Xu, Cheng Qian, Xi Chen, Guangya Ji. Investigation on the
feasibility and performance of ground source heat pump (GSHP) in three cities
in cold climate zone, China. Renewable Energy, Volume 84, 2015: 89-96.
[3] Tian You, Wei Wu, Wenxing Shi, Baolong Wang, Xianting Li. An overview of
the problems and solutions of soil thermal imbalance of ground-coupled heat
pumps in cold regions. Applied Energy, Volume 177, 1 2016: 515-536.
76
[4] Spitler J., J. Cullin, M. Bernier, M. Kummert, P. Cui, X. Liu, E. Lee, and D.
Fisher. 2009. Preliminary intermodel comparison of ground heat exchanger
simulation models, Proceedings of 11th International Conference on Thermal
Energy Storage, Stockholm, Sweden.
[5] Ping Cui, Changliang Sun, Nairen Diao, Zhaohong Fang. Simulation Modelling
and Design Optimization of Vertical Ground Heat Exchanger-GEOSTAR Pro-
gram. Procedia Engineering, Volume 121, 2015: 906-914.
77
ULOGA DALJINSKOG HLAENJA U BUDUIM
PAMETNIM ENEGETSKIM SISTEMIMA
THE ROLE OF DISTRICT COOLING
IN THE FUTURE SMART ENERGY SYSTEMS
Oddgeir GUDMUNDSSON1,
Peter KAARUP Olsen2, Jan Eric THORSEN1
1
Danfoss A/S, Heating Segment, Application and Technology,
Nordborg, Denmark.
2
Ramboll A/S, Energy, Copenhagen S, Denmark
1
og@danfoss.com, 2pko@ramboll.com
Dosta se razmatralo o ulozi daljinskog grejanja u buduoj pametnoj ener-

getskoj infrastrukturi, ali je takoe velika uloga koju igra njegov parnjak, daljinsko
hlaenje. Daljinsko hlaenje je centralizovano reenje za obezbeivanje isplativog i
ekolokog hlaenja zgrada. Kada se govori o daljinskom hlaenju, obino se misli
da ono predstavlja reenje za toplije klime (klimatske uslove). Moda je zato
iznenaujue to to se najvee trite daljinskog hlaenja nalazi u jednoj skandi-
navskoj zemlji, u vedskoj. Drugo po veliini trite daljinskog hlaenja jeste Fran-
cuska. I pored toga to su im klime razliite, obe zemlje su shvatile velike koristi
koje prua daljinsko hlaenje, i sa stanovita ekonominosti i sa stanovita zatite
ivotne sredine. Ciljevi ovog rada su sledei: a) da istakne koristi koje daljinsko
hlaenje moe da donese gradovima i njihovim stanovnicima, b) da ukae na nekoli-
ko potencijalnih izvora hlaenja, i c) da razmotri opte probleme i najbolju praksu
za obezbeivanje stabilnog i ekonominog rada sistema.
Kljune rei: daljinska energija; hlaenje; regulacije; efikasnost
The role of district heating in future smart energy infrastructure has been
fairly well discussed but its counterpart, district cooling has as well a large role to
play. District cooling is a centralized solution for providing cost efficient and envi-
ronment friendly cooling to buildings. When considering district cooling one nor-
mally thinks that it is a solution for the warm climates. It might therefore come as a
surprise that the Europes largest district cooling market is found in a Scandinavian
country, Sweden. The second biggest district cooling market is in France. Even with
the difference in the climate both countries have identified the significant benefits
district cooling can bring, both from an economic and environmental perspective.
The purpose of this paper is to; a) underline the benefits district cooling can bring
to cities and their inhabitants, b) identify few of the potential cooling sources and c)
discuss common challenges and best practices to ensure stable and economic opera-
tion of the system.
Key words: (English) district energy; cooling; controls; efficiency
79
1 Introduction
Cooling energy demand within Europe is today low compared to countries
like U.S. and Japan. In U.S. the commercial and residential cooling saturation is
80% and 65% respectively, in Japan it is 100% and 85% respectively. Europe on the
other hand has cooling saturation of only 27% and 5% respectively [1]. The cooling
demand in Europe is therefore expected to rise significantly. Key parameters that
influence the cooling demand are building design, internal heat loads, heat island
effects, and comfort reasons. Given the current low cooling energy demand satura-
tion in Europe gives the perfect opportunity for establishing district cooling system
and avoiding investment in conventionally small scale and decentralized electric
driven compressor chillers. By avoiding the decentralized approach significant pri-
mary energy usage greenhouse gas emissions and peak electricity demand can be
avoided. Experience in the U.S. shows that fouling is a common problem in chillers,
according to the HPAC Engineering webpage the average fouling in water-cooled
chillers creates a 17% increase in energy consumption. This is not a surprise as a
biofilm of only 150 microns (0,15 mm), which is so small that it is typically over
looked, causes 5.3% increased energy consumption in cooling tower based chillers
[2].
District cooling is about outsourcing of cooling units in buildings to an exter-
nal cooling utility which has high focus on the performance and efficiency of the
cooling plants. Once the cooling utility has been formed it will establish a pipe net-
work for connecting multiple buildings to one or more cooling sources using various
resources for generating the cooling. Cooled water is circulated from the cooling
sources to the buildings, where heat exchangers are used to extract heat from its
cooling system, and then back again to the cooling sources to be cooled again. Both
the property owner and the environment benefit from this. In addition to monetary
and environment benefits there is an added supply security for the building owners.
Although the first district cooling systems were introduced in the 1930s for
cooling of the Rockefeller Center in New York and U.S. Capital Buildings in Wash-
ington DC district cooling in Europe took its first steps in 1990s. In Europe district
cooling has shown an exponential growth where it has been established, until the
local market has been saturated. Even though district cooling is reaching its 30 years
anniversary in Europe it is still a rather unknown solution and has a market share of
about 1% or 3 TWh/year [3]. Considering that Swedish district cooling system alone
delivers almost 1 TWh/year [4] the growth potential is enormous.
There are many reasons why municipalities and energy companies have start-
ed up District Cooling schemes. Reasons that are commonly named are a) synergies
with existing district heating systems, b) increased utilization of existing combined
heat and power (CHP) plants during the summer, c) new development on the market,
d) existing high cooling demand and e) demand for more green energy profiles, both
at the utility and potential consumers. Almost all energy companies that have district
cooling systems mention these points which imply that there is a business and mar-
ket driven approach.
80
Currently the main markets for district cooling in Europe are commercial
buildings, which typically need large connection capacities and cooling throughout
the year.
2 District cooling
2.1 Arguments for district cooling
Urbanisation, globalisation and rising cooling demands have led to an in-
creased interest in the environmental and economic benefits of district cooling.
Similarly as with district heating the main driving power of district cooling
comes through economy of scale, its indifference on the origin of the cooling and its
ability to maximize the operational efficiency across multiple cooling sources by
taking advantages of simultaneity of demands, which would be impossible on a
building level. This makes it more cost effective than locally based cooling such as
central air conditioning.
Besides the above mentioned power drivers there are multiple alternative
benefits, the frequently mentioned are:
District cooling substations require significantly smaller space than build-
ing level chillers and thus frees up valuable space in the building. Further,
cooling towers can be removed from for example rooftops.
District cooling typically results in significantly higher energy efficiency
through greater flexibility of optimizing cooling production over time and
cooling sources.
District cooling substations are relatively simple and well proven technolo-
gy through decades of usage in district heating systems, thus resulting in
lower maintenance costs than building level cooling units.
District cooling both reduces and optimizes electrical loads over the day,
leading to significantly reduced electrical peaks. Reduction through greater
efficiency and possibility of utilizing free cooling or heat driven cooling
units and optimized by decoupling demand and production by utilizing
large scale thermal storage. For example is seasonal storage with ATES
(Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage) a possibility for both free cooling and
utilisation stored cooling / heating energy in peak demand periods.
District cooling reduces HFC handling.
District cooling is a silent system - no noise at the building which increases
the comfort for users.
District cooling has architectural advantages, i.e. no need to consider cool-
ing fans, chillers and other auxiliary systems.
District cooling has been shown to contribute to higher building value
through its multiple benefits.
District cooling has less demand for technical staff on building level (build-
ing owners / operators)
District cooling is environmental beneficial
81
District cooling increases energy security by utilizing local sources and
maximizing efficiency of all cooling units.
District cooling is a very resilient technology. The system can be operated
from all cooling sources. The system can quickly adapt to fuel price pres-
sure through pooled cooling sources and multi-fuel plants.
With co-production of district heating with heat pumps, it can be possible
to achieve very compatible heating and cooling tariffs.
2.2 Benefits of district cooling in terms of savings for Europe
District cooling can greatly reduce the peak power demand during the cooling
season. A great example was documented in Cleveland in 1994/95, see Figure 1.
Figure 1. Example of how district cooling could change the

electrical demand profile across the year [5].
District cooling could avoid electrical capacity requirements of 50 GWe and
investments of 30 billion Euro or 30-40% of the investment for new district cooling
infrastructure. District cooling would save 50-60 TWhe per year, equivalent to pow-
er consumption of Greece. District cooling would save 40-60 million tons of CO2
per year (15% of Europe's share in the Kyoto protocol) [1].
On country level can as an example be mentioned Cooling Plan Denmark [6],
which states that the potential for district cooling in the country of Denmark is esti-
mated to be about 2.4 GW cooling. This would result in an enormous socio-
economic saving of approx. 1.3 billion EUR.
82
3 Cooling sources
District cooling can be produced using a range of very different techniques
which are often combined in order to utilise local conditions as efficiently as possi-
ble and provide security of supply and very stable cooling prices. Producing district
cooling in conjunction with district heating is especially smart, because we often
need cooling when we least need heating, which ensures high utilization of com-
bined heat and power plants throughout the year.
For direct use of cooling sources they typically need to have temperatures be-
low 6C. Higher temperature cooling sources can be used in combination with heat
pumps. The typical supply temperature of the district cooling water is 4-6C, can be
higher in certain cooling processes. The typical return temperature is 12-16C.
There are number of free cooling sources, the most common ones involves
utilising cold water from ground water (aquifers), seas, lakes or other waterways.
Other free cooling sources are outdoor air or even snow collected during the winter
and stored in large storages.
Absorption cooling is a technique utilising the thermal energy generated in
combined heat and power plants, waste incinerations or surplus heat from industry to
drive an absorption heat pump for cooling down the district cooling water. The ab-
sorption heat pump would generally be located centrally but in case of a high tem-
perature district heating system the absorption heat pumps could be located de-
centrally and fed by the district heating system.
Electrically driven heat pumps are able to produce both heating and cooling
at the same time. These heat pumps are currently the most common way of produc-
ing district cooling in Sweden, due to the very good economy when both the heat
and cool can used. Already today there are many district heating utilities using heat
pumps using various heat sources, for example sea water and waste water, it could
therefore be cost efficient for these utilities to start running district cooling systems.
3.1 Practical example of utilization of pooled cooling sources
When pooling together various cooling sources significant economic benefits
can be achieved. If free cooling sources are available, such as sea, lakes or rivers
they can provide the majority of cooling demand during the colder months of the
year. During the summer these cooling sources tend to warm up and therefore other
and more expensive cooling sources need to be operated. In case there is a power
plant nearby it would be natural to use absorption chillers, which can utilize the
waste heat from the power production. This would of course also apply to existing
CHP plants, which typically have over capacity of heat during the summer months.
On top of these electrical chillers, the most expensive units to operate, can be used to
provide peak capacity.
For determining where district cooling is applicable Ramboll has developed a
unique tool, DCmapper, which is able to identify areas with district cooling poten-
tial, by gathering information regarding the cooling demand and geographical loca-
tion of buildings. These pieces of information are then measured against the differ-
83
ence between the preliminary expenses of a local cooling facility and a district cool-
ing system, respectively.
Figure 2. Example of utilization of different cooling source in a pooled district

cooling network. The figure is from Stockholm, Sweden [3].
4 Distribution network
A district energy system could look like shown below.
Figure 3. Supply concept for combined district cooling and heating.

Figure 4 shows the approach existing buildings are marked with green and
circles are drawn around the buildings with estimated cooling demand. Then as long
as the circles intersect each other it could be economical to build the district cooling
network. This could be a simple way to assess the cooling density in different areas
and cover the network size.
84
Figure 4. Example of mapping potential district cooling areas.
Figure 5 shows how district cooling system could look like once the initial
mapping has been performed and the most economically feasible area has been
chosen.
Figure 5. Example of a district cooling pipe network. Cooling capacity / demand of

building areas are mapped.
Hydraulic/thermal analysis of district cooling networks is carried out to find
the right pipe dimensions in the district cooling network. This includes steady-state
and dynamic modelling, with focus on surge analysis. The hydraulic analysis is also
a very important part of feasibility studies for investigating the potential for district
cooling in different areas.
Different pipe types can be used for district cooling pipe network. It could be
HDPE pipes or pre-insulated steel pipes similar as used for district heating. Pre-
85
insulated pipes ensure low energy increase and low temperature increase, which
could be of large significance in some projects / climate zones.
5 Substations
District cooling substations are from the conceptual layout very similar to in-
direct DH substations for heating, see Figure 6. The difference is mainly that due to
the lower dT between flow and return, typically a factor 4, the diameters of e.g.
pipes and vale sizes are typically double for the same capacity. Special focus has to
be put on the design of the heat exchanger regarding temperature sets. Its common
to specify heat exchangers with temperature difference from primary to secondary
side of 1,0 to 2,0C. A typical temperature set could be 8/16C 17/9C, giving a
dT of 8C for primary and secondary side.
The substations are industrial prefabricated and typically offered on a frame
in one or multiple sections depending on the size.
Figure 6. Typical prefabricated indirect substation for district cooling.

Figure 7 shows a one cirquit substation. The substations can be of multible
circuits either due to different secondary temperature demands or due to capacity.
To avoid condensate on the surfaces of the substation its recommended to
apply airtight insulation.
A difference compared to a substation for district heating systems is the
freezing protection bypass. This bypass is relevant to activate in the case of low
ambient temperatures in combination with no cooling demand. Optionally are paral-
lel coupled control valves. If they are with integrated dP controllers, one control vale
is sufficient for providing the needed range ability and control performance.
86
Figure 7. Typical schematic diagram of indirect substation for district cooling.
6 Building installations
District cooling systems as such are invariant about the building installation.
The only requirement to the building installation is that the cooling within the build-
ing originates from a central place, where the district cooling system can be con-
nected to the district cooling system via heat exchanger.
To ensure efficient operation of the district cooling system it is necessary to
run the building cooling installation so that sufficient heating of the district cooling
water supply can be achieved, i.e. to ensure as high temperature difference as possi-
ble between the supply and the return
7 Common challenges
There are number of common challenges when running district cooling sys-
tems, below are few of the most common ones.
Large upfront investments when few cooling costumer agreements are
made / few cooling customers connected
Finding space for the district cooling facilities: Technical components (in
a building), thermal storage, pipe tracing (large dimensions) especially in
city centre areas
Ensuring noise reduction of very large chillers / heat pumps, but it is a
challenge that can be solved with sufficient insulation components
Low temperature difference between the supply and return, commonly
known as low dT syndrome.
All of those challenges can be overcome by sticking to good preparation
work, known solutions and focused operation.
87
8 Driving factors for district cooling
A common nominator for district cooling system is the strong growth once it
is started, the growth typically continues until the market is fully saturated few years
later. Great examples can be seen in Stockholm and Helsinki, see figure
Figure 8. District cooling growth in Stockholm [3].
Figure 9. District cooling growth in Helsinki from 1998 to 2012

and project growth to 2030 [3].
88
Driving factors behind the general strong growth seen when district cooling
systems are constructed are:
Increasing affordability
Shifts in comfort culture, behavioural patterns and consumer expectation
Increase in internal heat loads (computers etc.)
Increase in urban heat island phenomenon and a general trend towards
higher temperatures
Perception that comfort cooling contribute to higher productivity
Movement to universal building designs which are poorly adapted to the
local climatic conditions
Market experience from US shows that once 20% of the office space in a city
is air conditioned it sets the rental value and un-cooled space can only be rented out
at discount price.
9 Conclusions
It is a fact already today more energy is used to cool buildings then heating
buildings. The energy need for cooling is also expected to grow in the future along
with higher comfort requirements from emerging markets. To fulfil the growing
cooling demand more and more countries are realizing the district cooling provides a
simple, easy and cost efficient way to provide cooling with high quality and con-
sistent comfort. Further benefits of district cooling are that it provides the ultimate
means to take advantage of renewable energy sources in a cost and environmentally
efficient way.
In cases where an existing district heating system has been in a city it has
proven to be rather simple to start district cooling systems because the consumers
then know the technology and the benefits it brings. It has further been shown that
even in colder regions, like Sweden and Finland, district cooling has been shown to
be very economically attractive, which should give a good indication on the attrac-
tiveness in warmer regions.
When planning, building and operating the district cooling systems it is very
important to do it right to avoid running into a situation that can greatly impact the
cost efficiency of the whole system. By adhering to best practices the future of dis-
trict cooling is bright.
10 References
[1] ECHOHEATCOOL - Possibilities with more district cooling in Europe, Euro-
heat & Power, 2006
[2] Robert R Peterson, Process Control using Deposit Monitor for Energy Savings
and Maintenance Reduction,
http://www.eh2o.com/Literature/Deposit%20Monitor%20White%20Paper.pdf ,
accessed 25.10.2016.
[3] RESCUE EU District Cooling Market and Trends, Capital Cooling, 2014
89
[4] Country by Country Statistics, Euroheat and Power, 2015.
[5] IDEA - Frequently Asked Questions, http://www.districtenergy.org/idea-faqs,
accessed 25.10.2016.
[6] Kleplan Danmark, Danish District Heating Association, April 2016
90
REENJA ZGRADA ZA SNABDEVANJE
NISKOTEMPERATURNE TOPLOTE
BUILDING SOLUTIONS
FOR LOW TEMPERATURE HEAT SUPPLY
Oddgeir GUDMUNDSSON,
Jan Eric THORSEN, Marek BRAND
Danfoss A/S, Heating Segment, Application and Technology,
Nordborg, Denmark.
og@danfoss.com
Kod niskotemperaturnog daljinskog grejanja vana dobra regulacija na

strani potroaa kako bi se postiglo potrebno hlaenje u snabdevanju. Niska tem-
peratura snabdevanja kao takva ne predstavlja veliki problem za termostatske radi-
jatorske regulatore. Kada je re o potronoj toploj vodi, niska temperatura snab-
devanja moe da izazove probleme u vezi sa razmnoavanjem legionele. Zbog toga
je vano koristiti ureaje za pripremu potrone tople vode koji mogu da pripremaju
toplu vodu tako da se minimizira rizik od razmnoavanja legionele. Najbolji nain
da se izbegne legionela jeste da se u svakom datom trenutku ogranii zapremina i
vreme u kojem se potrona topla voda odrava na temperaturama na kojima se
legionela razmnoava. U porodinim kuama to se jednostavno postie pravilnim
podeavanjem interfejsa (spoja) za grejanje potroaa (consumer heating interface)
i voenjem rauna da razdaljina izmeu interfejsa (spoja) potroaa i mesta upo-
trebe vode bude to manja i da zapremina vode ne bude vea od 3 litre. Kada je re
o zgradama za vie porodica, to je malo komplikovanije, jer postoji centralizovana
priprema potrone tople vode koja zatim cirkulie u zgradi. Temperatura vode koja
cirkulie se zatim regulie tako da iznosi najmanje 50-55C, kako bi se spreilo
razmnoavanje legionele. Ovaj nain pripreme potrone tople vode postavlja
ogranienje za to koliko nisku temperaturu snabdevanja mogu da koriste sistem
daljinskog grejanja ili drugi decentralizovani izvori toplote. Da bi se to vie sman-
jila temperatura snabdevanja, neophodno je da priprema potrone vode u zgradama
za vie porodica bude to blia mestu korienja. To se moe postii upotrebom
podstanice u svakom stanu (flat station). Tako se priprema potrone tople vode
izmeta iz podruma do podstanice (flat station) u svakom stanu.
Kljune rei: priprema potrone tople vode, daljinsko grejanje, podstanice u
stanovima, niskotemperaturno daljinsko grejanje
When utilizing low-temperature district heating it becomes important to

achieve good control at the consumer side to meet the required cooling of the sup-
ply. The low supply temperature as such is not a big concern for thermostatic radia-
tor controls. When it comes to the domestic hot water the low supply temperature
91
can cause challenges when it comes to Legionella growth. It is therefore important
to apply domestic hot water preparation units that can prepare the hot water with
minimized risk of Legionella growth. The best way to avoid Legionella is to limit the
volume and the time that the domestic hot water is kept at Legionella growth tem-
peratures at any given time. For single family buildings this can easily be done by
right setup of the consumer heating interface and ensuring that the distance between
the consumer interface and the point of usage is as small as possible and has less
than 3 liters of water volume. When it comes to multifamily buildings it becomes a
bit trickier as from historical reason the domestic hot water typically is prepared
centrally and then circulated around the building. The temperature of the circula-
tion is then controlled to keep a minimum of 50-55C, to prevent Legionella growth.
This way of domestic hot water preparation puts a limit on how low supply tempera-
ture can be used by the district heating scheme or alternatively by other decentral-
ized heat sources. To be able to reduce the supply temperature as much as possible
it becomes a necessity to move the domestic hot water preparation in multifamily
buildings as close to the point of use as possible. This can be achieved by applying
flat stations at each flat. The domestic hot water preparation is then moved from the
basement to the flat station at each flat.
Key words: domestic hot water preparation, district heating, flat stations,
low-temperature district heating
1 Introduction
District energy has for the last couple of years been receiving increased
awareness in energy strategy plans of governments and cities and is seen as one of
the key drivers for reducing CO2 emissions by opening up for large-scale applica-
tion of renewable heat sources. When looking on the generations of district heating
(DH) it is clear that the supply temperature has been continuously decreasing [3].
With the increased share of energy efficient buildings the trend is becoming a must
to ensure cost efficiency of the DH systems. Lower supply temperature means not
only reduced heat loss from the DH network but also higher efficiency of the applied
heat source and easier exploitation of low-grade renewable sources. It is therefore
clear that low supply temperature gives both better economy and increased options
for utilization of low-grade waste heat.
Although reduced supply temperatures have positive results on the energy ef-
ficiency of the heat generation process and the distribution there is another factor
that needs to be considered, the heat delivery at the buildings. Traditionally the heat-
ing installations have been designed according to current norms. This generally
means that the older the building is the higher supply temperature the heat emitters
were designed for. This causes potential mismatch between low-temperature district
heating (LTDH) and installed heat emitters in the buildings. However, this potential
mismatch between LTDH and building heat installation design parameters are only
applicable at a part of the heating season, most of the time it should be possible to
fulfill the building heat demand using low temperature supply.
92
2 Consumer interface principles
In general there are three connection principles for connecting the space heat-
ing installation with the district heating network, a) indirect connected, b) direct
connected with mixing loop and c) direct connected, see Figures 1 to 3. For multi-
apartment buildings the same principles are applied in the flat stations. If the net-
work pressure is higher than PN10 only indirect connections can be applied.
Figure 1. Indirect connected substation.
Figure 2. Direct connected substation with a mixing loop.

In general a) is recommended due to hydraulic separation between the district
heating network and the space heating installation. If direct connected system is
applied the mixing loop is the recommended alternative to the indirect connection. If
floor heating is applied only a) or b) should be used.
3 Heat emitters
When it comes to LTDH it becomes important that the space heating system
is designed to operate with the low temperature supply. The heat emitting units in
the buildings can be floor heating or radiators. Floor heating generally require tem-
93
peratures less than 40C, due to their large heating surfaces. Radiators however
require higher supply temperatures, due to their small heating surfaces, to fulfill the
heating demand. This means that floor heating systems fulfill the requirements set
by LTDH and therefore from this point forward only radiators are considered.
Figure 3. Direct connected substation.

3.1 Radiators
Studies have shown that radiators in existing houses, from 1970s, have tradi-
tionally been oversized and can operate with low supply temperatures large part of
the year and almost fully with only small building energy renovations [4].
Figure 4. Percentage of hours during a year with required supply temperatures to

achieve 20C indoor temperature in typical 1970s building in Denmark.
94
Figure 4 indicates that even in non-renovated buildings from 1970s the heat-
ing system can operate with supply temperature as low as 50C almost 79% of the
year and rarely needs supply temperatures higher than 60C. With only minor reno-
vations, new energy efficient windows, supply temperature of 50C is sufficient for
93% of the year and higher supply temperatures than 60C are not needed. In case
extensive energy efficiency renovations are either not economically feasible or too
complicated, low temperature radiators could be installed, bringing in the potential
benefits achieved with low supply temperatures.
3.1.1 Radiator space heating control
Although space heating control when applying LTDH is in general the same
as when applying traditional DH there are some points that differentiate. Due to the
low supply temperatures it becomes very important to achieve accurate control to
limit the flow rate and achieve the design cooling of the supply.
To minimize the risk of overflow in radiators thermostatic radiator valves
(TRV) with a pre-setting function should be used. The purpose of the thermostat
function is to adjust the flow to achieve the desired room temperature. The purpose
of the pre-setting is to limit the maximum flow through the valve to the design de-
mand. Properly set pre-set function will significantly increase the hydraulic balance
in the heating loop.
To ensure proper operating condition for the TRVs it is important to install a
differential pressure controller. The differential pressure controller will ensure a
stable differential pressure at the correct level across the heating installation, typical-
ly pr. heating riser of the building.
To limit the impact of wrong setting of the TRVs a return limiter can be in-
stalled at the radiator outlets. The purpose of the return limiter is to ensure that a
preset return temperature from each radiator is not exceeded.
4 Domestic hot water systems

When applying LTDH particular focus needs to be put in the DHW interface
and the DHW installation. Due to the low supply temperature instantaneous DHW
preparation is required along with optimum design of the DHW installation in terms
of pipe distances and volume.
For supply temperature above 50C it is possible to apply instantaneous
DHW applications using high efficiency heat exchangers. The recommended DHW
control is a proportional flow controller with a differential pressure controller, a
temperature sensor and inbuilt idling function. The proportional function of the flow
controller will ensure quick initial reaction when taping occurs and that the valve is
either fully closed or operating with the idling function when no tapping is occur-
ring. The idling function is a reduced temperature set point when there is no taping.
The instantaneous applications can be with or without storage tank. Schematic of an
instantaneous DHW application, with and without a thermal storage, can be seen in
the following figures:
95
Figure 5. Instantaneous DHW application with a dP controller
and thermostatic and proportional DHW controller.
Figure 6. Primary side storage tank and instantaneous DHW preparation.

The difference between the two instantaneous solutions is that if primary side
storage tank is applied it is possible to reduce the connection capacity which results
in reduced sizes of the service pipes. However, the additional heat loss from the
storage tank needs to be considered in connection with the reduced heat loss in the
service pipes. Overall the heat loss will in general be lower from the instantaneous
solution without the storage tank and the comfort will be higher.
4.1 Idling functions
An important factor when it comes to DHW preparation is to limit the wait-
ing time for the hot water. Commonly applied solutions to limit waiting times are: a)
minimize the pipe distances and dimensions from the DHW unit to the taps and b) to
keep the supply pipe and in some cases the DHW heat exchanger warm during non-
tapping periods by using by-passes.
The DHW unit can be kept warm with a by-pass from the supply pipe to the
return pipe, by-pass over the control valve or by applying set-back temperatures at
the heat exchanger. Figures 7-9 show examples of possible by-pass functions.
96
Figure 7. By-pass from the supply to the return line,
service pipe kept warm but the heat exchanger kept cold.
Figure 8. By-pass over the control valve, heat exchanger and

service pipe kept warm.
Figure 9. By-pass by applying set-back temperature on the control valve to keep the
service pipe and the heat exchanger warm.
97
The choice of the by-pass function will both impact the waiting time for hot
water reaching the tap and the heat loss experienced.
Bacterial concerns
It is well-known that warm water provides favorable conditions for bacterial
growth. In hot water systems mainly the Legionella bacteria is considered. Legionel-
la growth is a risk in large volume of standstill water with optimum growth condi-
tion at temperatures between 30C and 45C.
The approach proposed in relation to LTDH regarding the risk of Legionella
is to minimize the DHW installation volume to less than 3 liters and only heat up
fresh cold water when taping occurs, i.e. no hot water circulation. With this ap-
proach there will be no still standing water as once a taping occurs the existing water
volume is completely replaced with new fresh water. In between tapings the hot
water in the DHW pipes is allowed to cool down to room temperature.
5 Conclusions
It is clear that the industry is ready for the 4th generation district heating, low-
temperature district heating, and all the necessary technologies are already available.
For existing district heating systems it is important to start already today to
specify high performance control equipment and heat exchangers to facilitate the
future transition from their current operation to the 4th generation district heating.
By specifying low temperature district heating supply temperatures signifi-
cant reduction of the heat loss can be achieved, leading to more efficient distribu-
tion. Further benefits of reduced supply temperatures are the increased potential to
access local low temperature renewable heat sources and increased efficiency of
existing heat sources.
The future of district heating as an energy efficient infrastructure is bright
and will without doubt play a vital role towards achieving the ambitious goals of
limiting the global climate change from human activities.
6 References
[1] DWGW Arbeitsblat W551, Technische Regel, April 2004.
[2] Thorsen, J.E. Analysis on Flat Station Concept. The 12th International Sympo-
sium on District Heating and Cooling, Tallinn, Estonia, 2010.
[3] Lund, H. et. al., 4th Generation District Heating (4GDH). Integrating Smart
Thermal Grids into Future Sustainable Energy Systems. Energy Journal,
EGY5906, 2014.
[4] Brand. M, Svendsen. S., Renewable-based low-temperature district heating for
existing buildings in various stages of refurbishment. Energy, 2013.
98
POVEANJE STEPENA KORISNOSTI KOTLA
I TEHNO-EKONOMSKA ANALIZA UGRADNJE
UTILIZATORA NA VRELOVODNOM KOTLU
SNAGE 116 MW NA TOPLANI KONJARNIK
INCREASE OF BOILER EFFICIENCY AND TECHNO-
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF UTILIZATOR INSTALLATION
ON 116 MW HOT-WATER BOILER IN THE HEATING
PLANT KONJARNIK
Vladimir TANASI*, Marko MLADENOVI
JKP Beogradske elektrane, Savski nasip 11, 11070 Novi Beograd, Srbija
v.tanasic@beoelektrane.rs
Toplana Konjarnik je trea po veliini u sistemu daljinskog grejanja Beogra-
da sa instalisanim toplotnim kapacitetom od 312 MW. Na vrelovodnom kotlu snage
116 MW, koji kao gorivo koristi prirodni gas, ugraen je dodatni razmenjiva toplo-
te (utilizator-ekonomajzer) nominalne snage 6 MW za korienje otpadne toplote
dimnih gasova. Temperatura dimnih gasova na ulazu u utilizator iznosi 180-186 C
a na izlazu 68-70 C. Napajenje utilizatora vodom se vri iz toplovodne mree, pri
emu se temperatura vode na ulazu u utilizator odrava na 65 C dok je projektova-
na temperatura vode na izlazu iz utilizatora 100 C.
U radu je prikazan uticaj na poveanje stepena korisnosti kotla i rezultati
tehno-ekonomske analize ugradnje utilizatora koja je sprovedena na osnovu mere-
nja ostvarene toplote snage u poslednje dve grejne sezone. Rezultati su ukazali da je
utilizator u posmatranom periodu iskoristio priblino 15000 MWh od otpadne toplo-
te dimnih gasova, ime su postignuta znaajna poboljanja stepena korisnosti kotla,
utede u potronji prirodnog gasa i finansijski benefiti za preduzee.
Kljune rei: energetska efikasnost, tehno-ekonomska analiza, utilizator,
poveanje stepena korisnosti kotla
The Heating Plant Konjarnik is the third largest heating plant in the district
heating system of Belgrade with the rated heat capacity of 312 MW. On the hot
water boiler of 116 MW, which uses natural gas as a fuel, an additional heat
exchanger (utilizator-economiser) of 6 MW nominal power was installed for using
flue gas waste heat. The temperature of flue gases at the utilizator inlet is 180-186
C, and 68-70 C at the outlet. The utilizator is water fed from the hot water
network, whereby the water temeprature at the utilizator inlet is maintained at 65
C, while the design water temperature at the utilizator outlet is 100 C.
99
The paper presents the influence of the utilizator installation on the increase
of the boiler efficiency and the results of the techno-economic analysis of the utiliza-
tor installation based on the measurements of output heat power in the last two
heating seasons. The results indicate that in the observed period, the utilizator used
approximately 15000 MWh from flue gas waste heat, achieving a significant impro-
vement of the boiler efficiency, savings in natural gas consumption, and financial
benefits for the company.
Key words: energy efficiency, techno-economic analysis, utilizator, boiler
efficiency increase
Uvod
Toplana Konjarnik je trea po veliini u sistemu daljinskog grejanja Beogra-
da sa instalisanim toplotnim kapacitetom od 312 MW(sa novim kotlom VK4 70 +
3,5 MW u probnom pogonu). Vrelovodni kotlovi su povezani na distributivnu mreu
indirektno preko razmenjivaa toplote. U primarnom krugu protok vode kroz vrelo-
vodne kotlove se odrava konstantnim preko kotlovskih cirkulacionih pumpi. U
sekundarnom krugu cirkulacija se ostvaruje preko mrenih pumpi pri emu je regu-
lacija kvantitativno-kvalitativna. Primarni i sekundarni krug imaju nezavisne ureaje
za odravanje pritiska. Vazduh za sagorevanje dovodi se u gorionike preko ventila-
tora sveeg vazduha. Dimni gasovi se odvode betonskim kanalima u zajedniki
armirano-betonski dimnjak i dalje u atmosferu.
Opis postrojenja
Tokom viegodinje ekspoloatacije kotlova izmereno je da je proseni stepen
korisnosti kotlova na nivou od 90%, pri emu se izlazne temperature dimnih gasova
kreu u opsegu od 180 C do 185 C. Gubici toplote sa dimnim gasovima procenjeni
su na 8% od ukupno proizvedene toplotne energije na kotlovima. Da bi se delimino
iskoristila ova otpadna toplota, 2009. godine je projektovan i ugraen dodatni
(eksterni) zagreja vode utilizator, nominalne toplotne snage 6 MW. Tehnoloka
ema povezivanja utilizatora na vrelovodni kotao prikazana je na slici 1.
Utilizator (poz. 2) se nalazi u obilaznom vodu postojeeg betonskog dimnog
kanala (poz. 4) na vrelovodnom kotlu snage 116 MW (poz. 1). Obilazni vod je nap-
ravljen od elinih kanala dimenzija 1500 x 3000 mm (slika 2). Ovim reenjem
omogueno je da se utilizator iskljui iz rada u uslovima kada kotao radi sa alterna-
tivnim gorivom (mazutom). Obilazni vod je pregraen leptirastim dimnim klapnama
(poz. 7) dok se u betonskom dimnom kanalu nalazi iber (poz. 5). Svi pregradni
organi su opremljeni elektomotornim pogonima u cilju automatske manipulacije.
Proces je potpuno automatizovan i vodi se preko PLC-a i SCADA sistema (slika 3).
Dodatni otpori sa gasne strane koji nastaju ugradnjom utilizatora savladavaju
se postavljanjem aksijalnog ventilatora dimnih gasova (poz. 8). Za pogon ventilatora
koristi se elektromotor snage 110 kW koji je opremljen frekventnim regulatorom.
Ventilatorom se ujedno regulie zadati pritisak dimnih gasova na izlazu iz kotla. U
100
sluaju ispada iz rada ventilatora dimnih gasova, poveava se nadpritisak u loitu
kotla, pri emu je kotao obezbeen automatskom zatitom (iskljuivanje gorionika).
12
TI FI TI PI TIC
M
11 M
9
TI PI
10
8
? PI
13 M
TI PI TI
7
2
M M
PIC M
1 3
4 5 6
Legenda:
1. Vrelovodni kotao tip TE-400, snage 116 MW
2. Ekonomajzer, snage 6 MW
3. Armirano-betonski dimnjak, visine 100 m
4. Armirano-betonski dimni kanal
5. Kanalski zasun sa elektromotornim pogonom
6. Vod za odmuljivanje
7. Leptirasta klapna sa elektromotornim pogonom
8. Aksijalni ventilator kapaciteta 59 m3/s, snaga el. motora 90 kW
9. Elektromagnetni mera protoka vode
10. Recirkulaciona pumpa kapaciteta 70m3/h, napora 1,5 bar, snaga el. motora 5,5 kW
11. Leptirasti regulacioni ventil sa elektromotornim pogonom
12. Vod sa potisnog kolektora ka ekonomajzeru
13. Vod iz ekonomajzera ka povratnom sabirniku
Slika 1. Tehnoloka ema povezivanja utilizatora na vrelovodni kotao

Napajanje utilizatora vodom vri se iz postojeeg potisnog kolektora cirkula-
cionih mrenih pumpi cevovodom prenika DN200 (poz. 12). Voda zagrejana u
utilizatoru ubacuje se u cevovod izlaznog sabirnika razmenjivaa toplote (poz. 13).
Cirkulaciju vode kroz cevovod i utilizator obezbeuju postojee cirkulacione pumpe
sekundarnog kruga. Zbog spreavanja kondenzacije dimnih gasova na razmenjiva-
koj povrini predviena je regulacija temperature vode na ulazu u utilizator. Ova
regulacija se ostvaruje preko recirkulacione pumpe (poz. 10), koja vodu zagrejanu u
utilizatoru mea sa vodom iz potisnog kolektora. Pogonski elektromotor pumpe je
frekventno regulisan tako da se promenom protoka vode u recirkulacionom vodu
temperatura vode na ulazu u utilizator odrava konstantnom (65 C).
Na usisnom cevovodu postavljen je leptirasti regulacioni ventil sa elektromo-
tornim pogonom (poz. 11), DN200 PN25, kojim se regulie protok vode kroz utili-
101
zator. Promenom protoka vode kroz utilizator utie se na temperaturu vode na izlazu
iz utilizatora, a samim tim i na temperaturu dimnih gasova koji ulaze u dimnjak.
Na svakoj deonici cevovoda predvieni su ventili DN50 PN25 za pranjenje
vode iz sistema. Na recirkulacionoj grani cevovoda postavljen je hvata neistoa.
Obezbeenje utilizatora i cevovoda od prekomernog pritiska omogueno je preko
ventila sigurnosti koji je postavljen na usisnom cevovodu prema utilizatoru. Ispod
utilizatora se nalaze limene kutije za odvod kondenzata i drenau vode od pranja,
koje su povezane sa cevovodom koji vodi u odmuljnu jamu.
Slika 2. Pozicija utilizatora u obilaznom vodu dimnog kanala
Slika 3. SCADA sistem za vizuelizaciju i upravljanje procesom
102
Utilizator je izraen od spiralno orebrenih cevi 38 x 3,2 mm od elika
P235GH (. 1214). Cevi su postavljene u ahovskom rasporedu ime je postignut
visok koeficijent prelaza toplote prinudnom konvekcijom. Rezultat toga je sniava-
nje temperature dimnih gasova na izlazu iz kotla do 70 C. Utilizator se sastoje iz
est jednakih segmenta (paketa) koji su sklopljeni u jednu celinu i meusobno zava-
reni nepropusno za dimne gasove. Ovakvim reenjem omoguen je pristup i mogu-
nost zamene svakog segmenta pojedinano. Sa spoljanje strane utilizator je izolo-
van mineralnom vunom debljine 100 mm u oblozi od Al lima. Tehnike karakteris-
tike utilizatora su prikazane u tabeli 1.
Tabela 1. Tehnike karakteristike utilizatora
Nazivna snaga utilizatora 6 MW Visina rebra 12,5 mm
Protok vode kroz utilizator 148 t/h Korak rebra 8 mm
Brzina vode u orebrenim

Razmenjivaka povrina H = 3505 m2 0,436 m/s
cevima
Ukupan pad pritiska u utiliza-
Broj cevi u jednom redu 50 pw = 8576 Pa
toru sa vodene strane
Srednja brzina dimnih gasova
Broj redova po toku gasova 30 11,5 m/s
kroz utilizator
Pad pritiska kroz utilizator sa
Ukupan broj cevi 1476 pg = 762 Pa
gasne strane
K = 63,6
Popreni korak 74 mm Koeficijent prolaza toplote
W/(m2K)
Maksimalni radni dozvoljeni
Uzduni korak 61 mm 25 bar
pritisak
Duina cevi 3800 mm Ispitni/ radni pritisak 30/16 bar
Izvod iz prorauna stepena iskorienja kotla

sa utilizatorom i bez njega
U tabeli 2 prikazan je izvod iz prorauna stepena korisnosti kotla sa i bez uti-
lizatora. Proraun je sproveden prema indirektnoj metodi u skladu sa standardom
SRPS EN 12952:2009 [1]. Merenja procesnih parametara su izvrena dana
24.01.2016. Korieni su pogonski i prenosni merni instrumenti.
103
Tabela 2. Izvod iz prorauna stepena korisnosti sa i bez utilizatora
Izmerene vrednosti procesnih parametara
Toplotna snaga kotla bez utiliza- 95,3 MW Temperatura vode na izlazu 149,8 C
tora iz kotla
Toplotna snaga utilizatora 3,9 MW Protok vode kroz kotao 556,8 kg/s
Ukupna toplotna snaga kotla 99,2 MW Temperatura vode na ulazu u 66 C

utilizator
Toplotna snaga kotla u odnosu na 81% Temperatura vode na izlazu 96 C
maksimalnu toplotnu snagu kotla iz utilizatora
Temperatura dimnih gasova na 159,2 C Protok vode kroz utilizator 30,6 kg/s
izlazu iz kotla
Temperatura dimnih gasova na 72 C Pritisak vode na ulazu u 8,3 bar
izlazu iz utilizatora utilizator
Potronja goriva 10148 m3/h Pritisak vode na izlazu iz 8,0 bar
utilizatora
Pritisak vode na ulazu u kotao 17,5 bar Sadraj kiseonika u dimnim 1,51%
gasovima na izlazu iz kotla
Pritisak vode na izlazu iz kotla 15,5 bar Temperatura goriva 8 C
Temperatura vode na ulazu u 109,6 C Temperatura vazduha za 24 C

kotao sagorevanje
Izraunate vrednosti
Koeficijent vika vazduha 1,08 Gubitak toplote usled spol- 0,28 MW

janjeg hlaenja kotla (sa
EKO)
Donja toplotna mo goriva [2] 34800 kJ/Sm3 Ukupni gubici toplote u kotlu 7,32 MW
(bez EKO)
Koliina toplote uneta gorivom 102,67 MW Ukupni gubici toplote u kotlu 3,43 MW
(sa EKO)
Gubitak toplote usled hemijske 0 MW Stepen korisnosti kotla 92,9%
nepotpunosti sagorevanja
Gubitak toplote sa produktima 7,05 MW Stepen korisnosti kotla i 96,7%
sagorevanja (bez EKO) utilizatora
Gubitak toplote sa produktima 3,15 MW Stvarna potronja goriva 10111 m3/h
sagorevanja (sa EKO) 10666
Sm3/h
Gubitak toplote usled spoljanjeg 0,27 MW Relativna greka merenja 0,4%
hlaenja kotla (bez EKO) potronje goriva
104
Tehno-ekonomska analiza ugradnje utilizatora
U cilju tehno-ekonomske analize razmatran je rad utilizatora u poslednje dve
grejne sezone (sezona 2014/2015. i 2015/2016). U tabeli 3 je prikazan broj radnih
sati utilizatora i proizvedena toplotna energija na utilizatoru prema merenjima koja
su preuzeta sa pogonskog kalorimetra [3].
Tabela 3. Broj radnih sati i proizvedena toplotna energija

Grejna sezona 2014/2015. 2015/2016.
Mesec Br. radnih sati Proizvedena Br. radnih sati Proizvedena
(h) toplotna energija (h) toplotna energija
(MWh) (MWh)
oktobar 28 93 393 907
novembar 373 917 489 1247
decembar 590 1439 612 1449
januar 629 1635 650 1540
februar 585 1543 504 1180
mart 576 1478 555 1348
april 285 670 216 503
Ukupno: 3066 7775 3419 8174
U toku poslednje dve grejne sezone utilizator je radio ukupno 6485 h i proiz-
veo 15949 MWh toplotne energije na raun hlaenja dimnih gasova.
Tokom eksploatacije zastoji u radu utilizatora najee su bili izazvani preki-
dom rada ventilatora dimnih gasova zbog otkazivanja leaja ventilatora i pregreva-
nja pogonskog elektromotora.
Prosene godinje utede u potronji prirodnog gasa koje su postignute ugra-
dnjom utilizatora mogu se evaluirati na sledei nain:
Qeko 7974,5 10 6
B= = 3600 = 916607 m 3
H d k 34800 103 0,9
gde su:
- Qek = 7975,5 MWh - prosena vrednost proizvedene toplotne energije
utilizatorom na godinjem nivou
- H d = 34800 KJ/Sm 3 - prosena vrednost donje toplotne moi prirodnog
gasa [2]
105
- k = 0,9 - prosena vrednost stepena korisnosti kotla (uzimajui u obzir
da korao esto radi sa optereenjem niim od 80% to utie na smanjenje
stepena korisnosti).
Pri prosenoj ceni prirodnog gasa sa uraunatim transportnim trokovima i
3
distribucijom od C = 39,35 din/Sm [2], utede u trokovima za energente na
godinjem nivou iskazane u novanim jedinicama iznose:
D = C B = 39,35 916607 = 36068485,5 din , odnosno
D = 293240 EUR .
Utilizator je izgraen po ugovoru klju u ruke od strane firme Tipo kotlo-
gradnja. Ukupna cena opreme sa montaom je iznosila 545200 EUR. Dodatni
radovi na montai pregradne dimne klapne sa elektromotornim pogonom i regulaciji
rada ventilatora za dimne gasove su iznosili 21300 EUR. Prema tome ukupni inves-
ticioni trokovi su iznosili 566500 EUR.
Cena odravanja postrojenja koja obuhvata zamenu leajeva el. motora,
viklovanje i demontau i montau sklopa prema dosadanjem iskustvu iznosi oko
5000 EUR/god.
Pri prosenom broju radnih sati godinje od 3200 h za pogon ventilatora
dimnih gasova utroi se priblino 250 MWh elektrine energije, pod pretpostavkom
da je proseno optereenje el. motora 70%. Pri ceni elektrine energije od oko 6,43
din/kWh, trokovi za pogon ventilatora na godinjem nivou iznose 1607500 din,
odnosno 13070 EUR. Rezultati tehno-ekonomske analize sumirani su u tabeli 4.
Tabela 4. Sumirani rezultati tehno-ekonomske analize

1. Ukupni investi- 2. Utede u 3. Trokovi 4. Ukupne neto 5. Prost period
cioni trokovi potronji pri- eksploatacije utede otplate investicije
rodnog gasa (23) (1/4)
EUR EUR/god EUR/god EUR/god god

566500 293240 18070 275170 2,05
Iz rezultata prikazanih u tabeli 4, uzimajui u obzir investicione i eksploata-

cione trokove za postrojenje i ostvarene utede, moe se zakljuiti da je prost peri-
od otplate investicije na nivou od 2 godine. S obzirom da je radni vek utilizatora 15
godina, investicija je u ekonomskom pogledu opravdana i isplativa. Pored ekonom-
skih benefita za toplanu ovaj projekat je primer dobre prakse poveanja energetske
efikasnosti u sektoru proizvodnje toplotne energije i smanjenja emisija CO2 u cilju
zatite ivotne sredine.
Zakljuak
U radu su prikazani izvod iz prorauna stepena iskorienja kotla sa i bez uti-
lizatora i rezultati tehno-ekonomske analize utilizatora nominalne toplotne snage 6
106
MW, koji je instaliran 2009. godine na vrelovodnom kotlu nominalne snage 116
MW na Toplani Konjarnik. Analiza je sprovedena na osnovu merenja proizvedene
toplotne energije na utilizatoru u poslednje dve grejne sezone (2014/2015. i
2015/2016.).
Rezultati su pokazali da je utilizator u posmatranom periodu iskoristio
15949MWh od otpadne toplote dimnih gasova, to je ekvivalentno utedama u pot-
ronji prirodnog gasa od 293240 m3 na godinjem nivou. Uzimajui u obzir ostvare-
ne utede u potronji primarnog energenta u toplani kao i investicione i eksploataci-
one trokove za postrojenje izraunat je prost period otplate investicije od 2 godine,
to se iz ekonomskog aspekta moe smatrati izrazito povoljnim. Pored toga, projekat
ugradnje utilizatora na Toplani Konjarnik je uspean primer dobre prakse za pove-
anja energetske efikasnosti koja je rezultovala poveanjem stepena iskorienja
kotla prema proraunu za 3,8%. Sve ovo ima za posledicu smanjenje emisije CO2 i
poveanje ukupnog stepena iskorienja postrojenja. Ova tehnologija treba da nae
primenu na ostalim vrelovodnim kotlovima u JKP Beogradske elektrane pa i u osta-
lim toplanama u Srbiji koje rade na prirodni gas.
Kao prilog svemu podaci iz prijemnih ispitivanja novog kotla VK4 kapaciteta
70 MW na TO Konjarnik sa utilizatorom snage 3,5 MW koja je sproveo Mainski
fakultet u Beogradu, katedra za Procesnu tehniku, pokazali su da je stepen iskorie-
nja novog kotla bez utilizatora prema indirektnoj metodi prorauna 93% dok je sa
utilizatorom 97%, to je potvreno i direktnom metodom [4].
Literatura
[1] *** Standardi: SRPS EN 12952:2009 Kotlovi sa vodogrejnim cevima i pomo-
na oprema prema kojem je vren proraun stepena iskorienja kotla indirekt-
nom metodom.
[2] *** Podaci hemijsko-tehnoloke slube JKP Beogradske elektrane- elemen-
tarna analiza, donja toplotna mo i cena prirodnog gasa.
[3] *** Pogonski izvetaji i izvetaji pripremljeni sa nadzorno-upravljakog sistema
JKP Beogradske elektrane TO Konjarnik.
107
POREENE GUBITAKA VODE
IZ TOPLOVODNE MREE U TOPLANAMA
RAZLIITIH RADNIH PARAMETARA
COMPARISON OF WATER LOSES FROM PIPELINE
NETWORK IN HEATING PLANTS WITH DIFERENT
OPERATION MODE
Nenad MILORADOVI,
PUC Beogradske elektrane
n.miloradovic@beoelektrane.rs
Neizbena curenja su glavni uzrok gubitaka vode iz toplovodnih mrea. Uku-

pna koliina izgubljene vode u sistemu za odreeni vremenski period zavisi od veli-
kog broja parametara, a koji predstavljaju zavisnost od mnogo faktora, kao i radnih
parametara same toplane: radnog pritiska, temperature, veliine postrojenja i koli-
ine vode u toplovodnoj mrei. U radu je dimenzionalnom analizom izveden specifi-
ni koeficijent curenja koji zavisi od radnog pritiska vode u toplovodnoj mrei, zap-
remine vode u sistemu i kinematske viskoznosti. Temperaturni reim rada na taj
koeficijent utie indirektno: preko kinematske viskoznosti koja zavisi od temperatu-
re. esto se u Srbiji vre poreenja gubitaka vode u toplovodnim mreama sa Dan-
skom, koja ima napredniji i razvijeniji sistem daljinskog grejanja. Ipak, treba imati
u vidu da su, pre svega zbog konfiguracije terena, radni pritisci u srpskim toplana-
ma vii nego u Danskoj, pa samim tim i koliina izgubljene vode, koja direktno zavi-
si od veliine radnog pritiska. Uvoenjem koeficijenta curenja koji zavisi od radnog
pritiska i temperature dobija se realnija slika u proceni i poreenju. Parametri za
procenu gubitaka vode u sistemu koji ne uzimaju u obzir veliine radnih parametara
(kao npr. broj godinjih izmena zapremine toplovodne mree usled curenja) ne daju
realnu sliku stvarnih gubitaka vode.
Kljune rei: specifini gubitak curenja, radni pritisak, radna temperatura,
viskoznost, zapremina toplovodne mree
Inevitably leakage is the main cause of water loses in pipeline network. Total
water loses in network depends from many parameters and working parameters in
heating plant: working pressure, temperature, largeness of the system and content of
water in the network. In this paper dimensional analysis was used for performed
specific leakage coefficient which depends from working pressure, content of water
in the network and cinematic viscosity. Temperature operation mode has indirectly
influence: cinematic viscosity depends from temperature. Here in Serbia we often
make comparison of water loses with networks in Denmark, where is district heating
more developed. But, due to ground configuration, in Serbian heating plants work-
109
ing pressure are bigger and thats why water loses are bigger. If we operate with
this leakage coefficient we will have more reality comparison. Parameters for esti-
mate water leakage without working parameters (for example yearly changes of
water content) have not given a real picture of water leakage.
Key words: specific leakage loses, working pressure, working temperature,
viscosity, volume of pipeline network
1. Uvod
Neizbena curenja su glavni uzrok gubitaka vode iz toplovodnih mrea. Uku-
pna koliina izgubljene vode u sistemu za odreeni vremenski period (za poreenje
najee se analizira na godinjem nivou, ali se u praksi gubici vode prate i trenutno,
i na dnevnom i na mesenom nivou) zavisi od velikog broja parametara, a koji pred-
stavljaju zavisnost duine i starosti toplovodne mree, kvaliteta izvedenih radova,
drenae podzemnih voda, vremena proteklog od nastanka curenja do njegovog sani-
ranja, prenika i duine deonice na kojoj se obavlja saniranje curenja, kao i radnih
parametara same toplane: radnog pritiska, temperature, naina rada toplotnog izvora,
veliine postrojenja i koliine vode u toplovodnoj mrei.
Kod nastanka curenja bitni su trenutni gubici vode u toplovodnoj mrei, dok
se za analize koriste podaci koji se odnose na meseni ili godinji period. Do odre-
enih zakljuaka se moe doi ukoliko se uzmu u obzir starost toplovodne mree,
kao i nain polaganja cevi: kanalsko ili predizolovanim cevima.
Ipak, koliina iscurele vode odnosno specifini gubici vode direktno zavisi
od radnih parametara toplotnog izvora: radnog pritiska, koliine vode u sistemu
odnosno instalisanog toplotnog konzuma i radne temperature.
2. Fizika dimenziona analiza

Radi odreivanja specifinih curenja vode u pomo uzimamo dimenzionu an-
alizu. Ukoliko pretpostavimo da specifini gubici vode L zavise od nekih bitnih
fizikih veliina, onda preko dimenzione analize znamo da kombinacija tih fizikih
veliina mora da ima dimenziju [kg/s].
Moe se pretpostaviti da specifini gubici vode u sistemu predstavljaju
zavisnost radnog pritiska, zapremine vode u sistemu, radne temperature i kinematske
viskoznosti vode. Matematiki to moemo napisati kao:
L=PA.VB.C.TD, (1)
gde su:
L specifini gubici vode [kg/s],
P radni pritisak [bar],
V zapremina toplovodne mree [m3],
kinematska viskoznost vode [m2/s],
T radna temperatura [K],
A, B, C i D koeficijenti koje odreujemo dimenzionom analizom.
110
Odnosno:
[kg/s]= [bar]A. [m3]B. [m2/s]C. [K]D (2)
[kg/s]=[kg/m.s2]A.[m3]B.[m2/s]C. [K]D (3)
[kg/s]=[kg]A.[m]3B-A+2C.[s]-2A-C. [K]D (4)

odakle sledi, izjednaavanjem koeficijenata uz iste dimenzije, da je:
A = 1,
3B-A+2C = 0,
-2A-C = -1,
D = 0,
odnosno:
A = 1,
C = -1,
B = 1,
D = 0.
Na taj nain izvodimo formulu da su specifini gubici vode L u stvari:
L=P1.V1.-1.T0, (5)
To jest:
L=P.V/. (6)
3. Diskusija dobijenog rezultata

Iz formule (6) vidimo da specifini gubici vode L direktno zavise od radnog
pritiska u toplovodnoj mrei P i zapremine vode u sistemu V, a obrnuto su proporci-
onalni kinematskoj viskoznosti vode , te da ne postoji direktna zavisnost od tempe-
rature T. Zavisnost od temperature je indirektna, preko kinematske viskoznosti, jer
ona menja vrednost i zavisi od temperature.
Dobijena formula izgleda logino: ukoliko su vei radni pritisak i zapremina
mree, tj. instalisani kapacitet kod potroaa, vei su i specifini gubici vode u sis-
temu. Ta zavisnost je linearna. To znai da vee toplane, koje imaju vei kapacitet i
koje rade sa veim radnim pritiscima imaju i vee specifine gubitke vode.
Zanimljiva je zavisnost specifinih gubitaka vode od pritiska. Logino je da
su ti gubici vei ukoliko toplana radi na veem radnom pritisku, ali je bitno i to gde
se odrava statiki pritisak u toplani: na potisu ili povratu. Ukoliko je odravanje
statikog pritiska na povratu, piezometrijski dijagram je povoljniji i manji su speci-
fini gubici vode. To se naroito odnosi na periode kada je prekid isporuke toplotne
energije, bilo tokom dana ili godine (jer se i van grejne sezone odrava statiki priti-
sak u toplovodnoj mrei).
to se tie zavisnosti specifinih gubitaka vode od zapremine vode u sistemu
treba primetiti da vee gubitke ima ona toplana kod koje su najvei potroai locira-
111
ni na krajevima magistrala, jer to poveava ukupnu zapreminu vode u sistemu, kao i
prenike toplovoda. Ukoliko su ti krupni potroai blizu toplane, toplovodna mrea
je kompaktnija i ukupna koliina vode u toplovodnoj mrei je manja. Naravno, kod
veih toplana vei su i specifini gubici vode, to je i logino.
Iako radna temperatura ne utie direktno na veliinu specifinih gubitaka
vode L, ona ipak ima uticaj preko kinematske viskoznosti. Kinematska viskoznost
vode u toplovodnoj mrei zavisi od radne temperature i ta zavisnost je veoma sloe-
na. Ipak, uglavnom se moe rei da su fluidi teniji na viim temperaturama. To
znai da viskoznost opada sa porastom temperature, odnosno, prema formuli (6),
specifini gubici vode L rastu (jer su oni obrnuto proporcionalni kinematskoj visko-
znosti). I ovaj rezultat je logian. Iz ovoga se moe zakljuiti da modernizacija pri-
marnog dela podstanica sa ugradnjom odgovarajue automatike koja sniava tempe-
raturski reim rada povoljno utie na smanjenje gubitaka curenja u toplovodnoj
mrei.
4. Fiktivni primer: poreenje gubitaka vode kod razliitih

parametara rada iste toplane
Iako se u kratkom vremenskom periodu parametri iste toplane relativno sporo
menjaju, u vremenskom periodu koji se meri sezonama moe doi do izmene para-
metara rada toplane. Pre svega, tu se misli na poveanje konzuma. Meutim, karak-
teristian je primer neke toplane kod koje je u jednoj sezoni, a usled gaenja kotlar-
nica, dolo do poveanja konzuma za oko 40%. Takoe, usled konfiguracije terena
na kojem se nalaze ugaeni toplotni izvori ije je korisnike preuzima ta toplana,
izgraena je prepumpna stanica ime su znatno poveani radni pritisci u toplovodnoj
mrei.
Moemo porediti specifine gubitke L1 pre proirenja i specifine gubitke
vode L2 posle proirenja.
Ako je
L1=P1.V1/1 (7)
specifini gubitak vode pre proirenja, a
L2=P2.V2/2 (8)
posle prorienja, onda je pri istim temperaturnim reimima:
L1/L2=P1.V1/P2.V2 (9)
Ukoliko je poveanje konzuma bilo 40%, a radni pritisak zbog ugradnje pre-
pumpne stanice porastao npr. sa 8 bar na 11,5 bar, onda je
L2/L1=11,5.1,4/8=2,0125 (10)
112
U ovom sluaju moe se oekivati da gubici vode u toplovodnoj mrei usled
proirenja budu duplirani, iako je poveanje konzuma bilo samo 40%.
Na slian nain se moe uzeti u obzir i promena temperaturskog reima usled
modernizacije ili promene radnog pritiska i zapremine vode u toplovodnoj mrei i iz
nekog drugog razloga.
5. Fiktivni primer: poreenje gubitaka vode kod razliitih toplana

Gubici vode u toplovodnim mreama mogu se analizirati ukoliko se porede
razliite toplane. Ipak, to je samo jedan segment poreenja, jer razliite toplovodne
mree imaju razliitu starost i tip izvoenja mree: postavljanje kanalskog toplovoda
ili predizolovanih cevi. Radni parametri mogu samo da ilustruju koliko se vie ili
manje vode potroi u sistemu. Zbog poreenja je koristan podatak o specifinim
gubicima vode. Takoe, uticaja ima i mesto gde se odrava pritisak u toplovodnoj
mrei: da li se diktir sistem nalazi na potisu ili povratu?
Za analizu se koriste jednaine (7) i (8). Konfiguracija terena utie na velii-
nu radnog pritiska, a mogue je porediti i razliite temperaturske reime preko
kinematske viskoznosti. Naravno, bitna je veliina instalisane snage kod potroaa.
Neka fiktivna toplana A ima parametre P1 = 6 bar, V1 = 1000 m3 i godinji
broj izmena vode u sistemu G1 = 6, toplana B P2 = 12 bar, V2 = 1500 m3 i godinji
broj izmena u sistemu G2 = 9. Ukoliko u obzir za poreenje uzmemo samo godinji
broj izmena vode u sistemu moemo zakljuiti da toplana B troi 50% vie vode.
Ako koristimo jednaine (7), (8) i (9) dobijamo da je L1 = 6.000 kg/s, dok je
L2 = 18.000 kg/s za isti temperaturni reim, odnosno L2 = 3.L1. Ukoliko bi toplana
A radila sa istim radnim parametrima kao toplana B, ona bi troila 3 puta vie vode
nego G1, odnosno tada bi imala 18 izmena vode u sistemu. Sada se situacija potpuno
preokrenula: toplana B troi 50% manje vode nego toplana A!
6. Zakljuak
U radu je izvedena formula za specifian gubitak vode L koji zavisi od rad-
nog pritiska, zapremine vode u sistemu i kinematske viskoznosti. Upotrebljena je
dimenziona analiza radi izvoenja formule. Izvrena je i diskusija dobijenog rezulta-
ta, a dati su i primeri za poreenje specifinog gubitka vode za rad na istoj toplani sa
razliitim reimima rada usled poveanja kapaciteta, kao i fiktivnih razliitih toplana
A i B.
Prema izvedenoj formuli specifini gubitak vode direktno je proporcionalan
radnom pritisku u toplovodnoj mrei i zapremini vode u sistemu, a obrnuto propor-
cionalan kinematskoj viskoznosti. Specifini gubitak vode ne zavisi direktno od
temperaturnog reima, ali on ipak utie indirektno preko kinematske viskoznosti.
esto se u Srbiji vre poreenja gubitaka vode u toplovodnim mreama sa
Danskom, koja ima napredniji i razvijeniji sistem daljinskog grejanja. Ipak, treba
imati u vidu da su, pre svega zbog konfiguracije terena, radni pritisci u srpskim
toplanama vii nego u Danskoj, pa samim tim i koliina izgubljene vode, koja direk-
113
tno zavisi od veliine radnog pritiska. Uvoenjem koeficijenta curenja koji zavisi od
radnog pritiska i temperature dobija se realnija slika u proceni i poreenju.
Parametri za procenu gubitaka vode u sistemu koji ne uzimaju u obzir velii-
ne radnih parametara (kao npr. broj godinjih izmena zapremine toplovodne mree
usled curenja) ne daju realnu sliku stvarnih gubitaka vode. Analiza poreenja gubi-
taka vode, izmeu ostalog, kako bi bila verodostojnija, mora da uzme u obzir i speci-
fini gubitak vode koji zavisi od raznih parametara.
7. Literatura
[1] Rasmunsen J., Morsing J., Dyrelund A., How to ensure long lifetime of dis-
trict heating networks, Hot&Cool magazine, 1/2016, pp. 7-9.
[2] ***, Interni materijal JKP Beogradske elektrane.
[3] Sokolov, J. J., Toplifikacija i toplotne mree, Graevinska knjiga, Beograd,
Jugoslavija, 1985.
114
PREMOAVANJE JAZA (RAZLIKE) IZMEU
STVARNOG I PRORAUNATOG KORIENJA
TOPLOTNE ENERGIJE U MODELOVANJU STAMBENIH
ZGRADA ODOZDO NAVIE
BRIDGING THE GAP OF ACTUAL AND CALCULATED
HEATING ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN BOTTOM-UP
RESIDENTIAL BUILDING STOCK MODELING
Constantinos A. BALARAS, Elena G. DASCALAKI,
Kalliopi G. DROUTSA and Simon KONTOYIANNIDIS
Group Energy Conservation, Institute for Environmental Research & Sustainable
Development, National Observatory of Athens, P. Penteli, Greece
costas@noa.gr
Stambene zgrade su u sreditu evropskih i nacionalnih napora koji se ulau
u postizanje ciljeva u pogledu energije i emisije nametanjem stroih propisa za nove
zgrade i podsticanjem transformacije postojeih zgrada kako bi zadovoljile vie
standarde energetskih karakteristika. Modeli graevinskog fonda se obino koriste
za procenu razliitih mera energetske efikasnosti, za kvantifikovanje njihovog utica-
ja na smanjenje upotrebe energije u cilju postizanja nacionalnih ciljeva i za odrei-
vanja prioritetnih politika. Meutim, razne studije su pokazale da postoji jaz odno-
sno razlika izmeu proraunatog i stvarnog korienja energije u zgradama. U
radu je detaljno izloen metod za prilagoavanje predvianja modela kako bi se
dobile realnije procene o korienju energije. U ovom pristupu se koriste podaci iz
sertifikata o energetskoj efikasnosti da bi se dobili jednostavni empirijski faktori
prilagoavanja (definisani kao odnos stvarnog i proraunatog korienja energije),
dopunjeni dokazima iz kratke ankete sa terena za kvantifikovanje uticaja promene u
ponaanju stanara i uloge ljudskog faktora u korienju grejanja prostora koje
odstupa od normativnih proraunskih pretpostavki. Rezultati iz sertifikata ukazuju
da je prosena razlika granine vrednosti korienja energije za porodine kue
48% manja od proraunate (an average bound difference of 48% lower energy use
than calculcated), i 44% za kue u kojima ivi vie porodica. Rezultati iz anketa sa
terena koje su sprovedene da bi se kvantifikovala odstupanja od standardnih radnih
uslova korienih u normativnim proraunima (npr. manji broj sati rada i nie
podeene temperature u prostorijama, grejanje manjih povrina stambenog prosto-
ra) daju niu granicu od 68% kao konzervativnu procenu stvarnog korienja
energije.
Kljune rei: modeliranje graevinskog fonda, gap analiza, stvarno korie-
nje energije naspram predvienog, faktori prilagoavanja
115
Residential buildings have been at the center stage of European and national
efforts to meet the energy and emissions targets by imposing more stringent codes
for new buildings and encouraging the transformation of existing buildings to hig-
her energy performance standards. Building stock models are commonly used to
assess different energy efficiency measures, quantify their impact on reducing the
energy use towards meeting the national targets and to prioritize policies. However,
various studies have demonstrated the gap of calculated and actual energy use in
buildings. The work elaborates a method to adapt model predictions in order to
obtain more realistic estimates of energy use. The approach exploits data from
energy performance certificates to derive simple empirical adaptation factors (defi-
ned as a ratio of actual to calculated energy use), complemented by evidence from
short field surveys to quantify the impact of behavioral changes of occupants and
the role of the human factor on the use of space heating that deviate from normative
calculation assumptions. The results from the certificates indicate an average bound
difference of 48% lower energy use than calculated for single-family houses and
44% for multi-family houses. The results from the field surveys that were carried out
in order to quantify the deviations from standard operating conditions used in the
normative calculations (e.g. lower hours of operation and indoor temperature set-
tings, heating smaller floor areas of dwellings) provided a lower bound of 68% as a
conservative estimate of actual energy use.
Key words: building stock modeling, gap analysis, actual vs predicted energy
use, adaptation factors
1. Introduction
Various European and national policies focus on improving the energy per-
formance of buildings. Residential buildings are at the center stage since they domi-
nate the building sector and play a significant role in the energy and environmental
footprint of buildings. Energy use in residential buildings represents about 20%-36%
of total final energy consumption in several countries (Fig. 1). The energy use is
allocated for satisfying the buildings' operational needs and indoor environmental
quality for heating, air-conditioning, lighting and plug loads.
1.1 European Residential Buildings
In the European Union Member States (EU-28) final energy consumption in
residential buildings reached 263.22 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe) in 2014
(EU 2016), decreasing in absolute terms since its historic peak at 311 Mtoe in 2010.
Compared to 1990, final energy use is 0.33% lower than the 264.09 Mtoe in the
corresponding EU-28 at that time. Residential buildings account for 75% of the of
the 25 billion m2 existing building stock in EU-28 (Gynther et al. 2015). Space hea-
ting is the most important end-use in the residential buildings (67%), but its share
has been slightly declining since 2000. Domestic hot water (DHW) ranks second
with a stable share at 13% of the total, electrical appliances have climbed to 11%,
followed by cooking at 6%, lighting at 2% and cooling at only 0.5%.
116
Serbia (45.9%) Europe (38.1%) Russia (39.7%)
Greece (35.3%) USA (34.7%)

China (26.2%)
Figure 1. Final energy use breakdown by sector in several countries
(% contribution of buildings in the parenthesis).
More stringent European Directives, national codes and regulations make
new buildings more energy efficient. It is estimated that on average, new dwellings
(theoretically) consume 40% less than dwellings built before 1990 (Gynther et al.
2015). However, new buildings average less than 1.1% per year (average over 2000-
2012) and new construction has been dropping since 2009 as a result of the econo-
mic crisis throughout Europe. In several countries new construction rates are even
below 0.5% (Sandberg et al. 2016). Annual demolition rates in most European coun-
tries have ranged at 0.3-0.7% and are expected to remain at the same level or slightly
increase to about 1.0% by 2050, while annual renovation rates have ranged at 1-
1.5%. Consequently, in order to meet the aggressive EU targets on reducing the
energy use in the building sector, the focus of European policies and national efforts
has been on the existing building stock. The main European legislation instruments
for reducing the energy consumption of buildings include the energy performance of
buildings Directive (EPBD recast 2010/31/EC), the Energy Efficiency Directive
(EED 2012/27/EU), the Renewable Energy Directive (RED 2009/28/EC), while
there is an ongoing effort to transform the market of energy related products (ERPs)
117
and energy-using products (EUPs) through the Ecodesign Directive (ECODESIGN
recast 2009/125/EC).
1.2 Hellenic Residential Buildings
In Greece, the residential sector accounts for 3.79 million tonnes of oil
equivalent (Mtoe) or 24.3% of the total final energy consumption in 2014, according
to the latest officially available data (EU 2016). As illustrated in Fig. 2 the observed
variations are partly due to the prevailing winter conditions, expressed by the hea-
ting degree days (HDD), the severe economic recession of recent years and the tax
increase on heating oil first imposed in 2012. According to the national Buildings
Census, there are 3.2 million residential buildings (i.e. 2.990 million exclusive use
and 0.256 mixed use buildings that their main type of use is residential) that repre-
sent about 79% of the building stock (ELSTAT 2015).
Figure 2. Total final energy consumption in Greece and contribution

of the residential sector (main y-axis). The line corresponds to the average
heating degree days (secondary y-axis).
About half of the Hellenic buildings have no kind of thermal protection, since
the majority of them were built prior to 1980, the year that the first national Hellenic
building thermal insulation regulation (HBTIR) was introduced. According to 1990
data for Hellenic dwellings (ELSTAT 1993), 95% of the external walls, 99% of
floors, 87% of pilotis, 70% of the roofs were not thermally insulated, and 98% had
single glazing. Moving in the EPBD era as of 2010, several new national laws,
codes and regulations have been introduced in Greece for new buildings in the
framework of the national regulation on the energy performance of buildings
KENAK (Dascalaki et al. 2012). As a result, the U-values for the buildings thermal
envelope became more stringent and minimum specifications were also introduced
for HVAC installations. For example, the U-value for external vertical walls in con-
tact with outdoor air was 0.7 W/m2.K with HBTIR and is reduced with KENAK by
14% to 43%, depending on the climate zone. Minimum specifications for the build-
ings HVAC installations include, for example, the use of outdoor temperature com-
118
pensation systems, zone thermostatic controls, along with heat recovery for central
air-handling-units, energy efficient lighting for non-residential buildings, etc. For
DHW production, all new (post-2011) buildings should cover 60% of the load from
renewables or substantiate the technical difficulties for non-compliance. However,
due to the deep economic recession in Greece, the new building construction activity
has plunged, reaching a rate of 0.15% in 2014.
On a positive note, over the past decades, there has been some progress as a
result of routine maintenance, building and system refurbishment efforts. However,
the fact remains that the vast majority of existing buildings have no proper thermal
envelope protection, based on the most recent national household survey in 2010
(ELSTAT 2013). Specifically, only 16% have double glazing and thermally insula-
ted external walls. Double glazing is a common practice in new construction and the
most frequent refurbishment activity in existing buildings, encountered in about
43% of the dwelling stock.
1.3 Building Stock Models
The majority of European buildings will need some kind of refurbishment to
the thermal envelope and technical installations to meet the new energy efficiency
standards for buildings. EPBD mandates that all buildings subject to major refurbis-
hment should meet minimum energy performance requirements and for new cons-
truction as of January 2021 to be nearly zero energy buildings (NZEB). These
efforts can play an important role in meeting the European and national targets to
become a highly energy-efficient, low carbon economy, reduce energy import
dependency and increase Europe's security of supply in accordance to the European
2020 Strategy and the new plan towards 2030 and beyond. Furthermore, EED man-
dates national measures to expedite improved energy efficiency at all stages of the
full energy chain, including a long-term national strategy for building renovations.
This is to be reached by way of energy services and other cost-effective, practicable
and reasonable energy efficiency measures (EEMs). As a result, most EU national
energy efficiency action plans focus on public buildings and residential buildings.
Over the years, several studies have been performed to assess the potential of EEMs
in residential buildings that constitute the majority of the building stock. They all
reach the same conclusion, i.e. there are significant energy savings in the buildings
sector that remain untapped.
Assessing the effectiveness of EEMs for single buildings is a straight-forward
process. However, calculations and even simulation tools may provide different
results even for the same building. This may be due to a multitude of reasons includ-
ing occupants behaviour and deviations from the assumptions of normative calcula-
tions. As a result, several studies have documented that there may be significant
deviations amongst calculated versus actual energy use or estimated savings as a
result of implementing EEMs resulting to significant over- or under-consumption
(Sorrell et al. 2009, Sunikka-Blank and Galvin 2012, De Wilde 2014). One may
argue that for a specific building analysis of different scenarios the accuracy of the
results in terms of actual energy use is not detrimental, since the goal is to look at
119
the relevant differences and quantify savings in terms of a base case scenario. Fur-
thermore, there are well prescribed methods on how to validate the accuracy or cali-
brate software predictions for detailed analysis at building level. For example, build-
ing monitoring can also provide quality data that may be used to adjust the predicti-
ons from energy simulation tools and improve their accuracy. However, the chal-
lenge remains on how to adapt the estimations from official calculation tools and
facilitate the process of handling the diversities of large building portfolios or build-
ing stocks on a regional and national basis. In building stock modelling, it is critical
to realistically predict energy use and emissions in order to properly assess measures
and set policies for meeting specific targets that would realistically capture the actu-
al trends.
Various approaches are available to handle energy use performance and envi-
ronmental impact for building stock models, which are mainly identified as top-
down and bottom-up (Kavgic et al. 2010). The top-down approach aims at fitting a
historical time series of national energy use or CO2 emissions to investigate the
inter-relationships between the energy sector and the economy at large. The bottom-
up approach builds up from data on a hierarchy of disaggregated components (e.g.
period of construction, geographical areas as they relate to typical envelope cons-
truction and installations), which are then combined according to their estimated
individual impact on energy use, weighted by their breakdown in the building stock.
These models initiate the analysis at a disaggregated level by exploiting extensive
databases of empirical data. They are based on typical buildings that are representa-
tive of the building stock, which are then used to calculate their energy use, assess
different EEM and the resulting energy savings and abatement of CO2 emissions.
The results are estimated per unit floor area and then extrapolated using the total
floor area of the corresponding total floor area in the building stock. Findings can
then be used for medium- to long-term energy supply strategy. Amongst the main
weaknesses of such an approach are the accuracy of the calculations compared to
actual energy use and other assumptions regarding the impact of behavioral factors
on actual energy use, for example, the hours of occupancy and use of heating
systems, the heated areas, indoor temperature settings, etc.
2. Method
A notable effort to handle the complexities of building stock modeling is based
on the TABULA building typologies that have been created in 20 European countries
(Loga et al. 2016). Each national typology consists of a classification scheme grou-
ping buildings according to their size, location (climate zone) and construction age
that relates to energy-relevant building characteristics (e.g. construction, technical
installations) and a set of exemplary buildings representing these building types. The
national building typologies serve as an instrument for modelling the energy perfor-
mance of building portfolios in order to support regional or national energy saving
policies. The concept was further enhanced during a multinational effort within the
European project EPISCOPE (http://episcope.eu) to include new buildings meeting
120
the national requirements or more ambitious standards towards the national NZEB
definitions. The project motivated a number of national pilot actions targeting regional
or national residential building stocks, considering different approaches. The approach
presented in this work refers to the findings from the Hellenic pilot project.
One of the key issues addressed during this work was the need to close the
gap of actual versus calculated energy use when assessing the effectiveness of EEMs
for millions of cases in national building stock analysis. This challenge mandated
the development of an easy to implement generic two-fold approach. The first
exploits information from the energy performance certificates for deriving simple
empirical adaptation factors that relate the normative calculated heating energy con-
sumption with the actual energy use included in the certificates. The second appro-
ach exploits complementary data collected from field surveys that document recent
behavioral changes of occupants and the role of the human factor in the operation of
residential space heating systems in order to adapt normative calculations. Finally,
the overall approach is used with a building stock model to demonstrate a
preliminary assessment of different energy efficiency measures, towards meeting the
national targets for 2020 and 2030.
2.1 Hellenic Residential Building Typology
The national typology that describes the Hellenic residential building stock
followed the TABULA classification scheme (Dascalaki et al. 2016). The Hellenic
building matrix was defined for 24 classes depending on: Building Size (i.e. SFH for
single-family houses that are low-rise buildings with one or two floors and MFH for
multi-family houses); Building Age (using three vintage bands based on the year of
building construction, i.e. pre-1980 to represent buildings that are not thermally
insulated, 1981-2010 to represent partially or fully insulated buildings as a result of
compliance with HBTIR that is the first thermal insulation code, and post-2011 to
represent buildings that are thermally insulated in compliance with the new national
regulation - KENAK); Building Location (using the four climate zones defined by
the national regulation (KENAK) on the basis of the heating degree days, i.e. Zone
A (averaging 859 HDD) for the south, Zone B (averaging 1163 HDD) that includes
Athens that is the largest metropolitan region of Greece with 33% of the total num-
ber of dwellings in the country, Zone C (averaging 1825 HDD) and Zone D (averag-
ing 2260 HDD) for the northern parts of the country and some high elevation re-
gions in the mainland with the coldest conditions.
A typical building was assigned to each of the above 24 building classes,
which is a real (existing) building considered to be representative of all buildings in
the particular class (Dascalaki et al. 2016). Supplementary sub-typologies regarding
building elements and systems were prepared in accordance to the construction and
system installation trends in Hellenic residential buildings, throughout the three age
bands. Data on the typical buildings were assigned to the building types, including
general features (i.e. number of storeys, living area), geometrical data (i.e. building
volume, envelope areas), thermal properties of the envelope, as well as technical
characteristics and performance of the heating systems.
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2.2 Insight from EPCs
Energy performance certificates (EPC) of buildings are being issued throug-
hout Europe in accordance to the national EPBD provisions. Over the years, this has
initiated a mapping process of European buildings. The EPCs progressively reflect
the national building stock and offer a unique opportunity to reveal key data for
accessing and improving the existing buildings. The Hellenic EPC is a two-page
document (Dascalaki et al. 2012) and is being issued in Greece as of January 2011
for all buildings that are being sold and for entire buildings that are being rented out
for the first time to a new tenant. The EPC for a building unit (e.g. an apartment)
that is being rented out for the first time to a new tenant was initiated in January
2012. The EPC includes general building information, the buildings energy class
label, annual calculated and actual (if available) final and primary energy consump-
tion, CO2 emissions, breakdown of energy carriers and different end-uses, and up to
three cost effective recommendations for improving the buildings energy perfor-
mance with calculated energy savings and payback period. The normative calculati-
ons are performed using the official national software (TEE-KENAK) in accordance
to the European standards EN 13790, with the main calculation procedure of the
building energy demand estimated using the quasi-steady state monthly method, the
relevant national technical libraries, weather data and other technical specifications
outlined in four supporting technical guidelines (Dascalaki et al. 2012). Inherent to
the calculations are several assumptions according to the national methodology and
technical guidelines, in order to minimize judgment errors by the software user, e.g.
assuming for residential buildings an 18-hour daily operation for the entire heating
season (e.g. from November to mid-April in the south and from mid-October to
April in the north of the country) for achieving indoor thermal comfort conditions
set at 20oC (accounting for thermostatic controls) for the entire conditioned floor
area of the dwelling, DHW consumption (e.g. 27.38 m3/bedroom at 45oC), fixed
values for infiltration and natural ventilation rates (e.g. 0.75 m3/h/m2 heated floor
area), occupancy and internal heat gains (e.g. from lights at 0.1 W/m2, people at 4
W/m2 and equipment at 2 W/m2 heated floor area).
Simple empirical adaptation factors are defined as a ratio of actual to calcula-
ted energy use, extracted from the EPCs that include both types of data. The analysis
is performed by classifying the available data according to the Hellenic residential
typology. These factors are then used as multipliers for correcting the calculated
values to obtain a more realistic actual energy use for representative building types
used in the building stock model. The detailed methodology and data analysis for
deriving the adaptation factors is elaborated in (Balaras et al. 2016).
2.3 Insight from Field Surveys
Complementary data were also collected from field surveys that document
recent behavioral changes of occupants and the role of the human factor in the ope-
ration of residential space heating systems. These short surveys record the average
actual operating conditions, for example, hours of the heating system (i.e. how many
hours do the occupants usually heat their dwelling?), the indoor set-point temperatu-
122
re (i.e. at what temperature do you set your indoor thermostat?) and the percentage
area of the dwelling that is usually heated (i.e. what area of your dwelling do you
heat?). This was an effort to capture common practices either as a result of occupant
preferences or other socio-economic factors (e.g. fuel poverty) that deviate from
normative calculation assumptions according to national regulations (i.e. 18-hour
daily operation for the entire heating season, at 20oC indoor temperature, heating the
entire dwelling). The data are then used to derive similar correction factors for adap-
ting calculations to more conservative estimates of the actual energy use for the
representative building types used in the building stock model.
2.4 Building Stock Model
Each one of the 24 building types is used in the building stock model for
numerous different combinations of space heating & DHW generation systems and
energy carriers (Fig. 3). The calculations are performed using the official national
software (TEE-KENAK) to estimate the annual space heating and DHW energy
demand, primary energy consumption and CO2 emissions per unit floor area. The
results from the normative calculations are then adapted using the derived sets of
empirical adaptation factors (f) as multipliers for correcting the calculated values to
obtain more realistic estimates of the actual energy use.
Figure 3. Overall process of the building stock model and main calculation steps.
The inputs to the building stock model are derived from an analysis of Census
or statistical data (e.g. number of buildings and floor areas for occupied dwellings)
that correspond to the different building types, with the specific construction and
system characteristics. The adapted estimates for the various building types are finally
projected to the entire building stock. New construction, demolition and refurbishment
rates are also taken in to account in order to estimate on an annual basis the number of
123
buildings and floor areas that correspond to the building matrix and estimate the annu-
al final or primary energy use or savings, fuel mix and CO2 emissions. Currently, the
evolution of the building stock over the years considers only constant annual demoli-
tion, construction and refurbishment rates, over the entire period of interest. Different
scenarios can then be evaluated by implementing various EEMs on the building enve-
lopes or the systems or both, coupled with different modernization rates for assessing
the results towards the national CO2 emission targets for 2020 and 2030. For each
annual calculation, over 960 input files are generated by combining all 24 building
types with the different space heating systems, DHW systems and energy carriers that
are fed in the calculation engine. The technical characteristics of the typical buildings
change each year, by redefining the U-values, system efficiency and energy carriers,
depending on the different modernization scenarios and EEMs. The details of the
building stock model are elaborated in (Dascalaki et al. 2016).
3. Results
The available valid EPCs that included data on actual thermal and/or electri-
cal energy consumption were about 16,000 cases (or 3.5% of the total), since this
information is provided on a voluntary basis. The first stage analysis used all the
available raw data of unique EPCs from dwellings that use only one energy carrier
for space and DHW heating that amounted to 11,800 cases, of which about 85%
are for MFH. At a second stage, the data was processed with some basic quality
controls, e.g. splitting the data in bins and censoring top outliers (erroneous or
questionable values) of thermal or electrical energy use. The resulting screened
data included 8,500 cases, of which 83% are for MFH. Apparently, the available
data is currently biased towards mutli-family dwellings.
The primary energy is estimated using national conversion factors for diffe-
rent energy carriers, i.e. 2.9 for electricity, 1.1 for heating oil and 1.05 for natural
gas. The available raw and screened data was clustered and analyzed for the 24
building types. Representative results of the primary energy use intensity (EUIp)
values are illustrated in fig. 4 for the pre-1980, SFH and MFH building types, at the
four climate zones (e.g. zone A in the south and zone D in the north of the country).
The cloud data is the actual primary energy use retrieved from the corresponding
EPCs. The available data exhibit large variations as a result of the unique building
characteristics or prevailing weather conditions (since the normative calculations are
performed using standard weather files) and occupant behavior.
The complete list of the derived average ratios (i.e. actual to calculated EUIp)
are summarized in Table 1 along with the best-fit linear regressions to the corre-
sponding actual EUIp data from the EPCs. Each time, the adapted estimates are the
product of the calculated data with the corresponding adaptation factors for the spe-
cific building type, for example, as illustrated with the triangles in Fig. 4. The ratios
should be comparable to the slope obtained from a linear regression on the same set
of data, with zero intercept.
124
Figure 4. Representative results for the pre-1980 construction period with correla-
tions of actual (bullets) and calculated (triangles) primary energy use intensity for
SFH and MFH types at the four climate zones, using the screened data. Dashed
lines represent the best-fit linear regression to the corresponding actual EUIp data
(bullets) from the EPCs. Solid regression lines are fitted to the calculated EUIp data
(triangles) using the corresponding adaptation factors.
125
As shown in table 1, for some building types that correspond to recent build-
ing construction periods, there is limited available data at this stage, so one would
expect that for these specific building types there is low confidence in the derived
factors. Another bias of the currently available data is that the database is dominated
with EPCs from MFH (i.e. 85% in the raw data or 83% in the filtered data) that are
the most commonly issued certificates for renting out apartment units. For the time
being, this ratio does not meticulously reflect the national average of MFH in the
residential building stock. However, as the database is progressively enriched with
EPCs that include actual energy use data from more building types (e.g. SFH and
new construction periods), it will be possible to periodically repeat the process and
update the corresponding empirical adaptation factors.
The average calculated and actual EUIp for space heating and DHW in the
different building types are illustrated in fig. 5. The lowest average values for the
calculated vs actual EUIp are observed for the post-2011 types of buildings (i.e. new
buildings that correspond to the EPBD - KENAK era) and the highest to the older
buildings (i.e. pre-1980).
Figure 5. Bubble plots of raw (left) and screened (right) data for the average calcu-
lated and actual primary energy use intensity for space heating and DHW in the
different building types. The size of the bubble represents the corresponding data
population. The least-square regression lines correspond to the entire SFH and
MFH data. The 45-degree line (i.e. x=y) identifies the case when the calculated and
actual energy consumption values are in perfect agreement.
The higher calculated EUIp correspond to lower actual energy use, which is
more evident for dwellings with a poor energy performance (i.e. high calculated
EUIs). This is known in the literature as the prebound effect ranging in European
households from 30% to 40% less than the calculated values (Sunikka-Blank and
Galvin 2012, Magalhaes and Leal 2014, DallO et al. 2015, Dineen et al. 2015). The
opposite behavior is most notable for dwellings with a good energy performance for
which the lower calculated EUIp correspond to higher actual energy use. This is
126
Table 1. Average empirical adaptation factors derived using the raw and screened
data for the different building types and the corresponding best-fit linear regressi-
ons to the corresponding actual EUIp data from the EPCs (actual (y) as a function of
the calculated (x) energy use data sets). The f1 factors are derived from the EPCs
and the f2 from the field studies. The corresponding data population (N) is included
in parentheses.
Construction Climate Single-family houses (SFH) Multi-family houses (MFH)
period zone
f1* f1** f2 f1* f1** f2
y=bx y=bx y=bx y=bx
(N) (N) (N) (N) (N) (N)
pre-1980 0.5919 0.4933 0.2829 0.8894 0.5230 0.3325
y=0.4379x y=0.4158x All pre- y=0.5525x y=0.4468x All pre-
(1075) (909) 1980 (5196) (4041) 1980
(24) (52)
A 0.5726 0.5290 0.8658 0.5515
y=0.4294x y=0.4329x y=0.6151x y=0.4718x
(66) (54) (213) (154)
B 0.6894 0.5153 1.0565 0.5144
y=0.5055x y=0.4595x y=0.5833x y=0.4398x
(500) (422) (3276) (2482)
C 0.5931 0.5051 0.7472 0.5253
y=0.4435x y=0.4210x y=0.5134x y=0.4503x
(382) (315) (1386) (1136)
D 0.4807 0.4414 0.7884 0.5358
y=0.3509x y=0.3529x y=0.5566x y=0.4531x
(127) (118) (321) (269)
1981-2010 1.0905 0.6267 0.3414 1.6268 0.6405 0.3075
y=0.6238x y=0.5422x All post- y=0.7398x y=0.5254x All post-
(700) (500) 1981 (4810) (3067) 1981
(30) (105)
A 1.0001 0.5746 1.7222 0.6152
y=0.5822x y=0.4483x y=0.7533x y=0.5478x
(101) (68) (360) (213)
B 1.9876 0.6083 2.4935 0.6011
y=0.6581x y=0.5564x y=0.7201x y=0.5212x
(295) (196) (2660) (1665)
C 0.8384 0.6331 1.1373 0.6822
y=0.6316x y=0.551x y=0.7367x y=0.5797x
(227) (166) (1451) (953)
D 0.7483 0.6421 1.0943 0.6179
y=0.5694x y=0.5334x y=0.7861x y=0.5448x
(77) (70) (339) (236)
post-2011 0.8609 0.7254 2.5647 0.5735
127
Construction Climate Single-family houses (SFH) Multi-family houses (MFH)
period zone
y=0.5643x y=0.5796x y=0.9983x y=0.5340x
(7) (5) (36) (19)
A 1.5474 0.5191 0.6571 0.7128
y=0.2898x y=0.2294x y=0.5049x y=0.6442x
(3) (2) (9) (6)
B 0.8659 0.8659 3.5681 0.6111
y=0.6589x y=0.6589x y=1.0483x y=0.5478x
(2) (2) (21) (11)
C 2.3681 0.3462
y=1.1442x y=0.3813x
(5) (2)
D 0.4012 0.7905 2.3827
y=0.6947x y=0.7905x y=2.3827x
(2) (1) (1)
All data 0.6963 0.5202 0.3165 1.0815 0.5568 0.3167
y=0.4767x y=0.4419x All data y=0.6124x y=0.4786x All data
(1782) (1414) (54) (10042) (7127) (157)
* using the raw data; ** using the screened data
commonly referred to in the literature as the rebound effect that is most notable
for dwellings with a good energy performance. Several European studies report a
rebound effect of 20% up to 68% (Burman et al. 2014). The results confirm that both
prebound and rebound effects should be taken into account in order to make more
realistic estimates in building stock modeling, by adapting the calculated estimates
of energy performance for new buildings or the anticipated energy savings for
existing buildings as a result of implementing EEMs (Sunikka-Blank and Galvin
2012).
The average ratios (f1*) based on the analysis using the raw data (considered as
an upper bound of the actual energy use) range from 0.70 for SFH (i.e. 30% lower
energy use than calculated) to 1.08 for MFH (i.e. 8% higher energy consumption than
calculated). The values for the different groups of data (e.g. all pre-1980 or all data)
are calculated as the best-fit to the averages using the corresponding adaptation factors
for the different building types. Analyzing the screened data (considered as an average
bound of the actual energy use) the ratios (f1**) range from 0.52 for SFH to 0.56 for
MFH (i.e. 48% or 44% lower actual energy consumption than calculated).
Overall, higher calculated EUIs correspond to lower actual energy use (i.e.
buildings that are characterized by poor energy performance according to normative
calculations will have a lower actual energy use). This is an anticipated result since
old and low energy performance dwellings are usually occupied by low-income hou-
seholds who are struggling with heating energy costs and keeping their homes
adequately warm. Occupants with low household incomes are usually at higher risk of
fuel poverty and occupant behavior will practically determine the actual energy use.
128
The short field surveys provided a lower bound of energy use that captures
recent occupant reactions by limiting the operating hours for space heating, lowering
the indoor temperature settings, and reducing the heated floor area of their dwellings
(e.g. by isolating rooms). These deviations from normative calculation assumptions
may even come at the expense of indoor thermal comfort conditions in an effort to
reduce operational costs for space heating. The collected information revealed that
only 17% of SFH and 10% of MFH have operating hours close to the assumed con-
tinuous heating hours of the normative calculations. On average, the heating systems
are actually operated 5-6 hours vs the assumed 18 h/day in the calculations. Only
28% of the occupants in SFH and 27% in MFH reported that their average indoor
temperature is set at 20oC that resembles the specified indoor set-point in the calcu-
lations. The weighted average temperature reported by the occupants is 19.6oC
during the day, with a temperature night set-back at 16.9oC. Finally, only 33% of
SFH and 43% of MFH actually heat the entire floor area of their dwelling that corre-
sponds to the calculation approach. Individually or collectively, one can derive a
series of similar empirical adaptation factors for adjusting the calculated values and
account for deviations from the standard operating conditions used in the normative
calculations. The representative results were 0.39 for the heating operating hours,
0.88 for the heated floor area and 0.91 for indoor temperature deviations. The impact
of these behavioral changes is a lower actual energy use but at the expense of proper
indoor thermal conditions. Only 56% of the occupants in SFH and 45% in MFH
manage to feel comfortable in their homes. Overall, the results are in agreement with
the national averages (ELSTAT 2013) giving some level of confidence that the
available field survey data capture the recent trends of occupant reactions to lower
the operational energy consumption for heating their dwellings.
Theavailable field survey data was clustered to derive similar adaptation fac-
tors (f2) for adjusting the calculated values to account for the deviations from the
standard conditions used in the normative calculations, e.g. lower hours of operation
and indoor temperature settings, heating smaller floor areas of dwellings (Balaras et
al. 2016). The representative results (table 1) are presented for only two major con-
struction periods (pre- and post-1980) of SFH and MFH, since the available data
during this pilot action originate from only 211 dwellings. The lower bound adapta-
tion factor (f2) averages about 0.32 and is considered a conservative estimate of
actual energy use.
The building stock model illustrated in fig. 3 was set-up and implemented,
taking into account the annual construction rates of new buildings, demolition of
older buildings, as well as different refurbishment rates of the existing building
stock. The results from different refurbishment scenarios are elaborated in (Dascala-
ki et al. 2016). The 2030 targets for CO2 emissions and final energy consumption
are reached by applying an aggressive annual refurbishment rate of 3.6% for thermal
improvement of the envelope and 1.15% for improvement of the systems efficiency
to minimize heat demand and promote the use of solar energy systems for DHW and
solar heating together with a gradual fuel change from oil to natural gas.
129
To validate the overall approach, the current state of the building stock model
was used to generate results for the 2012 base year (fig. 6). The results were com-
pared against the officially reported data (EU 2014), which was the most recent base
year with available data at the time of the study. Since then, the official Eurostat data
(EU 2016) for 2013 and 2014 were published and are also included in Fig. 6 as
snap-shots of the short-term current trends, under the adverse impacts of the prevail-
ing economic crisis.
Figure 6. Estimated final energy consumption for heating and CO2 emissions of the
Hellenic residential building stock using the different adaptation factors and the
officially reported values for the base year 2012 and for the years 2013-14.
The officially reported values for 2012-14 are bracketed by the building stock
model results for occupied dwellings that have been corrected with the adaptation
factors (f1**) that serve as an average of the general trend of actual energy use and
the results using the (f2) factors that serve as a conservative estimate. Apparently, the
use of the more conservative lower bound adaptation factors appear to capture the
current dropping trend of actual final heating energy use in Hellenic dwellings as a
result of the economic crisis.
4. Conclusions
A pilot study exploited recent data on actual energy performance of Hellenic
dwellings as a first attempt to close the gap between calculated (predicted) and actu-
al energy use. This work was not an attempt to test the accuracy of the calculation
tool, but rather to set an easy to implement conceptual approach for making more
realistic estimates of actual energy use for different building typologies and energy
savings for common EEMs. The two-step approach exploits available information
from EPCs and collects new data through manageable short field surveys. The work
was based on data from Greece but the streamline approach can also be implemented
in other European countries using data from energy performance certificates and the
building typologies that are already available for 20 EU Member States (Loga et al.
2016).
Actual energy consumption exhibits large variations for the same calculated
EUIp. Although it was not possible to implement a comprehensive quality control on
130
the available data and for some building types there is not yet sufficient number of
data, the results reveal some interesting trends and insight. An upper bound average
ratio of actual to calculated primary energy use ranges from 0.70 for SFH to 1.1 for
MFH, while the average bound results indicate that dwellings may use about 48%
(SFH) to 44% (MFH) less energy than calculated. The homeowner field surveys
revealed a lower bound that reflects a conservative estimate of actual energy use
driven by recent behavioral changes and trends in the use and operation of heating
systems. Representative results for two major construction periods (pre- and post-
1980) of SFH and MFH indicate an average of 69% less energy use than calculated.
Policy makers should take these findings into consideration when assessing different
scenarios and prioritizing EEMs in building stock model projections.
To support future work and further analysis, more good quality data would be
valuable. The adaptation factors should be periodically updated. As the number of
EPCs increases it will be possible to cover all building types with sufficient number
of data. Energy inspectors should also be encouraged to include and report the actual
energy use. Short field surveys could be used in order to capture the trends of occu-
pant behaviors in terms of actual hours of operation, indoor temperature settings and
heating floor areas of dwellings, which have the most direct impact on the deviations
of actual energy use from the normative calculations. Another angle of attack is to
collect data and develop a knowledge base for the effectiveness of more EEMs
under actual operating conditions in order to quantify the actual energy savings
before vs after the implementation of the measures, especially during nationally
funded refurbishment projects. The building stock model itself could also be impro-
ved by considering variable annual demolition, construction and refurbishment rates
in order to more realistically reflect the evolution of the building stock over the
years.
Acknowledgments
Part of this work was performed in the frame of the European project
EPISCOPE (http://episcope.eu) Energy Performance Indicator Tracking Schemes
for the Continuous Optimisation of Refurbishment Processes in European Housing
Stocks that is partly financed by the European Commission, Executive Agency for
Competitiveness and Innovation (EACI). The content of this publication does not
necessarily reflect the opinion of the European Union. Neither the EASME nor the
European Commission is responsible for any use that may be made of the informati-
on contained therein.
The official Hellenic EPC registry (www.buildingcert.gr) was developed and
is maintained by the Hellenic Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change
- YPEKA (currently Hellenic Ministry of Environment & Energy) in collaboration
with the Centre for Renewable Energy Sources (CRES). The authors wish to
thankfully acknowledge YPEKA for allowing access to the national EPC database.
The analysis performed by the authors does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the
Ministry.
131
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133
PREDNOSTI GREJANJA JAVNIH I STAMBENIH
OBJEKATA SISTEMOM TOPLOTNIH PUMPI (SMMS-E)
ADVANTAGES OF HEATING AND HOUSING FACILITIES
HEAT PUMPS SYSTEM (SMMS-E)
Dragan OKI, dipl. ma. in.,
JPToplifikacija, Lazarevac, Karaoreva 58/6, Lazarevac,
e-mail: megainzenjering.ds@gmail.com
U radu su analizirani javni i stambeni objekat, zbog razliitih koncepcija
unutranje instalacije. Prvi objekat je rekonstruisan u hotel od 2680 m2 i potrebnom
koliinom toplote za grejanje i ventilaciju od 201(kW), dok je za analizu kao sta-
mbeni objekat analizirana zgrada od 1620 m2 sa potrebom za grejanje od 153 kW.
Potrebno je sagledati investicione vrednosti varijante prikljuenja na SDG i
varijantu sa postrojenjem VRF toplotne pumpe (SMMS-e). Da bi govorili o prednos-
tima jedne ili druge varijante , potrebno je uraditi uporednu ekonomsku analizu.
Takoe treba uporediti i cene kotanja grejanja.
Analiza trokova za prikljuenje je uraena na osnovu merodavnih podataka
o postrojenju, Odluke o visini trokova prikljuenja na SDG (S.L.G.B. br.64 od
25.07.2014) i vaeeg Cenovnika trokova za prikljuenje na SDEE(EPS Distribu-
cija d.o.o Beograd od jun.2016 godine).
Cena usluge grejanja je raunata na osnovu potroene energije za grejanje
prema Odluci o cenama toplotne energije(S.L.G.B. br.64 od 25.07.2014) i Odluci o
utvrenju elektrine energije za javno snabdevanje( br.38/1-13 od 08.07.2013) . Za
trokove izgradnje instalacija uzeti su podaci iz zvaninih Ponuda za nabavku
opreme i izgradnju za obe varijante.
Raunica potrebne el.enegije za rad toplotnih pumpi je uraena na osnovu
koeficijenta za energetsku efikasnost COP koji je u ovom sluaju od 3,69-3,94.
Sezonski koeficijenti energetske efikasnosti za projektovane spoljanje jedinice su od
7,11-7,51. Tako da e uteda energije na nivou sezone biti jo vea. Rezultati anali-
ze su pokazali da su nii trokovi za prikljuenje i nia cena grejanja u sluaju kad
je izvor energije toplotna pumpa VRF sistem.
Uzimajui u obzir i ostale elemente za odluivanje ,varjanta sa toplotnom
pumpom je prihvatljivija za investitora , projektanta za lokalnu samoupravu, i najbi-
tnije za potroaa.
Kljune rei: sistem grejanja;daljinsko grejanje,; toplotna pumpa; energet-
ska efikasnost;trokovi;
This paper analyzes a public building and a residential building, due to diffe-
rent conceptions of interior installations. The first building was reconstructed hotel
in Belgrade in 2680 (m2) and the need for heat for heating and ventilation of 201
135
kW, while the analysis as a residential building buildings analyzed 1620 (m2) with
the need for heating of 153 kW.
Yes to talk about the advantages of one or the other variants, it is necessary
to do a comparative economic analysis. It is necessary to consider the investment
value variants of connection to the SDG(District heating) and building proper
installation and construction of the plant model with VRF heat pump system with
inverters from the connection to SDEE (system for distribution of electricity). You
should also compare prices and heating costs to consumers. Analysis of the costs for
the connection is made on the basis of authoritative data on the plant, Decisions on
costs of connection to the SDG (SLGB No.64 of 25.07.2014) and the valid price list
of costs for connection to SDEE ("EPS Distribution" doo Beograd from the
jun.2016).
Price heating services is calculated on the basis of domestic energy for hea-
ting, according to the Decision on prices toplootne energy (SLGB No.64 of
25.07.2014) and the Decision on the establishment of electricity for public supply
(No.38 / 1-13 of 08.07.2013). For the cost of building the installation data were
taken from the official offer for the purchase of equipment and construction of the
two variants.
Results showed that both the public facility (hotel) and residential property
(buildings) lower cost for connection, the lower heating prices, lower investuciona
value of building the necessary installations for a model with tolpotnom pump sour-
ce. In addition to the cost of building and heating costs the consumer, taking into
account other elements to be decided upon, varjanta with toplotnm pump is accep-
table for local government, investors, designers and the most important thing for
consumers.
Key words: heating system; district heating; termal pump; energy efficiency;
cost
Uvod
Postojei poslovni objekat je rekonstruisan u objekat sa novom namenom i
novim investitorom. Trei, etvrti i peti sprat su rekonstruisani u hotel od 2680 m2.
Za hotel je potrebno uraditi grejanje, klimatizaciju i ventilaciju. Prvi, drugi sprat i
podrum su poseban poslovni prostor sa drugom namenom i u vlasnitvu drugih pra-
vnih lica. Ne postoji odgovarajua prostorija za eventualnu toplotnu podstanicu
(TPS) a relativno je vea udaljenost od mogue komore za prikljuenje na sistem
daljinskog grejanja (SDG). Zato su razmotrene i druge mogunosti grejanja hotela.
Za odreivanje izvora energije, analaziran je veliki broj parametara: trokovi prik-
ljuenja, cena grejanja potroaa, tehniki uslovi prikljuenja, urbanistiki uslovi,
arhitektonske zahteve itd. Posebno je u gradskim sredinama smanjen izbor moguih
izvora energije. U gusto naseljenom gradskom podruju realno mogui izvori ener-
gije za grejanje objekta su (ako postoji) SDG (sistem daljinskog grejanja), i TP
(toplotna pumpa-SMMS). Ostali mogui izvori energije za grejanje u ovom radu
nisu analizirani.
136
Radi ireg sagledavanja rezultata uraena je i analiza za jednu novoprojekto-
vanu stambeno-poslovnu zgradu od 1620(m2).
U radu su uporeeni trokovi prikljuenja, izgradnje sistema za grejanje, kli-
matizaciju, ventilaciju i na kraju cene grejanja u eksploataciji. Posle ekonomske
analize date su i ostale prednosti i mane analiziranih sistema.
Kratak tehniki opis varijanti

Varijanta sa prikljuenjem na sistem za distribuciju toplotne energije (SDG)
1.1.1. Hotel
Prikljuno mesto na distributivnu mreu je oko 30-50 m udaljeno od TPS, za
koju bi trebalo odvojiti novu posebnu prostoriju. Toplotna podstanica je snage od
250 kW sa indirektnim ploastim izmenjivaem Eurohit. Za ekspanziju je predvi-
ena zatvorena posuda od 150 litara Elbi smetena u TPS. Regulacija je izvedena
pomou spoljnjeg senzora i menog ventila.
Za cirkulaciju sekundarnog fluida 90/70C predvieno je pumpno postrojenje
sa pumpama sa promenljivim brojem obrtaja Wilo. Unutranja instalacija (sekun-
dar) polazi iz TPS. Kod hotela je predvieno da se uradi dvocevni sistem sa bakar-
nim cevima i aluminijumskim radijatorima.
Horizontalni razvod je uraen od bakarnih cevi i smeten je pod plafon najni-
e etae. Vertikale su postavljane uz zajedniki zid izmeu prostorija.Grejna tela u
prostorijama, su aluminijumski radijatori Global-Vox, dok su u kupatilima suai
(takoe Global-Vox). Radijatori su povezani za vertikalama preko ventila i navi-
jaka Herc. Ventili imaju termostatsku glavu. Odzraivanje je na automatskim
odzranim ventilima na grejnim telima.
Zbog potrebe za hlaenjem u letnjem periodu, predvieni su lokalni zidni
klima ureaji (za svaku sobu po jedan).
Za ventilaciju recepcije, sala i holova predvieni su rekuperatori vazduha sa
elektrinim dogrevanjem vazduha u zimskom periodu.
1.1.2. Stambena zgrada

Prikljuno mesto na distributivnu mreu je oko 30m udaljen od TPS, koja bi
trebalo da bude u podrumu objekta. Toplotna podstanica je snage od 180kW sa indi-
rektnim ploastim izmenjivaem Eurohit. Za ekspanziju je predviena zatvorena
posuda od 100 litara Elbi smetena u TPS. Regulacija je izvedena pomou spolj-
njeg senzora i menog ventila.
Za cirkulaciju sekundarnog fluida 90/70 C predvieno je pumpno postrojenje
sa pumpama sa promenljivim brojem obrtaja Wilo. Unutranja instalacija (sekun-
dar) polazi iz TPS. Predvieno da se uradi jednocevni sistem sa APEX cevima i
aluminijumskim radijatorima. Glavne vertikale su postavljene u stepeninom prosto-
ru gde su povezani merni ormani za svaki stan. Svaki stan ima razvod po podu stana.
Grejna tela u prostorijama su aluminijumski radijatori Global-Vox, dok su
u kupatilima suai (takoe Global-Vox). Radijatori su povezani za vertikalama
137
preko jednocevnih ventila Herc. Ventili imaju termostatsku glavu. Odzraivanje je
na automatskim odzranim ventilima na grejnim telima. Zbog potrebe za hlaenjem
u letnjem periodu, predvieni su lokalni zidni klima ureaji (za svaki stan po jedan).
Varijanta sa Toplotnom pumpom
1.2.1. Hotel
Grejanje i hlaenje kompletnog objekta je pomou SMMS-e sistema Toshi-
ba sa VRF tehnologijom i 100(%) inverterima. Super modular multi sistem
(SMMS-e) omoguava grejanje do spoljne temperature -25(oC). Sistem toplotnih
pumpi je projektovan za spoljnu projektnu temperaturu od -12.1(oC), za zimske
uslove odnosno 32(oC) za letnje uslove i sastoji od tri modularne toplotne pumpe
Toshiba, sa oznakama T1,T2 i T3 smetene na ravni krov.
Za ventilaciju recepcije, sala i holova hotela ugraeni su rekupatori Toshi-
ba sa dogrevanjem i dohlaivanjem vazduha za (DX izmenjivaem toplote poveza-
nim na toplotne pumpe).
Toplotna pumpa T1: ima spoljnu jedinicu MMY-AP3016HT8P-e, sa sezon-
skim koeficijentom energetske efikasnosti 7.51, rashladni uinak 85.0[kW], maksi-
malne snage pri hlaenju 26.6(kW),grejni uinak 95.0(kW), maksimalne snage pri
grejanju 24.1(kW).
skim koeficijentom energetske efikasnosti 7.17, rashladni uinak 56.0[kW], maksi-
malne snage pri hlaenju 17.3(kW),grejni uinak 63.0(kW), maksimalne snage pri
grejanju 17.0(kW).
skim koeficijentom energetske efikasnosti 7.17, rashladni uinak 112.0 [kW], mak-
simalne snage pri hlaenju 34.6(kW),grejni uinak 129,0 (kW), maksimalne snage
pri grejanju 34.1(kW).
Unutranje jediniceToshiba su tanke kanalske jedinice predviene za sobe i
apartmane i etvorostrane kasetne za holove i sale , postavljene u sputene plafone
prostorija. Sve unutranje jedinice imaju pumpe za odvod kondezata i filter za vaz-
duh i mogunost dovoda sveeg vazduha. Razvod freona je dvocevni pomou
bakarnih izolovanih cevi i specijalnih ravi, razdelnika i spojnica. Upravljanje je sa
kablovskim daljinskim upravljaem sa ugraenim senzorom. Rekuperatori imaju
sopstvene daljinske upravljae. Kompletno upravljanje objedinjuje centralni uprav-
ljaki sistem.
1.2.2. Stambena zgrada

Grejanje i hlaenje kompletnog objekta je pomou SMMS-e sistema Toshi-
ba sa VRF tehnologijom i 100[%] inverterima. SMMS-e omoguava grejanje do
spoljne temperature -25 C. Sistem toplotnih pumpi je projektovan za spoljnu pro-
jektnu temperaturu od -12.1 C , za zimske uslove odnosno 32 C za letnje uslove i
sastoji od dve modularne toplotne pumpe Toshiba, sa oznakama T1 i T2 smetene
na plou iznad garaa.
138
skim koeficijentom energetske efikasnosti 7.51, rashladni uinak 85.0 kW, maksi-
malne snage pri hlaenju 26.6 kW,grejni uinak 95.0 kW, maksimalne snage pri
grejanju 24.1 kW.
skim koeficijento energetske efikasnosti 7.17, rashladni uinak 56.0 kW
,maksimalne snage pri hlaenju 17.3 kW , grejni uinak 63.0 kW, maksimalne snage
pri grejanju 17.0 kW.
Unutranje jedinice su konzolne (bi-flow) Toshiba. Sve unutranje jedinice
imaju pumpe za odvod kondezata i filter za vazduh. Razvod freona je dvocevni
pomou bakarnih izolovanih cevi i specijalnih ravi, razdelnika i spojnica. Upravlja-
nje je sa daljinskim upravljaem .
Ekonomska analiza
Trokovi prikljuka i vrednost investicije
Trokovi prikljuka i vrednosti investicije su uraemi na osnovu podataka
dobijenih iz:
1. Projekta za izvoenje termotehniukih instalacija(predmera i predrauna
opreme i radova), ponuda isporuioca opreme i radova za obe varijante,
2. Odluke o visini trokova prikljuaka na sistem daljinskog grejanja Javnog
komunalnog preduzea Beogradske elektrane, objavljenog 25.07.2014 u Sl.listu
grada Beograda br.64
3. Cenovniku trokova prikljuenja na sistem za distribuciju elektrine ener-
gije EPS distribucija od juna 2016. godine.
2.1.1 Trokovi prikljuenja objekta na sistem daljinskog grejanja: Tpr=LxTP/30

+ TP4+DTS
Kriterijumi za odreivanje trokova prikljuka na SDG su:kapacitet
Q(kW),mesto prikljuka L(m),vrsta ureaja,opreme i materijala.
Za Tsp = -12.1C, Q kW=201, i Lm =30 m
TP/30 (din./m) - Jediniki trokovi izgradnje prikljuka
TP4 (din./kom) - Trokovi nabavke i ugradnje TPS
DTS (din) - Deo trokova sistema nastalih kao preduslov za prikljuenje
objekta
139
2.
Ho-
A m2 68
tel
Objekat 0
Beo- 20
Q kW
Lokacija grad 1
Jedinini trokovi izgradnje tipskog prikljuka TP/30 din./m 30.182,0

Trokovi prikljuka na daljinski sistem Tpr din. 6.4151.74,0
Trokovi izgradnje unutranje instalacije za grejanje Tg din. 8241.000,0
Trokovi izgradnje unutranje instalacije hlaenja Th din. 2.558.400,0
Trokovi izgradnje ventilacije Tv din. 1.474.770,0
24.229.271,
din.
Ukupni trokovi prikljuka na daljinsko grejanje 0
Tdg
i izgradnju unutranje instalacije
eur.
196.986,0
Za Tsp = -12.1C, Q kW=153, i Lm =30 m
Stambena zgra-
A m2
Objekat da 1.620
Beo-
Q kW
Lokacija grad 153
TP din./
Trokovi izgradnje tipskog prikljuka /30 m 30.182,0
Tp
din.
Trokovi prikljuka na daljinski sistem r 5.188.678,0
Trokovi izgradnje unutranje instalacije grejanja Tg din. 4.981.500,0
Trokovi izgradnje unutranje instalacije hlaenja Th din. 1.180.800,0
11.350.979,
Ukupni trokovi prikljuka na daljinsko grejanje i Td din.
0
izgradnju unutranje instalacije g
eur. 92.284,0
140
2.1.2 Trokovi za prikljuenje i ugradnju toplotne pumpe (SMMS-e)
Trokovi pojedinanog tipskog prikljuka sa merno razvodnim ormanom u objektu

Tip prikljuka T3A nadzemno-podzemni, snage do 43.5(kW)
Naziv ob- Oznaka Qgi Pel. Ce. Cel. l T

COP
jekta: T.Pumpe kW kW din. din/m m din.
T1 95 3.94 24.11 107.297,5 580 100 1.652.98,0
Hotel T2 63 3.705 17.00 107.297,5 580 100 165.298,0
T3 126 3.69 34.15 107.297,5 580 100 165.298,0
Trokovi prikljuenja na sisten za distribuciju elektro din. 495.893,0

Te
energije: eur. 4.032,0
din. 15.833.488,0
Nabavke i ugradnja kompletne opreme za tolpotnu pumpu: To
eur. 128.728,0
Ukupni trokovi za prikljuenje i ugradnju toplotne din. 16.329.381,0

Ttt
pumpe: eur. 132.759,0
Trokovi pojedinanog tipskog prikljuka sa merno razvodnim ormanom u objektu

Tip prikljuka T3A nadzemno-podzemni, snage do 43.5(kW)
Naziv Oznaka Qgi Pel. Ce. Cel. l T

COP
objekta:
Toplotne .Pumpe kW kW din. din/m m din.
T1 63 3.705 17.00 107.297.5 580 100 165.298,0

Stambena
zgrada
T2 126 3.69 34.15 107.297.5 580 100 165.298,0
din. 33.0595,0
Trokovi prikljuenja na sistem za distribuciju elektro
Te
energije:
eur. 2.688,0
din. 9.487.395,0
Nabavke i ugradnja kompletne opreme za tolpotnu pumpu: To
eur. 77.133,0
din. 9.817.990,0
Ukupni trokovi za prikljuenje i ugradnju toplotne pumpe: Ttt
eur. 79.821,0
141
A[m2] - povrina objekta
Tsp[oC] - spoljna projektna temperature
Qg[kW] - koliina toplote potrebna za grejanje objekta.
Qi[kW] - instalisana koliina toplote
COP - koeficijent energetske efikasnosti grejanja.
Pef.[kW] - angaovana elektrina snaga kompresora.
Ce.[din] - Troak prikljuenja za udaljenje do 25(m)
l[m] - udaljenje prikljuka.
Cel.[din/m] - cena prikljuka za vea udaljenja od 25(m).
Tdg[dinj] - Ukupni trokovi ta prikljuenje na sistem daljinskog grejanja sa un.instalacijom i
eventualno
dodatnim hlaenjem i ventilacijom.
Ttt[dinj] - Ukupni trokovi za prikljuenje i ugradnju toplotne pumpe sa opremom za klima-
tizaciju i Ventilaciju.
Trokovi za potroenu energiju
Trokovi potronje energije za grejanje su uraeni na osnovu dokumentacije navedene u

spisku Reference:
[2] Odluka o izmenama i dopunama odluke o cenama toplotne energije, Slube-
ni list grada Beograda br.64 od 25.07.2014.
Za Hotel , kategorija potroaa je Ostali potroai, prema instalisanoj snazi za
Tsp=-12.1.
Za Stambeni objekat, kategorija potroaa jeStambeni prostor, prema zagrevnoj
povrini za Tsp=-12.1.
[5] Odluka o utvrivanju cene elektrine energije za javno snabdevanje,EPS,
d.o.o. Beograd od 08.07.2013
Za Hotel , kategorija potroaa je 3. Na niskom naponu.
Za Stambeni objekat, kategorija potroaa je 3. Na niskom naponu.
Godinja potronja energije
Qgu S
Z Tu Tsp y e Qg Qg
b D
(kW)/
Kw dana C C / / (kW)/god.
mes.
25
201 175 20 -12.1 0.6 0.9 204502 17042
20
25
153 175 20 -12.1 0.6 0.9 155665 12972
20
142
1. Cena grejanja objekta prikljuenog na sistem daljinskog grejanja
Q
A Jed.cena /god. Cena
o
Naz
iv din/
m2 k din/k din/go mes
W din./kW Wh d. . din/m2
Ho- 20 22997 191
2680 3729.71 7.58 71.5
tel 1 93 649
Sta
15 15357 127
mb 1620 3729.71 6.2 79.0
3 71 981
eni
2. Cena grejanja objekta sa toplotno pompom
R.
A Aktivna ener- En-
Naz Pg Obr. snaga gija erg. Cena
iv din/
m2 k KW din/m
W din/kW din/KWh h din/god. es. din/m2
nia via
Ho- 11941
2680 75 803.228 1.14 1433026 44.6
tel 9
2.143 6.429
Sta nia via

mb 1620 51 803.228 1.14 1085880 90490 55.9
eni 2.143 6.429
Rezultati ekonomske analize pokazuju :

Da je investiciona vrednost izgradnje toplotne pumpe nia od investicione
vrednosti prikljuenja objekta na postojei gradski toplifikacioni sistem.
Da je cena grejanja, u eksploataciji, nia kod sistema sa toplotnom pumpom u odno-
su na SDG.
143
1. Ukupni trokovi za izgradnju i prikljuenje objekta na daljinski sistem
grejanja iznose:
2. Za Hotel : 24.229.271,0 dinara
3. Za Stambenu zgradu: 11.350.979,0 dinara
4. Ukupni trokovi za izgradnju i prikljuenje toplotne pumpe :
5. Za Hotel : 16.329.381,0 dinara
6. Za Stambenu zgradu: 9817990,0 dinara
7. Cena grejanja objekta prikljuenog na daljinsko grejanje :
8. Za Hotel : 191649 dinara/mesec
9. Za Stambenu zgradu: 127981 dinara/mesec.
10. Cena grejanja objekta prikljuenog na toplotnu pumpu :
11. Za Hotel : 119419 dinara/mesec
12. Za Stambenu zgradu: 90490 dinara/mesec
Rezime
Rezultati ekonomske analize pokazuju da su trokovi prikljuenja na SDG:
1. Za hotel za 48[%] vei od trokova prikljuenja na SMMS-e,
2. Za stambeni objekat za 11,6[%]vei od trokova prikljuenja na SMMS-e.
Cena grejanja prema potroaima je vea za objekte prikljuene na SDG :

1. Za hotel 60[%] vea od cene grejanja za objekte prikljuenje na SMMS-
e,
2. Za stambeni prostor 41[%]vea od cene grejanja za objekte prikljuenje
na SMMS-e.
Ostale prednosti grejanja objekata sa toplotnom pumpom

1. Dobit za drutvenu zajednicu: visoki koeficijent energetske efikasnosti,
manja potronja energije, smanjenje emisije CO2.
2. Dobit za investitore: jedininstven sistem za hlaenje i grejanje, potronu
vodu i ventilaciju, niska cena i brza montaa.
3. Dobit za projektante : savremena tehnologija sa toplotnim pumpama,
maksimalno efikasan reim grejanja,visok stepen fleksibilnosti
projektovanih ureaja i cevne mree, kompaktne spoljne jedinice koje
zahtevaju minimalni prostor, veliki izbor po tipu i kapacitetu unutranjih
jedinica, lake uklapanje u savremena arhitektonska reenja.
4. Dobit za korisnike: bolji komfor, rad sistema celu godinu(zimi greje, leti
hladi), mogue grejanje sanitarne vode i ventilacija, optimalno
prilagoavanje trenutnom toplotnom optereenju,potpuna regulacije
temperature u prostoru,niski trokovi odravanja,nia potronja energije,nii
rauni za grejanje.
144
Literatura
[1] *** Odluka o visini trokova prikljuka na sistem daljinskog grejanja, Slubeni
list grada Beograda br.64 od 25.07.2014.
[2] *** Odluka o izmenama i dopunama odluke o cenama toplotne energije, Slu-
beni list grada Beograda br.64 od 25.07.2014.
[3] *** Cenovnik trokova prikljuenja na sistem za distribuciju elektrine energi-
je,EPS distribucija d.o.o,Beograd od juna.2016
[4] *** Odluka o ceni pristupa sistemu za distribuciju elektrine energije,EPS,
[5] *** Odluka o utvrivanju cene elektrine energije za javno snabdevanje,EPS,
[6] *** PGD -Termotehnike instalacijije za hotel u Ustanikoj, LA-Projekt,
Lazarevac
[7] *** IDP -Termotehnike instalacije za stambeni objeket u Despota Stefa-
na.2D-studio, Beograd
145
MOGUNOSTI INDIVIDUALNOG ISKLJUENJA
SA SISTEMA DALJINSKOG GREJANJA
POSSIBILITIES OF INDIVIDUAL DISCONNECTION FROM
THE DISTRICT HEATING SYSTEM
Milan MITRI, dipl. in. ma., Biro "Solar", Panevo
solarpa@panet.rs
Grad Panevo je prvi grad koji je doneo Pravilnik o uslovima i postupcima
za iskljuenje i ponovno prikljuenje kupaca sa odnosno na sisteme daljinskog gre-
janja i sanitarne tople vode. Kratak osvrt na kljune odredbe Pravilnika.
Izlaganjem e biti predstavljena mogunost individualnog iskljuenja sa sis-
tema daljinskog grejanja u Panevu a na osnovu donetog Pravilnika
Prikazana su dva karakteristina primera iz Elaborata o tehnikim moguno-
stima za iskljuenje: stan u zgradi sa dvocevnim sistemom grejanja i poslovni pros-
tor u prizemlju stambenog objekta, bez mogunosti ugradnje merila utroka toplote.
Prikazana je energetska analiza pre i posle preduzetih mera kao preduslova za
iskljuenje, investiciono ulaganje.
Kratko je opisan dalji tok procedure za iskljuenje u Gradu Panevo.
Ocena opravdanosti iskljuenja, da li je procedura stimulativna, ima li mesta
za poboljanje
Kljune rei: Pravilnik; iskljuenje; daljinsko grejanje; energetska efikas-
nost
City of Pancevo is the first city that issued the Regulation of the conditions
and procedures for disconnection and reconnection of customers from system of
district heating and domestic hot water. A brief overview of the key provisions of the
Regulation.
Subject will be presented with the possibility of individual disconnection from
district heating system in Pancevo based on the adopted Regulation.
Two characteristic examples are presented from the Study of technical possi-
bilities for disconnection: an apartment in a building with two-pipe heating system
and store space on the ground floor of a residential building, without the possibility
of installing heat meter. It is shown the energy analysis before and after the
measures are taken as a precondition for disconnection,the amount of investment.
The further course of the procedure for disconnection in the City of Pancevo
is briefly described.
Assessment of the justification for disconnection, whether the procedures is
stimulant, is there space for improvement
Key words: Regulation; disconnection; district heating; energy efficiency
147
Grad Panevo je prvi grad u Republici Srbiji koji je na kontrolisani nain
pokuao da uredi problematiku iskljuenja i ponovnog prikljuenja kupca na sisteme
daljinskog grejanja kreirajui pravila i procedure kroz Pravilnik o uslovima i postu-
pcima za iskljuenje i ponovno prikljuenje kupaca sa odnosno na sisteme daljin-
skog grejanja i sanitarne tople vode. U daljem delu teksta bie razmatran samo
sluaj iskljuenja i ponovnog prikljuenja kupaca na sisteme daljinskog grejanja.
Kljune odredbe Pravilnika

1. Pravilnikom je propisano da se iskljuenje i ponovno prikljuenje na sis-
tem daljinskog grejanja moe vriti u: vieporodinim stambenim objektima i poslo-
vnim prostorima u njima, samostojeim porodinim objektima i samostojeim pos-
lovnim prostorima i to samo za stambene i poslovne prostore u celini.
2. Da bi se kupac iskljuio sa daljinskog sistema grejanja mora da:
podnese zahtev za iskljuenje Distributeru sa dokazom o vlasnitvu
nepokre-tnosti
snosi sve trokove radova i materijala pri iskljuenju
izmiri sva dospela dugovanja prema Distributeru
dostavi pisanu saglasnost 65% vlasnika grejane povrine vieporodinog
objekta overenu peatom skuptine stanara
postoje tehnike mogunosti za potpunu obustavu toplotne energije
3. Stvaranje tehnikih mogunosti za iskljuenje se dokazuje Elaboratom o
tehnikim mogunostima za iskljuenje koje izrauje Subjekt upisan u Registar za
izradu tehnike dokumentacije.
4. Elaborat o tehnikim mogunostima za iskljuenje mora da sadri:
proraun koeficijenata prolaza toplote, proraun toplotnih dobitaka od
susednih grejanih prostora i od cevne mree pre i posle primene predlo-
enih mera za smanjenje dobitaka toplote, smatrajui da je unutranja
temperatura predmetnog negrejanog prostora 5C, a spoljanja tempera-
tura -12.1C
hidrauliki proraun cevne meree ukoliko se ona izmeta iz predmetnog
prostora
grafiki prikaz predmetnog prostora sa naznaenim poloajem grejnih
tela, vertikala i svih povrina koje su izvor dobitka toplote
predmer i predraun radova
5. Nakon primene mera za smanjenje dobitaka toplote propisano je da oni ne
mogu biti vei od 25% ukupno izraunatih dobitaka pre primene mera s tim da svaki
pojedinani izvor dobitaka toplote mora biti eliminisan najmanje 50%.
6. Nakon iskljuenja Kupca sa sistema daljinskog grejanja on i dalje plaa
fiksni deo mesene obaveze za grejanje tokom cele godine utvrene prema kvadratu-
ri prostora osim iskljuenih Kupaca u samostojeim objektima.
148
Procedura iskljuenja
Nakon podnoenja zahteva za iskljuenje sa sistema daljinskog grejanja i pre-
liminarne saglasnosti Distributera, Kupac pristupa izradi elaborata za iskljuenje,
prikuplja saglasnosti ostalih vlasnika grejnih povrina u objektu overenih od strane
Skuptine stanara, pribavlja dokaz o vlasnitvu predmetne nepokretnosti, vri isplatu
svih eventualno zaostalih dugovanja Distributeru i sve predaje Komisiji za energet-
sku efikasnost formiranu pri lokalnoj samoupravi. Nakon davanja ocene i saglasnosti
Komisija obavetava Distributera i Kupca.
Kupac pristupa izvoenju radova predvienih Elaboratom o sopstvenom tro-
ku i nakon zavretka obavetava Distributera u pisanoj formi. Distributer proverava
izvedeno stanje u objektu i nakon toga pristupa iskljuenju Kupca sa sistema daljin-
skog grejanja o troku Kupca.
Nadalje Kupac plaa fiksni deo trokova prema kvadraturi svog prostora Dis-
tributeru tokom cele godine osim Kupaca koji su vlasnici samostojeih objekata ili
prostora koji su toga osloboeni jer nema drugih Kupaca na istoj toplotnoj podstani-
ci niti imaju zajednikih povrina sa drugim, susednim grejanim objektima.
Za objekta novije gradnje, koji su graeni u skladu sa Pravilnikom o energet-
skoj efikasnosti i u koje su ugraena merila koliine toplote, procedura iskljuenja je
jednostavnija jer se ne mora raditi Elaborat o tehnikim mogunostima za iskljue-
nje niti ima obaveze preduzimanja dodatnih mera radi smanjenja dobitaka toplote od
susednih grejanih prostora.
Primeri iz prakse
Prikazani su rezultati dva karakteristina primera iz prakse, Kupci koji su
podneli zahtev za iskljuenje, ispunili sve Pravilnikom propisane uslove i iskljueni
sa sistema daljinskog grejanja.
Obraen je stan na etvrtom spratu povrine 80 m2 u dvanaestospratnici kroz
koji prolaze zajednike vertikale i koji nema tehnikih mogunosti za ugradnju meri-
la koliine toplote (sl. 1). Stan se granii sa grejanim povrinama odozdo, odozgo, sa
donje i sa leve strane i granii se sa negrejanim hodnikom. Izvreni su neophodni
prorauni i analiza koji su prikazani tabelarno (sl. 2).
Stan je graen oko 1980 godine, neizolovanih zidova i meuspratnih kons-
trukcija, a da bi postigao propisana smanjenja dobitaka toplote od susednih stanova,
Kupac je sve unutranje zidove i plafon izolovao izolacijom debljine 10 cm a pod sa
5 cm. Grejne vertikale je izolovao izolacijom debljine 3 cm. Meutim, Kupac je
samoinicijativno izolovao i sve spoljanje zidove izolacijom debljine 10 cm i zame-
nio drvene prozore PVC prozorima pa je na taj nain praktino uredio svoj stan
prema kriterijumima Pravilnika o energetskoj efikasnosti. U sledeoj tabeli (sl. 3)
prikazana je analiza moguih energetskih sluajeva istog stana:
149
Slika 1.
Procenat dobitaka
Povrina/duina Dobici pre Dobici posle
posle primene
izvora toplote primene mera primene mera
Izvor dobitaka tolote mera
m2 W W %
Unutranji zid ZU1 10.76 154 42 27

Unutranji zid ZU2 20.38 342 84 25
Pod ka susedu PO 80 2042 595 29

Tavanica ka susedu T 80 2042 385 19
Grejne vertikale x 7 2.46 4391 409 9
Ukupno: 191.14 8971 1515 17
Slika 2.
150
Izolovani zidovi Izolovani spo- Izolovani svi
Opis stana, stepen Neizolovan
ka grejanim ljni zidovi bez zidovi, PVC pro-
izolovanosti, stan, drveni
povr. drveni unutr. PVC zori (po energ.
tu = 5 C prozori
prozori prozori efikasnosti)
Gubici toplote W -530 2929 -2649 781
Temperatura ne-
11.2 C 3.7 C 15.3 C 9.7 C
grejane prostorije
Slika 3.
Iz gornje tabele vidljivo je da se izolacijom povrina ka susednim grejanim

stanovima drastino smanjuju dobici toplote stana, odnosno gubici toplote susednih
stanova i da temperatura predmetnog stana sa 11.2 C pada samo na 3.7 C. Oigle-
dno je Distributer razmatrao samo ovaj sluaj kada je propisao da se za proraune
dobitaka toplote od susednih grejanih stanova za unutranju temperaturu predmetnog
stana usvoji temperatura 5 C.
U praksi se esto deava da Kupci izoluju spoljanje zidove svojih stanova i
zamene postojee prozore boljim, kvalitetnijim, ne dirajui unutranje povrine ka
susednim, grejanim stanovima. Uoljivo je iz tabele da tada unutranja temperatura
predmetnog stana dostie 15.3 C na raun dobitaka od susednih stanova ali i sma-
njenja gubitaka kroz sopstvene spoljanje povrine. U odnosu na neizolovan stan
temperatura je porasla za 4.1 C, ali su relativni dobici porasli pet puta, odnosno
sauvani su u izolovanom stanu usled ega je porasla temperatura. Na taj nain se
jo jednom potvrdilo da se izolacijom sopstvenog stana tedi toplotna energija ali i
toplotna energija susednih stanova i celog objekta.
Konano, za stan izolovan u skladu sa Pravilnikom o energetskoj efikasnosti
uoljivo je da je unutranja temperatura neto nia od temperature neizolovanog
stana i da preovlauju gubici u odnosu na dobitke toplote pa je stoga jasno zato za
takve stanove nije potrebno vriti proraune i preduzimati neke dodatne mere kao
preduslov za iskljuenje sa sistema daljinskog grejanja.
Iz tabele sa sl. 2 vidljivo je da predmetni stan, uprkos smanjenju dobitaka
toplote od susednih grejanih stanova na samo 17% ipak dobija 1515 W na as. Ako
se uzme u obzir da grejni dan u Panevu traje oko 10 sati, onda negrejani stan dnev-
no dobije 15.1 KWh ili meseno 453 KWh. Ako bi Kupac tu energiju platio Distri-
buteru po ceni od 6.8 din/KWh to bi ga kotalo 3.080,00 din. meseno tokom grejne
sezone, a prema Pravilniku Kupac e plaati fiksni deo mesene obaveze za grejanje
u iznosu 34 din/m2 odnosno 2.728,00 din meseno svih 12 meseci.
Investiciono ulaganje kako bi se preduzele sve mere predviene Elaboratom
iznosi 587.000,00 dinara ili oko 7.300,00 din/m2.
U drugom primeru obraen je lokal u prizemlju stambene viespratnice povr-
ine 120 m2 kroz koji ne prolaze zajednike vertikale ve ima sopstveni deo cevne
151
mree i koji nema tehnikih mogunosti za ugradnju merila koliine toplote (sl. 4).
Lokal se granii sa grejanim povrinama samo sa stanom iznad, ima tri spoljanja
zida od kojih dva sa dominantnim staklenim povrinama a ostali unutranji zidovi se
granie sa negrejanim prostorom, stepenitem. Izvreni su neophodni prorauni i
analiza koji su prikazani tabelarno (sl. 5).
Slika 4.
Izvor dobitaka tolote Povrina/duina Dobici pre Dobici posle Procenat dobitaka
izvora toplote primene primene mera posle primene
mera mera
m2 W W %
Tavanica ka susedu T 96 3727 510 14
Ukupno: 96 3727 510 14
Slika 5.
Lokal je graen oko 1970 godine, neizolovanih zidova i meuspratnih kons-

trukcija, izlozi su od jednostrukog stakla debljine 8 mm u elinom ramu, a da bi
152
postigao propisana smanjenja dobitaka toplote od susednih stanova, Kupac je izolo-
vao plafon izolacijom debljine 10 cm. Kroz lokal ne prolaze grejne vertikale za
ostale stanove ve lokal ima sopstvene vertikale koje se pri iskljuenju odsecaju od
cevne mree. Ovako graen lokal predstavlja energetski najgori mogui sluaj. U
sledeoj tabeli (sl. 6) prikazana je analiza moguih energetskih sluajeva istog loka-
la:
Opis lokala, stepen Neizolovan Izolovani plafon Izolovani spol- Izolovani svi
izolovanosti, lokal, el. ka grejanom jni zidovi bez zidovi, AL prozori
tu = 5 C prozori stanu, elini unutr. AL (po energetskoj
prozori prozori efikasnosti)
Gubici toplote W 6665 9977 - 291 1994
Temperatura ne- - 0.9 C - 6.7 C 6.6 C 1.4 C

grejane prostorije
Slika 6.
Iz gornje tabele vidljivo je da se izolacijom povrine ka susednim grejanim

stanovima (plafona) matematiki relativno smanjuju dobici toplote lokala, odnosno
gubici toplote susednih stanova i da temperatura predmetnog lokala sa -0.9 C pada
na -6.7 C. Realno gledano, u praksi e ova razlika biti i vea zbog prirode kretanja
toplotnog fluksa.
Ukoliko bi Kupac izolovao spoljanje zidove lokala i zamenio postojee izlo-
ge boljim, kvalitetnijim, ne dirajui unutranje povrine ka susednim, grejanim sta-
novima, uoljivo je iz tabele da tada unutranja temperatura predmetnog lokala dos-
tie 6.6 C na raun dobitaka od susednog stana iznad ali i drastinog smanjenja
gubitaka kroz sopstvene spoljanje povrine. U odnosu na neizolovan lokal sa loim
izlozima temperatura je porasla za 7.5 C, ali su relativni dobici porasli dvadesetpet
puta, odnosno sauvani su u izolovanom lokalu sa boljim izlozima usled ega je
porasla temperatura.
Konano, za lokal izolovan u skladu sa Pravilnikom o energetskoj efikasnosti
uoljivo je da je unutranja temperatura neto via od temperature neizolovanog
lokala i da su se gubici toplote smanjili tri puta. Jasno je da u ovakvim sluajevima
svako ulaganje u izolaciju doprinosi utedama Kupca ali ne i ostalih Kupaca u zgra-
di.
Iz tabele sa sl. 5 vidljivo je da predmetni lokal, uz smanjenje dobitaka toplote
od susednih grejanih stanova na samo 14%, teoretski dobija 510 W na as, dnevno
5.1 KWh a meseno oko 153 KWh. Ako bi Kupac tu energiju platio Distributeru po
ceni od 6.8 din/KWh to bi ga kotalo 1.040,00 din. meseno tokom grejne sezone, a
prema Pravilniku Kupac e plaati fiksni deo mesene obaveze za grejanje u iznosu
34 din/m2 odnosno 4.080,00 din. meseno svih 12 meseci. Oigledna je disproporci-
153
ja za ovakve sluajeve u odnosu na prethodni, tipini primer, pa bi bilo logino da
Korisnici ovakvih prostora budu osloboeni bilo kakvih plaanja Distributeru uz
dodatnu dobit Distributera iskljuili su sa svog sistema energetski apsolutno nera-
cionalan objekat.
Investiciono ulaganje u ovom sluaju, kako bi se preduzele sve mere predvi-
ene Elaboratom, iznosi 137.000,00 dinara ili oko 1.142,00 din/m2.
Zakljuak
1. Dobro je da je zapoeto sa donoenjem Pravilnika i ureenjem uslova za
iskljuenje Kupaca sa sistema daljinskog grejanja jer je to do sada prak-
tino bilo nemogue, zavisilo iskljuivo od lokalnog Distributera i nije
vailo za sve Kupace podjednako.
2. Konkretno doneti Pravilnik u Gradu Panevu ima dobre i realne polazne
osnove i kriterijume za proraune, ali svakako ima prostora za pobolja-
nja.
3. Na bazi iskustva i prorauna mogu se tipizirati odreeni sluajevi i za
takve tipske sluajeve doneti pravila koja svakako ne treba da budu ista
za sve sluajeve (prikazani primer stana i lokala).
4. Donoenjem konkretnog Pravilnika Distributer eli da zatiti svoje lojal-
ne Kupace a destimulie one koji ele iskljuenje propisivanjem takvih
mera koje esto nije mogue izvesti ili bi njihovo izvoenje enormno
kotalo da prelazi u apsurd (izolacija podova u postojeim, useljenim
stanovima). Pri tom Distributer polazi od pretpostavke da u iskljuenom
prostoru nee biti nikakvog grejanja to u veini sluajeva nije realno.
Potrebno je ublaiti kriterijume, svesti ih na realne, omoguiti Kupacu da
od nekih mera i odstupi, a kroz plaanje Distributeru nakon iskljuenja bi
se kompenzovalo ublaavanje kriterijuma.
5. Dati mogunost Kupacu koji se iskljuuje da pobolja izolaciju spolja-
njih povrina umesto unutranjih jer na taj nain tedi energiju sebi,
susedima ali i Distributeru, a kroz Pravilnik urediti nain plaanja nakon
iskljuenja.
6. Praraunom u Elaboratu tano se moe utvrditi koliina toplote koju
iskljueni Kupac dobija od susednih grejanih prostora i vriti naplatu kao
da je ta koliina toplote isporuena iskljuenom Kupacu po ceni KWh
tokom grejne sezone a ne po kriterijumu fiksnih trokova tokom cele
godine.
7. Za iznos ili deo iznosa naplaene toplotne energije iskljuenom Kupcu
Distributer treba da umanji raune Korisnicima susednih grejanih prosto-
ra jer, zapravo, oni predaju toplotnu energiju Kupcu iskljuenog prostora
i plaaju je prema oitanoj potronji toplotne energije, ukoliko imaju
svoj mera utroka toplotne energije, ili je predaju susedu na raun svog
komfora.
154
Reference
[1] *** Pravilnik o uslovima i postupcima za iskljuenje i ponovno prikljuenje
Kupaca sa odnosno na sisteme daljinskog grejanja i sanitarne tople vode, Sl.
list Grada Paneva, 2016.
[2] *** Sadraj i uputstvo za izradu Elaborata o tehnikim mogunostima za
iskljuenje, JKP Grejanje, Panevo, 2016.
[3] *** Elaborat o tehnikim mogunostima za iskljuenje br. 777 i 778, Biro
Solar, Panevo, 2016.
155
CFD MODELIRANJE HIDRODINAMIKIH POJAVA I
PRENOSA TOPLOTE U KANALIMA PLOASTIH
RAZMENJIVAA TOPLOTE
CFD MODELING OF HYDRODYNAMIC PHENOMENA
AND HEAT TRANSFER IN CHANNELS
OF PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS
Dragan MANDI
JKP Belgrade Power Plants, Savski nasip 11, Belgrade
Ploasti razmenjivai toplote su jedni od najefikasnijih tipova kompaktnih
razmenjivaa toplote sa intenzifikovanim prenosom toplote. Njihovo korienje je
zastupljeno u mnogim industrijskim procesima zbog njihove kompaktnosti, male
teine i cene, smanjenog potrebnog prostora za ugradnju i odravanje, u poreenju
sa cevnim razmenjivaima toplote. Prenos toplote u ovim razmenjivaima se odvija
u kanalima kompleksne geometrije, formiranih od dveju naspramnih profilisanih
ploa razmenjivaa koje se dodiruju. Protoci fluida u takvim kanalima su
nestacionarni zbog prekida i udara u graninom sloju, sekundarnih-povratnih
protoka i vrtloenja malog obima.Zadatak ovog rada je da uporedi parametre rada
ploastih razmenjivaa toplote dobijene CFD simulacijom sa parametrima njihovog
rada u realnim radnim uslovima. Rezultati pokazuju da je u odreenom domenu Re
broja(od 8900 do 27650), CFD simulacijom mogue predvideti intenzitet razmene
toplotne energije i protoka fluida sa odreenim odstupanjima, izlazne temperature
fluida a takoe i pad njihovog pritiska.Modeliranje protoka fluida moe ukazati na
raspodelu tangencijalnih napona koji su znaajni za predvianje zaprljanja
ploastih razmenjivaa toplote
The plate heat exchangers are one of the most effective types of compact heat
exchanger with the intensification of heat transfer. Their use is represented in many
industrial processes because of their compact size, low weight and cost, reduced
space required for installation and maintenance, compared to tubular heat ex-
changers. Heat transfer in these exchangers occurs in channels of complex geome-
try, formed by the two opposing profiled plate heat exchangers that are touching.
Fluid flows in such ducts are unsteady due to the disruption and impact in the
boundary layer, the secondary-reverse flow and swirl small extent.The task this
study is to compare the operating parameters of plate heat exchangers obtained by
CFD simulation with the parameters of their work in real working conditions. The
results show that in a certain domain Re numbers (from 8900 to 27650), CFD simu-
lation can predict the intensity of the exchange of heat and fluid flow with few ex-
ceptions, the output temperature of the fluid and also their pressure drop.Modeling
157
fluid flow can indicate the distribution of shear stresses which are important for
predicting the contamination plate heat exchangers.
1. Introduction
The heat transfer in plate exchangers takes place in channels of complex ge-
ometry, formed by the two opposing profiled plate heat exchangers that are touching
each other.
The flow in these ducts can cause turbulence and stratification in the bounda-
ry layer, which increases the heat transfer. Details and reliable display of flow and
temperature fields in the channels of plate heat exchangers is very difficult to con-
firm experiments.
Many authors have examined downs pressures and heat transfer in plate ex-
changers represent the results of the coefficient of friction and heat transfer coeffi-
cient averaged over the empirical correlations for all channels collectively.
Other groups authors generate information on the hydraulic resistance of
semi empirical mathematical models.Thay define relations, showing the dependence
of the hydraulic resistance of the Reynolds number and geometric parameters of
plates.In such cases the deviation sults obtained by calculation from the empirical
results are higher than 50%. In contrast to the models that determine the pressure
drop in the main fin zone plate based on the analogy with the recommended experi-
mental values and recommended values of shear stresses in the channels, CFD (nu-
merical fluid mechanics) model introduced real tools for modeling of heat transfer
and fluid flow through the channels of the plate heat exchanger.
The advantage of this method is in a critical comparison of numerical results
obtained in the CFD model with experimental results of industrial plate heat ex-
changers.
CFD modeling
2.1.Geometric display model
CFD modeling of heat exchange and pressure drop applies to individual
channels in the plate heat exchanger in which heat exchange fluids and in which the
boundary conditions are not the same but change along the channel. At the ends of
these channels, because loss of hydraulic fluid that passes through them, there is a
drop in pressure and thus to a drop in temperature of the fluid.
In these exchangers with the heating fluid (Figure 3-labeled "Fluid 1") to the
surface plate exchangers, and formed a channel between the two plate, heat is trans-
ferred to the heated fluid (Figure 3-labeled "fluid 2").
Due to the highly complex configuration cross-section of the channel (Fig. 1)
and their swing at a certain angle (350) was not possible to set individual boundary
conditions for each section of these channels because of their special hydraulic charac-
teristics, so the heat transfer and fluid flow modeled for flat plate heat exchanger
which has a total active surface area for the passage of thermal power generation is
identical as with ruffle plate, from which the flat plate obtained by the development.
158
angle of
the globe
pl
b
Lpl
Lef
active area
of plate
Bef
Bpl
Figure 1. Plate of plate heat exchanger with channels for fluid flow
In this paper, CFD modeling is applied to the plate inseparable heat exchanger for
heating domestic hot water in a heat-transmitting substation for district heating,
whose scheme is given in the following figure:
magnetic
filter to heating plant
cold tap water

RW
DHW pump
pump
bypass
DHW RW
heater heater
heaters
in heated
objects
radiator
DHW
from heating plant
Figure 2. Technological scheme of heat-transfer stations for district heating with the
preparation of consumable sanitary hot water
Figure 3. display fluid flow between the plates of the plate heat exchanger
159
Cumulative channels to "fluid 1" and " fluid 2 ", among which is developed
flat-plate heat exchanger, are drawn in three-dimensional software ANSYS Design
Modeler, Figure No.4.
Figure 4. Flat panels plate heat exchanger

Consequently, all of the fluid flows through the individual channels are taken
as a sum ( "Fluid 1" and "Fluid 2"), and the inlet and outlet cross-sections of aggre-
gated channels (for the total fluid flow) are the same length (length 119 mm- flat
plate exchanger) and a width of 0.96 mm, which actually represents the equivalent
diameter or the width of a single channel plate through which fluids.
It also adopts the same flow rate for both fluid-as in single-channel plate- 0.1
m / sec [1]. and this gives the cumulative channels for the flow of fluid passed the
same flow boundary conditions to be set for each channel individually.
2.2.CFD numerical network
Within the numerical modeling of networks, made previously to mark all the
surfaces that are used for heat exchange and fluid movement, namely:
The front surface of the fluid line 1,
1. The output surface for the fluid 1,
2. The front surface of the fluid line 2,
3. 4.The output surface for the fluid 2,
4. The common area between the plate exchanger and FLUID 1,
5. 6.The common area between the plate exchanger and FLUID 2,
6. 7. The surface of the walls of plate heat exchangers,
7. 8.The surface of the walls of the flow FLUID 1,
8. 9. The surface of the walls of the flow FLUID 2.
After such labeling surface was performed numerical generation networks on
them, Fig. (5).
160
Figure 5. generated numerical meshed plate heat exchangers
2.3.ANSIS-FLUENT modeling- Determination of
boundary conditions on numerical networked designated areas
and budget parameters
For the solution of problems used CFH module that has the capability of
numerical networked surfaces that are multi-touch so you can simulate their reci-
procity and also has a large number of options for setting the limit conditions for
them. In this modeling defines the plate materials, types of fluids, streamline (or
turbolence) fluid flow and determine the boundary conditions on the surfaces of a
networked indicated above initialization is done by determining the interval with a
budget increase of budget parameters in the direction of all three axes and the num-
ber of iterations of the proposed budget. The consolidated boundary conditions for
the exchange of heat and fluid flow rates are as follows:
1. fLUID 1- input, fLUID 2- input:
Mass of fluid flow or fluid flow between the plates exchangers dur-
ing the heat exchange.
2. fLUID 1- input, fLUID 2- input:
Medium value of static pressure.
3. The initial temperature of the fluid during periods of heat exchange at any
designated numerical networked surface. The values of absolute pressure fluid "1"
are not treated as boundary conditions due to its volatility and conditionality with
the state of hydraulic parameters in other parts of the hydraulic system (hot water
system).
This does not apply to the distribution of shear stresses, for which the es-
teemed absolute pressure fluid "2", the boundary conditions, and due consideration
of the actual value of these stresses, the real working conditions.For all designated
board surface through which the heat exchange, it is possible to simulate the value of
fluid flow, projections velocity of fluid flow in the direction of all three axes and the
total energy exchanged, and that for a number of iteration- until these parameters are
not closer to their asymptotic values as shown in the following figure:
161
Figure .6. Asymptotic values of parameters of heat exchange and fluid flow between
the plates of the heat exchanger
The following figure shows the intensity of the input and output of the vector
velocity of the fluid in the assembly channels plate heat exchangers.
Figure 7. flow velocity vectors "1" and "2" in the collective input and output channel
plate heat exchanger
The diagram may be seen that the fluid velocity vectors of highest intensity
in the center profile parts of their input-output areas and to reduce by endpoints of
these sections.
The distribution of the static pressure of the fluid to "1" and "2" in the course
of the flow between the plates of the heat exchanger is given in the following figure:
162
Figure 8. Change static-pressure fluid "1" and "2" in the course of the flow between
the plates exchanger heat
The distribution of static fluid temperature "1" and "2" in the course of the
flow between the plates of the heat exchanger is given in the following figure:
Figure 9. Change-static fluid temperature "1" and "2" in the course of the flow
between the plates of the heat exchanger
From the diagram can be seen that the most intense exchange of heat in the
center profile parts of the surface plate heat exchanger.
2.4. CFD modeling postprocesual
Within postprocesnih modeling it is possible to change the relevant parame-
ters such as flow rate, temperature, dynamic pressure and speed, display an arbitrary
number of intervals to complete the indicated numerical networked areas. It is sig-
163
nificant that in the context of postprocesual research can examine the value of tan-
gential stress on the surface plate exchangers that have a direct impact on their dirt.
In this paper postprocesual modeling parameters relating to the exchange of
heat and tangential stresses on the common surface between the plate heat exchang-
ers and fluid.
Within postprocesnih research, shear stresses on the surfaces of plate heat ex-
changers, which have a direct impact on their contamination were discussed at an
absolute pressure fluid "2" from 520000Pa (at the exit from the plate exchanger) and
at an absolute pressure fluid "2" from 550000Pa ( at the entrance from the plate
exchanger).
Listed pressure is a pressure level of cold tap water that is added to the sys-
temic circulation at the entrance to a heat exchanger to offset water losses in the
system due to sanitary needs in housing.
It should mention that the absolute value of the water pressure entrance to the
heat exchanger changes in the interval from 550000Pa do520000Pa, as a result of
loss of water in the system that is consumed for sanitary purposes.
When the value of this pressure falls below 520000Pa (due to loss of water)
once again conducted its addition to the level of absolute pressure 550000Pa.
Changes in levels these pressures are the current (from a few seconds to a
few bits per second) and are directly proportional to the length of the interval of
water consumption in homes.
The following figure shows a change in the character of these stresses:
Figure 10. Change-shear stresses in the fluid flow stream "2" at a joint surface
between the plate heat exchangers and fluid.
The following table shows the value of tangential stress on the plates ex-
changers, which are calculated on the basis of the measured values of the parameters
of fluid flow and to compare the values of the stress obtained by CFD modeling:
164
Table 1. Experimental data and comparisons with CFD simulations-without inlet
and outlet zones effect.
Experiment number 1 2 3 4
Velocity,m/sec 0,109 0,107 0,105 0,108
(measured value)
Wall shear stress correlation,Pa 9,72 9,39 9,07 9,56
(S.Genic,D.Mandic et.al.2012)
Wall shear stress(CFD),Pa 2,457-28,98
Velocity(CFD), m/sec 0,1
From Table No. 1 shows that the experimental values of tangential stress on
the plates exchanger (fluid flow at speeds of 0.105 / sec to 0,109 / sec) differ sub-
stantially from the calculated values of the stress in the CFD module (at a constant
velocity of 0.1 / sec ).
Also on the surface plate modulated in CFD in large disparities can be ob-
served distribution of the intensity of the stress that is not consistent with the charac-
ter level change other parameters of heat exchange.
The uneven distribution of shear stresses are caused by great changes of the
absolute level of water pressure at the entrance to the heat exchanger that occur
seconds which are the initial boundary conditions for the calculation of the parame-
ters of heat exchange in CFD-u.Therefore appear enormous value of the difference
of intensity of the stress relative to the value obtained by the experimental method.
Conclusion
Based on the foregoing, it can be said that the CFD simulations fully applica-
ble to practical research and analytical parameters of fluid flow and heat delivery in
plate heat exchangers.
The benefit of this model is that in a very wide range of perceived variability
of these parameters in different technological processes that are difficult to predict in
the project and budgetary procedures.
Optimization of these procedures is possible by using this module because it
allows for varying operating parameters to predict lowering maintenance costs of
technological processes.
In this case it refers to the contamination plate plate heat exchangers, which
requires cleaning high costs and downtime.
Although the results of the CFD modeling of shear stresses in the plate heat
exchanger differ greatly from the experimental values of the stress (at almost the
same speed fluid flow), CFD simulations pointed to a large uneven distribution of
these stresses on the plates of the heat exchanger on the basis of which they can
predict segments of the surface of the board with the possibility of intense contami-
165
nation (compared to other segments of the surface of the plate) to the extent that
endangers the process of exchanging heat.
Indices
2
Pa, N/m ,Pascal
B, m, width
B, m, the distance between the plates
L, m, lenght
, , Corner of the globe
, m, tickness
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kob, CFD Modeling of Hydrodynamics and Heat Transfer in Channels of a PHE,
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING TRANSACTIONS, VOL. 35, 2013.
[3] Vinay Patil, Manjunath H., Basavaraj Kusammanavar, VALIDATION OF PLATE
HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN USING CFD, International Journal of Mechanical
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[4] Bhatia, M. V., Cheremisinoff P. N., Heat Transfer Equipment, Technomic Publishing,
Lancaster, 1980.
[5] Perry, R. H., Green, D., Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1988.
[6] , ., ., , ., ., J, ., ., y
, , , 1973.
[7] , ., ., , , ,
1964.
[8] Saunders E. A. D., Heat Exchangers: Selection, Design & Construction, Longman
Scientific & Technical, Harlow, 1988.
[9] Kumar, H., The Plate Heat Exchanger: Construction And Design, 1st National Confer-
ence on Heat Transfer, Leeds, 1984.
[10] Rafferty K., Geothermal Direct Use Engineering and Design Guidebook Heat Exchang-
ers (Chapter 11), Geo-Heat Center, Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls,
1998.
166
SISTEMI SA BUOTINAMA ILI TOPLOTNE PUMPE
VAZDUH-VODA KOJE REENJE KORISTITI
I NA KOJOJ LOKACIJI
BOREHOLE INSTALLATIONS
OR AIR TO WATER HEAT PUMPS.
WHAT TO USE AND WHERE
Gert NIELSEN,
Multiconsult A/S, Nesttunbrekka 99
N-5221 Nesttun, Norway
gert.nielsen@multiconsult.no / kulde@multiconsult.no
U Norvekoj se brzo iri korienje buotina kao izvora niskotemperaturne

toplote. S druge strane, postoji vrlo malo kritikih procena o tome da li se ovo
ulaganje isplati ili ne.
Na zapadnoj obali Norveke sve vie raste broj sistema sa toplotnim pumpa-
ma za koje se prave buotine, ak iako je klima uglavnom umerena, a zime su obino
prilino vlane i tmurne, a zatim svee i snene, usled prolaska tople Golfske struje.
Uobiajeni uslovi na zapadnoj obali podrazumevaju godinju srednju
temepraturu od 7C do 8C i projektnu spoljanju temperaturu od -9C do -14C.
ak i u Tromsu, koji se nalazi ak 69 severno, sa projektnom spoljanjom tem-
peraturom od -15C i godinjom srednjom temperaturom od 3.4C, potrebno je
razmotriti da li treba koristiti buotinu ili vazduh kao izvor niskotemperaturne top-
lote.
Meutim, korienje vazduha kao izvora toplote postavlja neke izazove u
pogledu projektovanja, naroito u vezi sa otapanjem i promenljivom temperaturom
isparavanja.
U ovom radu je prikazano poreenje energetske i ekonomske efikasnosti
sistema sa buotinama i sistema sa toplotnom pumpom vazduh-voda, na lokacijama
u Bergenu, Karasjoku, Oslu, Rrosu i Tromsu.
Prorauni sistema su izveni sa dva tipa i brenda klipnih kompresora i
jednim vijanim kompresorom.
The use of boreholes as a low temperature heat source is spreading rapidly

in Norway. There seems to be very little critical thinking whether this is an invest-
ment worthwhile or not.
On the west coast of Norway we see a rapid build-up of numbers of borehole
based heat pump installations, even though the climate is generally mild, and the
winters usually are rather wet and grey, than crisp and white, due to the passing
warm Gulf current.
167
The typical west coast situation is an annual mean temperature of 7C to 8C
and a design outdoor temperature of -9C to -14C. Even for Troms, as far north
as 69, with a design outdoor temperature of -15C and an annual mean tempera-
ture of 3.4C, there should be doubts whether borehole or air should be used as the
low temperature heat source.
However the use of air as heat source poses some challenges, with regard to
design, especially in connection with defrosting and varying evaporation tempera-
ture.
In this paper a comparison of the energy- and economic efficiency of bore-
hole and air to water heat pump systems, located in Bergen, Karasjok, Oslo, Rros,
and Troms is presented.
The systems are calculated using two types and brands of reciprocating com-
pressors and one screw compressor.
1. Introduction
In Norway, the use of borehole installations is increasing rapidly. The main
purpose for this is the desire to save energy and thereby save money. A lot of state-
ments regarding the efficiency, both energetically and economically are being made,
without research to back either the one or the other.
This paper arises from a suspicion that the best choice of heat source, is not
the one or the other, but a that depends type of answer.
This topic has been investigated in order to gain information as to where and
under what climatic conditions one solution is preferable to the other.
Regarding air to water heat pumps both an indirect system using dry cooler
and a system with evaporator placed directly in the air stream have been considered
2. How to calculate
In order to assess the efficiency of the different solutions, at different loca-
tions, a series of different calculations and data has to be combined. What has to be
known is
Climatic data for the different locations
Design heat demand for the building in question
Internal heat loads of the building, distribute over the day, the week and
the year
Compressor efficiency at different running conditions.
Variation in evaporation temperatures. Is derived from climatic data.
Variation in condensation temperature. Is derived primarily from heating
system supply and return temperature.
The overall method of simulation is shown by Nielsen (2007) and (2008) and
a short presentation is included in this paper.
168
2.1 The climates
In order to assess heat demand during a reference year, the temperature varia-
tion has to be known. To that end the temperature duration curve is a very useful
tool. The temperature duration curve shows the number of hours the temperature is
at a given level or below. As an example the number of hours that the temperature in
Karasjok is 0C or below is 4 940 hours or app. 206 days per year.
Figure 1. Ambient temperature duration curves for the locations

used in this comparison
Table 1. Main climatic information from the different locations
Location Design ambient temp. [C] Annual mean am-bient temp. [C]
Bergen -12 8.2
Oslo -20 6.0
Rros -30 3.8
Karaksjok -40 -1.5
Troms -15 3.4
Combining the temperature duration curves with the conditions outlined

in figure 2 and table 2, reveals the heat demand over the year and the heating
system temperatures, when applying the methods shown in /1/ and /2/.
169
2.2 The building
The building in question is an office building of 17 500 m2, with a ventilation
rate of 204 000 m3h-1.
Figure 2. Design heat demands at different ambient temperatures

The transmission and infiltration heat rate loss is 400 kW at -20C ambient
temperature. As this building is calculated at different locations, it is necessary to
adjust the design heat rate demand accordingly. All design heat rate demands are
found at full ventilation rate.
The radiator design heat rate includes the heat demand generated by the ven-
tilation air being supplied at 2K below room temperature to ensure sufficient ventila-
tion efficiency.
The heat rate demands in the ventilation is calculated using an air handling
unit heat recuperator efficiency of 80% and an air temperature rise of 1K due to the
fan work. Thereby the design supply air temperature of the heating coil is 19C.
However the actual heating coil will be designed to supply air isothermally to avoid
temperature demand fluxuations in the radiator system, when the building is warm-
ing up.
The heat rate demands shown i figure 2 do not take into account the internal
heat loads from people, equipment, lighting, etc. and the variation in ventilation rate
will also have a significant influence on the heat rate demand.
To compensate for this the calculation is divided into four situations: Work-
days, daytime, Workdays night, Weekend/holydays day and night. The building and
the patterns of use are set to be the same, irrespectively of the location. Design tem-
perature for the radiator system is set to 60C/40C at design load. The radiator tem-
peratures at the actual load situation are calculated using equation 1.
170
Q RAES Q RA , ACT
Q RA= A TM1.3,RA A= ,
=
TM1.3, RAES
, TM1.3, RA , ACT
(1)
1/1.3
Q
TM , RA , ACT = TM , RA , ACT RA , ACT
[K ]
QRAES
,
Likewise the temperatures in the heating coil are found using equation 2.
DTAIR , ACT
DTM ,COIL, ACT = DTM ,COIL,DES [K ] (2)
DTAIR ,DES
Table 2. Data for calculation of internal heat loads and ventilation heat rate
Work- Week-
Work- Week-
days ends
Load distribution Nominal days ends
day- day-
night night
time time
Ventilation rate [m3 h-1] 204 000 67% 5% 7.5% 0%
Work places/occupancy 850 67% 2% 3.8% 0%
Heat load per person [W/person] 80
Heat load personal equipment [W/person] 100
Miscellaneous heat loads [W] 10 000 100% 100% 100% 100%
-2
Light intensity [Wm ] 8 83% 6.7% 9.2% 0%
Design indoor temperature [C] 22
Occupation limit for isotherm air inlet 50 %
Air inlet temperature [C] 20 20.2 22 22 22
Average total internal heat loads [kW] 274 229 21.9 28.6 10
Using the temperature duration curves combined with eq. 1 and eq. 2 the heat
rate and temperature demand duration curves can be found. When applying this
method the calculated supply temperature is set 3K above the calculated, in order to
ensure sufficient heating capacity in the system to handle local differences due to the
individual needs of the occupants.
2.3 The heat pumps
I the assessment of the efficiency of the different low temperature heat
sources, the compressor is a critical component. Therefore different compressors go
into the comparison. The actual design on the cold side of the heat pump is not con-
sidered in detail. The different configurations translate into an evaporation and con-
densation temperature, isentropic efficiency and volumetric efficiency.
171
Weekend
Weekend
Workdays, Wor Night Day
kday4s, night Workdays, Workdays, Night Day
day
day night
Figure 3. Heat rate demand variation Figure 4. Heating system temperature

in Karasjok variation in Karasjok
For all configurations we assume that the evaporation temperature is 3K be-

low the heat source exiting the evaporator.
The heat pump design performance is determined by setting the annual ener-
gy coverage of 95% in the borehole application, using the compressor design of a
generic Sabroe SMC reciprocating compressor.
Table 3. Heat pump design data.

Heat pump Design Design Heat pump process COP Evaporator perfomance Compressor swept volume
Heating system design evaporation condensation Bitzer gen- Sabroe gen- Bitzer gen- Bitzer gen- Sabroe gen- Bitzer gen- Bitzer gen- Sabroe gen- Bitzer gen-
design demand performance temperature temperature eric recip eric recip eric screw eric recip eric recip eric screw eric recip eric recip eric screw
kW kW C C kW kW kW m3/h m3/h m3/h
Bergen 677 163 -2.3 48.2 4.59 4.54 4.11 127 127 123 194 174 152
Karasjok 1 424 451 -12.1 40.7 4.08 4.09 3.88 341 341 335 795 708 585
Oslo 911 217 -4.0 49.8 4.27 4.22 3.85 166 165 161 280 252 215
Rros 1 144 282 -7.3 46.5 4.18 4.14 3.84 215 214 209 413 370 312
Troms 794 223 -7.1 46.6 4.18 4.15 3.84 169 169 165 324 290 245
In the simulations the compressor swept volume is the constant that deter-
mines the heat pump performance at different running conditions.
The 3 different general configurations are shown in figure 5. The figure also
shows the temperature difference from the low temperature heat source to evapora-
tion temperature
2.3.2. Compressors
In this comparison we also include different types and brands of compressors,
from Bitzer both a generic reciprocating and screw compressor, and from Sabroe a
generic SMC reciprocating compressor. To determine the isentropic and volumetric
efficiencies the functions that can be extracted from the Bitzer calculation pro-
gramme, v.6.4.2 rev 1276 has been used. The generic Sabroe compressor calcula-
tions are based on the code used by Sabroe in COMP1,v. 19.
172
Defrost Defrost
system system
T = -10.5C
T = -7.5C T = -9C T = -6C
T = -4.5C T = -6C
T = -3C T = 0C
T = -3C
T = -3C
T = 0C
Figure 5a,T =5b
0C
and 5c. 5a. Borehole, 5b Dry cooler, 5c Evaporator in air stream.
The operating ranges for the different compressors are shown in figure 6.
Figures 6a, 6b and 6c. Operating ranges for the different compressors
In the calculations, running at evaporation temperatures below -33C has
been blocked. This is because the evaporation pressure would be below atmospheric
pressure. This will cause air to leak into the system, which is not desirable. As the
running of the heat pumps to a large extent is part load, we have to correct the isen-
tropic efficiency accordingly; the results of the developed correction function are
shown in figure 6.
Figures 7a and 7b. The correction function compared to calculations

from COMP1 v.23.10
2.3.3 Power train
All motors are of energy efficiency class IE3, according to IEC60034-30. In
the calculation efficiencies 2 pole 50Hz motors have been used. Comparing with the
efficiency calculation guide of ABB /6/, using the efficiencies of an IE1 motor
should give a relatively correct picture of the actual drive train efficiency which is
173
used in the calculations of the system energy consumption. The efficiency is also
compensated for load percentage, found from the factsheet Buying an energy-
efficient electric motor from the U.S. Department of Energy /7/
Figure 8a and 8b. Power train efficiency

2.3.4. Evaporator temperature
Borehole installations
As a rule of thumb, the ground temperature can be said to be equal to the av-
erage temperature of the location. Usually, the borehole heat exchanger will supply
approx. 5 Wm-1K-1. A usual design criterion is a heat delivery of 30 Wm-1. This
leads to a mean brine temperature that is 6K below the mean annual temperature. In
a typical installation the T on the brine collecting the heat from the ground is 3K.
Therefore the average brine temperature leaving the evaporator will be 7.5K below
the annual mean temperature. Therefore the average evaporation temperature can be
assumed to be 10.5K below the annual mean temperature. This will be used as a
constant during the entire year.
Air to water using drycooler
The heat source here is the ambient air, the temperature of which is given by
the temperature duration curve. The energy from the air is used to heat a brine. The
brine delivers the energy in the evaporator. In the dry cooler we assume that the air
is cooled by 3K, and that the brine is heated by 3K, meaning that the brine exit tem-
perature from the drycooler is the same as the air exit temperature. In the evaporator
the brine will cool again by 3K. Thereby the evaporation temperature can be as-
sumed to be 9K below the ambient temperature.
Air to water. Evaporator directly in air stream.
This is very much the same as the air to water using dry cooler, but without
the temperature loss due to the brine circuit. Therefore the evaporation temperature
can be assumed to be 6K below the ambient temperature.
174
3. Energy efficiency
When performing the simulations described above, the energy flow in the
heat pump and the heating system is the result of the simulation. However, all types
of heat pumps have an auxiliary energy demand in the heat collecting systems. The
borehole systems has pump work to run the ground heat exchanger, the air based
systems has fan work to ensure sufficient airflow over the evaporator or dry cooler,
and the dry cooler based system will in addition have pump work to connect the dry
cooler to the evaporator.
Figure 9. Fan power

In the borehole systems, the pump work is assessed to 150 W per well, in the
dry cooler based system the pump work is assessed to 185 W/kW evaporator capaci-
ty. The fan power is found by the Gntner calculation program GPC.EU 2015. The
dry cooler fan power is estimated as equal to the evaporator as the air flow will be
the same. From this and the simulation results we find the energy balance for the
different systems and location.
The annual savings from the different systems has been extracted from table
5, and a show in figure 10.
As it can be seen, the boreholes perform better than the other solutions. This
is as expected.
Had energy efficiency been the only parameter, there would be no question as
to what to choose.
However the topic for this paper is economic efficiency.
175
Table 5. Annual energy balance
Bitzer Generic Recip Sabroe Generic Recip Bitzer Generic Screw
Energy balance Energy balance Energy balance
Borehole Dry cool Air evap Borehole Dry cool Air evap Borehole Dry cool Air evap
Heat energy demand kWh 797 267
Heat pump delivery kWh 755 357 691 427 724 999 757 441 694 334 725 063 763 063 709 858 737 867
Back up heating kWh 41 910 105 841 72 269 39 826 102 934 72 204 34 204 87 410 59 400
Bergen
Power train comsumption kWh 152 270 145 012 140 617 150 018 143 068 138 005 179 326 172 636 170 997
Low temp. supply system kWh 28 908 81 097 53 145 28 908 81 617 53 445 27 594 78 938 51 592
Total energy consumption kWh 223 088 331 949 266 030 218 753 327 619 263 655 241 125 338 984 281 990
kWh 574 179 465 318 531 237 578 515 469 649 533 613 556 143 458 284 515 277
Saving
% 72.0 % 58.4 % 66.6 % 72.6 % 58.9 % 66.9 % 69.8 % 57.5 % 64.6 %
Heat energy demand kWh 1 825 357
Heat pump delivery kWh 1 541 558 782 423 943 983 1 732 628 1 133 680 1 241 397 1 794 378 1 192 982 1 314 445
Back up heating kWh 283 799 1 042 934 881 374 92 729 691 677 583 960 30 979 632 375 510 912
Karasjok
Total energy consumption kWh 754 510 1 362 678 1 218 228 611 594 1 140 886 1 026 515 639 232 1 147 450 1 031 209
kWh 1 070 847 462 679 607 129 1 213 763 684 471 798 842 1 186 125 677 907 794 148
Saving
% 58.7 % 25.3 % 33.3 % 66.5 % 37.5 % 43.8 % 65.0 % 37.1 % 43.5 %
Heat pump delivery kWh 955 483 774 008 846 346 956 330 820 602 864 822 965 700 850 103 889 856
Oslo
kWh 715 408 505 842 597 599 720 386 536 155 612 131 693 842 531 057 598 789
Saving
% 71.1 % 50.3 % 59.4 % 71.6 % 53.3 % 60.9 % 69.0 % 52.8 % 59.5 %
Heat pump delivery kWh 1 265 399 859 527 991 369 1 263 815 1 034 631 1 099 703 1 283 172 1 082 140 1 143 141
Rros
kWh 926 903 549 547 681 814 932 926 659 871 753 644 904 014 660 297 745 104
Saving
% 69.6 % 41.3 % 51.2 % 70.1 % 49.6 % 56.6 % 67.9 % 49.6 % 56.0 %
Heat pump delivery kWh 1 183 221 953 794 1 061 539 1 182 880 1 052 074 1 107 235 1 195 651 1 089 202 1 137 878
Troms
kWh 867 490 629 050 750 190 872 085 693 960 783 489 844 184 685 729 765 353
Saving
% 69.7 % 50.5 % 60.2 % 70.0 % 55.7 % 62.9 % 67.8 % 55.1 % 61.5 %
4. Economic efficiency
The basis for investment assessment is data extracted from quotations from
different projects. The result of this is shown in figure 11. Furthermore the Gntner
calculation program GPC.EU 2015 is used to assess the cost of the air evaporator.
The ground source heat pump, and the dry cooler based heat pumps are standard
units with a collector system added. The heat pump using an air evaporator has
changed one component with another.
In order to assess the cost of the different evaporator, the cost of the standard
evaporator has to be estimated. According to Niels Rasmussen, NH3Solution, Den-
mark and Alexander Cohr Pachai, Johnson Controls, Denmark, an estimate of 15% -
176
20% of the entire unit cost would be an appropriate guess. In order not to underesti-
mate the additional cost the estimate will be 15%.
Figure 10. Average relative energy savings for the different systems
Figure 11. Expected heat pump investment

for the different heat pump solutions
The investment cost for a borehole heat exchanger, is app. 12 500 for one
200 m hole including collector piping, main piping, ground work, pumps and con-
trols.
As stated above the dry cooler solution will include a dry cooler and a pipe
system to transport the energy from the dry cooler to the evaporator. The dry cooler
is very similar to the air evaporator, but can be built as a lighter construction. There-
fore the estimated investment cost for the dry cooler is set to 75% of the air evapora-
tor. The pipe system is estimated to 35 000. The same cost for the pipe system for
all performances is counter intuitive, but calculations show that the pipe dimension
177
for all cases would be practically the same. The pump investment is found from
figure 13. This is based on experience from similar projects.
Figure 12. Air evaporator investment
Figure 13. Pump investment for dry cooler system

From this the total economic performance of the different systems are esti-
mated which are shown i table 6.
178
Table 6. Total economic performance of the different systems.
All units in Bitzer Generic Recip Sabroe Generic Recip Bitzer Generic Screw
Energy price 0.1 /kWh Economic assessment Energy balance Energy balance
Borehole Dry cool Air evap Borehole Dry cool Air evap Borehole Dry cool Air evap
Heat pump investment 105 000 105 000 105 000 114 000 114 000 114 000 114 000 114 000 114 000
Heat collector investment 275 000 69 000 22 000 275 000 70 000 21 000 263 000 69 000 21 000
Total investment 380 000 174 000 127 000 389 000 184 000 135 000 377 000 183 000 135 000
Bergen
Annual cap. cost 32 608 14 931 10 898 33 380 15 789 11 584 32 351 15 703 11 584
Annual energy cost 22 309 33 195 26 603 21 875 32 762 26 365 24 112 33 898 28 199
Total annual cost 54 917 48 126 37 501 55 255 48 551 37 949 56 463 49 601 39 783
Payback 6.6 3.7 2.4 6.7 3.9 2.5 6.8 4.0 2.6
Payback boreholes 18.9 58.9 18.8 56.6 19.8 59.2
Karasjok
Annual cap. cost 73 368 22 740 19 050 76 114 25 572 21 367 78 946 29 347 24 713
Payback 8.0 5.7 3.7 7.3 4.4 3.1 7.8 5.0 3.6
Annual cap. cost 39 988 16 733 12 700 41 275 18 020 13 815 41 361 19 050 14 759
Oslo
Payback 6.5 3.9 2.5 6.7 3.9 2.6 6.9 4.2 2.9
Rros
Annual cap. cost 49 341 18 621 14 588 51 143 20 423 16 132 52 259 22 397 17 934
Payback 6.2 3.9 2.5 6.4 3.6 2.5 6.7 4.0 2.8
Troms
Annual cap. cost 40 074 16 905 12 872 42 476 18 192 13 987 42 648 19 393 15 017
Payback 5.4 3.1 2.0 5.7 3.1 2.1 5.9 3.3 2.3
The annual capital costs are calculated using an interest of 7% p.a. and a ser-
vice life of 25 years.
As it can be seen with regards to the borehole installations that approx. 75%
of the total investment is designated to the heat collector system, where the dry cool-
er system uses approx. 40% of the total, and the air evaporator part of the total in-
vestment is approx. 25%.
The simple payback time for the borehole installation compared to the alter-
natives varies from approx. 9 years to 33.5 years.
179
In order to improve the understanding of these results, the data is also pre-
sented graphically.
Figure 14. Investment
Figure 15. Annual costs of ownership
5. Discussion and conclusion

As it can be seen from figures 14 to 17, the use of borehole installations is a
long term proposition. The colder the climate the better the overall economy, but
even in Karasjok, with an annual ambient mean temperature of -1.5C, the annual
cost of ownership is only marginally better than a heat pump employing an air evap-
orator, as shown in figure 15.
180
Figure 16. Simple payback for the different solutions
at the different locations
Figure 17. Simple payback for the borehole installation

compared to the alternatives
The borehole heat source has its advantages in areas where the economic ef-
ficiency is overridden by other considerations. One of the most typical is noise con-
siderations.
However, in the regions of Norway where the borehole installation shows the
best economic performance, there are other problems that might impede the use of
borehole installations. Boreholes have to regenerate during the summer, and the
summers in Northern Norway are short and cold, so the available surplus heat to
regenerate the boreholes is not an abundant resource. This means that the boreholes
have to be spaced with quite some distance to insure no interference, approx.. 25 m
181
centre to centre. In the case of Karasjok, this means that the borehole installations
needs an area of 13 000 m2. This will increase the investment, which is not taken
into account here.
The conclusion must be, that if money is the main objective, then borehole
installations will not provide.
References
[1] Gert Nielsen, The Behaviour of Heating Systems at Off-Design Conditions,
Ammonia Refrigeration Technology - for Today and Tomorrow, Ohrid, Mace-
donia, 2007.
[2] Gert Nielsen, The Behaviour of Heating Systems at Off-Design Conditions and
the Influence on Ammonia Heat Pump Performance, 8th IIR Gustav Lorentzen
Conference on Natural Working Fluids, Copenhagen, 2008
[3] *** COMP1 build 19 and 23.1
[4] *** Bitzer selection software, build 5.1.2 and 6.4.2
[5] *** RnLib
[6] http://www05.abb.com/global/scot/scot201.nsf/veritydisplay/ab22cf21c367d260
c12573e9004d88a4/$file/efficiency_calc_guide.pdf
[7] https://www1.eere.energy.gov/manufacturing/tech_assistance/pdfs/mc-0382.pdf
[8] *** Gntner calculation program GPC.EU2015
182
UPOTREBA GEOTERMALNE ENERGIJE U
ORGANSKOM RANKINOVOM CIKLUSU (ORC)
THE USE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
IN ORGANIC RANKINE CYCLE
Milena OTOVI1, Mirko KOMATINA1, Nedad RUDONJA1,
Uro MILOVANEVI1, Sran OTOVI1, Sneana STEVANOVI2
1
Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet, Beograd
2
Univerzitet u Beogradu, Poljoprivredni fakultet, Beograd
U ovom radu je razmatrana mogunost korienja geotermalne energije na
teritoriji Republike Srbije u sistemima koji rade po organskom Rankinovom ciklusu
(ORC) sa R245fa kao radnim fluidom. Iako je najei geotermalni resurs koji se
moe sresti na teritoriji RS voda umerene temperature, kao toplotni izvor za pogon
ovog sistema usvojena je geotermalna voda sa lokaliteta Vranjska banja sa najvi-
om temperaturom od 96C. Ovaj sistem je uporeen sa konvencionalnim sistemom
za proizvodnju elektrine energije iste snage (Rankinov ciklus sa vodom kao radnim
fluidom i kotlom na ugalj), u cilju izraunavanja smanjenja koliine emisije CO2 u
atmosferu na godinjem nivou usled sagorevanja konvencionalnog goriva, kao i
uteda u njegovoj potronji.
Kljune rei: organski Rankinov ciklus; geotermalna energija; potronja
goriva; emisija CO2
In this paper it is considered the possibility of using geothermal energy in the
territory of Republic Serbia in the systems that run an organic Rankine cycle (ORC)
with R245fa as the working fluid. Although the most common geothermal resources
that can be encountered in the territory of RS is moderate water temperature, geot-
hermal water from the locality Vranjska Banja with a highest temperature of 96C
was adopted as a heat source for driving this system. This system was compared
with the conventional system for electricity production of the same power (Rankine
cycle with water as the working fluid and coalfired boiler), in order to calculate
the annually reduction in CO2 emission into the atmosphere from the burning of
conventional fuel, as well as the savings in its consumption.
Key words: organic Rankine cycle; geothermal energy; fuel consumption;
CO2 emissions
1. Uvod
U uslovima velikog zagaenja okoline izazvanog poveanom emisijom tet-
nih gasova dolazi do efekta staklene bate, oteenja ozonskog omotaa i znaajnih
klimatskih promena koje utiu na egzistenciju ivog sveta. Otuda se oveanstvo sve
vie okree korienju istih, tj. obnovljivih izvora energije, a sve ee je u upot-
183
rebi i otpadna toplota iz raznih industrijskih procesa za proizvodnju elektrine ener-
gije.
Tamo gde nije mogua upotreba elektrine energije iz elektroenergetske mre-
e, odnosno gde elektrifikacija jo nije u potpunosti razvijena, potrebno je koristiti
raspoloive toplotne izvore za pogon postrojenja koje bi proizvodilo elektrinu
energiju. Kao logian izbor namee se korienje organskog Rankinovog ciklusa
(ORC), ali sa fluidom koji ima niu taku kljuanja od vode.
Sistem proizvodnje elektrine energije na ovaj nain omoguava da se kao
toplotni izvor u ORC koristi i otpadna topla voda, kao i izlazni gasovi gasnih turbina
i motora, tj. mogua je kogeneracija ovog sa drugim sistemima, ime se znaajno
poveava energetska efikasnost ovakvih sistema. Sistemi sa ORC mogu da rade sa
bilo kojim izvorom toplote sa minimalnom razlikom temperatura izmeu izvora
toplote i fluida u isparivau od oko 65C [1]. Takoe, postoje sistemi koji koriste
toplotu proizvedenu od gasa nastalog na deponijama.
2. Opis rada sistema

Organski Rankinov ciklus je slian ciklusu po kome se odvija rad konvencio-
nalnog parnoturbinskog postrojenja (RankinKlauzijusov ciklus sa vodom kao rad-
nim fluidom), osim fluida koji se koristi u ciklusu. Ekoloki prihvatljiv organski
fluid, koji na odreenom pritisku ima niu temperaturu kljuanja od vode, omogua-
va da sistem efikasno radi na niim temperaturama toplotnog izvora pri proizvodnji
elektrine energije, pa je mogua upotreba biomase, industrijske otpadne toplote,
geotermalne vode, solarne energije i dr. kao toplotnog izvora. Na ovaj nain se nis-
kotemperaturna toplota pretvara u koristan rad, odnosno u elektrinu energiju. Tipi-
an opseg temperatura kod sistema sa ORC je 80 140C [1], a neki proizvoai
ovakvih sistema za komercijalnu upotrebu daju opseg 60 350C [2].
Organski fluid se u isparivau (generatoru) pretvara u paru (bez pregrevanja
ili sa malim pregrevanjem [2]) uz pomo izvora toplote (slika 1). Para fluida
ekspandira u turbini koja pokree generator, a zatim se kondenzuje u razmenjivau
toplote. Kondenzat se potom pomou pumpe vodi ka isparivau i na taj nain se
ponavlja termodinamiki ciklus. Toplotni izvor i ponor nisu direktno u kontaktu ni
sa radnim fluidom ni sa turbinom [1, 3].
3. Izbor radnog fluida

Od kljune vanosti u ORC sistemima sa niskotemperaturnim izvorom toplo-
te je izbor radnog fluida. Razmena toplote, zbog niih temperatura, moe biti veoma
neefikasna, a zavisi od termofizikih karakteristika fluida i radnih uslova. Da bi
niskotemperaturna toplota mogla da se koristi, potrebno je da fluid ima niu taku
kljuanja od vode i nije prikladno dopustiti pregrevanje pare kao kod tradicionalnog
Rankinovog ciklusa, ali je malo pregrevanje na izlazu iz isparivaa ipak poeljno. U
sluaju da je na kraju procesa ekspanzije fluid u stanju pregrejane pare na temperatu-
ri vioj od temperature kondenzacije, ovaj topliji fluid se moe koristiti za zagreva-
184
nje tenog fluida pre ulaska u ispariva, postavljanjem razmenjivaa toplote (na
izlazu iz turbine, odnosno na ulazu u ispariva), to je prikazano na slici 2. Na ovaj
nain se smanjuje potrebna snaga toplotnog izvora, a samim tim se efikasnost ciklu-
sa poveava [4].
Para
Elektrina
energija
Turbina
Generator
pare
Generator
Geotermalna voda
Tenost
Kondenzator Korisna energija
Pumpa
Slika 1. Blok ema ORC postrojenja
Generator pare
Turbina
Rekuperator
Pumpa
Kondenzator
Slika 2. ematski prikaz ORC sa rekuperatorom toplote
185
U cilju smanjenja potrebnog protoka fluida, veliine postrojenja, kao i snage
pumpe, preporuuje se korienje fluida sa velikom toplotom promene faze i gusti-
nom (apsorbuje vie energije u isparivau), pri emu bi maksimalna temperatura
korienog izvora toplote trebalo da je ograniena hemijskom stabilnou radnog
fluida na toj temperaturi, a potrebno je i da temperatura smrzavanja bude nia od
najnie radne temperature u ciklusu. Fluid bi trebalo da je ekoloki prihvatljiv (niske
vrednosti ODP i GWP faktora), lako dostupan i jeftin, da ima prihvatljive radne
pritiske (zbog debljine zida elemenata sistema) i ne bi trebalo da je korodivan, zapa-
ljiv i toksian.
Od radnih fluida najee se koriste: R134a, R245fa, izobutan, pentan, pro-
pan, fluorougljenici.
Od velikog znaaja za upotrebu organskih fluida je i nagib gornje granine
krive radnog fluida u T s dijagramu, koji moe biti pozitivan (npr. izopentan),
negativan (R22) ili vertikalan (R11), pa se prema tome ovi fluidi nazivaju suvi,
vlani i izentropski fluidi respektivno (slika 3). Vlani fluidi, kao to je voda,
obino moraju biti pregrejani, dok mnoge organske fluide, koji mogu biti suvi ili
izentropski, nije potrebno pregrevati [4].
T
,,Vlani fluid
2
R2
,,Izentropski fluid
,,Suvi fluid
n
enta
Izop
1
R1
s
Slika 3. Prikaz tri tipa fluida (vlani, suvi i izentropski) u T s dijagramu
U sistemima sa ORC predlae se upotreba izentropskih ili suvih fluida
(slika 4), kako bi se izbeglo da tene kapi udaraju u lopatice turbine za vreme
ekspanzije. Linija zasienja kod izentropskih fluida je priblino vertikalna, tako da
se stanje na kraju procesa ekspanzije nalazi u oblasti suve pare, pa nije potrebno
pregrevanje pare [5], a njihovo korienje (fluidi kao to su R236ea, R600, R600a,
R227ea, R245fa) u binarnim ciklusima geotermalnih elektrana moe dovesti do
poveanja efikasnosti sistema [6].
186
T
3 4 5
2 6
1 7
s
Slika 4. ORC u podkritinom podruju sa izentropskim fluidom u T s dijagramu
Pri korienju fluida u nadkritinom podruju, ukoliko bi fluid bio previe
suv, para na kraju procesa ekspanzije bila bi sa znatnim pregrevanjem (slika 5a),
to predstavlja dodatno toplotno optereenje u kondenzatoru. Takoe, postavlja se
uslov da temperatura pare u nadkritinoj oblasti bude dovoljno visoka da pri ekspan-
ziji pare u turbini ne doe do ulaska u vlano podruje. Kod fluida sa negativnim
nagibom suvozasiene pare potrebno je pregrevanje pare fluida [4] kako bi se izbe-
gla vlanost pare na kraju ekspanzije u turbini (slika 5b).
Mnoge studije pokazuju da je sistem sa ORC koji radi na podkritinim pritis-
cima najefikasniji kada se koriste radni fluidi sa kritinim temperaturama, malo
niim (10 40C) od ulazne temperature izvora toplote [7].
T T
a) s b) s
Slika 5. ORC u nadkritinom podruju sa suvim (a) i vlanim fluidom
(b) u T s dijagramu
187
U literaturi [8] je dat pregled radova sa odreenim ORC (nad ili podkritino
podruje), kao i razmatranim temperaturama geotermalnog izvora toplote.
4 Matematiki model i rezultati prorauna

S obzirom da temperatura tla veoma varira, termin geotermalna energija se
koristi za irok opseg temperatura, od sobne temperature do preko 150C [3]. Da bi
se upotreba ove energije komercijalizovala, neophodan je geotermalni rezervoar koji
moe da obezbedi toplu vodu ili paru na potrebnom pritisku. Voda umerene tempe-
rature je najei geotermalni resurs koji se moe sresti, a pretpostavlja se da e
veina geotermalnih elektrana u budunosti biti upravo elektrane sa binarnim ciklu-
som.
U nastavku rada e se razmatrati mogunost korienja geotermalne vode na
teritoriji Republike Srbije u sistemima sa ORC. Na osnovu literature [9] moe se
primetiti da je geotermalna voda sa lokaliteta Vranjska banja sa najviom temperatu-
rom od 96C, pa e ova voda biti koriena kao toplotni izvor za pogon ovih siste-
ma. Maseni protok geotermalne vode na lokalitetu iznosi 77 kg/s, a s obzirom da se
ova voda upotrebljava u industriji, poljoprivredi i balneologiji, kao i za grejanje
stanova, razmotrie se maseni protok od 20 kg/s za potrebe sistema sa ORC. Geo-
termalna voda, predajui toplotu radnom fluidu u ORC, ohladi se do temperature od
80C na izlazu iz isparivaa. Ova voda se potom koristi za predgrevanje radnog
fluida, a dalje se moe koristiti u poljoprivredi i balneologiji.
ematski prikaz ovog sistema dat je na slici 6, prema kojoj je toplota predata
od strane geotermalnog izvora radnom fluidu u ORC jednaka
Q =m ( h1 h5 ) (1)
dok snaga dobijena iz turbine iznosi
Ptur =m ( h1 h2 ) =m htur ( h1 h2 s ) (2)
Snaga potrebna za pogon pumpe se moe izraunati na osnovu izraza
m ( h5 s h4 )
Ppum =m ( h5 h4 ) = (3)
h pum
a maseni protok radnog fluida iznosi

mg c p (t g ,in t g ,out )
m= (4)
h1 h6
Za potrebe prorauna usvojene su iskustvene vrednosti stepena dobrote (izen-

tropske efikasnosti) za turbinu tur i pumpu pum koje iznose 0,85 i 0,75, respektivno.
Na osnovu ovoga mogu se nai vrednosti entalpija stanja 2 i 5 pomou izraza:
h2= h1 + htur ( h1 h2 s ) (5)
188
( h5 s h4 )
h5 = h4 + (6)
h pum
Prema prethodno reenom moe se izraunati termodinamiki stepen koris-

nosti ORC sistema [6]:
Ptur Ppum
td = (7)
Q
Para
T
Pregreja pare
1 t g ,in
t g ,out
voda
Geotermalna 6 1
1
1 Elektrina
energija
Generator
Turbina
pare
6 Generator
5 2
5s
Pregreja
2 2s
3
4 Rashladna voda
Geotermalna voda
5 s
4
Kondenzator
Pumpa Rashladna voda
a) b)
Slika 6. ematski prikaz ORC sistema (a) i u Ts koordinatnom sistemu
sa R245fa kao radnim fluidom (b)
U prethodnim jednainama upotrebljene su sledee oznake: m [kg/s] mase-
ni protok radnog fluida, h [kJ/kg] entalpija fluida u odreenom stanju, mg [kg/s]
maseni protok geotermalnog fluida, cp [kg/s] specifini toplotni kapacitet geoter-
malnog fluida, tg,in i tg,out [C] temperature geotermalnog fluida na ulazu u pregreja
pare i izlazu iz isparivaa, respektivno.
Razlike izmeu temperature isparavanja radnog fluida i temperature toplot-
nog izvora tisp, odnosno kondenzacije i vode za hlaenje kondenzatora (rashladne
vode) tkd, imaju veliki uticaj na termodinamike i ekonomske performanse sistema.
Iako je pogodno da ova razlika bude to manja (uobiajeno u literaturi iznosi 5C
[6]), u ovom radu e se razmatrati temperaturna razlika tisp = 6C, odnosno tkd =
8C. Usvaja se da je rashladna voda kojom se hladi kondenzator temperature 20C,
tako da temperature isparavanja i kondenzacije iznose tisp = 74C i tkd = 28C.
189
S obzirom da se korienjem pregrejaa pare moe poveati predata toplota
od strane geotermalnog izvora, uobiajeno se usvaja da pregrevanje pare iznosi 10C
[6], tako da je temperatura radnog fluida na izlazu iz pregrejaa pare jednaka tpr =
84C.
Kao radni fluid korien je R245fa.
Prikaz merodavnih veliina stanja, koje su dobijene na osnovu programskog
paketa REFPROP [10], dat je u tabeli 1.
Tabela 1 Veliine stanja radnog fluida R245fa

t [C] p [bar] h [kJ/kg] s [kJ/(kgK)]
1 84 6,7738 470,52 1,8129
2s 47,006 1,6670 443,61 1,8129
2 51,301 1,6670 447,65 1,8254
3 28 1,6670 425,99 1,7562
4 28 1,6670 236,91 1,1283
5s 28,179 6,7738 237,29 1,1283
5 28,275 6,7738 237,42 1,1287
6 74 6,7738 301,59 1,3267
1 74 6,7738 459,66 1,7820
Prema jednainama (14) i vrednostima iz tabele 1 dobijeno je sledee:

maseni protok radnog fluida R245fa m = 7,929 kg/s
ukupna toplota predata radnom fluidu Q = 1848,378 kW
snaga turbine Ptur = 181,374 kW
snaga pumpe Ppum = 4,018 kW
Na osnovu ovih vrednosti i jednaine (7) termodinamiki stepen korisnosti
usvojenog ORC sistema jednak je td = 0,096.
5. Poreenje ORC sa konvencionalnim sistemom

proizvodnje elektrine energije
Ukoliko bi se ovaj sistem sa ORC uporedio sa konvencionalnim sistemom za
proizvodnju elektrine energije iste snage, moe se izraunati koliko bi se smanjila
koliina CO2 isputenog u atmosferu usled sagorevanja goriva na godinjem nivou.
Moe se kao primer uzeti TEKO B Drmno (Kostolac), ija je projektna snaga 340
MW pri potronji lignita od 106,5 kg/s donje toplotne moi 8373,6 kJ/kg, sa sadra-
jem ugljenika u gorivu C=25,38%. Smatra se da gubitak u kotlu iznosi 2,8%, tj. u
190
kotlu sagori 103,5 kg/s lignita. Osloboena koliina CO2 po sagorelom kilogramu
lignita jednaka je
C
V=
CO2 1,866 Nm3 /kg (8)
100
Prema tome dobijaju se sledee vrednosti:
potronja lignita za 181,374 kW 0,0568 kg/s
potronja lignita na godinjem nivou 1791,647 t/god
osloboena zapremina CO2 0,0261 Nm3/s
osloboena koliina CO2 0,052 kg/s
osloboena koliina CO2 po kilogramu lignita 0,936 kg CO2/kg
osloboena zapremina CO2 na godinjem nivou 824606 Nm3/god
osloboena koliina CO2 na godinjem nivou 1630,245 t CO2/god
Trebalo bi imati u vidu da gustina CO2 pri normalnim uslovima (pritisak jed-
nak 1 atm i temperatura od 0C) iznosi 1,977 kg/Nm3.
6. Zakljuak
Elektrina energija proizvodena pomou ogranskog Rankinovog ciklusa nas-
taje korienjem decentralizovanih toplotnih izvora, to predstavlja bitnu prednost u
odnosu na konvencionalne naine proizvodnje elektrine energije. Korienjem
sistema sa ORC smanjuje se emisija CO2, kao i potronja fosilnih goriva za proizvo-
dnju elektrine energije, jer je sistem pogonjen otpadnom toplotom ili toplotom
dobijenom iz obnovljivih izvora toplote. Korienjem geotermalnog izvora za prioz-
vodnju elektrine energije od 180 kW utedelo bi se priblino 1800 tona lignita
godinje, odnosno sa aspekta zagaenja okoline u atmosferu ne bi bilo isputeno oko
1650 tona CO2. Naravno, ukoliko bi se radilo o veim sistemima sa ORC, ove utede
bi bile znaajnije. Takoe, poeljno je da temperature geotermalnog izvora toplote
budu to je mogue vie, a njihova izdanost to vea, jer e se na taj nain poveati
i termodinamiki stepen korisnosti ciklusa.
7. Literatura
[1] *** http://www.infinityturbine.com/general-info.html
[2] *** http://www.honeywell-orc.com/about-orc-systems/#orc-overview
[3] *** http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/tech/geothermal-
energy/geoelectricity
[4] Chen, H., D. Y. Goswami, E. K. Stefanakos, A review of thermodynamic
cycles and working fluids for the conversion of lowgrade heat, Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 14 (2010), issue 9, pp. 30593067
191
[5] Hettiarachchi, H. D. M., M. Golubovic, W. M. Worek, Y. Ikegami, Opti-
mum design criteria for an Organic Rankine cycle using lowtemperature geot-
hermal heat sources, Energy, Volume 32 (2007), issue 9, pp. 16981706
[6] Wang, X., X. Liu, C. Zhang, Parametric optimization and range analysis of
Organic Rankine Cycle for binarycycle geothermal plant, Energy Conversion
and Management, Volume 80 (2014), pp. 256265
[7] Toffolo, A., A. Lazzaretto, G. Manente, M. Paci, A multicriteria approach
for the optimal selection of working fluid and design parameters in Organic
Rankine Cycle systems, Applied Energy, Volume 121 (2014), pp. 219232
[8] Astolfi, M., M. C. Romano, P. Bombarda, E. Macchi, Binary ORC (organic
Rankine cycles) power plants for the exploitation of mediumlow temperature
geothermal sources Part A: Thermodynamic optimization, Energy, Volume 66
(2014), pp. 423434
[9] Martinovi, M., S. Andrejevi, A. Saljnikov, M. Komatina, N. Rudonja, Z.
Stevanovi, Hidrogeotermalni resursi i toplotne pumpe toplifikaciona alterna-
tiva Srbije, Zbornik radova sa 39. Kongresa o KGH, SMEITS, Beograd, Srbija,
2008, strana 314320
[10] ***REFPROP, NIST Standard Reference Database 23, Version 7.0, Beta versi-
on 7/30/02
192
ISPITIVANJE PERFORMANSI HLADNJAKA VAZDUHA
SA OREBRENIM CEVIMA
PERFORMANCES INVESTIGATION
OF FINNED TUBE AIR COOLER
Uro MILOVANEVI1, Srbislav GENI1, Milena OTOVI1
i Sneana STEVANOVI2
1
Univerzitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet, Beograd
2
Univerzitet u Beogradu, Poljoprivredni fakultet, Beograd
U radu je objanjena problematika merenja merodavnih parametara rada
hladnjaka vazduha sa orebrenim cevima. Dat je ematski opis ispitivanog rashlad-
nog postrojenja. Prikazane su najbitnije geometrijske karakteristike razmenjivaa
toplote (RT). Eksperimentalni rad je obuhvatio merenja toplotnih performansi na
fizikom modelu razmenjivau toplote, koji je hladio vazduh pomou sekundarnog
rashladnog fluida koji nije menjao fazu pri strujanju kroz cevi aparata. Protoci i
temperature radnih fluida su menjani u opsegu definisanom parametrima rada
eksperimentalne instalacije, a koji su bili dovoljni da se mogu izvriti uoptavanja
eksperimentalno dobijenih podataka. U zakljuku su dati najbitniji rezultati do kojih
se dolo u toku eksperimentalne i matematike analize rada RT u uslovima hlaenja
i suenja vazduha.
Kljune rei: razmenjiva toplote sa orebrenim cevima; hlaenje vazduha;
eksperimentalna instalacija i merenje; kondenzacija vodene pare
The paper deals with the problems of measurement of respective operating
parameters of air cooler with finned tubes. It is given a PI diagram of the tested
refrigeration system. The most important geometrical characteristics of this heat
exchanger are shown. Experimental work included measurement of thermal perfor-
mance on a physical model the heat exchanger, which cooled the air by using
secondary refrigerant, which has not changed phase flowing through the pipes.
Flow rates and temperatures of working fluids were varied in defined operating
ranges of experimental installation, which were sufficient to make generalization of
experimentally obtained data. In conclusion, it is given the most important results
that were obtained during the experimental and mathematical analysis of this
exchanger in terms of cooling and drying air.
Key words: heat exchangers; air-cooling coils; staggered tubes; plate fins;
experimentalsetup and mesurements; moisture condensation
1 Uvodna razmatranja
U tehnikoj praksi est je sluaj hlaenja vlanih gasova u energetskim i
procesnim postrojenjima uz izdvajanja kondenzata iz vlanog gasa na povrini raz-
193
menjivaa toplote sa orebrenim cevima. esti primeri su hlaenje vazduha u
rashladnim postrojenjima, hlaenje produkata sagorevanja u termoenergetici i hla-
enje razliitih gasova u postrojenjima procesne industrije.
Pojava kondenzacije vlage iz gasova menja toplotne i strujne performanse
razmenjivaa toplote. Poseban problem predstavlja odreivanje parametara procesa
kondenzacije pare, imajui u vidu meusobnu povezanost fenomena transporta
toplote, supstancije i koliine kretanja. Postojee metode analogija fizikih pojava,
koje se koriste u razmatranju ovih fenomena, predstavljaju generalizovani pristup za
odreivanje performansi razmenjivaa toplote.
2 Razmenjivai toplote za hlaenje vazduha

Razmenjivai toplote (RT) sa orebrenim povrinama su u irokoj upotrebi,
pri emu je jedna od bitnih namena hlaenje vazduha. Ukoliko se na povrini ovih
RT ne izdvaja vlaga, govori se samo o osetnoj (suvoj) razmeni toplote. Ipak pri
korienju RT za hlaenje vazduha, uz razmenu toplote esto se javlja izdvajanje
vlage na povrini u vidu kondenzata ili sloja inja. U tim sluajevima, pored senzibil-
ne toplote, razmenjuje se i latentna toplota koja moe imati znatan udeo u ukupno
razmenjenoj koliini toplote. Jasno je da u ovakvim uslovima, razmena vlage nee
zavisiti samo od temperaturske razlike. Na slici 1 je ematski prikazana hlaena
povrina RT u kontaktu sa toplom strujom vlanog vazduha koji menja svoje stanje
1p od ulaza u hladnjak do stanja 1k na izlaznom preseku, pri emu se izdvajaju
opciono sloj tenosti i/ili leda u zavisnosti od uslova. Kao rashladni fluid koriena
je tenost koja ne menja fazu pri strujanju kroz aparat.
Za najoptiji sluaj kada istovremeno dolazi do kondenzacije pare i do
stvaranja sloja inja na povrini za razmenu, jednaina toplotnog bilansa glasi:
m c t + m h + Q = m c t + m h + Q
2 p2 2, p 1, s 1, p led 2 p2 2, k (1)
1, s 1, k kond
Q led predstavlja koliinu toplote koja se utroi na formiranje sloja leda u

aparatu (slika 1) i manifestuje se kao toplotni priliv u sistem
Q led = m led rled (2)
a rled , kJ kg , je toplota smrzavanja vode.
Qled
m2 , t2k m2 , t2p
toplotni ponor (-mled. rled)

m1s , h1p m1s , h1k
mkond, t kond,sr
Slika 1. Vazduni hladnjak pojave prenosa toplote i supstancije na povrini hlad-

njaka (ematski prikaz hlaenja i odvlaivanja vazduha)
194
3 Eksperimentalna instalacija i rezultati merenja
Za potrebe eksperimentalnih merenja bilo je predvieno projektovanje i
izrada fizikog modela. Potom su izvedena merenja raznovrsnih radnih reima hlad-
njaka vazduha sa orebrenim cevima. Ispitivanja razmenjivaa toplote su sprovedena
prema meunarodnim EN normama za ovu oblast [1, 2, 3] Potrebna rashladna snaga
razmenjivaa toplote je obezbeena preko vode koja je koriena kao hladniji fluid.
Primarno rashladno postrojenje je bio rashladni ureaj sa suvim isparivaem i vaz-
duhom hlaenim kondenzatorom. Izvreno je tipsko, sistematsko ispitivanje novog
razmenjivaa toplote [4], koje predstavlja ispitivanje aparata koji moe da se
proizvodi u vie veliina (predvienog za serijsku proizvodnju). Krajnji cilj istrai-
vanja je bilo definisanje proraunske procedure, kao i potrebnih jednaina za odre-
ivanje pada pritiska i prelaza toplote i supstancije u meucevnom prostoru ovih RT.
3.1 Opis eksperimentalne instalacije
Nakon samostalnog projektovanja instalacije, izbora materijala i izrade RT,
definisana su merodavna merna mesta i montirana je eksperimentalna aparatura.
Mereni su relevantni parametri pri hlaenju vazduha. Ova poluindustrijska
instalacija se sastojala iz otvorenog vazdunog toka, sekundarnog rashladnog kruga
sa rashladnom vodom kojom su napajani RT i rashladnog agregata. Funkcionalna
ema instalacije je prikazana na slici 2.
Slika 2. Funkcionalna ema instalacije (P&I dijagram)
195
Osnovni elementi instalacije su: VH1, VH2 vazduni hladnjaci sa orebre-
nim cevima dimenzija fasadnog preseka 360 x 360 mm; VE ventilator; EK eli-
minator kapi; otvoreni strujni kanal za vazduh (pri emu je popreni presek kanala
odgovarao fasadnom preseku RT); CPS cirkulaciona pumpa; STAD regulacioni
balansni ventil u povratnom cevovodu rashladne vode; KP kompresor (rashladna
karakteristika prikazana na slici 3); KD kondenzator; R suvi ispariva.
Rashladni agregat je radio sa freonom R407C kao rashladnim fluidom.
Dimenzionisan je tako da za temperaturski reim 550 C obezbedi nominalnu ras-
hladnu snagu od 12 kW.
Merenja su sprovedena na dve razliite konfiguracije razmenjivaa toplote sa
lamelastim rebrima. Prvo su vrena merenja na instalaciji sa dva vazduna
hladnjaka, redno spregnuta po toku vazduha, dok je po toku vode bila ostvarena
paralelna veza. Prvobitno su bili ostvareni i izmereni suvi reimi rada instalacije,
nakon kojih je usledilo merenje u mokrim reimima. Po zavretku planiranih
merenja na instalaciji sa dva hladnjaka, pristupilo se merenjima sa jednim
hladnjakom (drugi od dva hladnjaka je bio demontiran). Isti pristup u merenju suvih
i vlanih reima je bio korien i u ovoj prilici.
ema strujanja fluida kroz dva hladnjaka razmatrana je kao kombinovana
ema unakrsno-suprotnosmernog toka, sa paralelnom vezom sa strane hladnijeg
fluida, dok je jedan hladnjak smatran kao unakrsnosuprotnosmerni. Obradom
rezultata merenja i sprovedenim proraunima, pokazano je da se ova ema
unakrsnosuprotnosmernog strujanja moe smatrati kao isto suprotnosmerna (uz
vanu napomenu da je vazduh kao topliji fluid strujao kanalisano kroz meucevni
prostor sa meanjem iza svakog reda cevi, a voda kao hladniji fluid je strujala
kanalisano kroz cevi).
Protok vazduha variran je pomou modulatora frekvencije pogonskog elek-
tromotora ventilatora. Odreivanje protoka vazduha vreno je pomou
diferencijalnog mikromanometra (AXD 550), kao i manometarske U cevi (sa
vodom) na usisu ventilatora, merenjem diferencijalnog pritiska na usisnoj cevi
spoljnog prenika 160 mm i duine 1000 mm. S obzirom na jako dobra poklapanja
merenih vrednosti, kao merodavni su uzeti rezultati diferencijalnog pritiska izmereni
mikromanometrom. Pad pritiska vazduha pri strujanju kroz razmenjiva toplote
takoe je meren diferencijalnim mikromanometrom. Izrada usisne cevi obavljena je
prema preporukama u [5], a badarenje je izvreno pomou termoanemometra
(ALNOR TA 440) metodom ispitivanja definisanom preko [6].
Za odreivanje protoka vazduha potrebno je izmeriti dinamiki pritisak, tj.
razliku atmosferskog (ukupnog) pritiska i statikog pritiska pm (Pa) u usisnom
preseku merne cevi, na precizno definisanom odstojanju (D/2) od ulaznog preseka
[5], pritisak okolnog vazduha ptot (Pa) , kao i temperaturu vazduha na usisu u cev
t v (C) . Prema [5] protok toplijeg fluida se izraunava pomou
. C pD
m1 = ee 2 1Dp m (3)
1 4 4
196
gde je S faktor isticanja, odnos prenika, D (m) unutranji prenik usisne cevi, a
e e koeficijent ekspanzije.
18
tkd = 60oC
Qkp , kW
16 tkd = 55oC
tkd = 50oC
. tkd = 45oC
14
12
10
6
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
to , oC
Slika 3. Karakteristika kompresora korienog pri eksperimentalnom ispitivanju [7]

Ispred razmenjivaa toplote, a na potisu ventilatora, ugraen je kanal duine
2000 mm, kvadratnog poprenog preseka dimenzija 360 x 360 mm, koji odgovara
poprenom preseku razmenjivaa toplote, s ciljem umirenja vazdune struje i
postizanja to ravnomernijeg brzinskog polja, na mestu gde je prikljuivan
diferencijalni manometar (pomou koga je meren pad pritiska na orebrenoj
povrini), kao i u ulaznom preseku kanala ispred razmenjivaa toplote.
Pored manometarskih prikljuka, u presecima kanala ispred i iza
razmenjivaa toplote, nalazila su se i merna mesta za prikupljanje parametara
vazduha, i to temperature po suvom termometru t1 p , C i relativne vlanosti
1 p , % na ulazu u RT, kao i temperature po suvom termometru t1k , C i relativne
vlanosti 1k , % na izlazu iz RT.
Protok vode meren je na regulacionom balansnom ventilu TA STAD 25
pomou diferencijalnog manometra TA SCOPE, na osnovu metode ispitivanja
definisane u [8]. Protok vode je variran regulacijom na samom ventilu i na
trobrzinskoj pumpi u razliitim opsezima, vodei rauna da se obezbedi potrebna
radna autonomija ventila. Takoe, izvreno je i uporedno merenje protoka vode
pomou ultrazvunog merila KROHNE, koje je bilo postavljeno na prikljuni
razvodni cevovod za vodu pri samom rashladnom ureaju. Dobijeni rezulatati bili su
u dobrom poklapanju.
Temperature vode na ulazu ( t 2 p , C ) i na izlazu ( t 2 k , C ) iz razmenjivaa
merene su na prikljucima RT pomou uparenih, izbadarenih sondi PT500
(povezanih na kalorimetar), a takoe je merena i diferencijalna temperatura na
hladnjacima t 2 , C .
197
Protok kondenzata meren je pomou vage i hronometra, a nakon
uspostavljenog radnog reima. Kondenzat je skupljan u tacni ispod RT, a odvod
kondenzata je bio povezan sa skupljaem tenosti preko sifonskog (fleksibilnog)
creva, koje je bilo napunjeno vodom [9]. Temperatura kondenzata merena je u
samom sifonskom crevu pomou PT100 sonde. Ureaj za akviziciju temperature
kondenzata je bio Mekontik.
Ispitivani razmenjivai toplote su hladnjaci vazduha sa cevima sa lamelastim
orebrenjem sa ahovskim rasporedom, ije su geometrijske karakteristike prikazane
u tabeli 1, kao i na slici 4.
Tabela 1. Geometrijske karakteristike ispitivanih razmenjivaa toplote

Tip ispitivanog aparata 1 2
H , mm , visina razmenjivaa toplote (strujnog kanala) 360 360
B, mm , irina razmenjivaa toplote (strujnog kanala) 360 360
L, mm , duina razmenjivaa u smeru strujanja vazduha 120 240
d u , mm , unutranji prenik cevi 11,9 11,9
d s , mm , spoljanji prenik cevi 12,6 12,6
d kr , mm , prenik u korenu rebra 12,9 12,9
N ct , broj cevi u eonom redu 12 12
N cl , broj redova cevi (u pravacu strujanja vazduha) 4 8
N c , ukupan broj cevi 48 96
N reb , ukupni broj rebara po jednoj cevi 63 63
r , mm , debljina rebra 0,3 0,3
s r , mm , korak rebara 5,71 5,71
S sp , m 2 , povrina za razmenu toplote sa spoljanje strane cevi 5,19 10,5
sl r
st
d kr
d s du
1. 2. n. sl
Slika 4. Osnovne geometrijske veliine RT na kojima je sprovedeno merenje: ema

nastrujavanja snopa cevi u ahovskom rasporedu levo [10], boni pogled desno
[10]
198
3.2 Uslovi za izvoenje eksperimenta
Sva merenja (u suvim i mokrim reimima) vrena su po uspostavljanju
(prividno) stacionarnog stanja. Takoe, sva ispitivanja pada pritiska pri strujanju
vazduha preko povrine RT obavljana su istovremeno sa merenjima toplotnih
performansi. Neke od veliina kao to su diferencijalni pritisci, temperature,
diferencijalne temperature, merene su direktno (neposredno), dok veliine kao to su
koeficijenti prolaza toplote, koeficijenti trenja, toplotna snaga, izraunavani su na
osnovu direktno izmerenih veliina. Navedena procedura je podrazumevala
svakodnevni rad u trajanju od oko sto dana provedenih na merenjima, a imajui u
vidu potrebu da se merenja izvre u to irem dijapazonu metereolokih okolnosti
(topli, hladni dani, sa velikom i malom vlanou vazduha, itd.).
Na eksperimentalnoj instalaciji svi cevovodi za hladnu vodu su bili izolovani,
tako da je priliv toplote iz okoline u sekundarnom krugu bio zanemarljiv.
Smatra se da je sva merna oprema bila dovoljno dugo pod uticajem radnih
fluida, iji su parametri mereni. Uz sve navedene uslove stacionarnosti i
adijabatinosti, bilo je neophodno da se vodi rauna o mogunosti ponavljanja radnog
reima, da bi se dobili rezultati koji zadovoljavaju statistike kriterijume. S obzirom
da je instalacija na kojoj su sprovedena merenja nova, otpori usled zaprljanja su
zanemareni. Takoe su zanemareni i kontaktni otpori izmeu rebara i cevi.
3.3 Matematika obrada rezultata eksperimenata
Matematika obrada rezultata merenja vrena je pomou statistikih metoda
koje se koriste za procenu kvaliteta rezultata i za definisanje odgovarajuih funkcio-
nalnih zavisnosti preko bezdimenzionih brojeva [12].
Veliine koje su merene za definisanje pada pritiska na RT sa lamelastim
rebrima su:
p m , Pa , razlika pritisaka (diferencijalni pritisak) vazduha na usisnoj cevi;
p mHL , Pa , razlika pritisaka ispred i iza razmenjivaa toplote;
ptot , Pa , atmosferski pritisak ambijentalnog vazduha;
t v , C , temperatura vazduha;
V1 , m 3 /s , izmereni zapreminski protok vazduha.
Pored ve navedenih veliina, za definisanje toplotnih performansi merene
su:
t1 p , C , temperatura po suvom termometru vazduha na ulaznom preseku
razmenjivaa;
1 p , % , relativna vlanost vazduha na ulaznom preseku razmenjivaa;
t1k , C , temperatura vazduha po suvom termometru na izlaznom preseku
razmenjivaa;
1k , % , relativna vlanost vazduha na izlaznom preseku razmenjivaa;
V2 , l/h , zapreminski protok hladnijeg fluida (voda);
t 2 p , C , temperatura vode na ulazu u RT;
t 2 k , C , temperatura vode na izlazu iz RT;
t 2 , C , diferencijalna temperatura vode;
mkond , kg/h , maseni protok kondenzata;
t kond , C , temperatura kondenzata.
199
3.4 Procena kvaliteta eksperimentalnih rezultata
Tretirane (maksimalne) greke merenja pojedinanih veliina su:
greka merenja temperature (ocena disperzije) st = 0,1C ;
greka merenja relativne vlanosti s = 2,5% (pri t v = 20C i
v = 30 85% );
greka merenja protoka s m = 0,5 kg/s .
Toplotna snaga razmenjivaa sa strane vazduha raunata je preko podataka
na osnovu bilansne jednaine
(
Q1 = m 1,s h1 p h1k ) (4)
gde je m 1, s , kg/s maseni protok suvog vazduha, a h1 , kJ/kg, specifina entalpija
vlanog vazduha (po 1 kg suvog vazduha, gde indeksi k i p oznaavaju krajnje i
poetno stanje vazduha)
(
h1 = c psv1 t1 + Y1 r0 + c pp1t1 ) (5)
c psv1 i c pp1 , J/(kg K) , su specifini toplotni kapaciteti suvog vazduha i pare na
datoj temperaturi, r0 , kJ/kg, toplota isparavanja vode na temperaturi od 0C , a
Y1 , kgY /kg sv apsolutna vlanost (po 1 kg suvog vazduha vazduha)
1 p sat (t1 )
Y1 = 0,622 (6)
ptot 1 p sat (t1 )
Za vodu kao hladniji fluid koristi se sledea bilansna jednaina
(
Q 2 = m 2 c p 2 t 2 k t 2 p ) (7)
m 2 , kg/s , je maseni protok vode, a c p 2 , J/(kg K) , je specifini toplotni kapacitet
hladnijeg fluida.
Sva termofizika svojstva vazduha i vode, kao i vodene pare odreivana su
prema [13]. Srednja vrednost toplotne snage na osnovu jednog mernog prolaza je
Q + Q 2
Q sr = 1 (8)
2
gde su Q 1 , Q 2 , toplotne snage RT izraunate sa strane vazduha i sa strane vode, a
greka merenja toplotne snage je
sQ = (Q 1 Q sr ) + (Q
2
2 Q sr )
2
(9)
S obzirom na prethodno, toplotna snaga se izraava u obliku Q sr sQ .
Razmatrani su svi reimi sa disperzijom toplotne snage St < 10% , pri
emu se stacionarnost radnog reima moe proceniti na osnovu odnosa
200
sQ
St = (10)
Q sr
Koeficijent prolaza toplote, na osnovu rezultata merenja odreen je kao
Q sr
k= (11)
S rt t sr
gde je srednja temperaturska razlika prema [14]
t sr = t
(t
1p ) (
t 2 k t1k t 2 p )
(12)
t1 p t 2 k
ln
t1k t 2 p
a t je korekcioni faktor za srednju temperatursku razliku.
S obzirom na injenicu da su vrena ispitivanje jednog, a potom i dva spreg-
nuta razmenjivaa toplote suprotnosmernounakrsnog toka, sa kanalisanim struja-
njem oba fluida, ispitan je popravni faktor t za sve merene reime strujanja. Za
sluaj kad su vrena ispitivanja samo na jednom vazdunom hladnjaku rezultati su
pokazali da ima istu vrednost kao i u sluaju isto suprotnosmernog strujanja
fluida.
Za opciju sa dva hladnjaka, koji su bili u paralelnoj vezi sa strane hladnijeg
fluida (vode), a u rednoj vezi po toku vazduha izvedeni su toplotni parametri za
sloenu konfiguraciju strujanja, a ematski prikaz povezivanja je dat na slici 5.
t1p t1m t1k

S1 S2
t2p t2p
t2k2
t2k1 t2k
Slika 5. ema strujanja vode i vazduha, pri merenjima na dva RT

Vrednosti za t dobijene ovim proraunom bliske su jedinici, tako da je zak-
ljueno da je mogue da se ova konfiguracija strujanja smatra kao isto suprotnos-
merna. U nastavku rada usvojeno je t = 1 , pri emu je greka manja od 2,5%.
201
Koeficijent prolaza toplote sveden na spoljanju povrinu razmenjivaa
iznosi
1 1 1 d d d d 1 S sp
= + R1 + u ln s + s ln kr + + R2 (13)
k sp 1 1 2 lz du 2 lr ds 2 Sun
a 1 je efikasnost orebrene povrine. Koeficijent prelaza toplote sa strane hladnijeg
fluida (vode) se izraunava pomou jednaine
2
2 Nu 2
= (14)
du
gde su sledee veliine:
Nu 2 , Nuseltov broj za laminarni reim strujanja [15] kroz cevi
Re 2 < 2000
0 , 04 0 ,14
(
Nu 2 = 4,364 3,39 + 0,553 (Re 2 Pr2 ) )
1, 445 0 , 295 d
u

m
2

(15)
d u min m2z
Nu 2 , Nuseltov broj za turbulentni reim strujanja kroz cevi

Re 2 > 2000 - jednaina Hauzena [16]
( )(
Nu 2 = 0,0235 Re 02,8 230 1,8 Pr20,3 0,8 ) (16)
Re 2 , Rejnoldsov broj,
w2 d u 2
Re 2 = (17)
2
w2 , m/s , srednja brzina strujanja fluida kroz cevi RT,
2 , kg/m 3 , gustina fluida koji struji kroz cevi,
2 , Pa s , dinamika viskoznost fluida koji struji kroz cevi,
Pr2 , Prantlov broj za fluid koji struji kroz cevi,
c p2 2
Pr2 = (18)
2
c p 2 , J/(kg K) , specifini maseni toplotni kapacitet fluida,
2 , W/(m K) , toplotna provodnost fluida.
Zakljuna razmatranja
Pri konstruisanju, proizvodnji i upotrebi hladnjaka vazduha sa orebrenim
cevima, inenjer se susree na prvi pogled sa obimnom literaturom za proraun
202
toplotnih performansi i pada pritiska. Uputanjem u ovu oblast, postavlja se pitanje
da li su literaturni izvori vezani samo za konkretan proizvod i konstrukciju jednog
RT ili postoji neka analiza sa opte vaeim zakljucima koji mogu da se odnose
istovremeno i na vie drugih konstrukcija.
Na osnovu prikazane procedure, pri radu RT u reimu sa kondenzacijom
pare, dolo se do rezultata (softverskog reenja) koji bi u praksi mogli da omogue
brzo i pouzdano odreivanje parametara ovakvih razmenjivaa toplote.
Pored toga, ostvareni su i sledei rezultati:
razvijena je eksperimentalna instalacija za ispitivanje strujnotermikih
performansi rada hladnjaka vazduha razmenjivaa toplote sa orebrenim
cevima u uslovima kondenzacije vlage;
definisani su svi merodavni parametri neophodni za dobijanje korelacije
za proraun pada pritiska, kao i proraunske metode za odreivanje koe-
ficijenata prelaza toplote i vlage;
potvrene su kriterijumske zavisnosti za izraunavanje pada pritiska i
koeficijenta prelaza toplote u suvim reimima;
odreene su i potvrene kriterijumske zavisnosti za izraunavanje pada
pritiska u reimima sa kondenzacijom pare;
definisana je poboljana proraunska procedura za odreivanje toplotne
snage i koliine izdvojenog kondenzata u jedinici vremena, kao i ostalih
relevantnih parametara rada RT sa orebrenim cevima u reimima sa kon-
denzacijom pare, kao i u suvim reimima.
LITERATURA
[1] *** EN 306: 1997 Heat exchangers Methods of measuring the parameters for
establishing performance
[2] *** EN 307: 1997 Heat exchangers Guidelines for preparing installation,
operating and maintenance instructions required to maintain the performance of
each type of heat exchanger
[3] *** EN 1148: 1997 Heat exchangers Water to water heat exchangers for dis-
trict heating Test procedure for establishing the performance data
[4] *** EN 305: 1997 Heat exchangers Definitions of performance of heat
exchangers and the general test procedure for establishing performance of all
heat exchangers
[5] https://opi.emersonclimate.com/was.extension.opi.web/OPIServlet?action=com
psearch , Emerson, Copeland
[6] Batty J., Danen G., Van der Heul F., Jansen J., Nanning P., Shell flow meter
engineering handbook, McGrawHill, 2nd edition, 1985
[7] *** SRPS ISO 3966: 2013 BSRIA AG 3/89.3
[8] *** SRPS EN ISO 5167: 2007 merenje protoka fluida pomou ureaja sa
diferencijalnim pritiskom ugraenih u cevovode krunog poprenog preseka
[9] *** Uputstvo za montau, rad i odravanje klima komora Soko ininjering
203
[10] Tahseen T., Ishak M., Rahman., An overview on thermal and fluid flow cha-
racteristics in a plain plate finned and unfinned tube banks heat exchanger,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 43 (2015), 363380
[11] *** STANDARD 4102001 Standard for ForcedCirculation AirCooling
and AirHeating Coils
[12] Jaimovi, B., Geni, S., Principi modeliranja u procesnoj tehnici, Skripta za
doktorske studije, Mainski fakultet, Beograd, 2005
[13] Geni S., Jaimovi B., Jari M., Budimir N., Svojstva procesnih fluida,
Savez mainskih i elektrotehnikih inenjera i tehniara Srbije, Beograd, 2014
[14] Jaimovi, B., Geni, S., Toplotne operacije i aparati, Deo 1: Rekuperativni
razmenjivai toplote, Mainski fakultet i VEDES, Beograd, 2004
[15] Geni S., Jaimovi B., Toplotne operacije i aparati, novo izdanje, u tampi
[16] Hausen H., Warmeubertragung im gegenstorm, gleichstorm und kreuzstorm,
SpringerVerlag, Berlin, 1976
204
UPOTREBA R32 KAO RASHLADNOG FLUIDA
U OPREMI ZA KGH
USE OF R32 REFRIGERANT IN HVAC-R EQUIPMENT
Hrvoje KRAPANI
General Manager Environmental Readiness
Daikin Airconditioning Central Europe GmbH
krapanic.h@daikin.at
Based on EU regulations, industry is pressured to introduce refrigerants with
lower Global Warming Potential (GWP) than in ones in the present use, like in this
case R410A. Daikin and several other manufacturers decided to use R32 refrige-
rants in airconditioners and heat pumps because of following key benefits: lower
GWP 675 compared to 2088 of R410A, easier to maintain, recover and reuse and it
is safe to use, because of low flammability and toxicity - A2L classification. Conclu-
sion is that R32 is recommendable and optimal to use in the airconditioners and
heat pumps, and it fits to the EU strategy in reducing CO2 emission.
Key words: Refrigerant, R32, R410A, Global Warming Potential, CO2 emis-
sion, low flammability
1. What is HFC32 (R32) and its benefits compared

to other refrigerants widely used?
HFC 32 (R32) is difluoromethane, a single component HFC refrigerant. It is
not new in the HVAC-R industry since it is known from the blended refrigerant
R410A as 50% part. (Table 1).
Table 1. Comparison among refrigerants R32, R22 and R410A

GWP Flammability
Refrigerants ODP
(IPCC4) (ISO817/EN378)
R32
F
0 675 2L
C F
H H
R22
F
0.055 1810 1
C F
Cl H
R410A F
50%
R32 C F
H H 0 2088 1
50%
F F R125
F
H C C
F F
205
Compared to R22, refrigerant R32 and R410A have no Ozone depleting
potential, while both R22 and R410A have much bigger Global Warming Potential
(GWP) compared to R410A R32 GWP is almost 3 times lower. R32 is the only
flammable refrigerant, with the class 2L what is marking the low flammability
according to ISO817 and EN378.
Stressing key benefits of R32 we may say it is the refrigerant that addresses a
range of environmental, safety and economic considerations:
Zero Ozone depletion potential (ODP) where R22 has, and therefore it is
banned for the use in EU.
Lower Global Warming Potential (GWP) about one third of R410A
R32 allows for reduced refrigerant charge, compact design and high ener-
gy efficiency
Easier to charge, recover and reuse because it is not a blend
Safe to use in many applications because it is an A2L classified refrigerant
(low toxicity and lower flammability)
Global Warming Potential (GWP) Charge [kg] Global Warming Impact [GWPxkg]
Fig.1 Comparison of R32 and R410A in airconditioners based on GWP and charge of refri-
gerant in the airconditioners
Like shown in Fig.1, the potential global warming impact (GWP x kg) can
reduced be up to 75% than that of R410A. Energy efficiency can also be improved
by 5-10% but this is depending on aircoditioner type.
2. Main differences among R22, R410A and R32
Fig 2. Comparison of R22, R410A and R32 regarding flammability, operating pres-
sure, discharge temperature and use of refrigeration oil.
206
2.1. Flammability and toxicity classification
R32 flammability characteristics Class
Lower flammable limit LFL 14,5 % v/v > 3,5%
Upper flammable limit UFL 31% v/v
Heat of Combustion HoC 9,5 MJ/kg < 19

Burning velocity BV 6,7 cm/s < 10 cm/s
Minimum ignition energy MIE 15-100 MJ
Fig.3. Flammability characteristic of R32

Flammability classification of R32 is in the major change process towards
the previous standard versions, and this represented the major obstacle in understan-
ding and accepting the value of R32 as optimal refrigerant to be used in widest
HVAC applications instead of R22 and R410A. According to a new EN378-1:2016
voted in August this year, R32 has the new classification of 2L as in ISO 817 and
ISO 5149 standards. This 2L class (low flammable refrigerant) is added, to differen-
tiate from class 2 refrigerants, since it represents substantially lower risk in handling
and using than classical class 2 refrigerant.
In the new version of product standard IEC 60335-2-40, which is at the
moment in the voting phase, it is expected to achieve the same categorization as in
the standards ISO 817, ISO 5149 and EN 378.
As R32 is environmentally acceptable due to a much lower GWP then i.e.
R410A, and it is technically convenient, because it doesnt represents major change
to the use or R22 and R410A it causes low or no investments for the installation
companies to continue the business in a safe way.
Toxicity classification of R32 is A class according to ISO 817 and EN 378
which means low toxicity. This represents no change to a R410A and R22, and on
top, even inside this A classification, R32 has the lowest toxicity compared to men-
tioned two other refrigerants (Fig. 4).
Combining this 2 classification, R32 is marked as A2L class refrigerant, what
means low flammable and low toxic.
Refrigerant ATEL (% in air) ISO 817, EN 378 ASHRAE 34
Higher value is safer Toxicity class
R32 22% A
R410A 17% A
R22 5.9% A
* ATEL = Acute Toxicity Exposure Limit. Higher value is safer.
Fig.4. Toxicity of refrigerants
207
3. Guidelines for installation/service works
3.1. Transport
Key guideline is for the installers and service transportation means (vans,
caddies, etc). It is important to secure following:
Permanent ventilation required (Note : R32 is heavier than air so outlet
should be at the bottom)
No smoking, no ignition sources or hot surfaces
Follow the instructions for transport of the cylinders and equipment
Check local and trans-border transport regulations.
Similar precautions are already required for acetylene for brazing, so in is
expected that installers and service crews are already having this requirements met.
3.2. Room size charge limits
Based on EN 60335-2-40 5th edition, there are no room size limitations for
refrigerant charges below 1.23 kg. But there are limitations which are based on loca-
tion of the indoor unit as shown in the Fig.5. it is different for the units installed on
the floor. This is expected to change with the upcoming new version, which will be
issued in 2017, and bring relaxations for all charge limits connected to new A2L
class of the refrigerant low flammable and low toxic.
Formula for minimum floor area for given flammable refrigerant charge:
Amin = [M / (2.5 x LFL5/4 x h0)] 2
Amin = minimum room area [m]
M = refrigerant charge [kg]
h0 = height of leak
LFL = Lower Flammability Limit [kg/m]
Fig.5. Allowed refrigerant charge per room size

3.3. Brazing
When brazing, rules are the same as when in use will be R22 or R410A.
The installation must be dry, clean and tight. As per common HFC or HCFC re-
208
frigerants such as R410A and R22, also R32 will decompose and release toxic
substances if heated to high temperatures over 570C. To avoid the possibility
of this occurring during brazing, the system should be purged with dry nitrogen
to ensure that there is no residual refrigerant present. The risk of toxic by-
products when R32 comes in contact with a flame or very hot surface is the
same risk that has existed for over 40 years with R22, and it is very low.
3.4. Pressure of R32
Fig.6. Absolute pressure in dependence of the outside temperature

Discharge pressure of R32 is similar as to R410A (Fig.6.). Important is to
pressurise equipment on 4 MPa to test tightness as similarly done with R410A
installation, so basically no difference is expected.
4. Refrigerant charge and recovery

Because it is not a blend, R32 can be charged in liquid or gas phase (as is/was
the case for R22). Differently, R410A, as it is the blend of R32 and R125 (Table 1),
it needs to be charged in liquid state. Adding R410A to the installation in a gas form
may cause the refrigerant composition to change, preventing normal operation redu-
cing the capacity of the system and causing efficiency drop. Connected with that,
R32 is also easier to recover, recycle or reclaim compared to blend refrigerants.
5. Tools
Most tools are shareable for R32 and R410A. However this is not the case for
R22 because R22 uses mineral oil which should not be mixed into R32/R410A
equipment. Also some flare nut sizes are different for R22.
E.g. difference from R32 to R410A is that cylinder thread adaptor is different
since it is for flammable gasses. Refrigerant recovery is different for every gas,
therefore, right cylinder should be used and right vacuum pump. It is always advised
to check with the supplier of the vacuum pump, if the pump can be used for both,
R32 and R410A.
209
6. Conclusion
Installation/service practices for R32 are:
Similarity with R410A : similar pressure, shareable tools
Similarity with R410A and R22 : basic rules for piping & brazing
Difference from R22 : higher pressure, different oil type
Difference from R410A and R22 : because R32 is flammable, specific
guidance and regulations need to be followed (transport, room size limits,
work instructions). Always follow guidance from gas and equipment
providers and the local regulations.
Additional attention points while installing equipment where R32 is used:
Ventilate the area if brazing
Ventilate the area in the event of any refrigerant leak
Pressure test the system to 4.0MPa
Evacuate the system to a minimum of 500microns
Signpost and restrict access to the area if brazing or if a leak occurs
Have a fire extinguisher at hand
Remove any potential source of ignition
R32, used as a single component refrigerant, is a newer refrigerant in the

world market (it is not new in terms of being part of the blended refrigerant R410A).
HVAC-R industry was and is looking for the answer on the pressure coming from
efforts to reduce GWP in the world and EU. New regulations and laws are being
made as we speak; pressure on the industry is higher than ever to reduce GWP using
environmentally friendlier refrigerants. Some producers decided to go with R32
refrigerant, since it is perceived as the best solution in given circumstances, taking
lots of aspects into consideration like: reduction of CO2 emission as very important
one, technical utilisation of available technologies, economic component to keep the
competitiveness and prices to the consumers, availability of the refrigerant, and
other. Having all this in mind R32 is optimal (and preferable) choice as the key
refrigerant for the next period when we talk about airconditioners and heat pumps.
210
UNUTRANJA REVERZIBILNA AMONIJANA
TOPLOTNA PUMPA VAZDUH-VODA/HLADNJAK
INTERNAL REVERSIBLE AMMONIA AIR-TO-WATER
HEAT PUMP/CHILLER
Gert NIELSEN,
Multiconsult A/S, N-5221 Nesttun, Norway,
Carl RASMUSSEN,
NH3 Solutions, DK-400 Roskilde, Denmark
Ovaj rad sadri prikaz pozadine stepena razvoja unutranje reverzibilne
amonijane toplotne pumpe vazduh-voda/hladnja (RATPVVH). Pozadina razvoja
prve verzije je projekat u kome je specifikacija zahtevala amonijani sistem hladnja-
ka koji se moe upotrebiti kao toplotna pumpa. Nisu bile na raspolaganju ni reka
niti morska voda, buotine su iskljuene delom i zbog budetskih razloga (ulaganje
je iznosilo oko 300.000 dolara), a delom zato to se nije raspolagalo neophodnom
povrinom tla. Zbog toga je toplotni izvor odnosno ponor morao biti vazduh.
Reenje koje su predloili izvoai radova ukljuivalo je dva hladnjaka koji
bi radili kao dvostepeni sistemi, ali sa glikolnim kolom izmeu i sistemom suvog
hladnjaka kao izvorom toplote. Efikasnost celog sistema pri spoljnoj projektnoj
temperaturi od -8 C i temperaturi odavane toplote od 50 C, bila je vrlo mala, jer
su se u konfiguraciji sistema temperature sniavale i poviavale.
Ideja o pokretanju reverzibilne akcije u hladnjaku bila je inspirisana siste-
mom odmrzavanja kritino punjenog sistema koji je razvio Star Refrigeration, ali
poneto modifikovanim u finalnom projektu.
Posle ovog prvog sistema, projekat je evoluirao, pa su sledea dva sistema
isporuena podruju Bergena, u Norvekoj, a etvrti je u pripremi, u modifikovanom
projektu.
Kljune rei: amonijana toplotna pumpa vazduh-voda/hladnjak; projekat;
Norveka kola ekonomije; prednosti i nedostaci
This paper will give an account of the background for and the stages in the
development of an internally reversible ammonia air-to-water heat pump / chiller.
(IRAW HP).
The background for the development of the first version was a project where
the specification demanded an ammonia chiller system that also could be used as a
heat pump. There is neither river nor seawater available, boreholes where excluded
partly due to fiscal considerations (investment cost app. 300 000), partly because
the necessary ground area was not available. Therefore the heat dump / heat source
had to be air.
211
The solution suggested by the contractors included two chillers that would
operate as a two stage system, but with a glycol circuit in between, and a dry cooler
system as heat source.
The overall system efficiency at design outdoor temperature of -8C and a
heat delivery temperature of 50C was very low, as temperatures went up and down
in the system configuration.
The idea of moving the reversible action into the chiller unit was inspired by
the defrost system of critically charged systems, developed by Star Refrigeration, but
somewhat modified in the final design.
Since this first system, the design has evolved, and further two systems have
been supplied to the Bergen area in Norway and a fourth is under way, in yet a
modified design.
Key words: ammonia air-to-water heat pump/chiller; design; NHH; advan-
tages and disadvantages
1. Uvod
Ovaj tekst je rezultat razvojnog rada koji krasi upornost neki bi rekli tvrdo-
glavih konsultanata u oblasti hlaenja, kreativnih majstora i hrabrih klijenata.
2. Proces projektovanja i razvoja

2.1. Poetni proces i prvi pokuaj. Norveka kola ekonomije
Proces je zapoet poto je Norveka kola ekonomije (NHH) morala da proi-
ri kapacitet zgrade. Nove zgrade morale su biti ventilisane i klimatizovane, to je
dovelo do zahteva za ugodnim hlaenjem od oko 700 kW. Zatim je koncept bio da
hladnjak (ci) budu korieni i kao toplotne pumpe, prvobitno samo da bi snabdevali
toplotom klima-komore (KK). U procesu odreivanja karakteristika hladnjaka i
toplotnih pumpi, postojala je elja da se smanje karakteristike hladnjaka, tako da bi
on imao vei uinak od toplotnih pumpi. Da bi se to postiglo, planirano je da se
instalira skladite toplotne energije (STE), koje bi koristilo materijale sa promenom
faze iz PCM Products Ltd. Tom primenom potrebe mainskog parka bi se mogle
smanjiti za oko 400 kW, to bi dalo dobru konfiguraciju u pogledu grejanja i hlae-
nja.
Funkcionisanje toplotne pumpe bilo je na neki nain neuobiajeno, jer je pot-
reba za toplotom KK opala za oko 7 C, zbog rekuperatora toplote u KK. To znai
da bi toplotna pumpa bila u stanju da isporui oko 200 kW na temperaturi sredine od
-12 C. Osim toga, toplotna pumpa je morala biti fleksibilna i prijemiva u pogonu
koji odstupa od projektovanog. Poto je vazduh bio jedini izvodljivi izvor toplote, to
je poboljalo zahteve za prijemivou i fleksibilnou.
Poto je konsultant vlasnika projekta, Statsbygg-a, bio ogranak Vlade nadle-
an za zgrade u vlasnitvu drave, specifikacije su mogle biti jedino na funkcional-
nom nivou, poto je Statsbygg odluio da ovaj projekat tretira kao ugovorni proje-
kat. Statsbygg je imao, kao jednu od svojih politika, stav da prirodne rashladne flui-
212
de treba koristiti gde god je mogue. Zbog toga je funkcionalna specifikacija bila
potpuno jasna da je amonijak bio potrebni rashladni fluid. Oekivanja za kreativ-
nou su bila veoma visoka, a meu predvienim reenjima je jedno prikazano na sl.
1, a ono to je dobijeno, prikazano je na slici 2. Iskreno, bilo je to manje od oekiva-
nog. Snabdeva rashladnom energijom je izabrao laki put, sa povezivanjem dveju
standardnih jedinica pomou glikolnog kola.
Slika 1. Predviena reenja sistema

Konsultant za specifikacije bio je jo uvek ukljuen, sada kao predstavnik
Statsbygg-a, pa je odsustvo utiska kod izvoaa radova bilo sasvim jasno. Rad na
ostvarenju boljeg reenja je zapoet, sa drugim proizvoaima rashladne opreme.
Kao to se moe videti na sl. 1 i 2, cevovod oko ovih toplotnopumpnih siste-
ma je veoma sloen, ukljuujui mnoge zaporne ventile i pumpe, razliita kola raso-
line koja zahtevaju razmenjivae toplote, poviavajui temperaturne gubitke i gene-
ralno komplikujui regulacione organe, u poreenju sa oekivanim reenjem.
Slika 2. Predlog dobijenog sistema
213
Slika 3. Put temperature kroz predloeni toplotnopumpni sistem
To putovanje temperature prikazano je na sl. 3).
Sada se pojavila ideja zato interno ne pokrenuti suprotan proces? To bi
iskljuilo neke od sloenijih elemenata iz sistema automatizacije zgrade kao i veliki
broj razmenjivaa toplote.
Ono to se pojavilo kao prvi pokuaj koji je Statsbygg izabrao da uini, pri-
kazano je na sl. 3. Ta maina radi danas u Norvekoj koli ekonomije u Bergenu,
putena u rad 2012. godine.
Slika 4. Prvi pokuaj na jednom interno reverzibilnom amonijanom hladnja-

ku/toplotnoj pumpi.
2.2. Drugo i tree postrojenje. Odfjell FMC Technologies
U ovim projektima, zahtevani profil bio je neto sloeniji nego to je bio u
Norvekoj koli ekonomije (NHH). Prvo je u leto, kada je najvea potreba za hlae-
214
njem, zgrada i dalje imala potrebe za grejanjem. U tehnologijama FMC ova potreba
mora da zadovolji opremu za podmorsko crpljenje nafte, proizvedenu i ispitanu na
razliitim temperaturama vode. U Odfjell-ovim poslovima vezanim za brodarstvo
osnovna potreba za grejanjem leti odnosila se na plivaki bazen pored kancelarija.
Isto tako, zgrade imaju potrebu za hlaenjem zimi, prvenstveno zbog podataka o
hlaenju. To bi moglo biti smatrano slobodnim hlaenjem, ali ima vie smisla
prikupljati tu energiju i ukljuiti je u niskotemperaturni izvor toplote. Na korienju
posebnih razmenjivaa toplote za grejanje i hlaenje insistirao je konsultant za
KGH.
Slika 5, a i b. Protok energije u kombinovanom hladnjaku/toplotnoj pumpi,

u toplotnopumpnom reimu hladnjaka
U ovom sluaju, odluka da se sa vijanih kompresora pree na klipne bazira-
na je uglavnom na fleksibilnosti koju bi ponudilo reenje sa multikompresorom, u
poreenju sa pojedinanim kompresorom. Vijani kompresor obino moe raditi
lagano ak 25 Hz, u ovom sluaju 1800 o/min, ili 50%, dok kompresori izabrani za
ove jedinice VSD rade od 1750 o/min do 900 o/min, to znai oko 52%. Da bi radila
kao hladnjak, to znai da jedinica moe da radi ak sa samo 18% punog optereenja
215
pre nego to ili unutranji organi upravljanja ponu da dejstvuju, ili jedinica mora da
radi na on/off.
Kao to A.C. Pachai pokazuje [1], efikasnost klipnih kompresora e se pove-
ati poto se brzina kompresora smanjuje. To je suprotnost ponaanju vijanih kom-
presora koje odstupa od projektovanog. Ova jedinica i sve komponente projektovani
su za prilagoavanje postupanja prema zahtevima za hlaenjem, koje obino dovodi
do veih komponenti od jedinica projektovanih samo kao toplotne pumpe. To poka-
zuje da je pogon koji odstupa od projektovanog verovatniji nego suprotan. Osim
toga, kada se pogoni kao dvostepeni sistem, opseg rada se moe proiriti sa tempera-
ture ispravanja od -13 C, na 30 C, pri temperaturi kondenzacije od 53 C. Meu-
tim, posebno u ovim sluajevima, to nema znaaja.
Slika 6, a i b. Poslednja verzija unutranjeg reverzebilnog hladnjaka/toplotne pum-

pe. Toplotnopumpni reim odnosno reim hladnjaka. Pothlaiva za pripremu
toplog glikola za odmrzavanje i sistem odmrzavanja nisu prikazani
Slaba taka u projektu je korienje amonijane cirkulacione pumpe. Prvobi-
tno je ona bila ukljuena u projekat da bi se osigurala dobra cirkulacija u jedinici,
bez obzira na reim rada.
Danas je rad ranije pomenutih kreativnih majstora kao rezultat dao jedinicu
koja moe raditi bez cirkulacione pumpe. Korienjem modulacionih umesto preki-
dnih ventila, mogue je isporuiti toplotu leti i rashladnu energiju zimi na dva glav-
na razmenjivaa toplote, umesto etiri, koliko je zahtevala prethodna verzija. Prip-
rema tople vode pomou ureaja za snienje temperature pare da bi bila manje pre-
grejana nije prikazana, ali takva mogunost postoji.
216
3. Prednosti i nedostaci projekta
3.1. Nedostaci
3.1.1. Punjenje rashladnim fluidom
Ovo je sigurno slaba taka u ovom projektu. Punjenje je obino 500 g do 1 kg
po kilovatu rashladne snage. Meutim, najvei deo punjenja e biti u obliku tenosti
ili u separatoru tenosti ili isparivau vazduha, kada jedinica radi kao toplotne pum-
pa. Kao posledica toga, jedinica je projektovana sa brojnim nezavisnim komponen-
tama. Kao to je prikazano na sl. 5, vazduhom hlaeni kondenzator/ispariva je
ugraen sa 4 nezavisne jedinice. Poto je najvei deo punjenja u obliku tenosti, oko
95%, stvarna opasnost povezana sa katastrofalnim oteenjem u separatoru tenosti
bila bi ograniena na 10% punjenja koje bi nastalo kao rezultat iznenadnog pada
pritiska.
U projektu mainske sobe i vazduhom hlaenog kondenzatora, u razmatranje
je uzet deflektor sa lopaticama na vrhu vazduhom hlaenog kondenzatora, da bi
odbacio gas koji curi daleko od zgrada u blizini.
Poslednji projekat, koji koristi gravitacionu cirkulaciju, takoe bi smanjio
punjenje za oko 20%. Uklanjanje posrednog separatora tenosti/otvorenog meuhla-
dnjaka sa neposrednjim hlaenjem (isparavanjem) smanjie punjenje za dodatnih
10%.
3.1.2. Projektovanje sloene jedinice
Jedinica nije jednostavan hladnjak. Operater postrojenja mora poznavati
meuzavisnost razliitih delova jedinice i razliitih delova zgrade koju jedinica
opsluuje. Ovo drugo je vano bez obzira na reenje sistema, to se esto zanemaru-
je. Zapoljavanje servisnih inenjera vieg kvaliteta od uobiajenog moe preokre-
nuti ovaj nedostatak u prednost.
3.2. Prednosti
3.2.1. Cevne veze
Definitivna prednost ovih jedinica je dostizanje jednostavnosti cevnih veza u
sistemima koje jedinica servisira. Kao to se vidi na sl. 1, cevne veze su vrlo sloe-
ne, ukljuujui nekoliko pumpi koje rade u razliitim vremenima. Te pumpe takoe
uvode potronju energije koja bitno utie na efikasnost sistema kao to istie G.
Nielsen [2].
3.2.2. Energetska efikasnost
Jedinica e raditi efikasnije i kao toplotna pumpa i kao hladnjak, poto nema
gubitaka temperature u sekundarnim kolima. Osim toga, poto je ispariva prvobitno
projektovan kao kondenzator, on je ba velikoduan u veliini kada se koristi kao
ispariva. Suprotan primer je da je za vreme primopredaje jedinice u Norvekoj koli
ekonomije temperatura sredine bila 1,5 C, a temperatura isparavanja 0 C. To je
naravno stvar podeavanja ravnotee radi dostizanja optimuma izmeu snage venti-
latora i snage kompresora.
217
3.2.3. Sistem odmrzavanja
Sve jedinice su projektovane sa sistemima za odmrzavanje glikolom koji
koriste energiju iz pothlaivaa za snabdevanje toplotom za odmrzavanje. To znai
da se odmrzavanje moe postii praktino usput, na brzinu, bez gubljenja drago-
cene efikasnosti.
3.2.4. Opseg rada
Usvajanje dvostepenog klipnog reenja omoguuje jedinici irok opseg rada,
u poreenju sa jednostepenom jedinicom. Imajui u vidu stavu G. Nielsena [2], to
znai da e jedinica ovog projekta moi da konkurie toplotnoj pumpi sa buotinom,
u pogledu izvetaja o energiji.
3.2.5. Ukupni trokovi instalacije
Jedinica poput ove bie skuplja za oko 10-20% od sline instalacije sa hlad-
njacima, koja zadovoljava iste potrebe za hlaenjem. Meutim, trokovi okolnih
sistema bie mnogo manji. Zbog toga dolazimo u neuobiajenu situaciju da je naje-
fikasniji sistem takoe u celini najjeftiniji.
4. Zakljuak
Sa ovim novitetom, projektna reenja jedinice toplotna pumpa/hladnjak smi-
ljena je da moe da radi kao toplotno srce svake zgrade, istovremeno snabdevajui
toplotnom i rashladnom energijom gde god je potrebno.
Meutim, problem je punjenje, pa je upotreba mikrokanalnih kondenzatora
oigledan put koji se ono dalje smanjuje.
Literatura
[1] Pachai, A. C., Next Generation of Efficient NH3 Refrigeration Systems, Proce-
edings from the 3rd IIR International Conference on Sustainability and the Cold
Chain, London, England, 2014.
[2] Nielsen, G., Borehole Installations or Air To Water Heat Pumps What To Use
and Where, Proceedings from Ammonia and CO2 Refrigeration Technologies,
Ohrid, Macedonia, 2015.
218
SINTETIKE ALTERNATIVE
ZA RASHLADNO SREDSTVO R404A
SINTETIC ALTERNATIVES FOR REPLACEMENT
OF R404A REFIGERANT
Milan STOJANOVIC1 i Uro MILOVANEVI2
1
Director in Florida Int. System, limited company, Belgrade, Serbia,
2
Assistant in Regrigeration department,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Univesity of Belgrade, Belgrade
Od uvoenja HCFC rashladnih sredstava baziranih na R22 trae se reenja
koja e biti trajnijeg karaktera. Prva zamena za HCFC - R22 bazirana na HFC
R404A je prevaziena u Evropi uvoenjem propisa EN 517/2014 (sa vanou od
1.1.2015.) kao naslednika prethodne direktive EN 862/2006. Servisna zabrana rada
sa R404A i R507A od 2020. godine u Evropi e oteati serviserima potragu za
buduim zamenama i obeleavanjima za ta se treba ve spremati danas.
Danas predloene alternative za R404A (GWP 3922) su R407A (2107),
R407C (1774), R407F(1825), R410A (2088), R442A (1888), R449A (1397), HFO -
R452A (2140) i radi poreenja R32 ( 675). U radu e se odabrati najperspektivnije
alternative i dae se uporedne termodinamike karakteristike na koje treba da obrati
panju inenjeri koji projektuju sisteme i serviseri u eksplataciji.
Kljune rei: R404A alternative, zamene R404A
Since introduction of HCFC refrigerants based on R22, researches search
for permanent solution. First HCFC replacement R22 based on HFC R404A was
replaced by EN 517/2014 Directive (in force since January 1st 2015), following the
EN 862/2006 Directive. Starting from 2020 R404A and R507A will be prohibited
and new replacement refrigerants are to be introduced.
The following alternatives for R404A (GWP 3922) are proposed: R407A
(2107),R407C (1774), R407F(1825), R410A (2088), R442A (1888), R449A (1397),
HFO-R452A (2140) and for comparison R32 (675). This paper will show the most
perspective alternatives and comparison of thermodynamic characteristics impor-
tant for systems design.
Key words: alternatives to R404A; R404A replacement
Uvod
Najznaajnije pitanje u buduim razmatranjima postali su trokovi odrava-
nja i energetska efikasnost posmatrajui ivotni vek industrijskih rashladnih sistema
u toku perioda od 20 godina (prema literaturi [1] i do 97% trokova). U naem ovom
radu izraunavne su performanse maina za definisane uslove rada i prikazane su
razlike u zavisnosti od korienog rashladnog fluida, pod istim uslovima.
219
U kom smeru se razvijaju rashladni fluidi, pregledno je prikazano u literaturi
[2]. Detaljno sagledavajui istoriju, postavljaju se pitanja vezana za probleme sa
vrednoi GWP i ODP, kao i sa zapaljivou zeotropskih i azeotropskih meavina,
temperaturskim klizanjima. Nameu se razna potencijalna konstruktivna reenja koja
su u uskoj sprezi sa izborom rashladnih fluda kod rashladnih sistema .
Dalji razvoj mogao bi da ide u smeru koji diktiraju velike svetske kompanije
koje se bave proizvodnjom rashladnih fluida, npr. Honeywell (dat u literaturi [3]).
Takoe se u [3] vidi da dosadanja merenja performansi kompresora (opisanih u AHRI
standardu 540) bi trebalo da se modifikuju tj. Da se vri osrednjavanje posmatranih
pritisaka u kondenzatoru i isparivau zbog poznatog temperaturskog klizanja (glide).
2 Sintetike alternative za HFC R404A

Nabrojimo samo neke od predloenih zamena koje su ve komercijalno dos-
tupne ili se ispituju u laboratorijama danas.
Hanywell-ov R448A (vrednost GWP je 1374) koji se na testovima pokazao
da je odgovarajua zamena za R404A (testovi na temperturi od 90 oC i 110oC po
JIS 8623 (std). definisani u [1])
Linde-ov R442A (vrednost GWP je 1754) takoe se preporuuje kao direktna
zamena (drop in) prema literature [5]. R407A (vrednost GWP je 1923) se nudi kao
zamena takoe.
Danfoss je napravio itav niz predloenih zamena za R404A i to sa rashlad-
nim fluidima sa vrednou GWP manjom od 2500: R452A (koji se jo moe nai I
pod nazivom XP44), R407A, R407F, za vrednosti GWP ispod 1500: R449A (poznat
kao XP40), R448A (ili drugaije N40), dok za vrednosti GWP ispod 700, tu su na
spisku: DR7, R445A (L40), R444B (L20). Za fluide ispod 150 tu je DR3.
Nove generacije rashladnih fluida esto se dobijaju mesanjem dva nova flui-
da R1234yf i R1234ze i etri postojea R32, R134a, R125 i R152A (literatura [6]).
Tabela 1. Karakteristike sintetikih rashladnih fluida kao zamene za R404A

Rashladn Temperatura
o Kritina isparavanja Sigurnos komp-
sredstvo ODP GWP temperatura na 0 bara na klasa glide ulje Sastav Komercijalni naziv
oC oC oC
HFC R404A 0 3943 73 -45.5 A1 1.1 POE R125/R143a/134a (44/52/4) HP-62, FX-70
HFC R407C 0 1624 87 -36.6 A1 7.4 POE R32/125/134a (23/25/52) Klea 66, AC9000
HFC R410A 0 1924 72 -51.4 A1 0.1 POE R32/125 (50/50) AZ20, Suva 9100
R32/125/134a/152a/227ea
HFC R442A 0 1754 82.4 -46.5 A1 POE (31/31/30/3/5) RS-50
R32/R125/134a/1234ze/123
HFC/HFO R448A 0 1273 83.7 -44.8 A1 8.5 POE 4yf (26/26/21/7/20) Hanywell-Solstice N40
R32/125/1234yf/134a
HFC R449A 0 1282 81.5 -46 A1 8 POE (24.3/24.7/25.3/25.7) Opteon XP40
R32/R125/134a/1234yf
HFO R452A 0 1945 77.9 -47 A1 3.82 POE (11/59/30) DuPont-Opteon XP44
HFO R455A 0 146 A2L POE Hanywell-L40
e HFC R32 0 677 78 -52.6 A2 POE jednogasni - nije meavina Daikin R32
220
U tabeli je navedena lista najee korienih rashladnih fluida kao direktne
zamene za R404A. Bitno je skrenuti panju na kolonu koja sa nazivom glide gde su
navedene vrednosti klizanja tempertatura pri isparavanju rashladnog fluida.
Tabela 2. Iz programa za Apple- Danfoss Low GWP Tool ver.2.
Rashl.
originalni
Konverzija U koju Super Kapacitet R.K.
exp. R. K."-20 oC do 0 oC"
R404A zamenu heat na -20 oC > 0 oC
Ventil
u%
R449A T2/TE2 1x cw 38 37 41
R407F = 1/4 cw 66 53 57
R422A = = -12 -10 -8
R407A = 1/2 cw 40 30 34
R444B Te5-55 = -12 -10 -8
R448F T2/Te2 1/4 cw 39 39 42
R452A = 1/4 cw 4 6 9
3. Procedure zamene postojeeg freona R404A

sa odabranim drugim [3], [9]
Vana servisna napomena je da se zamene se ne smeju meati sa drugim
gasovima, pa ni sa R404A. Mora se precizno postupati po sledeim koracima:
1. Provera na rashladnom sistemu, ta je napisano, koje je rashladno sredstvo,
kompresorsko ulje, koliko treba da ga ima po zahtevu proizvoaa, zabele-
iti. Pitati korisnika za dosadanje iskustvo u ispravnosti rada i ranijim
bliskim popravkama. Ubeleiti temperature i pritiske postignute na prob-
nom radu 10-15 minuta i na grejanju da bui se vratilo ulje u kompresor i iz-
begava se raslojavanje sastavnih komonenti rashladnog sredstva, izvlaenje
reshladnog sredstva rastvorenog u ulju,
221
2. Izvlaenje postojeeg R404A , primenjujui dobru servisnu praksu recov-
ery u ve vakuumiranu rezervnu bocu. Obino je ureaj u ispravnom ran-
dom stanju i treba prikupiti rashladno sredstvo u tenoj fazi u receiver do
postizanja -0,8 bara vakuuma ( 25 inch ). Zabelei izvuenu koliinu starog
rashladnog sredstva.
3. Zamena suaa i filtera komp. ulja kada ve otvaramo sistem. Da ne bi
opet samo zbog toga otvarali sistem. Vrlo je osetljiv je na vlagu sistem.
4. Sistem da ne bude otvoren vie od 10 minuta jer je POE ulje vrlo higros-
kopno i da ne bi i njega morali da menjamo.Proveriti i imati u rezervi od-
govarjue ulje koje preporuuje proizvoa kompresora ( na pr. Copeland
preporuuje Emkarte RL32-3MAT ili Mobil Artic EAL 22CC). Ulje
proveriti na kiselost ili na promenu boje.
5. Vakumiranje do 500 mm Hg ( 0,3 mbara Emerson) vakuuma sa obe strane
rashladnog sistema istovremeno. Zatim iskljuimo vacuum pumpu i ako
posle 5 minuta se ne podigne iznad 1000mm Hg, tek onda punimo sistem.
Ako se pritisak podigne iznad ponavljamo postupak dok ne zadovolji uslov.
6. Provera naruenosti potrebnog rashladnog kapaciteta da ne bi ureaj radio
due i samim tim skraenje ivotnog veka kompresora- izborom novog
rashladnog sredstva.
7. Zbog razliite gustine i masenog protoka proveriti dimenziju cevi na pad
pritiska i brzinu protoka gasa, zbog potrebnog povratka ulja u kompresor. U
sluaju znaajne promene masenog protoka mogue je da postoji potreba
zamene i ekspanzionog ventila. Primer je R444B za kole Danfoss u svojoj
aplikaciji Danfoss low GWP Tools- ver. 2 zahteva zamenu umesto
T2/TE2 ekspanzionog ventila u TE5 za klasu vei protok fluida.
8. Napuniti instalaciju, bez pokretanja rashladnog ureaja, zamenom za
R404A ,prvo punjenje oko 85% predvienog punjenja saekati da se rash-
ladno sredstvo rasporedi u instalaciji i tek zatim dodati predvieni ostatak
po pokretanju rashladnog ureaja u rad . Obavezno koristiti vagu za meren-
je teine usipane koliine tenosti rashladnog sredstva . Videti dali pro-
izvoa predvia razliitu koliinu ( pr. R448A +4%, R452A +2%, ) i to
samo u tenoj fazi obavezno. Panja da ne bi unitili kompresor dozvoljeno
je da usisni pritisak podignemo do 25 psi (za oko 1,7 bar) najvie- i da se ne
uju ploice na izduvnim ventilima na plocici kompresora.
9. Proveriti na curenje rasladnog sredstva iz instalacije postoje novi leak
cheak detektori (i za R448A)
10. Proveriti / Podesiti TEX na pregrevanje gasa na ulasku u kompresor radi
njegove sigurnost, superheat t oK po tablici paritisak/ tempertura rose-
dew temperture. Ako vidimo da se ulisna cev u kompersor ledi- zatvoriti
TEX ekspanzioni ventil za kruga. Pothlaivanje se posmatra po tablici u
odnosu na temperaturu kljuanja. Provera projektovane temperature kon-
222
denzacije osrednjena temperatura ((ulazna + izlazna temp. na konden-
zatoru)/2) na pritisku kondenzacije. Temperatura isparavanja je osrednjena
temp. ulaza i izlaza iz isparivaa na pritisku isparavanja.
11. Proveriti i podesiti ostale prekidae sigurnosne, automatiku, presostate, na
nove temperature- pritiske ,
12. Obavezno oznaiti na instalaciji : koje novo rashladno sredstvo i koliko je
uneto u sistem, tip komp.ulja,...veza Fgas regulativa EU 842/2006+
EU1494/2007
4. Provera nekih sintetikih rashladnih sredstava na

energetsku efikasnost izraunavajui COP pri
hlaenju i pri grejanju COPg kao toplotna pumpa
U sledeim tabelama (od 3 do 9) dati su rezultati prorauna za definisane
uslove rada rashladne maine. Temperatura kondenzacije iznosila je 50 C, dok su
temperature prehlaivanje kondenzata i pregrevanja pare rashladnog fluida 2 C,
odnosno 5 C respektivno. Izraunate vrednosti dobijene su na osnovu podataka iz
programa Bitzer za fluide koji su bili na raspolaganju, uz vanu napomenu da je
rashlanda snaga kompresora oznaena sa Fi 0, potrebna toplotna snaga kondenzatora
sa Fi kd, efektivna snaga na vratilu komopresora sa P ef. COP predstavlja koeficijent
hlaenja rashladne instalacije, dok COP g je koeficijent grejanja tj. korisnost rashla-
dnog sistema koji radi kao toplotna pumpa.
Uslovi rada rashladne maine, tj toplotne pumpe su:

t subcooling = 2 C
t superheat = 5 C
t condensing = 50 C
Tabela 3. Performanse rashladnog sistema sa fluidom R404A

404A Fi 0 P ef COP Fi kd COP g t disch
-20 5.52 4.32 1.28 9.84 2.28 82.1
-15 7.19 4.85 1.48 12.04 2.48 78.5
-10 9.22 5.35 1.72 14.57 2.72 75.40
-5 11.64 5.81 2 17.45 3.00 72.9
0 14.53 6.22 2.34 20.7 3.33 70.7
5 17.94 6.57 2.73 24.5 3.73 68.8
223
-20 5.28 3.62 1.46 8.9 2.46 101.4
-15 7.05 4.18 1.69 11.22 2.68 95.2
-10 9.19 4.72 1.95 13.92 2.95 90
-5 11.77 5.24 2.25 17.01 3.25 85.6
0 14.85 5.71 2.60 20.6 3.61 81.7
5 18.51 6.13 3.02 24.6 4.01 78.4
Tabela 5. Performanse rashladnog sistema sa fluidom R407C

407C Fi 0 P ef COP Fi kd COP g t disch
-20 4.86 3.2 1.52 8.06 2.52 106.1
-15 6.55 3.73 1.76 10.28 2.76 99.1
-10 8.6 4.26 2.02 12.86 3.02 93.6
-5 11.05 4.78 2.31 15.84 3.31 88.9
0 13.98 5.28 2.65 19.26 3.65 85.1
5 17.45 5.74 3.04 23.2 4.04 81.7
Tabela 6. Performanse rashladnog sistema sa fluidom R407F

407F Fi 0 P ef COP Fi kd COP g t disch
-20 5.82 3.85 1.51 9.68 2.51 108.8
-15 7.73 4.45 1.74 12.18 2.74 101.6
-10 10.03 5.03 1.99 15.06 2.99 95.6
-5 12.78 5.58 2.29 18.36 3.29 90.3
0 16.06 6.08 2.64 22.1 3.63 85.8
5 19.92 6.52 3.06 26.4 4.05 81.8
224
-20 4.45 3.13 1.42 7.58 2.42 117.1
-15 5.75 3.54 1.62 9.29 2.62 109.5
-10 7.27 3.92 1.85 11.19 2.85 103
-5 9.04 4.26 2.12 13.29 3.12 97.5
0 11.08 4.55 2.44 15.63 3.44 92.5
5 13.42 4.8 2.80 18.2 3.79 88

-20 5.59 3.8 1.47 9.39 2.47 101.9
-15 7.4 4.36 1.70 11.76 2.70 95.7
-10 9.59 4.9 1.96 14.49 2.96 90.4
-5 12.22 5.4 2.26 17.62 3.26 85.9
0 15.35 5.84 2.63 21.2 3.63 81.9
5 19.05 6.22 3.06 25.3 4.07 78.4

-20 5.55 3.8 1.46 9.35 2.46 101
-15 7.34 4.36 1.68 11.7 2.68 95
-10 9.52 4.9 1.94 14.41 2.94 89.8
-5 12.12 5.4 2.24 17.52 3.24 85.4
0 15.23 5.84 2.61 21.1 3.61 81.5
5 18.91 6.22 3.04 25.1 4.04 78.1
U nastavku rada dati su grafiki rezultati prorauna, na dijagramima 1 do 4,

na kojima se jasno vidi promena razmatrane karakteristike rashladnog sistema
(toplotne pumpe) u zavisnosti od promene temperature isparavanja I u zavisnosti od
korienog rashladnog fluida.
225
Na dijagramu 1. vidi se promena vrednosti COP pri hlaenju, pri emu sa
porastom temperature isparavanja raste vrednost COP. Takoe, vidi se da sistem koji
je radio u ovako definisanim uslovima sa freonom R449A imao najloije performan-
se (ispod R404A), dok su sistemi sa freonima R407C i R407F jako slini i imali su
najvee vrednosti COP (iznad R404A). Takoe, instalacije sa R407A i 448A su jako
blizu po vrednostima COP kao I R407C i R407F.
Na dijagramu 2. prikazana je promena vrednosti COPg u reimu grejanja tj.
kada rashladnu mainu posmatramo kao toplotnu pumpu. Moe da se primeni ista
analiza kao i za prethodni dijagram.
3,5
3 404A
407A
2,5
COP
407C
2
407F
1,5
410A
1 448A
-20 -10 0
449A
temperatura isparavanja, C
Dijagram 1. Vrednosti COP pri hlaenju
4,50
4,00 404A
3,50 407A
COP g
407C
3,00
407F
2,50 410A
448A
2,00
-20 -10 0 449A
Dijagram 2. Vrednosti COPg pri grejanju (toplotna pumpa)
226
7
6,5
6 404A
5,5 407A
P ef, kW
5 407C
4,5 407F
4 410A
448A
3,5
449A
3
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
Dijagram 3. El. snaga kompresora (Compressore power input)

120
110
404A
100 407A
temperatura na potisu KP, C
407C
90
407F
80 410A
448A
70
449A
60
-20 -15temperatura
-10 isparavanja,
-5 C 0 5
Dijagram 4. Temperatura na potisu kompresora (discharge temperature)
227
Na dijagramu 3. vidi se promena el. snaga kompresora sa temperaturom ispa-
ravanja. Na osnovu analize i samog dijagrama jasno je da bi rashladni sistemi sa
R410A i R407C troili najmanje elektrine energije za pogon kompresora, dok su
sistemi sa R404A i R407F u vrhu potronje.
Na dijagramu 4. prikazane su vrednosti temperature na potisu kompresora u
zavisnosti od primenjenih rashladnih fluida. Najvie vrednosti temperature na potisu
imaju sistemi sa R410A i R407F. Freoni R407A, R448A i R449A su u srednjem
opsegu sa jako slinim vrednostima, dok najnie temperature ima R404A.
5 Zakljuak
Na osnovu prethodno reenog vidi se da freoni R410A, R407F, R407A,
R407C, R448A i R449A predstavljaju dobru (trenutnu) zamenu R404A uz prisutnu
tendenciju vraanju prirodnim rashladnim fluidima (ugljen dioksid, amonijak,).
Takoe, mora se navesti i sledee:
Uvek se prvo posvetimo pripremama, tj ta menjamo i ime menjamo, kao i
analizi ta bi treblo da se dobije. Dijagrami ili tablice rashladnog fluida
spremiti pre poetka postupka konverzije.
HFC reenja se polako gube i dolazi do dolaska na trite novih HFO
zamena ili ugradnji u nove instalacije.
Veliki proizvoai jo uvek trae i proveravaju u laboratorijama i u praksi
(Case study) za nove meavine . Samo dva nova molekula su do sada u igri
(R1234yf i R1234ze). Treba saekati Daikin kao najveeg svetskog proiz-
voaa po koliini rashladnih sredstava da da novo reenja kao zamenu za
R32 (najavljeno), za aplikaciju u oblasti niskih temperatura.
Vidimo iz dijagrama 1. i 2. da svako rashladno sredstvo daje svoje podatke,
izraunavajui COP za hlaenje i COPg za toplotne pumpe i koje treba
dalje istraivati.
EU 517/2014 sada obuhvata i rashladna sredstva u transportnoj rashladi,
kod koje se uspeno ve dve godine koristi HFO-R452A ime je zamenjen
HFC R404A.
Mac direktiva EU 2006/40/EC i EU307/2008 za putnike automobile trai
korienje rashladnog fluida sa GWP < 150 , ime se onemoguava dalje
korienje R134a (GWP od 1430), to se potie danas sa R1234yf (<1).
Uvoz u Srbiju samostalno za sva rashladna sredstva je komplikovan posao i
ide preko dva ministarstva.
Boja kontejnera je bela za povratne boce sa dvostrukim ventilom - tena i
gasna faza, tako da ASHRE boje dolaze do izraaja samo na instalacijama
risiver bocama rashladne instalacije.
6 Literatura:
[1] *** Honeywell refrigerant_preso_ashrae_2016_rs sajt Honeywell-a
228
[2] *** Working fluids for mechanical refrigeration, Alberto Cavalini, Int.J.Refrig.
vol 19. No.8, pp 485-496, 1996
[3] *** Honeywell-SolsticeN40-Retrofit-Guidelines_v3-lr
[4] *** Low GWP Replacement for R404A in Commercial Refrigeration Applica-
tions, Semuel YANS MOTTA, Mark Spatz, Honeywell International, 20
Peabody Street, Buffalo, NY 14210, Samuel.YanaMotta@honeywell.com
[5] *** Linde: EU f-gas regulation: impact on R404A and opportunitity for R442A
( RS-50) , Jon Black, Global Head Chemicals and Refrigerants, May 2014
[6] *** Linde: Guide to update EU f-gas regulation 517/2014, july 2014
[7] *** Danfoss Refrigerant options now and in future, 01/2016,
DKRCC.PB.000.W2.22
[8] *** Determination of Cooling Effect of R12 and R404A, Serap Akdemir and
Selcuk Arin, Trakaya University, Turkey
[9] *** Emerson, Tehnical Information, Refrigerant Changeover HFC
R404A/R507n to HFC R407A, R407F, R448A, R449A, Ref: CC7.26.3/1012-
0515/E
[10] *** Program REF ProP. Verzija 9.2. skinuta sa internet
[11] *** Danfoss aplikacija samo za Apple Low GWP Tool ver 2
229
OSNOVNE POSTAVKE STANDARDA KVALITETA
VRSTIH BIOGORIVA IZ SEKUNDARNIH
DRVNIH SIROVINA
BASIC QUALITY STANDARDS OF SOLID BIOFUELS
FROM WOOD SECONDARY RAW MATERIALS
dr Predrag PETROVI1 and Marija PETROVI2
1
Institut za optu fiziku hemiju, Studentski trg 12-14, Beograd, Srbija,
e-mail:mpm@eunet.rs
2
Doktorant Poljoprivrednog fakulteta, Univerziteta u Beogradu,
Nemanjina 6, Beograd, Srbija,
e-mail:marijapetrovic52@gmail.com
vrsta biogoriva iz sekundarnih drvnih sirovina, predstavljaju znaajan
izvor obnovljive energije. Pored drvnih sekundarnih sirovina u primeni se nalaze i
sekundarne sirovine iz: poljoprivrede, voarstva, prehrambene industrije,
komunalnog i drugog otpada. Sekundarni drvni otpad je veoma prihvatljiv kao
obnovljivi izvor energije, kojem se u svetu pridaje velika panja kroz definisanje
standarda kvaliteta. Meutim, odreeni drvni otpad, na primer iz graevinarstva i
drvne industrije, moe sadrati halogena organska jedinjenja ili teke metale kao
rezultat tretmana drveta sredstvima zatite i premaza i u njihovim produktima
sagorevanjem mogu se nai ekoloki neeljeni elementi.
U tehnolokim operacijama pri: proizvodnji, kontrolisanju, laboratorijskim
analizama, trgovini i korienju vrstih biogoriva, primena tehnike regulative je
neophodna kako bi se obezbedili svi neophodni postupci u celokupnom tehnoloko-
proizvodnom lancu. Primena zahteva standarda je neophodna i zbog spreavanja
stvaranja i emisije tetnih produkata sagorevanja, odnosno u cilju ouvanja i zatite
ivotne sredine.
Srbija nije lan Evropskog komiteta za standarde (CEN), ali kao kandidat za
lanstvo u Evropskoj uniji, ali u okviru mnogobrojnih politiko-ekonomskih mera,
mora usaglasiti i mnogobrojne razliite regulative, u koje spada i set standarda koji
se odnose na kvalitet vrstih drvnig biogoriva.
Set serije standarda za vrsta biogoriva, prua nedvosmislene i jasne
principe klasifikacije, koji slue kao alat kojim se omoguava njihova efikasna
trgovina, dobro razumevanje izmeu prodavca i kupca, kao i za dobru komunikaciju
sa proizvoaima opreme.
Standardi u ovoj oblasti su veoma obimni i studiozni i obuhvataju celokupni
lanac proizvodnje, kontrole kvaliteta i karakteristika, snabdevanja, isporuke,
korienja i drugih neophodnih tehnolokih postupaka, a sve u cilju kvalitativnog
zadovoljenja krajnjeg korisnika.
231
U ovom radu su prikazane neke osnovne smernice standarda kvaliteta za
vrsta biogoriva, proizvedena od sekundarnih produkata umske i drvne industrije,
pre svega sa aspekta podizanja energetske efikasnosti i ouvanja i zatite ivotne
sredine.
Kljune rei: drvo, biogorivo, standard, kvalitet, ekologija
Solid wood biofuels from secondary raw materials, a significant source of

renewable energy. In addition to wood secondary raw materials in the application
are secondary raw materials from agriculture, horticulture, food processing,
municipal and other waste. Secondary waste wood is very acceptable as a
renewable energy source, which is the world's great attention towards defining
quality standards. However, certain wood waste, for example from the construction
and furniture industries, may contain halogen organic compounds or heavy metals
as a result of the treatment of wood resources protection and coating products in
their combustion can be found environmentally undesirable elements.
The technological operations in: manufacturing, inspection, laboratory
analysis, trade and use of solid biofuels, the use of technical regulations is
necessary in order to ensure all the necessary procedures in the entire technological
production chain. Implementation of the requirements of the standard is also
required to prevent the formation and emission of harmful combustion products, and
to preserve and protect the environment.
Serbia is not a member of the European Committee for Standardization
(CEN), or as a candidate for membership in the European Union, in the context of
many different political and economic, must agree on a number of different
regulations, which include a set of standards relating to the quality of solid
biofuels. Set Series standards for solid biofuels, providing unambiguous and clear
principles for the classification of solid biofuels, which are used as a tool to
facilitate efficient trade in biofuels, a good understanding between the seller and the
buyer, as well as good communication with equipment manufacturers.
Standards in this area are very extensive and studious, and include the entire
chain of production, quality control and performance, supply, delivery, use and
other necessary technological procedures, with the aim of meeting the qualitative
end user.
This paper presents some basic guidelines of quality standards for solid
biofuels produced from secondary forest and wood products industry,
especially in terms of raising energy efficiency and conservation and protection of
the environment.
Key words: Wood, Biofuel, Standard, Quality, Ecology
1. Uvod
vrsta biogoriva, drvnog porekla, predstavljaju znaajan izvor obnovljive
energije. U celokupnom lancu, primena set Evropskih standarda, prevedenih i
usvojenih u naoj zemlji, je obaveza. Pre svega sa aspekta proizvodnje, trgovine,
232
skladitenja, transporta i drugih parametara, a naroito sa stanovita energetske
efikasnosti i ekolokih produkata sagorevanja, s obzirom na primenu i korienje
vrstih biogoriva irokog opsega vrste materijala razliitih karakteristika i svojstava.
Standardi definiu metodologije za uzimanje uzoraka i metode ispitivanja potrebnih
parametara, kako bi proizvod kvalitativno zadovoljio potrebne karakteristike i bio
konkurentan na tritu.
Drugim reima, u cilju stvaranja poverenja korisnika, neophodno je da
uesnici u proizvodnji i distribuciji vrstih goriva postignu utvreni kvalitet u celom
lancu proizvodnje i isporuke. Meutim, trite je neto sasvim drugo, jer korisnici
postaju sve vie svesni uticaja varijacija u kvalitetu goriva pa tako veliki korisnici
esto vre ispitivanja karakteristika koje su im samo bitna. Nije retkost da se
ponekad neke isporuke od strane korisnika odbijaju ako kvalitet izlazi iz
dogovorenog okvira tolerancija i specifikacija. Da bi se takvi sluajevi izbegli
neophodna je adekvatna definisana kontrola u celom lancu, koja omoguava proveru
svih kritinih kontrolnih taaka. Setom evropskih standarda regulisani su generalni
tokovi u vezi sa proizvodnjom, trgovinom, kontrolisanjem i analizom vrstih
biogoriva, kroz razliite metode koje su korisne za kupce vrstih biogoriva,
regulatorna tela, kontrolore i laboratorije. Cilj serije standarda za vrsta biogoriva je
da prui nedvosmislene i jasne principe klasifikacije i da slui kao alat kojim se
omoguava efikasna trgovina biogorivima, dobro razumevanje izmeu prodavca i
kupca, kao i da se koristi kao alat za komunikaciju sa proizvoaima opreme. [8]
2. 2. Specifikacija optih vrstih biogoriva

Standardom ISO 17225 odreene su klase kvaliteta i specifikacije vrstih
biogoriva od sirovih i preraenih materijala koji potiu iz: umarstva, poljoprivrede,
hortikulture, akvakulture i arborikulture (unapreuje istraivanje u urbanom umars-
tvu, poboljava negu i zatitu stabala u urbanim prostorima, poboljava gazdovanje
javnim zelenilom, razmenjuje iskustva sa slinim udruenjima u Evropi i svetu i dr.)
Peleti, briketi, drvna seka i ogrevno drvo (cepano drvo) su oblici u kojima se
trguje i koji se esto koriste za primene u malom obimu. Standard ISO 17225-2
obuhvata i specifikacije za klasirane industrijske pelete. [9] [10]
Evropski standard CEN/TC 335 definie termine koji se odnose na sve
aktivnosti u vezi sa standardizacijom u okviru predmeta i podruja primene vrstih
biogoriva koja potiu iz sledeih izvora:
Proizvodi iz poljoprivrede i umarstva.
Biljni otpad iz poljoprivrede i umarstva.
Biljni otpad iz prehrambene industrije.
Drvni otpad, uz izuzetak drvnog otpada koji moe da sadri halogena
organska jedinjenja ili teke metale kao rezultat tretmana drveta sredstvima
za zatitu ili premazima, a koji sadri naroito drvni otpad koji potie iz
graevinarstva - od izgradnje i ruenja.
Otpad od plute.
233
Biljni otpad u obliku vlakana iz proizvodnje celuloze i proizvodnje papira
od celuloze, ako se zajedno spaljuje na mestu proizvodnje, a nastala toplota
se ponovo koristi.
Na osnovu ovog porekla prua se mogunost da se na osnovu toga to
detaljnije napravi razlika i utvrdi materijal biogoriva. Primeri klasifikacije mogu se
svesti na:
a) Cela stabla breze bez korena.
b) Meavina celih stabala liara i etinara bez korena.
c) Stablo uljane palme.
d) Ostaci od see.
e) Grane uljane palme.
f) Ostaci od see iz sastojina smre.
g) Piljevina od liara.
h) Furnirske ploe od etinara.
i) Ostaci od furnirskih ploa.
j) Drvna praina od bruenja iz industrije nametaja.
k) Lignin.
l) Drvo iz graevinarstva.
m) Palete
n) Slama od penice, jema, ovsa, rai.
o) Ljuske od pirina.
p) Kanarska trava.
q) Bambus
r) Zrnevlje ili seme poljoprivrednih kultura iz prehrambene industrije.
s) Jezgro palme ili ljuske palme.
t) Grozd plodova uljane palme.
u) Ostaci od maslina nakon ceenja maslina.
v) Kelp
w) Meavina; 80% m piljevine etinara i 20% m kanarske trave.
x) Prirodna meavina; cela stabla breze bez korena, cela stabla smre bez
korena.
y) Meavina; 99% m piljevina, 1% m lepljeno drvo (sadraj lepka cele mase
0,1% m)
3. 3. Primeri upravljanja kvalitetom vrstih biogoriva

Operater u fabrici peleta uzima uzorke i belei sadraj vlage peleta tokom
smene. Ako se vlanost menja i izlazi izvan zadatih granica parametara proces se
podeava tako da se sadraj vlage vrati u okvire specifikacije. Ako se zna da je
proces suenja polaznog materijala problematian, a operater ne prati sadraj vlage u
odgovarajuem vremenskom rasponu, moe da se desi da preduzee vie sati
proizvodi neusaglaene pelete pre nego to se to pitanje pokrene. Ako se problem
javi u prvom satu, a ispitivanje se vri na kraju smene od dvanaest sati, moe se
234
javiti situacija da proizvod u vrednosti od jedanaest sati proizvodnje bude
neusaglaen. Ovo potencijalno moe da bude veoma skupo za preduzee.
U primeru fabrike peleta, ako je ustanovljen trend podataka o sadraju vlage
tokom procesa i ako se ispostavi da se odreeni problem javlja na svake tri nedelje u
konkretnoj nonoj smeni, moe da se ispostavi da problem predstavlja konkretna
isporuka polaznog materijala ili da je potrebna dodatna obuka za konkretnog
operatera koji je u toj smeni. [17] [18]
Proizvoa drvne seke ima ugovor sa korisnikom da ne bude vie od 5%
seke prevelikih dimenzija. Kada su noevi drobilice tupi, proizvoa zna da
drobilica pravi seku koja nije u skladu sa specifikacijom. Ako proizvoa namerava
da i dalje koristi iste noeve bez otrenja ili zamene kako bi smanjio vreme
nekorienja drobilice. Posledice tog postupka mogu da budu takve da se proizvodi
vie od 5% prevelikih komada seke u odnosu na zahtev korisnika, uz potencijalni
ishod da seka ne bude prihvaena, stoga mora da se mea dodatni materijal ili da se
smanji cena kako bi korisnik bio zadovoljan.
Nakon preispitivanja podataka o usluzi korisnika i otrenju noeva tokom
niza meseci, proizvoa seke sumnja ili zakljuuje da se zadovoljstvo njegovog
korisnika smanjilo u isto vreme kada su produeni sati rada noeva na drobilici
preko propisanog broja sati. Meutim, proizvoa sada shvata da dodatni sati rada
noeva mogu da dovedu do tetnog efekta za njegovu uslugu prema korisniku i da
koristi od produenja vremena rada noeva u smislu uteenog vremena nisu dali
efekte u odnosu na otrenje ili zamenu noeva u predvienom vremenu.
Obezbeenje kvaliteta, s druge strane, odnosi se na preispitivanje proizvoda i
procesa, prvenstveno kroz podatke dobijene iz zapisa o upravljanju kvalitetom i
korienjem tih podataka. Posmatranjem tendencija i preispitivanjem podataka kroz
sistem obezbeenja kvaliteta takve pojave se lake ustanovljavaju. Mere
obezbeenja kvaliteta treba da:budu jednostavne za upotrebu, ne prouzrokuju
nepotrebnu dokumentaciju, podravaju proizvodne reime za smanjenje trokova.
Meutim, kao to je napomenuto, upravljanje kvalitetom je vano za procenu
svojstava goriva koje se proizvodi i procesa koji se koriste.
U kontekstu CEN/TS 15234, upravljanje kvalitetom obuhvata odabir i
korienje odgovarajuih tehnika uzimanja uzoraka i smanjenja uzoraka, kao i
metode ispitivanja fizikih i hemijskih svojstava. [11] [12] [13]
4. 4. Osnovne postavke standarda kvaliteta vrstih biogoriva

4.1. Odreivanje nasipne gustine SRPS EN ISO 17828
Nasipna gustina predstavla vaan parametar za isporuke goriva prema zap-
remini i zajedno sa neto kalorijskom vrednou odreuje gustinu energije i olakava
procenu potrebnog prostora za transport i skladitenje.
Odreivanje nasipne gustine obino se vri primenom dve standardne merne posude
od 5l i 50l, ali samo za goriva takve gustine da mogu da se koriste te posude u proti-
vnom neka goriva kao napr. komadno drvo, neusitnjena kora, baliran materijal,
235
krupniji briketi i dr., nasipna gustina se izraunava iz njihove mase i zapremine
kontejnera ili kamiona koji se koristi za transport.
Metoda opisana u ovom standardu obuhvata definisano izlaganje udaru mate-
rijala u nasutom stanju jer udar dovodi do odreenog smanjenja zapremine, to obja-
njava efekte sabijanja koji se javlaju tokom lanca proizvodnje i transporta goriva
koje se obino transportuje i/ili skladiti u kontejnerima ili silosima koji su mnogo
vei od mernih navedenih posuda. U tim postupcima masa tereta dovodi do povea-
nog pritiska, ali i dodatnog sleganja materijala, usled vibracija tokom transporta.
Dodatno sabijanje javlja se i prilikom punjenja ili istovara, odnosno poveanjem
kinetike energije estica, s obzirom da je u praksi obino vea visina pada od visine
koja je odabrana za izvreno ispitivanje. Stoga se smatra da postupak u kojem se na
uzorak primenjuje kontrolisani udar na boli nain odraava nasipnu gustinu nego
metoda bez udara.To naroito vai kada masa isporuenog goriva mora da se proce-
ni iz zapremine tereta transportnog vozila, to je est postupak u mnogim zemlama.
Prema istraivanjima i dosta grubim procenama o osetljivosti na izlo-enost udaru
vrstih biogoriva podaci pokazuju efekat sabijanja izmeu 6-18 %. [1]
4.1.2. Izraunavanje nasipne gustine u primlenom stanju

Nasipna gustina uzorka u primlenom stanju (BDar), izraunava se prema
formuli (1):
(m2 - m1 )
BDar =
V (1)
gde je:
BDar nasipna gustina u primlenom stanju (kg/m3),
BDd- nasipna gustina uzorka u suvom stanju (kg/m3),
m1- masa prazne posude (kg),
m2- masa napunjene posude (kg),
V- neto zapremina merne posude kao (m3).
Rezultat svakog pojedinanog odreivanja izraunava se na 0,1 decimalu, a
za potrebe izvetaja izraunava se srednja vrednost zaokruena na 10 kg/m3.
4.1.3. Izraunavanje nasipne gustine u suvom stanju
Nasipna gustina mase dela uzorka za ispitivanje u suvom stanju (BDd) izra-
unava se prema formuli (2):
100 M ar (2)
BDd BDar
100
236
4.2. Odreivanje mehanike otpornosti peleta i briketa
Peleti, SRBS EN ISO 17831-1
Gorivo od sabijene vrste biomase obino se svrstava u pelete ili u brikete,
gde je prenik peleta obino ispod 25 mm, dok je prenik briketa vei. Ovim delom
ISO 17831 definie se metoda za ispitivanje mehanike otpornosti peleta, odnosno
otpornosti sabijenih goriva na udare i/ili habanje kao posledica rukovanja ili tran-
sporta. [2]
Deo uzorka za ispitivanje se podvrgava kontrolisanim udarima tako to se
peleti meusobno sudaraju i udaraju o zidove utvrene rotirajue komore za ispiti-
vanje. Otpornost se izraunava iz mase dela uzorka za ispitivanje, nakon odvajanja
estica manjih od 3,15 mm prosejavanjem i mase dela uzorka za ispitivanje nakon
obrtanja.
4.2.1. Izraunavanje mehanike otpornosti
Mehanika otpornost peleta se rauna korienjem formule (3):
mA
DU = 100
mE
(3)
gde je:
DU- mehanika otpornost, ( %),
mE - masa prosejanih peleta pre tretitanja obrtanjem, (g),
mA - masa prosejanih peleta nakon tretitanja obrtanjem, (g),
Rezultat za svaki od dva dela ispitivanih uzorka izraunava se na dve decima-
le, a srednja vrednost rezultata dva dela uzorka za ispitivanje mora da se zaokrui na
0,1 %, za potrebe izvetaja.
4.3. Odreivanje mehanike otpornosti peleta i briketa
Briketi-SRPS EN ISO 17831-2
Da bi se objasnile estice razliitih mera, neophodno je da se definiu razliiti
aparati i pribori za ispitivanje, koji su definisani ovim i drugim standardima.
Laboratorijski uzorak koji se koristi za odreivanje mehanike otpornosti
uzima se i, ako je neophodno, njegova masa se deli u skladu sa ISO 18135, a prip-
rema se u skladu sa ISO 14780. Veliina laboratorijskog uzorka mora da bude u
skladu sa zahtevima ovog standarda, a najmanje 25 kg, a za druge tipove briketa
laboratorijski uzorak mora da bude 10 kg.
Laboratorijski uzorak se deli tako da se dobiju dva uzorka za ispitivanje:
jedan koji se koristi za odreivanje sadraja vlage (5kg), u primlenom stanju (ISO
18134-1 ili ISO 18134-2), a drugi za ispitivanje mehanike otpornosti.
Deo uzorka za ispitivanje otpornosti bira se na osnovu prosene mase jednog
briketa. Zahtevana veliina se odreuje nakon svrstavanja briketa u jedan od tri tipa
briketa A, B ili C, kao to je opisano ovim standardom. [3]
237
4.3.1. Izraunavanje mehanike otpornosti
Mehanika otpornost briketa se rauna korienjem formule (4):
mA
DU = 100
mE
(4)
gde je:
DU- mehanika otpornost, kao procenat,
mE- masa prosejanih briketa pre tretiranja u bubnju, (g),
mA- masa prosejanih briketa nakon tretiranja u bubnju, (g),
Rezultat za svaki deo uzorka izraunava se na dve decimale, a srednja vred-
nost rezultata za sve delove uzorka za ispitivanje za odreeni tip briketa zaokruuje
se na 0,1%, za potrebe izvetaja.
4.4. Odreivanje ukupnog sadraja uglenika, vodonika i azota
SRPS EN ISO 16948
Pouzdano odreivanje uglenika, vodonika i azota je vano za kontrolu kvali-
teta, iji rezultati se koriste kao ulazni parametri za proraune koji se primenjuju na
sagorevanje vrstih biogoriva. Ekoloka vanost sadraja azota povezana je sa emi-
sijama NOx (formiranje NOx iz goriva). Sadraj vodonika je vaan za izraunavanje
neto kalorijske vrednosti. Sadraj uglenika je potreban za odreivanje emisija CO2.
Sadraji ukupnog uglenika, vodonika i azota uzorka biogoriva, prema anali-
zi, moraju da se zabelee kao procenat mase. [4]
Rezultati se iskazuju u suvom stanju, kao srednja vrednost rezultata duplih
odreivanja. Za izraunavanja u suvom stanju koriste se sledee jednaine (5), (6),
(7):
100
Za sadraj uglenika: C d = C ad (5)
100 Mad
100
Za sadraj azota: Nd = Nad (6)
100 Mad
Mad 100
Za sadraj vodonika: H d =
Had (7)
8, 937 100 Mad
gde je:
d- suvo stanje,
ad- stanje u momentu odreivanja,
Mad- sadraj vlage u uzorku za optu analizu prilikom analiziranja.
Konstanta 8,937 koristi se za izraunavanje koncentracije vodonika u vodi
koja je prisutna u uzorku. Ta konstanta je dobijena iz molekulske formule vode
238
(H2O) i atomske teine vodonika (1,008) i kiseonika (15,999 4). Rezultati se izrau-
navaju u primlenom stanju u skladu sa ISO 16993.
4.5. Odreivanje glavnih elemenata Al, Ca, Fe, Mg, P, K, Si, Na i Ti
SRPS EN ISO 16967
Elementi opisani kao glavni elementi vrstih biogoriva su realno vie glavni
elementi pepela, nego glavni elementi goriva. Odreivanjem ovih elemenata moe
da se proceni uticaj pepela u procesu toplotne konverzije ili da se proceni korienje
pepela za druge svrhe. [5]
Sadraj nekog elementa u uzorku u suvom stanju, wi, (mg/kg), izraunava se
iz srednje vrednosti rezultata dva odreivanja korienjem formule (8):
=wi
( c i c i,0 ) V 100
m (100 M ad ) (8)
gde je:
wi - koncentracija elementa u uzorku, u suvom stanju, (mg/kg),
ci - koncentracija elementa u razblaenom uzorku proizvoda digestije, (mg/l),
ci,0 - koncentracija elementa u rastvoru slepe probe, (mg/l),
V - zapremina razblaenog rastvora uzorka proizvoda digestije, (ml),
M - masa dela uzorka za ispitivanje koji je korien, (g),
Mad - sadraj vlage u uzorku za analizu, (% m/m).
Ako je odreivanje vreno na pripremlenom pepelu, rezultati za gorivo mogu
da se izraunaju korienjem formule (9):
Ad
w=
i,fuel w i,ash
100 (9)
gde je:
Ad - dobijeni sadraj pepela, u vezi sa pripremlenim pepelom koji je korien za
digestiju, (% m/m), u suvom stanju,
wi,fuel - koncentracija elementa u uzorku goriva, u suvom stanju, (mg/kg),
wi,ash - koncentracija elementa u uzorku od pripremlenog pepela, u suvom stanju,
(mg/kg).
4.6. Odreivanje sporednih elemenata-SRPS EN ISO 16968
Ovaj meunarodni standard je namenjen za odreivanje sporednih elemenata:
arsena, kadmijuma, kobalta, hroma, bakra, ive, mangana, molibdena, nikla, olova,
antimona, vanadijuma i cinka u svim vrstim biogorivima. Opisuju se metode za
razlaganje uzorka i predlau se pogodne instrumentalne metode za odreivanje
239
elenih elemenata u proizvodima digestije. I drugi elementi kao to su selen, kalaj i
talijum takoe mogu da se odrede sa metodom opisanom u ovom meunarodnom
standardu.
Sporedni elementi prisutni u vrstim biogorivima mogu u nekim sluajevima
da budu od znaaja za ivotnu sredinu, jer odreene energetske kulture koncentriu
kadmijum, a u zagaenim podrujima u biogorivima mogu da se nau i drugi toksi-
ni elementi u poveanim koncentracijama. To moe da bude problem ako se, na
primer, pepeo od sagorevanja vraa u umu ili druga zemljita kao ubrivo. Elemen-
ti u tragovima su esto prisutni u biogorivima u veoma niskim koncentracijama, to
zahteva veliku panju da bi se izbegla kontaminacija prilikom pripreme uzorka i u
koracima razlaganja. Tipine koncentracije sporednih elemenata u vrstim biogori-
vima nalaze se u standard ISO 17225-1, u kojem su opisane mokre hemijske metode.
Kada se vri validacija odgovarajuim referentnim materijalima od biomase mogu
da se koriste alternativne metode kao to su fluorescentna rentgenska spektrometrija
(XRF) ili direktni ivini analizatori. [6]
Sadraj nekog elementa u uzorku u suvom stanju, wi, iskazan kao mg/kg,
izraunava se iz srednje vrednosti rezultata dva odreivanja korienjem formule
(10):
(c i c i,0 ) V 100
=wi
m (100 M ad ) (10)
gde je:
wi- koncentracija elementa u uzorku, u suvom stanju, (mg/kg),
ci- koncentracija elementa u razblaenom uzorku proizvoda digestije, (mg/l),
ci,0- koncentracija elementa u rastvoru slepe probe, (mg/l),
V- zapremina razblaenog rastvora uzorka proizvoda digestije, (ml),
M -masa dela uzorka za ispitivanje koji je korien, (g),
Mad- sadraj vlage u analizi uzorka za ispitivanje, (% m/m).
5. Zakljuak
Serija standarda za vrsta biogoriva na bazi drvnih sekundarnih sirovina,
prua i definie jasne principe klasifikacije itavog lanca od proizvodnje, prodavca i
kupca, kao i da uspostavi princip komunikacije sa proizvoaima opreme.
Za sisteme obezbeenja kvaliteta treba da se zahteva dobijanje podataka od
upravljanja kvalitetom kako bi se procenilo vreme tokom kojeg je matrica bila u
upotrebi pa tako vreme upotrebe svake matrice moe da se preispita u odnosu na
propisano vreme njene upotrebe.
Neki kupuju vrstu biomasu, kao to su ostaci iz poljoprivrede i/ili umarstva
i pretvaraju ih u biogoriva vie klase dok je drugima potrebno samo gorivo nie
klase za proizvodnju elektrine i toplotne energije. Sistem obezbeenja kvaliteta je
240
potreban u svakom preduzeu i potroau, meutim, vrlo je verovatno da se njihovi
individualni zahtevi i sistemi obezbeenja kvaliteta razlikuju za svaki sluaj
posebno.
6. Literatura
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drvnih peleta - nkSRPS EN ISO 17225-2, 2015.
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drvne seke- nkSRPS EN ISO 17225-4, 2015
ogrevnog drveta- nkSRPS EN ISO 17225-5, 2015
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16559, 2015.
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[16] Ruii L., Ljiljana Kostadinovi, Tamara Galonja, Petrovi P.: Waste as
alternative source of energy, 2nd International Symposium on Natural resour-
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[17] Petrovi P., Petrovi Marija: Znaaj tehnikih regulativa u procesnoj tehno-
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PROCESING 15, SMEITS, IT-SITS, 2015. Inija, str. 12-21.
241
KONCENTRACIONI SOLARNI TERMALNI
KOLEKTORI ZA HLAENJE OBJEKATA:
PROCENA ZA GRKU
CONCENTRATING SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS
FOR COOLING OF BUILDINGS:
AN ASSESSMENT FOR GREECE
Vassiliki DROSOU 1,2*, Elli KYRIAKI3,
Argiro DIMOUDI1, Agis M. PAPADOPOULOS3
1
Laboratory of Environmental and Energy Design of
Buildings and Settlements, Democritus University of Thrace,
Dept of Environmetal Engineering, Xanthi, Greece
2
Centre for Renewable Energy Sources and Saving,
Solar Thermal Systems Dept, Pikermi, Greece
3
Process Equipment Design Laboratory, Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
drosou@cres.gr
Grki sektor zgradarstva, naroito stambeni sektor, ima prilino veliku po-
tronju energije u poreenju sa ostalim evropskim zemljama. Prema Eurostatu,
specifina potronja energije je skoro dvostruko vea od one u Portugalu i znatno
vea nego u zemljama sa hladnijim klimama, poput Danske. Od ukupne potronje
energije, grki sektor zgradarstva troi 36%, pri emu se otprilike 65% energije
koristi za grejanje i hlaenje.
Grka ima visok stepen sunevog zraenja sa dugakim periodima kada
sunce sija, te prema tome ima veliku prednost za efikasnu primenu solarne energije.
Solarno hlaenje predstavlja vrlo perspektivnu ekoloku tehnologiju, jer koristi
energiju sunca za pogon adsopcionih ili apsorpcionih rashladnih maina koje pro-
izvode hladnu vodu. Pored toga, korienjem koncentracionih solarnih kolektora
postiu se znatno vie dobijene temperature koje omoguavaju korienje dvostepe-
nih apsorpcionih ilera sa viim koeficijentom uinka (COP), zbog ega su efi-
kasniji u pogledu energetskog prinosa, manje zagauju i atraktivniji su u smislu
procene ekonominosti.
Cilj ovog istraivanja jeste da se prikae tehno-ekonomska i ekoloka pro-
cena sistema za solarno hlaenje koji koristi koncentracione solarne termalne
kolektore za potrebe hlaenja u grkim zgradama. Analiza je obavljena za svaku od
etiri klimatske zone na koje je zemlja podeljena prema nacionalnom propisu o
energetskim karakteristikama zgrada (KENAK), uzimajui u obzir tri razliita uo-
biajena tipa zgrada.
243
Cilj istraivanje prikazanog u ovom radu jeste da povea prodiranje takvih
sistema na grko trite i, uopte, da proiri primenu solarne termalne tehnologije
van njenih utvrenih domena.
Kljune rei: solarno hlaenje, koncentracioni solarni kolektori, energetska
efikasnost, stambene zgrade, mediteranska klima
The Greek building sector, and the residential one in particular, are quite
energy intensive compared to those in other European countries. According to Eu-
rostat, the specific energy consumption is nearly the double of Portugal and much
higher than countries with colder climates as Denmark. Greek building sector ac-
counts for 36% of the total energy consumption, with approximately 65% of it being
used for heating and cooling purposes.
Greece has a high solar radiation with high sunshine duration and therefore
has a strong advantage for efficient solar applications. Solar cooling is a very prom-
ising environmental friendly technology as it uses the sun energy to drive adsorption
or absorption cooling machines that produce cold water. Moreover the use of con-
centrating solar collectors leads to significantly higher output temperatures that can
enable the use of two stage absorption chillers with a higher COP, thus more effi-
cient in terms of energy yields, less polluting and more attractive in terms of eco-
nomic evaluation.
The aim of this study is to present a techno-economic and environmental as-
sessment of a solar cooling system using concentrating solar thermal collectors for
cooling needs in Greek buildings. The analysis was conducted for a typical case of a
block of flats located in Athens, Thessaloniki and Heraclion/Crete.
The study to be presented in the paper aims to enhance the penetration of
such systems in the Greek market and to broaden the applications of solar thermal
technology beyond their established domains in general.
Key words: Solar Cooling, Concentrating Solar Collectors, Energy Efficien-
cy, Residential Buildings, Mediterranean Climate
1 Introduction
Buildings, including households and the tertiary sector, are the largest energy
consumer in Europe, accounting approximately for 40% of the final energy con-
sumption in 2012 (Figure 1) with several countries exceeding 40%, like Croatia and
Greece featuring 43.2 % and 42.1% accordingly.
Residential buildings comprise the biggest segment of the European building
stock and they are responsible for the majority of the building's sector energy con-
sumption and CO2 emissions [ 1] reaching in 2012, up to 66% of buildings total final
energy consumption. A decrease has been monitored in the use of conventional
fuels, especially of oil, following the recession period experienced in Europe, while
RES consumption is following a rising trend, as imposed by the 20-20-20 target in
EU (20% energy reduction 20% RES produced energy 20% CO2 emissions re-
duction).
244
Figure 1 Final energy consumption per sector in EU, [ 2].
This increased presence of renewables, especially in buildings, is attributed to
incentives introduced in all Member States for their mandatory use, e.g. mandatory
use of solar thermal collectors to partially cover the hot water needs in order to reach
the renewable energy targets. The reduction in the cost of RES systems also contrib-
uted to this result. The dominant renewable energy source in the building sector is
solar energy with use of solar thermal collectors for heating production mainly for
domestic hot water and photovoltaics for electricity production.
Regarding consumption for air conditioning, it reaches up to only 10% of to-
tal electricity consumption in countries with high use of air-conditioning (Cyprus,
Malta and Bulgaria), but the average consumption per dwelling for this end-use is
increasing, as the installation of air conditioning units is increasing [ 3]. In the census
carried out by the Hellenic Statistical Authority (HSA) in the period Oct 2011- Sept
2012, it was shown that six out of the ten households use air conditioning during
summer months (Figure 2) [ 4].
Figure 2 Use of A/C units in residential buildings in Greece HSA, 2013)

[Red= No use, Blue= Use, White= dont know]
With respect to solar thermal energy, Greece is identified as amongst the
world leading countries in the use of solar systems for sanitary hot water production,
namely at low level temperatures of 55-80C, presenting one of the highest values in
terms of installed solar thermal collector areas per capita [ 5].The main solar thermal
product was and still is the thermosiphon water heater, comprising of flat plate col-
lector elements and a storage tank without any circulation pump.
245
Apart from sanitary hot water production, other applications that present
great potential, especially for the Mediterranean countries, are heating of swimming
pools, space heating and solar cooling. Solar cooling technology is based on the use
of solar thermal energy for producing cold water in the appropriate temperature level
for space cooling purposes. The use of solar thermal energy for driving refrigeration
machines, thus ab- or adsorption chillers presents great advantages since the cooling
load is generally coincident with the availability of solar energy and thus the cooling
needs of a building coincide with high solar radiation [ 6], [ 7].
The main advantages of solar cooling systems apart, from the avoidance of
using conventional resources, are the use of environmentally friendly working flu-
ids, their ability to be installed as stand-alone systems or in combination with con-
ventional cooling systems, their contribution to electricity consumption stability of a
country and respectively their contribution to energy security, to the reduction of
conventional sources consumption and CO2 emissions.
Commercial solar cooling systems can be classified into "closed systems"
which have solar chillers providing cold water for the air conditioning of a building
and "open systems" (air), based on the technology of evaporative cooling and dehu-
midification (DEC: Desiccant Evaporative Cooling). A typical solar cooling system
consists of the solar field, the ab- or adsorption chiller, the thermal storage, the
secondary hydraulic equipment (cooling tower, pumps, heat exchangers, piping,
valves) and the control system.
A schematic diagram of a typical "closed circuit" solar cooling system is
shown in Figure 3 [ 8].
In Greece there are 10 solar cooling systems in operation, with a total in-
stalled cooling capacity of around 1.500kW [ 9], [ 10], [ 11], out of nearly 100 in Eu-
rope, of various technologies and combinations, commercial and experimental ones
[ 12], [ 13], [ 14], [ 15].
Concentrated solar thermal (CST) systems are a more advanced version of
solar thermal technology. They use a combination of mirrors or lenses to concentrate
direct beam solar irradiation to produce heat, electricity or fuels. Unlike flat plate
solar thermal collectors and PVs, CST systems are not able to use diffused irradia-
tion. CST technology use only direct sunlight (DNI, Direct Normal Irradiance), i.e.
the fraction of solar radiation that is not reflected by clouds, fumes and dust in the
atmosphere and reaches the Earth's surface as a parallel beam. Commercial systems
configurations are parabolic trough, central receiver tower, linear Fresnel and para-
bolic dishes (Figure 4) [ 16] . Currently the predominant technology with the higher
market share in worldwide level is the parabolic trough.
Currently the vast majority of installed solar cooling systems use the combi-
nation of flat plate collectors single stage absorption chillers. The advantages of
CST systems combination with double stage chillers for cooling applications has
been presented already from previous researchers [ 17], [ 18], [ 19], [ 20], [ 21],[ 22].
This study aims to examine the application of a solar cooling system using
concentrating solar thermal collectors for cooling needs in Greek buildings in the 3
climatic zones in Greece, namely in Athens, Thessaloniki and Heraclion/Crete.
246
Figure 3 Schematic diagram of a "closed circuit solar cooling system
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 4 (a) Parabolic trough (b) Linear Fresnel
(c) Disk/engine (d) Central receiver.
2 Methodology
2.1 Description of the buildings cooling demand
The studied building concerns a typical residential building which consists of
three floors and a basement, built on 1997.Openings are on all elevations, with the
largest ones in the south. The net height of a typical floor is 3.0 m and the total heat-
ed area is 400m2. The orientation and the openings in all sides of the building are
depitcted in the plan view in Figure 5.
247
Figure 5 Plan view of the reference building
The total surface of the building elements is shown in Table 1 and the struc-
ture details of the building are as shown in Figure 6.
Table 1 Total Surface of Building Components

Surface (m2)
Bearing Structure 213,133
asonry 569,2
Openings 85,56
Bricks: Thickness d=0.25m, Ubrick=0.48 W/(m2K)

Thermal Conductivity =0.4 Uconcrete=0.50
W/(mK), Insulation (Extruded W/(m2K)
polysterene) thickness d=0.05m, Uroof=0.34W/(m2K)
=0.035 W/(mK) Uopenings=2.80
Concrete elements: Thickness W/(m2K)
d=0.25m, Plaster d=0.025m, insu-
lation (Extruded polysterene)
thickness d=0.05m with =0.035
W/(mK).
Roof: Concrete thickness d=0.20m,
Insulation (Extruded polysterene)
thickness d=0.06m, with =0.035
W/(mK)
Openings: Sliding aluminum
openings with double glazing
Figure 6 Buildings structure details
248
The building heating system consists of an oil-fired boiler, while the cooling
is carried out by heat pumps. According to the existing Greek Regulation for the
Energy Efficiency of Buildings (KENAK), which was published in 2010 in accord-
ance with the Directive 2010/31/EC, 50% of the cooling period the building (of the
total building surface) must be air-conditioned with the thermostatic control set at
26C for 18 hours a day. All other parameters used for the simulation were taken
according to KENAK.
The simulation tool EnergyPlus, has its roots in two other programs, BLAST
and DOE-2, which were released in the late 1970s, as energy and simulation tools.
The EnergyPlus, according to the description of the user on the current condition of
the building, which includes a description of the building envelope and Heating
Ventilation Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems, calculates the energy requirements
of the building, heating and cooling loads which must be covered from the HVAC
systems, the final energy consumption as well as primary energy consumption. The
climate data used in the calculations comes from the Energy Plus Data Base. Before
the simulation, the building is designed in Google SketchUp.
The analysis was conducted for the four larger -in terms of population- cities
in three different climatic zones in Greece as defined in KENAK, namely Heraklion
(climatic zone A, 35.20 N, 25.08 E), Athens (climatic zone B, 37.50 N, 23.45
E), and Thessaloniki (climatic zone C, 40.30 N, 22.58 E) (Figure 7).
The cooling energy needs for the examined building in the three cities are
presented in Figure 8, Figure 9 and Figure 10. For reasons of simplification and
better comprehension, the daily consumption values have been averaged on a week-
ly base. For the accuracy of the calculations the days 7-17 August were not consid-
ered as they represent the summer break period.
Figure 7 Thessaloniki, Athens and Heraclion spatial allocation.
249
Figure 8 Buildings cooling hourly load for Thessaloniki
2.2 Layout and dimensioning of the solar system
Greenius simulation tool was used in this study for CST system evaluation
for each residence. Greenius was developed at the Institute of Solar Research of the
German Aerospace Center (DLR). It was made for performance calculations of CST
systems and other renewable energy systems based on hourly plant performance
simulations. It offers a combination of technical performance calculations, economi-
cal calculations and user interfaces for parameter manipulation and analysis of the
results. Greenius has a powerful simulation environment for the calculation and
analysis of CST systems providing a unique combination of detailed updated tech-
nical and financial calculations required for the design and installation of the plant.
Figure 9 Buildings cooling hourly load for Athens
250
Figure 10 Buildings cooling hourly load for Heraclion
A solar cooling system considering the configuration of a typical "closed"
type typology as provided in Figure 3, was examined in this study.
For the present work a commercial type of parabolic collector was chosen.
The collector is Industrial Solar Technology (IST) company product and already
installed in a series of projects under operation. The efficiency equation of the col-
lector, as provided by the manufacturer is:
0,00118 2
= 0

where
=
+
=
2
Figure 11 Incidence Angle Modifier factor
251
The Incident Angle Modifier (IAM) factor expresses the relationship between
the optical performance of the collector and the position of the sun. For single axis
tracking systems such as the parabolic ones, it depends on the angle i between the
sun and the trace level. The IAM factor of the parabolic trough collector for this
study is shown in Figure 11. The technical characteristics of the parabolic trough
collector are given in Table 1.
Table 2 Technical characteristics of the parabolic trough collector
Parameter Value
Module length (m) 6,10
Module width (m) 2,30
2
Net aperture area (m ) 13,20
Optical efficiency (%) 71,50
Module orientation (-) N-S
The technical characteristics of the solar field are shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Technical characteristics of the solar field
Parameter Value
Number of collector strings (-) 13
Number of collectors per string (-) 10
2
Solar field net aperture area(m ) 1.716
2
Land area required for field installation (m ) 5.720
Total header (m) 250m
Mean header diameter (m) 0,072
0
Operating temperature ( C) 180
0
Fluid inlet temperature ( C) 150
Average mirrors' clearness factor (%) 97
Heat transfer fluid (-) DOWTHERM A
0
Maximum fluid temperature ( C) 405
0
Minimum fluid temperature ( C) 15
For the present study, a commercial type of solar chiller was used, namely a
two-stage steam solar chiller by the Broadcompany, model BYS100, with a nominal
252
cooling capacity of 1.163kW. Solar chiller cooling capacity and COP technical
curves are shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12 Solar chiller cooling power curve (left) and COP curve (right)
3 Results and discussion

The variation of the cooling capacity of the solar chiller (in MWh) on a year-
ly base in relation to the DNI on the collector's surface (in MWh), it is depicted in
Figure 13 for Thessaloniki and Athens and in Figure 14 for Heraclion. From these
graph, the advantage of solar cooling becomes evident, given the coincidence of the
cooling load and the availability of solar energy and thus the match of cooling re-
quirements of the buildings with the availability of high solar radiation.
The next point of interest is the utilization of the available solar energy. As it
can be seen in Figure 15 and Figure 16, where the variation of the thermal energy
output of the solar collector field in relation to the cooling energy produced by the
solar chiller is depicted, the solar field can cope with requirements by the chiller.
Simulation results for a typical operating year are shown in Table 5. The total
solar field net aperture area considered for the simulation of solar cooling system of
the present study - as indicated in Table 2 - is 1.716 m2. Thus, according to the simu-
lation results it is derived that the thermal energy output per m2 of parabolic collector
is 411,48 kWh/m2 for Thessaloniki, 531,6 kWh/m2 for Athens and 489,7 kWh/m2
for Heraclion for the period 15 May 15th October of the year.
Comparing the simulation results for Athens city (case A) of the study with
published research results (case B) for the year 2012, for July, concerning a solar
cooling system in Attica, Greece, using flat plate solar collectors and single stage
solar chiller [8], we derive the results shown in Table 5.
The results show that the use of concentrating solar collectors can yield sig-
nificantly higher useful thermal output than flat plate collectors and can therefore be
used to achieve a higher solar fraction or to meet a bigger demand. This can be of
vital importance as it can allow the use of two-stage sorption systems that operates
with a significantly higher COP than the single stage.
253
Figure 13 Cooling capacity versus DNI for Thessaloniki and Athens
Figure 14 Cooling capacity versus DNI for Heraclion
254
Figure 15 Thermal energy output versus cooling energy for Athens and Thessaloniki
Figure 16 Thermal energy output versus cooling energy for Heraclion
255
Table 4 Simulation results of solar cooling system with parabolic trough collector
for the three cities
Parameter Thes/niki Athens Heraclion
Value Value Value
Heat energy at the output of the solar collectors 706,10 912,33 840,38
field (MWh / year)
Maximum output cooling energy (MWh / year) 845,59 963,20 1050,96
Percentage of solar coverage (%) 66,7 74,7 67,1
Table 5 Comparison of simulation and published results
Month Thermal energy in the collector's field output (kWh / m2)

Case A (Athens) Case B (Athens)
July 178,3 78.9
Moreover the use of CST system can be beneficial, when it come to utilizing a
given, limited, available area of installation (eg the buildings flat roof) for low and
medium temperatures. Especially in the solar cooling applications for buildings, which
concern mainly installations in the urban built environment, the limitations set upon
the required installation area of the solar field are critical. Furthermore, lesser solar
systems lead to reduced installation costs, smaller hydraulic equipment, lesser opera-
tions and maintenance services as well as easier integration from the architectural
aspect. For the economic evaluation of the system the energy prices met Greece in fall
2015 were used; they are presented in Table 6. For the electricity generated by CST
systems applies currently a feed-in-tariff of be between 265 and 285 /MWh accord-
ing to whether a 2 hours electricity supply is secured. Therefore a mean value was
used. The remuneration for thermal energy was based on commercially valid prices
Table 6 Energy prices and FiTs
Energy source Remuneration Value

Electricity price (FiT) 0,27 /kWhe
Heat / cooling 0,08 /kWhth
Retail energy prices
Electricity purchased from the grid * 0,150 /kWhe
Heating energy ** 0,120 /kWhth

*Average retail electricity commercial tariff, including energy and power purchasing
costs
**Based on retail natural gas price of 0.09 /kWhth, contract charges and the average
efficiency of the conventional heating system of 0.90 according to the EPC.
256
Furthermore, a discount rate of 6% was considered to apply both for the in-
vestment and the operational costs. The income tax rate was considered to be 30%.
Regarding the systems major components initial cost, the data shown in Table 7
were considered.
Table 7 Major equipment costs
Component Price
Solar collector specific cost 350 /m2
Specific O&M solar plant costs 4 /(m2yr)
Specific solar plant replacement costs 0,20%/a
Chiller specific cost 202 /kW
Specific O&M chiller costs 2,8 /MWh
Auxiialiary boiler 100 /kW
Thermal storage specific cost 35 /kWh
Finally, 10% of the equipments initial cost was allowed for planning and
project development and 5% for commissioning and startup. The land cost was con-
sidered to be 1 /m2.
A preliminary feasibility study was carried out, based on the aforementioned
data and showed that the investment cost for the solar cooling system of the present
study accrues to 1,2 mn ,thus resulting in a specific cost value of 695 /m2 of solar
collector (net area). By calculating the cooling energy price required to achieve a
minimum acceptable IRR of 8%, the required cost for cooling energy should not
exceed 0,2079 /kWh for Thessaloniki, 0,1806 /kWh for Athens and 0,1717 for
Heraclion. However, based on the actual investment costs, the levelized costs for
cooling energy (LCC) will be 0,204 /kWh for Thessaloniki, 0,183 /kWh for Ath-
ens and 0,171 /kWh for Heraclion.
Considering the environmental benefits of the installation it was calculated
that almost 184 tonnes of CO2 emissions will be avoided annually in Thessaloniki,
203 tonnes of CO2 in Athens and 225 tonnes of CO2 in Heraclion.
4 Conclusions
Solar cooling can become a promising solution for the clean, energy thrifty
and sustainable air-conditioning of urban buildings. As the demand for air-
conditioning is sharply increasing in the urban environment and, considering the fact
that soft technologies like passive cooling are very difficult to be applied in existing
buildings, the technologies discussed in this paper may provide a competitive alter-
native to conventional air-conditioning systems. However, they require high
257
amounts of thermal energy at high temperatures, which are not always achievable by
using flat plate solar collectors, even in the favourable Mediterranean conditions.
As this study shows, the use of concentrating solar systems may be a useful
solution, enabling the use of absorption technologies in the densely built urban envi-
ronment. There are, however hurdles to be overcome, like the high initial cost of
those systems and also the fact that they have to be utilised throughout the year so as
to be feasible. In other worlds, concentrating solar systems have to be part of an
integrated whole solar approach, covering space heating and cooling and also hot
water production, in order to be economic feasible. Furthermore, one has to consider
also further advantages, like the much smaller impact on ozone depletion and global
warming. It is under those perspectives that the option of solar refrigeration becomes
really attractive.
5 Nomenclature
Symbols
in Collector inlet temperature (C)
Tout Collector outlet temperature (C)
Tamb Ambient or surrounding air temperature (C)
TMY Typical Meteorological Year (-)
Greek
Collector thermal efficiency, with reference to T*i (-)
0 Eta zero (atT*i=0), reference to T*i(-)
Acronyms
COP Coefficient of Performance (-)
CST Concentrated Solar Thermal
CSP Concentrating Solar Power
DEC Desiccant Evaporative Cooling
DNI Direct Normal Irradiance
EER Energy Efficiency Ratio
HVAC Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning
HSA Hellenic Statistical Authority
KENAK Greek Regulation for the Energy Efficiency of Buildings
RES Renewable Energy Sources
258
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260
EKSERGETSKA OPTIMIZACIJA ZGRADA
SA RAZLIITIM SOLARNIM SISTEMIMA
EXERGY OPTIMIZATION OF BUILDINGS
WITH DIFFERENT SOLAR SYSTEMS
Danijela NIKOLI, Jasna RADULOVI, Jasmina SKERLI,
Faculty of engineering, University at Kragujevac, Serbia,
danijelan@kg.ac.rs
Eksergija, kao mera korisnog rada koji se dobija interakcijom sistema i oko-
line, koristi se za optimizaciju i definisanje raspodele gubitaka u energetskom sis-
temu. Takodje je i u irokoj upotrebi za dizajn, simulaciju i evaluaciju performansi
energetskog sistema. U ovom radu je istraivana srpska porodina kua sa instali-
ranim fotonaponskim sistemom i solarnim kolektorima na krovu. Zgrada ima sistem
elektrinog grejanja. Eksergetska optimizacija (ukljuujui i sopstvenu eksergiju) je
raena sa glavnim ciljem odreivanja maksimalne vrednosti generisane elektrine
energije. Na taj nain se minimizira potronja primarne energije. Analizirane su
zgrade sa fotonaponskim modulima razliite elijske efikasnosti. Zgrade su simuli-
rane u okruenju softvera EnergyPlus, Open Studio plug-in u Google SketchUp-u je
korien za dizajniranje zgrade, Hooke-Jeeves algoritam za optimizaciju, a
GENOPT softver za izvrnu kontrolu softvera pri optimizaciji.
Kljune rei: eksegija; fotonaponski paneli; solarni kolektori; simulacija;
optimizacija.
Exergy, as a measure of useful work that can be obtained by the interaction
of the system and the environment, is used for the optimization and allocation of
losses in the energy system. It is also widely used in the design, simulation and per-
formance evaluation of energy systems. In this paper it is investigated the Serbian
residential building with photovoltaics and solar collectors on the roof. The building
has electrical space heating. Exergy optimization (including embodied exergy) was
performed with the aim to determine the maximum value of the generated electricity.
On that way, primary energy consumption can be minimized. The residential build-
ings with variable PV cell efficiency are investigated. The buildings were simulated
in EnergyPlus, Open Studio plug-in in Google SketchUp was used for buildings
design and Hooke-Jeeves algorithm for optimization. GENOPT was used for soft-
ware execution control during optimization.
Key words: Exergy; Photovoltaic; Solar collector; Simulation; Optimization.
1. Introduction
The exergy analysis, founded by Carnot in 1824 and Clausius in 1865, is a
method based on the Second law of thermodynamics and the concept of irreversible
261
production of entropy. The performances of energy-related engineering systems are
evaluated primarily by using the energy balance. In recent years, the exergy concept
has gained considerable interest in the thermodynamic analysis of thermal processes
since it has been seen that the First law analysis is insufficient for evaluation of
energy performance [1]. Exergy analysis quantifies the loss of efficiency in a pro-
cess that is due to the loss in energy quality.
Solar energy is the most capable of the alternative energy sources. Due to in-
creasing demand for energy and rising cost of fossil fuels, solar energy is considered
an attractive source of renewable energy that can be used for electricity generation
and domestic water heating in residential buildings. Photovoltaic (PV) technology is
an attractive option for clean and renewable electricity generation because it repre-
sents the direct conversion of solar radiation into electricity. Electrical energy can be
treated as totally convertible to work, so the electricity is pure exergy. At the other
side, heating water consumes nearly 20% of total energy consumption for an average
family [2]. So, solar water heating systems are the cheapest and most easily afforda-
ble clean energy available to homeowners that may provide most of hot water re-
quired by a family. Using photovoltaics and solar collectors together, represent a
great opportunity for reducing the consumption of primary energy in residential
buildings.
This paper reports investigations of the exergy optimization, with the major
aim to determine the optimal size of PV panels and solar collectors on the roof, in
order to achieve the maximum amount of exergy. On that way, it can be obtain the
maximum value of exergy efficiency for installed solar systems, and primary energy
consumption will be minimized. The residential building with variable PV cell effi-
ciency is analyzed.
The investigated building was located in Kragujevac, Serbia. The building
is designed with PV panels and solar collectors installed on the roof. Generated heat
energy is used for domestic hot water (DHW) heating. Electricity generated by the
PV may be used for space heating, cooling, lighting, and electric equipment. Ana-
lyzed building has an electrical space heating system. Heating devices operated from
15 October to 14 April next year.
In this paper, the EnergyPlus, Open Studio plug-in in Google SketchUp,
Hooke-Jeeves algorithm and Genopt were used for simulation and optimization.
2. Simulation softwares
EnergyPlus software simulates the energy use in a building and energy be-
havior of the building for defined period. In this study, the version 8.1.0 was used.
EnergyPlus is made available by the Lawrence Berkley Laboratory in USA [3] and it
has been tested using the IEA HVAC BESTEST E100-E200 series of tests [4]. For
PV electricity generation, EnergyPlus uses the different component, like PV array
and inverter [5].
Open Studio plug-in in Google SketchUp software is a free 3D software
tool that combines a tool-set with an intelligent drawing system [6]. The software
262
enables to place models using real world coordinates. The OpenStudio is free plug-
in that adds the building energy simulation capabilities of EnergyPlus to the 3D
SketchUp environment. The software allows to the user to create, edit and view
EnergyPlus input files within SketchUp.
GenOpt is an optimization program for the minimization of cost function
evaluated by an external simulation program. GenOpt serves for optimization prob-
lems where the cost function is computationally expensive and its derivatives are not
available or may not even exist. It can be coupled to any simulation program that
reads its input from text files and writes its output to text files. GenOpt is written in
Java so that it is platform independent. It has a library with adaptive Hooke-Jeeves
algorithm [7].
HookeJeeves optimization algorithm is used for the optimization, and it is
direct search and derivative free optimization algorithm [8]. In this algorithm, only
the objective functions and the constraint values are used to guide the search strate-
gy. The main advantage of this algorithm is reducing the compute time.
3. Weather conditions
The investigated residential building was located in the city of Kragujevac,
Republic of Serbia. Its average height above sea level is 209 m. Its latitude is 44010
N and longitude 20055 E. The time zone for Kragujevac is GMT + 1.0 h. In the city
of Kragujevac summers are very warm and humid, with temperatures as high as
370C. The winters are cool, and snowy, with temperatures as low as -12 0C. The
EnergyPlus uses weather data from its own database file.
4. Building model in energyplus software

The modeled residential building is shown in Figure 1. The building has the
south-oriented roof with a slope of 37.50, and PV array and solar collectors installed
on the roof. The building has two floors and 6 conditioned zones. The total floor
area of the building is 160 m2 and total roof area 80.6 m2. The windows are double
glazed. The concrete building envelope, roof, and the floor were thermally insulated
by polystyrene. In this investigation, the polystyrene thickness was 0.15 m. Air tem-
peratures in the heated rooms are set to 200C from 07:00-09:00 and from 16:00-
21:00, and to 150C from 09:00-16:00. The simulation time step is 15 min.
The PV system consists is an on-grid system. The life cycle of PV array is
set to 20 years, the embodied energy of PV panels is set to 3.75 GJ/m2 [9, 10], and
the embodied exergy of PV panels is set to 5 GJ/m2 [11]. The PV panel is represent-
ed by the mathematical model of Photovoltaic:Simple from EnergyPlus [4]. The life
cycle of solar collectors is also set to 20 years, the embodied energy of solar collec-
tors is set to 2.75 GJ/m2 [11], and the embodied exergy of solar collectors is set to
3.8 GJ/m2 [11].
The main part of exergy (i.e. electricity) obtained from PV array (x, PV), is
consumed for electrical space heating in the building. Additionally, electricity was
consumed for lighting, domestic hot water (DHW) and appliances. Exergy obtained
263
from solar collectors is marked by x, KOL and it is equal to the sum of exergy of the
end consumers: shower (EX, SHOW), sink (EX, SINK), cloth washing machine (EX, CW)
and dish washing machine (EX, DW):
x, KOL= EX, SHOW+ EX, SINK + EX, CW + EX, DW
Figure 1 Modeled residential building

Shower and sink required lower water temperature, so it is necessary to mix
water from DHW system with cold water. In the exergetic optimization considered
exergy of cold water is added to the exergy calculation.
Sun exergy (x, SUN) is calculated based on the value of the mean annual insu-
lation at the city of Kragujevac, Serbia (I=1447.85 kWh/m2) [11].
5. Optimization procedure
Through exergy optimization, the maximum value of the exergy efficiency of
the system of photovoltaic panels and solar collectors is determined. The maximum
exergy efficiency is achieved at the optimal size of PV array and solar collectors,
which is given by the roof area covered with PV array in the optimization code (val-
ue y). The value y exists in the calculated total exergy of PV system and solar col-
lectors. Objective function in optimization procedure is exergy efficiency without
embodied exergy:
E X , PV KOL
X =
E X , SUN
where: x, SUN Sun exergy (J), Ex, PV-KOL (J) exergy obtained by PV array and
solar collectors, and it is equal to the sum of exergy obtained by the PV array (x, PV)
and exergy obtained by the solar collectors (x, KOL), i. e.
E X , PV KOL = E X , PV + E X , KOL
It is also calculated the exergy efficiency with embodied exergy:
264
E X , PV KOL, EE
X ,E E =
E X , SUN
where: x, PV-KOL, (J) exergy obtained from PV array and solar collectors, with
their embodied exergy. This value is equal to the subtraction of exergy obtained by
the PV array and solar collectors (x, PV-KOL) and embodied exergy of PV array
(PV) and solar collector (KOL), i. e.
E X , PV KOL, EE = E X , PV KOL EE PV EE KOL
Through the exergy optimization, it is also calculated some other parameters,

which can be very useful as a valid indicators of the exergy flows in the analyzed
solar systems. They are ratios between required and obtained exergy x and x, EE
(without and with embodied exergy of solar systems):
E X , POT E X , POT
eX = e X , EE =
E X , PV KOL E X , PV KOL, EE
where: x, POT total consumer exergy () (sum of needed exergy of all consumers,
yearly). Ratios of required and obtained exegy should be as small as possible.
In the proces of exergy optimization, it is calculated total electricity con-
sumption EL (GJ), primary energy consumption (GJ), generated finaly and primary
energy (GJ), and avoided operative primary energy EPRIM. Avoided operative pri-
mary energy consumption due to operation of the solar systems (J) is [12]:
EPRIM=REL(EPV+ECOLL)-Cm((Eem, PV + Eem, COLL)Cinst)-Cm1Eem, ISO
where: REL = 3.04 primary conversion multiplier; EPV yearly electrical energy
generated by PV array (J); ECOLL yearly heat energy generated by solar collectors
(J); Eem, PV PV array embodied energy (J); Eem, COLL solar collectors embodied
energy (J); Cm=1/LC; where LC is life cycle of PV and solar collectors, in years,
Cm1=1/LCISO; where LCISO is life cycle of thermal isolations, in years, Eem, ISO insu-
lation embodied energy (J) [12] and Cinst coefficient of instalation and maitenance
of solar systems during their life cycle [13].
6. Results and discusion

Exergy optimization (including embodied exergy) was performed with the
aim to determine the maximum value of the exergy efficiency. The residential build-
ing with electrical space heating and with variable cell efficiency of PV array was
analyzed. The first case is the PV array with 12 % of cell efficiency, the second case
is the PV array with 14 % and the third case is PV array with 16 % of cell efficiency,
respectively. Total annual energy consumption of the building was 68.36 GJ (final
energy), i.e. 207.81 GJ (primary energy). The results obtained by exergy optimiza-
tion are shown in Table 1.
265
able 1 The results obtained by exergetic optimization, for residential building
with varieble cell efficiency of PV array
PV cell efficiency
12 % 14 % 16 %
x exergy efficiency without embodied exergy (%) 12,64 14,71 16,78
x, exergy efficiency with embodied exergy (%) 7,63 9,71 11,78
x ratio between required and obtained exergy 1,075 0,9236 0,8095
(without embodied exergy)
x, ratio between required and obtained exergy 1,78 1,4 1,153
(with embodied exergy)
x, POT total consumer exergy (GJ) 54,45 54,45 54,45
x, PV-KOL exeegy obtained by solar systems (without 50,65 58,96 67,26
embidied exergy) (GJ)
x, PV-KOL, exeegy obtained by solar systems (with 30,6 38,91 47,21
embidied exergy) (GJ)
EL Total electricity consumption (GJ) 68,36 68,36 68,36
EL,PRIM Primary energy consumption (GJ) 207,81 207,81 207,81
Fraction of PV panels on the roof (%) 98,75 98,75 98,75
Generated energy (GJ) 55,68 64,42 73,17
Generated primary energy (GJ) 169,27 195,85 222,43
EPRIM avoided operative primary energy (GJ) 149,02 175,6 202,18
Building type (without embodied energy) NNEB NNEB NEB
Building type (with embodied energy) NNEB NNEB NNEB
Acording the Table 1, it can be concluded that with the increasing of PV cell
efficiency, there is a significant increase in both the exergy efficiency (with and
without embedded exergy). Exergy efficiency x for PV cell efficiency of 12%, 14%
and 16% are 12.64%, 14.71% and 16.78%, respectively, while the exergy efficiency
x,EE for the same values of PV cell efficiency are 7.63%, 9.71% and 11.78%,
respectively. Preview of these two exergy efficiency is given in Figure 2.
20
15
xergy efficiency (%)
10
0
12 14 16
PV cell efficiency(%)
x x, EE
Figure 2 Exergy efficiency for building with defferent cell efficiency
266
Ratio between required and obtained exergy x and x, EE (with and without
embodied exergy), decreases with increasing PV cell efficiency. For PV cell
efficiency of 12%, 14% and 16%, the ratio of required and obtained exergy (without
embodied exergy) is 1.075, 0.9236 and 0.8095, respectively, while the ratio between
required and obtained exergy calculated with embodied exergy is 1.78, 1.4 and
1.153, respectively. It can be concluded that with the implementation of PV module
with cell efficiency of 14% and 16%, can be achieved the values of ratio between
required and obtained exergy which is less then 1 (ex <1). This means that installed
solar system generates more exergy than required exergy of all consumers in the
building (without embodied exergy). The graphical representation of the required
and obtained exergy for different PV cell efficiency is shown in Figure 3.
2
Ratio of required and obtained exergy (-)
1,5
0,5
0
12 14 16
ex ex, EE
Figure 3 Ratio between required and obtained exergy for building

with defferent cell efficiency
Required exergy of all building consumers and exergy obtaned from solar
systems (with or without embodied exergy) for different PV cell efficiency and
electric heating system, are graphically shown in Figure 4. With PV cell efficiency
increasing, exergy obtained from the solar system increases too. Required exergy in
all the cases was the same 54.45 GJ. Fraction of PV panels on the roof is the same
for all the values of PV cell efficiency 98.75 % (79.6 m2 of PV array and 1 m2 of
solar collector). On this way, it can be generated 169.27 GJ of primary energy, while
the avoided operative primary energy is 149.02 GJ annually.
Figure 5 represent total electricity consumption, primary energy consum
ption, generated primary energy and avoided operative primary energy consumption
in building with different cell efficiency of PV array.
By using the PV array with 12 % and 14 % of cell efficiency, building will be
NNEB (building type approach with and without embodied energy). By using the
PV array with 16 % of cell efficiency, it is possible to achieve the concept of positi-
ve-net energy building (PNEB) without embodied energy of installed solar systems
and insulation. If it is taken into account, the building is negative-net energy buil-
267
ding (NNEB). With 16 % PV cell efficiency, it is generated 222.43 GJ of primary
energy, which is more than the energy demands of the building (207.81 GJ).
70 67,26
58,96
60
54,45 54,45
50,65 54,45
50
Exergy (GJ) 47,21
38,91
40
30,6
30
20
10
0
12 14 16
Obtained exergy (with embodied exergy) Obtained exergy (without embodied exergy)
Required exergy
Figure 4 Required and obtained exergy for building with defferent cell efficiency
250
222,43
207,81 207,81 207,81
202,18
195,85
200
175,6
169,27
Energy (GJ)
149,02
150
100
68,36 68,36 68,36
50
0
12 14 16
Final energy consumption Primary energy consumption

Generated primary energy Avoided operative primary energy consumption
Figure 5 Total electricity consumption, primary energy consumption, generated

primary energy and avoided operative primary energy for buildings with different
cell efficiency of PV panels (Yearly values)
7. Conclusion
In this paper exergy optimization was performed with the major aim to de-
termine the maximum value of the exergy efficiency (without and with embodied
exergy). On that way, the maximum value of the generated electricity can be
achieved, and also primary energy consumption can be minimized. All considered
buildings had electric heating system.
By using PV modules with greater cell efficiency (14% and 16%) it is possi-
ble to generate significantly greater amount of electrical energy compared with PV
268
modules of cell efficiency 12%. With the increasing of PV cell efficiency, there is a
significant increase in both the exergy efficiency (with and without embedded
exergy).
Ratio between required and obtained exergy x and x, EE (with and without
embodied exergy), decreases with increasing PV cell efficiency. If the values of
ratio between required and obtained exergy is less then 1 (ex <1, case without embo-
died exergy), then installed solar system generates more exergy than required exergy
of all consumers in the building.
By using the PV array with 14 % and 16 % of cell efficiency, building can
produce more electricity, so the concept of PNEB can be achieved with PV cell
efficiency of 16 % (approach without embodied energy).
Acknowledgement
This paper is a result of three projects: TR33015, III 42006, and COST action
TU1205-BISTS. The projects TR33015 and III 42006 are financed by the Ministry
of Education, Science, and Technological Development of Republic of Serbia. The
COST action TU1205-BISTS is supported by EU. The authors thank to the all insti-
tutions for their financial support.
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270
OPTIMIZACIJA GEOMETRIJSKIH VELIINA
SOLARNIH PRIJEMNIKA HEURISTIKIM
OPTIMIZACIONIM METODAMA
OPTIMIZATION OF SOLAR COLLECTOR
GEOMETRIC PARAMETERS USING A HEURISTIC
OPTIMIZATION METHODS
Nenad KOSTI, Milo MATEJI, Nenad PETROVI,
Mirko BLAGOJEVI, Nenad MARJANOVI
Faculty of Engineering, University of Kragujevac,
nkostic@kg.ac.rs, mmatejic@kg.ac.rs, (CA), npetrovic@kg.ac.rs,
mirkob@kg.ac.rs, nesam@kg.ac.rs
Ovaj rad predstavlja nastavak istraivanja grupe autora u oblasti optimizaci-
je stepena iskorienja solarnih prijemnika suneve energije. Dosadanji rad se
zasnivao na metodi optimizacije poznatoj kao metoda sluajne pretrage, koja je
jedna od najstarijih heuristikih optimizacionih metoda. U radu su rezutati prethod-
ni istraivanja uporeeni sa rezultatima dobijenim novom metodom optimizacije
koja se naziva Teaching-Learning based optimization TLBO. Predstavljen je nain
funkcionisanja ove metode, kao njena primena na optimizaciju solarnih prijemnika.
Za potrebe novog rada unapredjen je dosadanji matematiki model, kako bi u op-
timizaciju bio ukljuen to vei broj promenljivih koje imaju uticaja kako na pro-
izvodnju tako i na cenu solarnih prijemnika. U obzir su uzeti prijemnici sa cevima
kvadratnog poprenog preseka, kao i prijemnici sa cevim okruglog poprenog
preseka. Izvedeni su zakljuci i data je uporedna analiza rezultata dobijenih
metodom sluajne pretrage i metodom TLBO.
Kljune rei: solarni prijemnici, faktor iskorienja, metoda sluajne pre-
trage, teachnig-learning based optimization.
This paper is an extension of ongoing research in the field of solar collector

efficiency optimization. The present research is based on a method known as a ran-
dom search optimization, which is one of the oldest heuristic optimization methods.
In this paper, the results of previous research are compared to results of a new op-
timization method named the Teaching-Learning based optimization - TLBO. It is
presented the mode of this method operation, as well as its application in optimiza-
tion of solar collectors. For the TLBO method an extended mathematical model is
used in order to involve as many variables as it passible, which affect both the pro-
duction and the costs of solar collectors. This research takes into consideration the
collectors with the cross section of square pipe profile and collectors with the round
271
cross section pipe profile. At the end of the paper conclusions for the parallel analy-
sis of the results obtained by the random search method and TLBO.
Key words: solar collectors, utilization factor, random search optimization
method, teaching-learning based optimization.
Introduction
A popular field of research in the past few tears is the efficiency of solar en-
ergy use. Using solar radiation energy can, through transformation, give heat, elec-
trical and chemical energy. Due to the cost effectiveness of solar energy exploitation
the greatest use of solar collectors is for heating water. Solar panels are devices
which through absorbing solar rays, transform radiation energy into heat energy of
the fluid which is flowing through the collector. Depending on the desired tempera-
ture of the working fluid flat solar panels are used which can achieve temperatures
over100 0C or solar collectors which focus solar radiation onto a small space, in the-
ory into a single spot, and can achieve very high temperatures of even over 3000 0C.
The development of design and production technology of flat solar collectors
is with the goal of increasing their efficiency, decreasing the cost of production and
other undesirable effects, which presents a very attractive research direction. Posi-
tive effects in the development of solar collectors can be achieved through optimiza-
tion of their geometrical values, which is the orientation of this research.
Farhat et al. [1] optimized solar collectors in order to improve their character-
istics. Their research covers a large number of parameters: absorber area, gross di-
mensions, pipe diameter of circular cross-sections, input and output temperatures,
heat loss, etc. Authors of paper [2] concluded how to choose optimal characteristics
in order to increase the efficacy of solar collectors. In paper [3] Vargas et al. pre-
sented a maximization of performances of solar collectors according to their real
time application. Authors of paper [4] optimized solar collectors from a thermo-
ecological aspect. Optimization of collector types according to climate conditions
was done by authors in paper [5]. In paper [6] authors researched optimal character-
istics of solar collectors from an internal element standpoint with square cells,
placed in a honeycomb formation. This paper includes the analogy of natural solu-
tions as an alternative to the development of solar collectors.
There is a large number of heuristic optimization methods which are used to-
day for solving engineering problems. The dominant of them are Genetic Algorithm
(GA), Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), Ant Colony Optimization (ACO),
Teaching Learning Based Optimization (TLBO), and many others. TLBO represents
a modern heuristic method primarily developed for solving engineering problems.
The algorithm was developed in 2011 [7] and consists of two basic phases, Teacher
Phase, and Learner Phase. The algorithm was tested on numerous problems [8, 9]
very demanding for optimization, which verified the operation of this method. In
this paper the benefits of using TLBO method over the Random search method are
presented.
272
Heuristic optimization methods
Random search method
Random search method is one of the oldest heuristic optimization methods.
The method is based on narrowing the given search interval when the goal function
achieves an extreme value. In the following steps the search for an extreme value in
the shortened search interval is conducted. The steps are repeated until a satisfactory
solution is achieved. This method can, in theory, work with an infinite number of
variables and with an infinite number of constraints. Also, the random search meth-
od can search for both minimal and maximum values of a function. For the purposes
of this research an algorithm has been developed which can work for any given
values of the interval, [10]. The solution is derived in MS Excel. A bloc diagram of
the random search algorithm is given in figure 1.
Figure 1 Basic algorithm for random search

The start of the algorithm operation consists of the input of variables and de-
termining constraints. With the introduction of variables, the search interval is de-
termined. After that, the method is processed, followed by the choice of optimal
solution in that interval, in order to finish the step with a narrower interval. The
narrowing of the interval is done in four iterations in order to achieve a satisfactory
precision of the solution.
Teaching-learning based optimization method
The algorithm consists of two key phase- Teacher and Learner phases. In the
beginning the number of students is defined, which represents the total number of
potential solutions. From this group the best value which can become the teacher can
273
be separated. The best solution in an iteration is the teacher for the next iteration.
The teacher can be named XTeacher and this value is tied to the teacher phase. Aside
from that it is necessary to determine the mean value, XMean, for the whole solution.
The mean value represents the new group of variables, where each variable has a
mean value of the total number of students. The algorithm structure is shown in
figure 2.
Figure 2. Structure of Teaching-Learning-Based optimization [7]

Teacher Phase
The first phase of the algorithm is the Teacher Phase, which directly influ-
ences convergence. Each teacher strives to increase the quality of his students. The
new iteration value can be determined according to the following expression.
X Old + ri ( X Teacher TF X Mean )
X New = (1)
274
The new value in this phase XNew will be accepted only if it is better than the
previous XOld , and if it suits all the constraints. Random value, r, can have a quanti-
tate value in the interval between 0 and 1. Random value TF can only be 1 or 2, de-
pending on the iteration. In each iteration this phase is repeated and thereby the
solution converges towards the optimum. Aside from this, for convergence, the
Learner Phase is also important.
Learner Phase
The basic working principle of this phase is the interaction between students.
In the vase that Xi> Xj where these are values of two randomly selected students in
the algorithm, the following equation is used.
X New = X Old + r ( X i X j ) (2)
The second case is when Xi< Xj and then the algorithm uses the following ex-
pression.
X New = X Old + r ( X j X i ) (3)
Random value r is in the interval between 0 and 1, and the new value is
adopted only if it has a better value than the previous one.
The advantage of Teaching-Learning-Based optimization algorithm is in that
its creators recognized modern tendencies to decrease the number of parameters
required for operation and that it is easy to use. Aside from this it has exceptional
convergence characteristics and fast operating speed, which makes it good for solv-
ing complex engineering problems.
Comparison results of Random search and TLBO methods

For the purposes of this paper authors used mathematical model, parameter
intervals and constants from their previous research [10]. Efficiency optimization
using TLBO on models of flat solar collectors with circular cross-section pipes, and
rectangular cross-section pipes. Compared to previous research of these authors, the
analysis omits the flat solar collector with a square cross-section. The omission is
due to the fact that this cross-section has proven to have the lowest efficiency.
For optimization of solar collectors with rectangular cross-section pipes, the
following objective function was used:
1 (4)
UL
F =

1 1 1
Wf + +
L (
U W W
f o ) F + Wo

Cb 2 ( Wi + H i ) H fi

where: Cb, conductivity between the rectangular pipe and absorber (W/mK),
Wi, the internal width of the pipe (m), Wo, outer width of pipe (m), Hi inner height of
pipe (m), F, standard efficiency of the rib (-), F, factor of efficiency of the solar
275
collector (-),Hfi, heat conductivity coefficient in the ribs (W/m2 K) UL, total losses
coefficient (W/m2 K) and Wf, width of rib (m).
For optimization of solar collectors with circular cross-section pipes, the fol-
lowing objective function is used:
1 (5)
UL
F =

1 1 1
Wf + +
L (
U W D
f o ) F + Do

Cb Di H fi

where: Di inner piper diameter (m), and Do outer pipe diameter (m).
The initial interval is given with variable constraints according to suggestions
from [2-6]. Parameter Wf is searched between 120 and 250 mm. Parameter Wi is
searched between 30 and 50 mm, Parameter Di is simultaneously calculated for all
iterations from the cross-section area of the circular pipe cross-section using:
4 Wi H i
Di =

(6)
Other parameters in goal functions (5) and (6), are set as constants. The
achieved comparative results of random search and TLBO optimization methods for
pipes with a rectangular cross-section are shown in figure 3.
a) b)
Figure 3 Optimization results for rectangular cross section pipe a) using random
search method; b) using TLBO method
The achieved comparative results of random search and TLBO optimization

methods for pipes with a circular cross-section are shown in figure 4.
276
a) b)
Figure 4 Optimization results for round cross section pipe

a) using random search method; b) using TLBO method
From diagrams on figures 3 and 4 a more rapid convergence using TLBO
method can be noticed compared to random search method.
Conclusion
In this paper optimization of the efficiency factor as a function of rib pipe ge-
ometry for flat solar collectors was conducted. Compared to past research of these
authors, the square pipe cross-section solar collector was omitted from optimization.
The omission was done as the previous research has proven this type of collector
heaths worse results than those of circular and rectangular cross-section pipes. Op-
timization was conducted using Teaching Learning based optimization and com-
pared to previous optimization conducted using random search method.
The best solution is achieved when the width of the collector rib Wf converg-
es to limits of the given interval with the largest internal measurements Di and Wi.
With random search method, it can be seen that the collector with rectangular cross
section pipes has the greater efficiency factor than the circular cross-section pipe
collector. Optimization using TLBO also shows a larger factor of efficiency for the
rectangular cross-section, however the difference is notably smaller than with ran-
dom search method. From the given diagrams it can be concluded that TLBO has a
far quicker convergence to the optimal solution.
Further research of this problem would require considering hear losses as
well as the change of wall thickness of pipes. All materials should be considered
which are used in solar collector production. In order to achieve optimal solutions of
this problem, the problem should be adapted to multi-criteria optimization, with
experimental verification of results.
Acknowledgment: This paper is a result of the TR33015 project investiga-
tion of Technological Development of Republic of Serbia. The project is titled In-
vestigation and development of Serbian zero-net energy house. We would like to
277
thank to the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of
Republic of Serbia for their financial support during this investigation.
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278
MOGUNOSTI I NAINI KORIENJA
SUBGEOTERMALNE ENERGIJE U BEOGRADU
POSSIBILITIES AND MANNERS OF USAGE THE
SUBGEOTHERMAL ENERGY IN BELGRADE
I. MATI1, S. AMALOVI, S. URI2, G. KOVAEVI3,
Z. MARKOVI3, I. TANASKOVI4
1
Faculty of Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade
2
Unioninvest-Engineering andProjecting, Belgrade
3
Swiss Term, Belgrade
4
GeaWater Work, Smederevo
Usled sve veih potreba za zelenom energijom, i kod nas je u zadnjih nekoliko godina
dolo do ekspanzije u korienju subgeotermalne energije. U radu su prikazana iskustva sa
dve razliite lokacije sa geolokog aspekta. Novi Beograd (Blok 65) u okviru aluvijalnih
naslaga Save, korienjem podzemnih voda (sistem voda-voda) kada je obezbeen 2 MgW
energije. Sistem se zasniva na eksploataciji 40 l/s podzemnih voda sa 4 eksploataciona i 8
upojnih bunara, sa posebnim osvrtom na reenje filtracije ovih voda. U starom jezgru grada
(Hotel Hilton, ugao Kralja Milana i Kralja Milutina) u okviru starijih geolokih naslaga,
korienjem energije zemlje (sistem zemlja-voda) je obezbeen 1 MgW energije. Reenje je
dato tako, s obzirom da je plac samo 48 ari, da se izvede 70 buotina dubine po 120 m. u koje
su ugraene najnapredije nemake "GeoKoaks" sonde.Cilj rada jeste da ukae na znaaj i
mogunosti eksploatacije ovog vida energije, nedovoljno korienog bar kada smo mi u
pitanju. Data reenja predstavljaju uputstvo kako se na najefikasniji nain moe koristiti
toplotna energija zemlje, ne naruavajui ivotnu sredinu.
Kljune rei: subgeotermalna energija, podzemne vode, eksploatacioni-upojni buna-
ri, filtracija, "GeoKoaks" sonde
Due to increasing needs for the green energy, in our country in recent years there has
been expansion of usage of subgeothermal energy. In this paper are presented experiences
from a two different locations, observed from geological point of view. One location is New
Belgrade (Block 65), where within alluvial fouling of Sava river, and by using underground
water (system water-water) is ensured 2 MgW of energy. System is based on exploitation of
40 l/s of underground water with 4 exploitation and 8 absorbent wells, and special retrospec-
tive to solving the filtration of this water. In the city center (Hilton hotel, corner of streets
Kralja Milana and Kralja Milutina), within older geological foulings, while using the energy
of ground (system ground-water) is ensured 1 MgW of energy. Concerning the fact that lot
has only 48 ares, solution was to perform 70 borings of 120 m depth, in which are imple-
mented the most advanced German GeoKoax probes. The goal of this paper was to point
out the importance and possibilities of exploitation of this kind of energy, which is not used
sufficiently in our country. Given solutions represent the manual how to use a heating energy
of the ground on the most efficient way, without violation of the living environment.
Key words: subgeothermal energy, underground water, exploitation-absorbent wells,
filtration, "GeoKoax" probes
279
1. Uvod
Geotermalna energija ima brojne prednosti nad tradicionalnim izvorima
energije baziranim na fosilnim gorivima. Tradicionalni naini grejanja imaju veoma
nizak stepen korisnosti od 0,6 do 0,9, jer veliki deo toplote odlazi sa produktima
sagorevanja, potreban je veliki prostor za skladitenje fosilnih goriva i oslobaa se
ogromna koliina produkata sagorevanja (Kari i dr., 2007). Najvea prednost geo-
termalne energije je to to je ista i nekodljiva za ivotnu sredinu. Tokom posled-
njih decenija uinjen je znaajan tehnoloki napredak u korienju subgeotermalne
energije niske entalpije (temperature podzemnih voda i zemlje od 30C i nie). Ima-
jui ovo u vidu, kao i znaajne koliine podzemnih voda akumulirane u okviru alu-
vijalnih naslaga na Novom Beogradu, kao i njihovu efikasnost u odnosu na samu
geoloku sredinu, ali skuplje odravanje sistema, korienje subgeotermalne energi-
je doivelo je znaajnu ekspanziju. S obzirom na sline uslove formiranja i eksploa-
taciju podzemnih voda, istraivanja izvedena na lokaciji poslovno stambenog kom-
pleksa West 65 u Bloku 65(2 MgW), mogu se smatrati tipskim za podruje Novog
Beograda. Ono po emu se ova istraivanja izdvajaju jeste, to je kao krajnje tehni-
ko reenje prihvaeno vraanje podzemnih voda u izdan, mada za to jo ne postoji
zakonska obaveza kod nas. U okruenju i Evropi to je uslov svih uslova. Za razliku
od Novog Beograda, staro gradsko jezgro je izgraeno od starijih geolokih formaci-
ja. U nekima od njih ima podzemnih voda. Ako poemo od premise, da je vodu
neophodno vraati u izdan nakon oduzete ili joj dodate temperature, kako ne bi smo
ugrozili vodne resurse, to je tee izvesti u ovakvim geolokim formacijama. Drugi
problem je to se radi o parcelama manjih povrina. Lokacija hotela Hilton u izgra-
dnji je naturila tehniko reenje, s obzirom na obezbeenje zahtevane koliine ener-
gije od 1 MgW. izradu 70 sondi dubine 120 m, na rastojanju od 7 m. kako bi se
izbegao meusobni negativan uticaj.
U zakljuku se daje predlog optimalnih reenja u zavisnosti od geoloke sre-
dine, za nain korienja subgeotermalne energije u Beogradu uz puno uvaavanje
zatite ovekove okoline i prirodnih resursa.
2. Opte, geoloke i hidrogeoloke karakteristike terena i rezultati

istraivanja u okviru Bloka 65 na Novom Beogradu radi obezbeenja
2 MGW energije podzemnim vodama za potrebe hlaenja i grejanja
stambeno poslovnog kompleksa West 65
U morfolokom pogledu Novi Beograd u najveoj meri predstavlja aluvijalnu
ravan reke Save. Teren je izrazito nizijski, intenzivno nasipan kako bi se nadvisio
nivo podzemnih voda i omoguila nesmetana gradnja objekata. Pre nasipanja i
izgradnje odbrambenih nasipa pored reke, ovaj deo ravni je esto bio plavljen i
movaran. Nadmorske visine terena se kreu u granicama 74-76 mnm.Teren izgra-
uju stenske mase ija se starost kree u rasponu od gornjeg pleistocena do holoce-
280
na. Sa aspekta problematike koja se razmatra ovim radom, posebno znaajnim se
mogu smatrati aluvijalne pekovito ljunkovite naslage.
Slika 1. ematski prikaz rasporeda izvedenih i projektovanih objekata u Bloku 65 na

Novom Beogradu
Hidrogeoloka istraivanja u Bloku 65 na Novom Beogradu (slika 1), imala
su za cilj obezbeivanje neophodnih koliina podzemnih voda za potrebe korienja
subgeotermalne energije podzemnih voda iz aluvjalnih naslaga reke Save. U tom
cilju kaptirane su peskovito ljunkovite naslage iju podinu predstavljaju glinovite
naslage na dubini od oko 28 m. Litoloka graa terena prikazana je na hidrogeolo-
kom profilu (slika 2). Tipska konstrukcija eksploatacionog i upojnih bunara izvede-
nih u okviru pomenutih istraivanja data je na slici 3.
281
Slika 2. Hidrogeoloki profil C-D
Sa aspekta odrivog korienja resursa izrada hidrogeolokih tripleta i vraa-
nje resursa u prirodnu sredinu predstavlja projektantsko reenje kojim se postie
ravnotea u ciklusu eksploatacije (I.Mati i dr. 2012). Eksploatacioni bunari su
kapaciteta i do 20 l/s. Temperatura podzemnih voda je 13,8-14,1o C. U hidrogeolo-
koj praksi je poznato da je vodu tee vratiti nego je izvui iz izdani. Ovde je dodatni
problem bio i taj to je prirodni nivo podzemnih voda visok (na 4-5,5 m.od povri-
ne). Isto tako problem su stvarale vodonepropusne dijafragme do dubine od 16 m.
koje su ostale kod gradnje garaa, kao i sami zidovi garaa. Sve ovo je uslovilo
ogranienje prostora za nalivanje-vraanje vode u izdan. To je diktiralo tehniko
reenje da se bunari crpe samo sa po 10 l/s (sa 50 % kapaciteta), kako bi voda mogla
da se vrati u izdan. Nalivanje vode se vri sa malim nadpritiskom od 0,2 bar-a jer su
ahtovi u kojima su bunari duboki 2 m. Na ovaj nain se uspelo da se voda vraa i da
sistem funkcionie. Pored toga na ovaj nain smanjenog kapaciteta eksploatacije
produie se vek bunara, odnosno vreme izmeu regeneracija koja je potrebna kod
svih bunara tokom eksploatacije. To spada u njihovo redovno odravanje. Do sada
su izvedena 3 eksploataciona i 4 upojna bunara. Istraivanja su koncipirana imajui
u vidu zakonsku regulativu koja vai u Evropskoj Uniji i podrazumeva obavezno
vraanje podzemnih voda u izdan. U prilog ovome ila je i injenica da ovo podruje
predstavlja deo beogradskog izvorita. U tom cilju predvieno je da se podzemne
vode iz 4 eksploataciona bunara (kapaciteta po 10 l/s) vraaju u izdan preko 8 upoj-
nih bunara (svaki eksploatacioni bunar ima dva upojna bunara). Istraivanjima je
utvreno da upojni bunari moraju biti na minimalnom rastojanju 45 m. od eksploa-
tacionih, kako bi se temperatura vode (ohlaena ili dogrejana) iz izmenjivaa vratila
na prirodnu (oko 14 C). Ovim je stvorena osnova za odrivo korienje subgeoter-
malne energije, koja podrazumeva ouvanje podzemnih vodnih resursa na Novom
Beogradu. Samo definisaje uslova, reima ekploatacije i vraanja podzemnih voda
predstavlja poseban aspekt ovih istraivanja, pa u okviru ovog rada nee biti detalj-
nije razmatrano.
U kvalitativnom pogledu zahvaene podzemne vode su malomineralizovane,
hidrokarbonatno-magnezijumsko-kalcijumskog tipa (Mati, 2011) sa blagim zamu-
enjem i poveanim sadrajem gvoa (i preko 1 mg/l). Maksimalno dozvoljena
koncentracija (MDK) za vodu za pie je 0,3 mg/l.
282
Slika 3. ematski prikaz triplet sistema za korienje
subhidrogeotermalne energije za reim hlaenja
Proraun pri korienju ovih koliina podzemnih voda raen je po fazama
kako su graeni objekti. I-a faza je bila 10 l/s (500 kW), za 15 000 m2, a druga za
dodatnih 20 l/s (1 MgW), odnosno 30 000 m2. Projektno reenje korienja energije
dala je firma "Unioninvest"-Inenjering i projektovanje, iz Beograda.
Ovde je dat prikaz vrednosti pojednih parametara za II-u fazu eksploatacije
sistema:
Letnji reim
Rashladni kapacitet Qx=1 070 kW
Temperatura hladne vode t1/t2=7/12 C
Temperatura rashladne vode t3/t4=25/31 C
Temperatura bunarske vode t5//t6=13.8/29 C
Protok bunarske vode Q=20.0 l/s
Apsorbovana elektrina energija N=214 kW
Zimski reim
Grejni kapacitet Qx=856 kW
Temperatura tople vode t1/t2=39.8/45 C
Temperatura rashladne vode t3/t4=5/9 C
Temperatura bunarske vode t5//t6=13.8/6.7 C
Protok bunarske vode Q=20.0 l/s
Apsorbovana elektrina energija N=259 kW
283
Problem u korienju ovog sistema se javio usled formiranja znaajnih koli-
ina taloga na ploama izmenjivaa toplote (zaepljenja izmenjivaa toplote). Iz tog
razloga izvedena su namenska istraivanja njegovih granulometrijskih i mineralo-
kih osobina kako bi se utvrdio nivo i nain filtracije.
Slika 4. Izgled ploe izmenjivaa toplote( iste i sa nataloenim materijalom)

Granulometrijska ispitivanja obuhvatila su mokro prosejavanje uzorka na
slogu sita od + 0,125 mm i -0,063 mm, te su dobijene sledee frakcije: + 0,125 mm,
0,063-0,125mm i 0,063 mm. Od frakcije -0,063 pipet metodom je odreena frakci-
ja 0-0,005 mm. Rezultati raspodele frakcija u uzorku dati su u na histogramskom
prikazu (slika 5).
Slika 5. Histogramski prikaz zastupljenosti klasa u uzorku taloga

sa obloga izmenjivaa toplote
Na osnovu granulometrijske analize uzorka proizilazi da je najzastupljenija
klasa 0,005-0,063 to bi odgovaralo finom prahu, odnosno muljevitom materijalu.
Mineraloka ispitivanja obuhvatila su binokularni pregled sa ugraenom
kamerom, kao i mikroskopska prouavanja na mikroskopu sa ugraenom kamerom
284
u imerzionoj sredini. S obzirom da je uzorak intenzivno impregnisan sa hidroksidi-
ma gvoa, odreivanje mineralnog sastava je bilo veoma oteano. Odreivanje
mineralnog sastava u nekoj meri bilo je mogue na klasama +0,125 mm (slika 6),
0,063-0,125 mm (slika 7).
Klasa +0,125 mm 85% izgraena je od kvarca koji je intenzivno presvuen sa
hidroksidima gvoa (slika 6). U uzorku se javljaju i hidroksidi mangana.
Slika 6. A) Binokularni snimak frakcije +125 mm sa zrnima kvarca presvuenim hid-

roksidima Fe, Mn B) Mikroskopski snimak klase + 0,125 mm u imerzionoj sredini
Kao to se moe videti na mikroskopskom snimku frakcije u imerzionoj sre-
dini zaobljena zrna kvarca su intenzivno impregnisana hidroksidima gvoa.Klasa
0,063-0,125 mm izgraena je od ovalnih formi kvarca koja su intenzivno impregni-
sana sa hidroksidima gvoa. Sadraj kvarca je oko 90%. Jasno se vide i hidroksidi
mangana. Na mikroskopskom snimku ove klase u imerzionoj sredini mogu se videti
ovalna zrna kvarca impregnisana sa hidroksidima gvoa, kao i hidroksidima man-
gana. Detaljan prikaz pomenutih istraivanja dao je Babi (2012).
Slika 7. A) Binokularni snimak klase 0,063-0,125 mm. sa zrnima kvarca

impregnisanim hidroksidima Fe, Mn B) Mikroskopski snimak
klase 0,063-0,125 mm u imerzionoj sredini
Ove rezultate smo prosledili nemakoj firmi BWT (Best water tehnology), sa
napomenom da filtre treba smestiti u aht bunara sa protokom od 10 l/s. Njihovo ree-
nje je bio izbor linije sa MULTIFUR 80A 100 mik., a zatim 30 mik. Radi se o konti-
nuiranom radu sistema. Filtri se automatski iste (razlika pritiska ulaz-izlaz), kada se
285
voda sa talogom preusmerava u kanalizaciju. Na ovaj nain se uspelo da sistem fuk-
cionie, odnosno da se ploe izmenjivaa toplote iste na tri meseca. Ovoj liniji su
pridodati i dva vreasta filtra od 5 mik. kako bi se vremenski interval ienja ploa
produio. ematski prikaz linije filtracije (slika 8 a). Prikaz linije u ahtu bunara (slika
8 b).U poetku uloci ovih filtra menjani su jednom sedmino. Posle jedne sezone
korienja sistema, uoena je pojava da se svi filtri manje zaepljuju. Definitivno,
hidreogeoloka sredina u zoni oko bunara se isprala od prainastih frakcija.
a)
b)
Slika 8. a) ematski prikaz linije filtracije
b)Prikaz linije filtracije u ahtu bunara
286
Postojanje znaajnih koliina podzemnih voda akumuliranih u okviru aluvi-
jalnih naslaga na Novom Beogradu, stvorilo je osnovu za ekspanziju u korienju
subgeotermalne energije u ovom delu grada. Na primaru stambeno-poslovnog kom-
pleksa West 65 (2 MgW energije), podzemne vode se eksploatiu iz 4 bunara
(kapaciteta po 10 l/s) a, vraaju u izdan preko 8 upojnih bunara (svaki eksploatacio-
ni ima dva upojna bunara). Istraivanjima je utvreno da upojni bunari moraju biti
na minimalnom rastojanju 45 m. od eksploatacionih, kako bi se temperatura vode
(ohlaena ili dogrejana) iz izmenjivaa vratila na prirodnu (oko 14 C). Ispitivanja
taloga na ploama toplotnog izmenjivaa, pruila su dokaz o postojanju finozrnih
frakcija u podzemnim vodama. U tu svrhu projktovana je linija sa tri nivoa mehani-
ke filtracije (100, 30 i 5 mikrona) na svakom eksploatacionom bunaru posebno.
Ovim je stvorena osnova za odrivo korienje subhidrogeotermalne energije, koja
podrazumeva ouvanje podzemnih vodnih resursa na Novom Beogradu.
3. Opte, geoloke i hidrogeoloke karakteristike terena i rezultati

istraivanja na lokaciji hotela u izgradnji "Hilton",
radi obezbeenja 1 MGW energije sistemom zemlja-voda,
potrebne za hlaenje i grejanje
Na optini Vraar, na uglu ulica Kralja Milana i Kralja Milutina, na placu
povrine 4 800 m 2, gradi se hotel "Hilton" visoke kategorije. Prostirae se na 32 000
m2 bruto povrine. Kao deo projektnog reenja samog objekta predvia se formira-
nje jedinice za klimatizaciju na bazi iskorienja potencijala obnovljivih geotermal-
nih resursa. Projektno reenje i izvoenje je realizovala firma Swiss Term iz Beo-
grada.
Projektom su definisani geotermalni istrani radovi u cilju obezbeivanja
1MgW geotermalne energije primenom metode recirkulacije toplotnog toka zemlja-
voda, a u skladu sa zahtevima investitora.
Geoloke karakteristike centralnog pobra starog jezgra Beograda su za raz-
liku od, uglavnom ravniarske teritorije Novog Beograda, gde su u pitanju aluvijalne
naslage Save i Dunava, predstavljene lesnim pokrivaem iz kojih proviruju sedi-
menti panona. Na istranom podruju konkordantno preko srednjeg miocena ili
transgresivno preko jurskih i krednih tvorevina, lee sarmatski sedimanti koji su po
pravilu prekriveni panonskim laporcima. Na terenu se istiu uzvienja Tamajdan,
Lekino Brdo, Banjiki vis (198 mnv), Banovo Brdo (208 mnv), Miljakovac (196
mnv), Straevica (209 mnv), Petlovo brdo (205 mnv), Devojaki Grob (287 mnv).
Na uu Save u Dunav nalazi se Kalemegdanski rt sa kotom od (125 mnv).
Karakteristian geoloki profil za ovaj deo terena je prikazan na slici 10.
287
Slika 9. Satelitski snimak lokacije budueg objekta (preuzeto sa Google earth-a)
Slika 10. Geoloki profil od Dunava preko Tamajdana (Hidrogeologija teritorije

grada Beograda, Rudarsko-geoloki fakultet, Beograd, 1975.)
Pratei projektno reenje prilikom istraivanja-istranog buenja, geoelektri-
nog karotaa i buenja za ugradnju geosondi, neophodno je utvrditi geoloke i
hidrogeoloke karakteristike terena. Cilj je utvrivanja optimalnog naina eksploa-
tacije kojim bi se u potpunosti iskoristio raspoloivi geotermalni potencijal terena
pridravajui se principa odrivog korienja i upravljanja geotermalnim resursima.
288
289
Slika 11. Rezultati geofizikog katotaa
Formirane su podloge koje podrazumevaju obradu i reinterpretaciju dosada-
njih geolokih, hidrogeolokih i geofizikih istraivanja. Isto tako i odabir mikro-
lokacije i sam proces buenja i ugradnje prve ispitne geotermalne sonde.
Prikaz rezultata geofizikog karotaa predstavlja jednu od najvanijih podlo-
ga. Ovde se daje prikaz geofizikog karotaa, jedne od buotina u centralnom delu
placa(slika 11).
Nakon toga je izveden TR test (Thermal responce test) u cilju odreivanja
koliine geotermalne energije koja se moe dobiti iz jedne geotermalne sonde. Son-
290
de prenika 140 mm se ugrauju u buotine prenika 200 mm. Prostor izmeu se
zasipa termo cementom (slike 12 a i b). Na kraju je na osnovu dobijenih rezultata
testa dat proraun broja, dubine i rasporeda-rastojanja sondi i simulacija rada itavog
sistema u funkciji blie i dalje budunosti (25 godina).
Postupak sprovoenja Thermal response test-a
Prosene vrednosti toplotnog toka za teritoriju grada Beograda kreu se od
100 mW/M2 do 120 mW/m2 , dok prosena vrednost toplotnog toka za kontinental-
ni deo Evrope iznosi oko 60mW/m2. Iz navedenog podatka investitor je definisao da
se iskorienje geotermalnih potencijala navedne lokacije vri putem geotermalnih
sondi iskorienjem petrogeotermalne energije. Osnovni zadatak koji treba reiti je
definisanje koliine geotermalne energije koja se moe dobiti iz jedne geotermalne
sonde. U tom smislu neophodno je izraditi probnu geotermalnu sondu i na njoj pro-
vesti TR test. Za dimenzioniranje geotermalnih sondi za uvoenje, odnosno oduzi-
manje toplote iz tla, merodavno je poznavanje termikih svojstava tla. Najpouzdaniji
nain je odreivanje efektivne toplotne provodljivosti koja je reprezentativna za
celokupnu duinu sonde. To je test geotermalnog odgovora (Thermal Response Test
TRT). Sprovoenje TRT-a se odvija u montiranoj sondi na terenu - " in-sutu". Kod
TRT-se na geotermalnu sondu postavlja tano definisani toplotni kapacitet i belee
se ulazne i izlazne temperature koje iz toga proistiu. Rezultat TRT-a odraava ter-
mika svojstva geolokog sredine na lokaciji u njihovom tanom ponderu preko
celokupne duine buotine i pri tipinim radnim uslovima. Jo jedna prednost proizi-
lazi iz mogunosti izraunavanja takozvanog otpora buotine. Otpor buotine pred-
stavlja otpor prelasku toplotne energije sa medijuma nosioca toplote na tlo. On je
mera kvaliteta konstrukcije sonde i ispune buotine i takoe je vana konstrukciona
veliina. Ova vrednost se moe izraunati samo na montiranoj sondi uz pomo TRT-
a. Sa testom geotermalnog odgovora na raspolaganju stoji instrument koji uz brilji-
vo izvoenje i odgovarajuu tanost merenja omoguuje sigurno odreivanje kons-
trukcionih veliina. Prilikom prikaza svih prorauna korieni su nemaki standardi
VDI 4640 (Termiko korienje tla) obzirom da su ugraivane nemake
"GeoKOAX" Gmbh sonde, kao i da je i TR test izvela nemaka firma "Tevag"
(Technologie-Erdwaermeanlagen-Umweltschutz Gmbh).
Slika 12. a) Izvoenje inicijalnog TRT testa 7.9.2015 b) Izgled gradilita i postav-
ljanje jedne od sondi 17.9.2016
291
U graevinskom projektu kao geotermalni prenosioci se koriste geoKOAX
sonde (slika 13). GeoKOAX sonde se zbog svog velikog obima tela oznaavaju i
kao akumulacione sonde. Specifina zapremina geoKOAX sonde je sa 13,8 l/m
sonde i za otprilike 6 puta je vea od specifinog obima konvencionalne DA32
duplo U sonde, koja ima 2,14 l/m. Za razliku od konvencionalnih sistema sondi, sa
takozvanim akumulacionim sondama, tehniki zahtevi toplotne pumpe zbog velike
specifine zapremine ne prenose se direktno na tlo. Rad toplotne pumpe se odvaja
od tla. Akumulacionom sondom se na taj nain postie u velikoj meri ravnomerno
oduzimanje toplote, odnosno hladnoe, preko dampiranja vrnih optereenja. U
poreenju sa konvencionalnim sistemima sondi, akumulaciona sonda osim toga
pokazuje nii otpor prenosu toplote i veu efektivnu povrinu razmene toplote. Sve
zajedno navedene pojedinane take omoguuju optimalnu konstrukciju akumulaci-
onih sondi u poreenju sa konvencionalnim sondama.
Slika 13. Izgled geoKOAX sonde (Swiss Term) (Izvor: geoKOAX GmbH)
Na bazi merenja projektovane sonde izvrena je simulacija termikog pona-
anja preko odgovarajue metode prorauna. Dobijen je potrebni ukupni broj metara
buenja i specifian je za ovaj tip sonde i NE moe se preneti u sluaju korienja
nekog drugog tipa sonde.
Zahtev Investitora je obezbeenje 1 MW energije koja e se raspodeliti za
grejanje i hlaenje preko projektovanog polja geotermalnih sondi na placu povrine
4800 m2.
U tu svrhu izvedena su istrana buenja, geoelektrini karota, uz registro-
vanje geolokih, i hidrogeoloikih karakteristika istraivanog terena.
Zatim je izvedena jedna buotina dubine 120 m prenika buenja 200 mm u
koju je ugraena geoKOAX sonda prenika 140 mm. Nakon toga je izvedeno spe-
cijalno cementiranje termo cementom izmeu zida buotine i tela sonde.
292
Sledi izvoenje TRT testa. Test je uradila nemaka firma "Tewag" u svemu
se pridravajui nemakih standarda VDI 4640 ( Termiko korienje tla). Podaci
testa su definisali taan broj, dubinu i raspored sondi.Takoe je data simulacija-
prognoza korienja energije za 25 godina.
Na bazi poznavanja geotermske potencijalnosti ovog dela terena projektova-
ne su i izvedeno je 70 geosondi, dubine po 120 m iji je raspored dat na planu placa
budueg hotela (slika 14 ).
Nakon izvoenja svih radova i putanja sistema sondi u funkciju, uradie se
jedan probni test koji treba da potvrdi elemente iz projektovanih prorauna kao i
rezultate dobijene predhodnim pojedinanim TRT testom. Svi ti podaci, sa podacima
dobijenih geolokih i hidrogeolokih parametara bie uoblieni u Elaboratu o
korienju geotermalne energije i kao takvi predati Ministarstvu Energetike i rudars-
tva na saglasnost.
Slika 14. Sitacioni plan sa prikazom poloaja geotermalnih sondi
Preporuke
Ako poemo od stava da je odrivo korienje subgeotermalne, konkterno
hidrogeotermalne energije obaveza, i da moramo tititi vodne resurse (vraanje
vode), to kod nas nije zakonom propisano, a trebalo bi, daju se odreene sugestije i
preporuke.
293
Na Novom Beogradu, u okviru podzemnih voda aluvijalnih naslaga Save i
Dunava, neicrpan je izvor subhidrogeotermanle energije (sistem voda-voda). Panju
treba posvetiti mehanikoj filtraciji i vraanju podzemnih voda u izdan. Na taj nain
se tite vodni resursi beogadskog izvorita ali i stiu uslovi za veliki broj korisnika.
Kod gradnje objekata treba forsirati energetske ipove u kojima bi bile ugra-
ene efikasne geosonde, tipa-geoKOAX-Swiss Term (sistem zemlja-voda).
Teritorija Starog Beograda ima izuzetan subhidrotermalni i petrogeotermalni
potencijal. U zavisnosti od potreba za koliinom energije, i gde za to ima prostora,
mogue je kombinovati ova dva sistema (uz uslov postojanja mogunosti vraanja
vode i eliminasanja meusobnog uticaja).
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doo. Beogad
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vienamenskog korienja podzemnih voda i geotermalne energije u hotelu
visoke kategorije u Beogradu Kralja Milana 35, KP 5150. KO Vraar, Gea
Water Work doo, Smederevo
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295
ANALIZA I OCENA
SOLARNIH SISTEMA BUDUNOSTI
ANALYSIS AND ASSESSMENT OF SOLAR ENERGY
SYSTEM FOR A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
Jasmina SKERLI, Danijela NIKOLI i Jasna RADULOVI
Faculty of engineering, University at Kragujevac, Serbia,
jskerlic@kg.ac.rs, danijelan@kg.ac.rs, jasna@kg.ac.rs
Energetski resursi i njihova upotreba povezani su sa odrivim razvojem. U posti-
zanju odrivog razvoja, vanu ulogu igra poveanje energetske efikasnosti procesa u
kojima se koriste odrivi izvori energije. Eksergetska analiza se uveliko koristi u projek-
tovanju, simulaciji i proceni karakteristika sistema za solarnu energiju. Solarna energija
je ista, ima je u izobilju i lako je dostupna obnovljiva energija. Snaga Sunca koja dos-
peva na povrinu zemlje 1.81011 MW, to je mnogo puta vee od sadanje stope svih
energetskih potreba. U ovom radu data je eksegetska analiza solarnog sistema. Detaljna
energetska i eksergetska analiza obavlja se kako bi se izraunali toplotni i elektrini
parametri tipinog solarnog kolektora. Pored toga, izvedena je modifikovana jednaina
za eksergetsku efikasnost kolektora u pogledu projektnih i klimatskih parametara. U tom
pogledu su dati opti odnosi izmeu energije i eksergije. Ovo vrlo korisno znanje je
takoe neophodno za utvrivanje energetske efikasnosti i/ili mogunosti ouvanja ener-
gije, kao i za formulisanje pravih strategija drave za upravljanje energijom i eksergi-
jom.
Kljune rei: analiza; efikasnost; eksergija; obnovljiva energija; solarna, odri-
vost
Energy resources and their utilization relate to sustainable development. In atta-

ining sustainable development, increasing the energy efficiencies of processes utilizing
sustainable energy resources plays an important role. Exergy analysis has been widely
used in the design, simulation and performance evaluation of solar energy systems. Solar
energy is clean, abundant and easily available renewable energy. The power from the
sun intercepted by the earth is about 1.81011 MW, which is many times larger than the
present rate of all the energy consumption. This paper reviews exergetic analysis of
solar energy system. A detailed energy and exergy analysis is carried out to calculate the
thermal and electrical parameters, tipical solar collector. Further, a equation for the
exergy efficiency of a collector is derived in terms of design and climatic parameters. In
this regard, general relations between energy and exergy are given. This very useful
knowledge is also needed for identifying energy efficiency and/or energy conservation
opportunities, as well as for dictating the right energy and exergy management strategies
of a country.
Key words: analysis; efficiency; exergy; renewable energy; solar; sustainability.
297
Introduction
Long-term potential actions for sustainable development are needed if we
want to achieve solution to environmental problems that we face today. In compari-
son to conventional energy sources, renewable energy sources are inexhaustible and
offer many environmental benefits At the moment conventional sources meet most
of the energy demand, however the role of renewable energy resources and their
current advances have to take more relevance in order to contribute to energy supply
and support the energy conservation (or efficiency) strategy by establishing energy
management systems. Numerous benefits including a decrease in external energy
dependence; a boost to local and regional component manufacturing industries;
decrease in impact of electricity production and transformation; promotion of regio-
nal engineering and consultancy services specializing in the utilization of renewable
energy; increase in the level of services for the rural population, etc. are offered by
use of renewable energy, Dincer [1] reported the linkages between energy and
exergy, exergy and the environment, energy and sustainable development, and
energy policy making and exergy in detail. With the aim to highlight the importance
of the exergy and its essential utilization in numerous ways he provided the
following key points: (a) it is a primary tool in best addressing the impact of energy
resource utilization on the environment. (b) It is an effective method using the con-
servation of mass and conservation of energy principles together with the second
law of thermodynamics for the design and analysis of energy systems. (c) It is a
suitable technique for furthering the goal of more efficient energyresource use, for
it enables the locations, types, and true magnitudes of wastes and losses to be deter-
mined. (d) It is an efficient technique revealing whether or not and by how much it is
possible to design more efficient energy systems by reducing the inefficiencies in
existing systems. (e) It is a key component in obtaining a sustainable development.
Although it does not make the world ready for the future generations, sustainable
development establishes a basis on which the future world can be built. It may be
said that a sustainable energy system is a cost-efficient, reliable, and
environmentally friendly energy system that effectively utilizes local resources and
networks. As opposed to a conventional energy system, it is not slow and inert but
it is flexible in terms of new techno-economic and political solutions. An exergy
analysis (or second law analysis) has proven to be a powerful tool in the simulation
thermodynamic analyses of energy systems. Exergy analysis method is used to
detect and to evaluate quantitatively the causes of the thermodynamic imperfection
of the process under consideration. It can, therefore, indicate the possibilities of
thermodynamic improvement of the process under consideration, but only an eco-
nomic analysis can decide the expediency of a possible improvement. The concepts
of exergy, available energy, and availability are essentially similar. Exergy is also a
measure of the maximum useful work that can be done by a system interacting with
an environment which is at a constant pressure and temperature. Many authors dealt
with renewable energy resources in terms of exergetic aspects. They also compared
renewable and nonrenewable energy sources. Their conclusion is that some of the
298
systems seem to have high efficiencies, and in some cases they are greater than the
efficiency of systems using nonrenewable energy sources [2, 3].
This paper reviews exergetic analysis of solar energy system. A detailed
energy and exergy analysis is conducted to calculate the thermal and electrical
parameters, typical solar collector. Further, a modified equation for the exergy
efficiency of a collector is derived in terms of design and climatic parameters. In this
regard, general relations between energy and exergy are given. This very useful
knowledge is also needed for identifying energy efficiency and/or energy conserva-
tion opportunities, as well as for dictating the right energy and exergy management
strategies of a country.
Energy and exergy modeling

Dincer et al. [4] reported that, to provide an efficient and effective use of
fuels, it is essential to consider the quality and quantity of the energy used to achieve
a given objective. With regard to this, the first law of thermodynamics deals with the
quantity of energy and asserts that energy cannot be created or destroyed, whereas
the second law of thermodynamics deals with the quality of energy, i.e., it is concer-
ned with the quality of energy to cause change, degradation of energy during a pro-
cess, entropy generation and the lost opportunities to do work. To be more specific,
the first law of thermodynamics is concerned only with the magnitude of energy
with no regard to its quality; whereas the second law of thermodynamics asserts that
energy has quality as well as quantity. By quality, it means the ability or work
potential of a certain energy source having certain amount of energy to cause chan-
ge, i.e., the amount of energy which can be extracted as useful work which is termed
as exergy. First and second law efficiencies are often called energy and exergy effi-
ciencies, respectively. It is expected that exergy efficiencies are usually lower than
the energy efficiencies, because the irreversibilities of the process destroy some of
the input exergy. Exergy is the expression for loss of available energy due to the
creation of entropy in irreversible systems or processes. The exergy loss in a system
or component is determined by multiplying the absolute temperature of the surroun-
dings by the entropy increase. Entropy is the ratio of the heat absorbed by a substan-
ce to the absolute temperature at which it was added. While energy is conserved,
exergy is accumulated. Exergy analysis provides a method to evaluate the maximum
work extractable from a substance relative to a reference state (i.e., dead state). It
should be noticed that exergy is always evaluated with respect to a reference enviro-
nment (i.e. dead state). When a system is in equilibrium with the environment, the
state of the system is called the dead state due to the fact that the exergy is zero [3].
Simulation softwares
Simulation Software EnergyPlus: In this study, the building energy simula-
tion software EnergyPlus (Version 7.0) was used to predict solar energy and electri-
cal energy use in solar installation for heating of DHW in several cities in Serbia.
299
Then, the solar fraction was determined for its different design, installation and
operation parameters. EnergyPlus is made available by the Lawrence Berkley
Laboratory in USA [5]. Its development began in 1996 on the basis of two widely
used programs: DOE-2 and BLAST. The software serves to simulate building
energy behavior and use of renewable energy in buildings [6]. The renewable energy
simulation capabilities include solar thermal and photovoltaic simulation. Other
simulation features of EnergyPlus include: variable time steps, user-configurable
modular systems, and user defined input and output data structures. The software
has been tested using the IEA HVAC BESTEST E100-E200 series of tests [7].
Modeling of the SDHWS in EnergyPlus environment required models of different
components embedded in EnergyPlus such as that of flat-plate solar collector, stora-
ge tank, tempering valve, and instantaneous water heater [8]. Water in the storage
tank was heated by solar energy and water in the instantaneous water heater by
electricity.
Genopt Software: GenOpt is an optimization program for the minimization of
a cost function that is evaluated by an external simulation program [9]. It has been
developed for optimization problems where the cost function is computationally
expensive and its derivatives are not available or may not even exist. GenOpt can be
coupled to any simulation program that reads its input from text files and writes its
output to text files. The independent variables can be continuous variables (possibly
with lower and upper bounds), discrete variables, or both, continuous and discrete
variables. Constraints on dependent variables can be implemented using penalty or
barrier functions. GenOpt has a library with local and global multi-dimensional and
one dimensional optimization algorithms, and algorithms for doing parametric runs
[10]. An algorithm interface allows adding new minimization algorithms without
knowing the details of the program structure. GenOpt is written in Java so that it is
platform independent. The platform independence and the general interface make
GenOpt applicable to a wide range of optimization problems. GenOpt has not been
designed for linear programming problems, quadratic programming problems, and
problems where the gradient of the cost function is available. For such problems, as
well as for other problems, special tailored software exists that is more efficient.
Optimization Algorithm: For optimization, the HookeJeeves algorithm is
used together with EnergyPlus simulation. These two programs are connected toget-
her by using Genopt software [9]. In this research, the adaptive precision Hooke-
Jeeves algorithm is used. Hooke Jeeves algorithm is a direct search algorithm [13].
In direct search methods, only the objective functions and the constraint values are
used to guide the search strategy. The methodology of search is given in [11, 13] in
sufficient details. The used Hooke Jeeves algorithm is the adaptive precision algo-
rithm. This algorithm progressively increase the precision of the approximating cost
functions as the sequence of iterates approaches a stationary point. In addition, the
algorithm only accepts iterates that reduces the cost sufficiently. It reduces the com-
putation time up to a factor of four compared to the standard HookeJeeves algo-
rithm.
300
Mathematical model
To obtain performance of SDHWS, the operation of the SDHWS was inves-
tigated by using simulation and optimization. The mathematical model was develo-
ped in EnergyPlus simulation environment and the optimization was performed by
using Hooke-Jeeves search algorithm.
This part of the paper provides the mathematical model used to simulate the
energy behavior of SDHWS and different parts of its installation: solar collector,
thermal tanks (storage & heaters), tempering valve, and SDHWS-control devices.
EnergyPlus Model for SDHWS: The SDHWS heats DHW by using solar
and electric energy. The DHW is used as water for sink, bath, shower, dish washing
and cloth washing. The SDHWS is schematically shown in Fig.1 in EnergyPlus
environment. The SDHWS consists of the following main elements explained
separately in the text below: the solar collector, storage water tank, instantaneous
water heater, tempering valve, and temperature controls. These elements are located
in two inner loops of the SDHWS: the solar loop and the use loop. The solar loop is
a loop through the solar collector. The use loop is a loop for DHW consumption.
The solar loop consists of the solar collector, water pump, and spiral pipe heat
exchanger (inside the hot water storage tank). The use loop consists of the splitter,
storage water tank, instantaneous water heater, tempering valve, and mixer. Inside
the solar loop, the solar collector captures solar energy. This energy heats water that
flows through the solar collector. Furthermore, the hot water heats DHW in the
storage water tank. In the use loop, the cold DW reaches the splitter. From the split-
ter, the DW may go to the storage water tank or to the tempering valve. In the stora-
ge water tank, DW is heated from the solar loop via the spiral pipe heat exchanger.
From the storage water tank, the hot water goes to the instantaneous water heater
where can be additionally heated. Then the hot water from the instantaneous water
heater and the cold water from the tempering valve go to the mixer and after that as
DHW to the consumers. The water temperature in the storage tank may be higher or
lower than the needed (hot-water set-up) DHW temperature. If this water temperatu-
re is higher than the needed DHW temperature, then this water temperature is
lowered in the mixer by using the cold DW through the tempering valve. If this
water temperature is lower than the needed DHW temperature, this water is heated
by electric energy in the instantaneous water heater to the needed DHW temperature.
The investigated solar collector is of flat plate type.
Surface geometry. Calculations require that the solar collector surface is
described geometrically. Here, the solar collector is placed to the building roof. The
solar collector is rectangular in shape with its length designated as (a) and its width
as (b). The building height is designated as h. Finally, the solar collector surface is
described by the coordinates of their vertices 1, 2, 3, and 4 in a three dimensional
Cartesian coordinate system. This right-hand coordinate system has the X axis poin-
ting east, the Y axis pointing north, and the Z axis pointing up that is characteristics
of EnergyPlus Cartesian coordinate system. The vertices are recorded in counter-
clockwise sequence (as the surface is viewed from outside its zone).
301
The solar collector is south facing. Its tilt angle () is the angle between the
Z-axis and the normal to the surface of the solar collector (or between the solar col-
lector surface and the horizontal). The convention assumed here is that -900<<900.
The surfaces with positive face south and with negative face north. Its azimuth
angle () is defined as the displacement angle between the projection on a horizon-
tal plane of the normal to the collector surface and due north. The convention assu-
med here is that -1800 < <1800.
The surface of the solar collector is rectangular and defined by 4 vertices.
Vertex 1 has coordinates: x1 = b cos sin , y1 = b cos cos , z1 = b sin + h12.
Vertex 2 has coordinates x2 = 0, y2 = 0, z2 = h12. Vertex 3 has coordinates: x3 = a cos
, y3 = b sin , z3 = h12. Vertex 4 has coordinates: x4 = b cos sin + a cos , y4 =
b cos cos +a sin , z4 = h12 + b sin .
Calculation of energy consumption: Calculation of energy consumption
during the calculation period gives two electrical energies E and R consumed for
DHW production. The energy E is consumed by the electric heater when the solar
collector is present and operating, and energy R is consumed when no solar collector
is employed. The objective function is the performance of the installation is evalua-
ted by calculating the solar fraction (f) by:
f = 100 (R-E)/R= f (i, i)
If f = fi is larger, the SDHWS better protects the environment. Variable fi is a
function of tilt i and azimuth angle i.
It should be maximized in the constrained region of i and i . As a result of
the optimization, we obtain the maximum solar fraction fi,max, and the optimum tilt
i,opt, and optimum azimuth angle i, opt.
Figure 1 - Schematics of SDHWS for heating of DHW (adapted from [8])
302
Each solar collector that stays at optimal position generates the highest amo-
unt of heat from the incident solar energy. Then, the SDHWS uses this heat for the
DHW heating instead of the electrical energy from the electricity network. This
means that such a SDHWS avoids use of the highest amount of electrical energy
from the electricity grid for the DHW heating. In addition, this avoids the highest
amount of electrical energy generation by the national power plants.
If the solar collector of a SDHWS does not stay at the optimum position due
to some reason, then it will generate smaller amount of exergy for the DHW heating
than the maximum amount it would generate when it stays at the optimum position.
As the heating of DHW uses the electrical energy, the SDHWS will use more elec-
trical energy for the DHW heating than that when the SDHWS has its solar collector
at the optimum position [14, 15].
For this case, the deficit solar fraction is defined as
100 ( fi , tot fi , max )
Di = . (1)
fi , max
For this case, the deficit in avoided exergy is defined as

100 ( Ex, i Ei , max )
DExi = . (2)
Ei , max
Solar Collector (Thermal Performance): Solar Collector is of Flat Plate

type produced by, Alternate Energy Technologies (AE-32) with length of 3.66 m
and width of 2.43 m, A = 8.89 m2 = gross area of the collector.
Exergy analysis: The Solar system for sanitary water heating is the most
popular way of using the solar energy due to its technical feasibility and cost
efficiency in comparison with other types of the solar energy use. The maximum
value of the exergy level of efficiency of the solar heating system SWH is determi-
ned through the exergy analysis. The maximum exergy efficiency level is achieved
corresponding the maximum solar intake when the solar collector is optimally posi-
tioned.
The exergy efficiency rate x is the aim function in the optimization process,
and is given by the equation (8.6) [92, 93, 94]:
Ex, con
x = , (3)
Ex,
Where:
Ex,con exergy obtained from the consumers (tap, shower, dishwasher and the
washing machine [];
Ex, The Sun exergy [].
303
The Sun exergy is calculated based on the mean annual insolation value for
Belgrade I = 5.22 /m2, and in the case of six months estimations, for the period
between 15th April and 14th October the value I = 1.328 /m2 is used, whereas the
period between 15th October and 14th April has the value of I = 3.724 /m2, estimated
based on the mean daily insolations according to the months in question.
The exergy of the end consumers refers to the shower Ex,shower, sink Ex,sink,
washing machine Ex,wash.mach. And the dishwasher Ex,dishwas. Due to the lower water
temperature necessary for the use of the shower and dishwasher, it is necessary to
mix it with cold water, thus in the exergy optimization the exergy of cold water is
taken into consideration which is added to the system Ex,coldw. The cold water exergy
is calculated for the mean annual cold water temperature values of the cold water
which is used in the house and which is 14.72 C. The temeparature differences are
smaller in the six months` estimations for the period between 15th October and 14th
April, and bigger for the period between 15th April and 14th October .
The exergy obtained through the solar collector in the sanitary water heating
system Ex,con = Ex, consumer equals the total of the ened users` exergies:
Ex, con = Ex, shower + Ex,sin k + Ex, wash.mash + Ex , dishwas . (4)
The solar receiver exergy efficiency represents the ratio between the exergy
of the solar collector Ex,sol.col and the solar exergy, and is given in the equation (5):
E
sol .col = x, sol .col (5)
Ex,
.
The exergy of the solar collectors Ex, sol.col is given in the equation (6):
T
Ex, sol .col = C p m ( Tcol 0 ) 0 ln col , (6)
0
In which is: col = 323 [] ( defined as the input database of nergyPlus), -
mass flow of the solar receiver [kg/s], 0 the temperature of the surroundings /
environment [], Cp = 4186 [/kgK].
The exergy at the exit of the accumulation boiler can be represented by the
equation (7), supposing that the value of the boiler temperature is linear.
T out out C p m 0 T
Ex, t = C p m in 0 C p m 0 ln out 1 ln in ,(7)
2 0 Tin out out
Where: Ex,t is the exergy at the exit of the accumulation boiler [], in the tempe-
rature at the entrance to the accumulation boiler [], out the temperature at the exit
from the accumulation boiler [].
The boiler exergy Ex,tank represents the total exergy at the exot from the boiler
and the electric energy, where the electric energy E which is used for the heating of
water in the boiler when the temeperature drops under the set value.
304
Ex, tan=k Ex, t + E . (8)
The ratio between the necessary and obtained exergy x, of the solar system is
defined:
ex, needed
ex = . (9)
ex, obtained
The ratios between the necessary and obtained exergy on the users x,
and x,obtained = Ex,con = Ex, consumer, should be as small as possible, because in this case
the obtained exergy is bigger [16].
Simulation and optimization

For simulation and optimization to run, it is necessary to know the hot water
consumption and climate.
Hot Water Consumption: This installation generates four different types of
hot water: that of tap, shower, dish-washer, and cloth-washer. Regarding its applica-
tion, the water would be heated to two temperatures: 43.3 (tap and shower with the
maximum flow rate of 0.0000945 m3/s) and 500C (dish and clothes washer with the
maximum flow rate of (0.000063 m3/s). For water with lower temperature and for
water with higher temperature used in dish washer, the daily schedule is the same for
each day throughout entire summer. The cloth washer operates only on Sunday. For
water with higher temperature used in the cloth washer, the daily schedule is the
same for each Sunday throughout the entire summer.
Weather data:The investigated SDHWS is located in the city of Belgrade.
Their meteorological data are used in the form of EnergyPlus weather files. These
are either measured by the meteorological stations or calculated by the software
Meteonorm for sites where data from meteorological stations are not available.
Belgrade has the average height above sea-level of 99 m. Its latitude is
44.82N, longitude 20.27E, and time zone GMT +1.0 Hours.
Results and discusion

By the use of the exergy optimization the maximum value of the exergy
efficiency degree of the solar system for heating the SWH is determined. The
maximum exergy efficiency degree, analogous to the maximum value of the solar
share in the function of the slope and azimuth angle, is achieved by placing the solar
receiver to the optimum position. The values of the solar shares as the function of
the aim with the exergy optimization are the same as with energy optimization.
The deficit of the avoided exergy in the function of the deviation of the slope
angle and azimuth at the optimum slope angle and azimuth for Belgrade is shown in
fig 2. Figure 2 shows that when and a, departs below ,opt and a,pt for and
a,,the avoided exergy is lower than that when a departs above ,opt and a,pt
305
for , respectively a [17]. Analyzing the maximum exergy on the annual level
for the solar systems for heating DHW with SC#1, SC#2 for Belgrade, the difference
of the maximum values of the avoided exergy for the solar system for heating SWH
with SC#2 in comparison with SC#1 is obtained. For SC#2, the difference is by 7 %
higher in comparison to the achieved results with the stationary receiver. The
analyzed solar systems for heating DHW with SC#1 is the immobile stationary solar
receiver which operates on one slope angle throughout the year. The values = opt
= 28.75 and opt = 25 and thus f = fmx = 35.8 % are given for Belgrade, Serbia.
25
20 Larger angles (annual deficit)

Deficit in avoided exergy, %
15 Smaller angles (annual deficit)
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Departure angles from the optimal position solar collector, deg
Figure 2 - Deficit avoided exergy versus departures angles from the optimal positi-
on of the solar collector for SDHWS in Belgrade, Serbia
As one of the important indicators of the exergy flows in the analyzed solar
system is the ratio of the necessary and obtained exergy as has been mentioned befo-
re. The figure 3 shows the values of the necessary and obtained exergy for the solar
systems for heating DHW with SC#1, SC#2 in the function of the number of the
optimum slope angle and the optimum azimuth angles. Thus, we have that the solar
system for heating DHW with SC#1, the value of the necessary exergy is 4.6 times
bigger than the value of the obtained exergy. For the solar system for heating DHW
with SC#2, for the period X-IV when we have the work SC#2 October to 14th April,
the value of the necessary exergy by 5.89 times bigger than the value of the obtained
exergy, and for the solar system for heating DHW with SC#2 for the period from
IV-X when we have the work SC#2 from 15th April to 14th October, by 4.3 times.
The striving is to reduce this ratio in order to obtain the bigger exergy values.
By the use of the additional analysis due to the changes in the warm water
consumption, the temperature of the hot water in the boiler, the consumption timeta-
ble, i.e. the consumption of the hot water by the end consumers can influence the
reduction of this ratio and on the obtaining the optimum values of the exergy
306
exploitation degree of the solar system. The exergy exploitation degree, x for the
investigated solar system at the already set conditions (the consumption of the hot
water, the timetable of the hot water consumption, the set hot water temperature) has
the value of 1.3 % for the solar system for heating DHW with SC#1. The exergy
degree of exploitation of the system is somewhat bigger than when compared with
Xiaowu and Ben [17] investigated solar system. As can be noted Xiaowu and Ben
exergy efficiency degree takes the value of 0.77 %. Their value is somewhat smaller
due to the bad quality of the exit energy. The accumulation boiler shows great
exergy loss due to the mixing of water and is perhaps possible to redesign in other to
reduce the unnecessary mixing. It is possible to increase the exergy efficiency of the
system for heating DHW by the change of the dimensions of the receiving solar
panel as for example in [17]. The exergy efficiency of the system for DHW can also
be increased by the increase in the number of coverings. By maximizing the solar
share in this doctoral dissertation, with the maximum solar receiver efficiency it is
possible to obtain bigger values of the exergy efficiency of the solar system for
DHW. Taking into consideration the exergy flows in the research, exergy efficiency
of the DHW system, when we predominantly use SC#2, is even better.
3500
3245
3000
Needed exergy
2500
obtained exergy
Exergy,
2000
1627 1627
1500
1000
703
500 428
276
0
(annual) (IV-X) (X-IV)
Figure 3 Needed and obtained exergy optimizing the solar system for heating
DHW with SC#1, SC#2
Conclusion
To use SDHWS with benefit, it has to be optimally designed, installed, and
operated. In this paper, it is analyzed how the SDHWS can be optimally installed by
using EnergyPlus software with the modified Hooke Jeeves direct search
methodology. As an example, Hooke-Jeeves algorithm is used to obtain the
307
maximum amounts of these performances for different SDHWS as a function of
number of optimum positions of the solar collector in SDHWS during year for the
city of Belgrade, Serbia.
By the exergy optimization the maximum exergy exploitation degree, analo-
gus with the maximum value of the solar share in the function of the slope angle and
azimuth, is achieved by positioning the solar collector to its optimum position. The
energy degree of exploitation, x for the analyzed solar system, according to the
beforehand set tasks (the hot water consumption, the hot water use schedule, the set
warm water temperatures) has the value 1.3 % for the solar heating system for SWH
with SC#1.
Acknowledgement
This paper is a result of three projects: TR33015, III 42006, and COST action
TU1205-BISTS. The projects TR33015 and III 42006 are financed by the Ministry
of Education, Science, and Technological Development of Republic of Serbia. The
COST action TU1205-BISTS is supported by EU. The authors thank to the all insti-
tutions for their financial support.
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309
ODRIVO PROJEKTOVANA KLIMATIZOVANA
DAMIJA RADI TOPLOTNE UGODNOSTI
SUSTAINABLE DESIGNED AIR-CONDITIONED MOSQUE
FOR THERMAL COMFORT
Redhwan N. AL-GABRI,
Researcher, Cairo University, Cairo i
Essam E. KHALIL,
Professor of Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Cairo University
Ovaj rad se prvenstveno bavi analizom, simulacijom protoka vazduha i toplo-
tnim obrascima u jednoj damiji. Posveen je numerikom istraivanju uticaja broja
ljudi na svojstva protoka vazduha u damiji. Sadraj je posveen obrascima protoka
vazduha, toplotnom ponaanju i irenju ugljen-dioksida u damiji u kojoj se nalazi
veliki broj vernika. Efikasnost sistema protoka vazduha se obino ocenjuje po uspe-
nom prelasku osetnog i latentnog optereenja sa prisutnih kao i dostizanju zagae-
nja vazduha do propisanog nivoa, ostvarenju uslova toplotne ugodnosti oveka i
poboljanju kvaliteta unutranjeg vazduha. Komercijalno pakovan pod sa montira-
nom klimatizacionom jedinicom je tipina jedinica za takvu primenu zahvaljujui
prednostima koje ima nad ostalim sistemima i jedinicama KGH. Prouavani su
mnogi razliiti sluajevi zbog promene broja osoba, sa takoe razliitim distribuci-
jama za klimatizacione jedinice. Svaki sluaj je otkrivao uticaj broja osoba na uku-
pne nivoe ugodnosti vernika. Uinak klimatizacionog sistema karakteriu modeli
vazdunog strujanja, temperatura, konture relativne vlanosti, koncentracija ugljen-
dioksida kao i korieni parametri ugodnosti PMV i PPD bazirani na Fangerovom
modelu; to je bio glavni cilj tokom nastajanja ovog rada.
Studija je izvedena primenom simulacionih tehnika kompjuterske dinamike
fluida (engl. CFD) kao ugraenih u komercijalno raspoloivi kod CFD (FLUENT
15). Tehnike modeliranja CFD reile su kontinuitet, impuls i jednaine ouvanja
energije, pored jednaina RNG k za zatvaranje turbulencije.
Kljune rei: CFD; toplotna ugodnost; model strujanja; damija
The present paper was concerned primarily with the analysis, simulation of
the air flow and thermal patterns in a mosque. The paper is devoted to numerically
investigate the influence of persons number on airflow properties in a mosque. The
work focuses on airflow patterns, thermal behavior and carbon dioxide dispersion in
a mosque where a large number of worshippers stand. The effectiveness of an
airflow system is commonly assessed by the successful removal of sensible and
latent loads from occupants in addition to attaining air pollutant at a prescribed
level to attain the human thermal comfort conditions and to improve the indoor air
quality. Commercially packaged floor mounted an air conditioning unit is a typical
311
unit for such applications, due to the advantages it possesses over other types of
HVAC systems and units. Many different cases for change in a number of persons,
with also different distributions for the air conditioning units were investigated.
Each case revealed the impact of persons number on the overall comfort levels for
worshippers. The performance of the air conditioning system is characterized by
airflow patterns, temperature, relative humidity contours and CO2 concentration as
well as the most commonly used comfort parameters PMV and PPD based on Fan-
ger model; this is the main target during the present paper work. The study is carri-
ed out using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation techniques as embed-
ded in the commercially available CFD code (FLUENT 15). The CFD Modelling
techniques solved the continuity, momentum and energy conservation equations in
addition to RNG k model equations for turbulence closure.
Key words: CFD, Thermal Comfort, Flow Patterns, Mosques
1. Introduction
0B
This paper focuses on investigating the air flow regimes, thermal behaviors
and carbon dioxide concentration in air-conditioned mosque aiming to achieve the
thermal comfort conditions for worshippers. Thermal comfort is a condition of mind
that expresses satisfaction with the surrounding environment, the most commonly
used indicator of thermal comfort is air temperature because it is most easy to use
and people can relate to it, [1]. Although it has vital importance, however, it is not
the only parameter that can be used to define thermal comfort very accurately. Air
temperature should always be considered in relation to other environmental and
personal factors. ASHRAE standard 55/2013 and ISO 7730/2005, [2], have been
widely adopted as international thermal comfort standards.
These standards are based on a human energy balance obtained by assuming
steady-state conditions. Those are deduced from the experiments conducted by
Fanger [3]. In climatic chambers, using predicted mean vote (PMV) and Predicted
Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) to estimate the human mean response to the thermal
environment from six thermal variables. These related indices are based on a combi-
nation and interaction between environmental and personal parameters. These para-
meters are independent of each other but they have a great impact on sustaining
thermal comfort. The six parameters are: air temperature, air velocity, radiant tempe-
rature, relative humidity, metabolic rate and clothing insulation [1].
2. Applications for Comfort Air Conditioning

1B
Due to the psychological nature of thermal comfort, it may affect the overall
morale of occupants in a building or place. Significant number of scientific papers
exist dealing with these applications in various indoor environments, such as compu-
ter room ,Abanto et al,[4], buildings ,Chen 2009, [5], classroom ,Pereira et al,[6] and
Lecture Rooms, Abou-Deif et al,[7], in addition to other applications. Hussain et al,
[8] evaluated the thermal environment in an air-conditioned masjid in Malaysia
312
during the various daily operating periods [8]. Bakhlah and Hassan [9] investigated
and observed the indoor air temperature conditions through the field study on main
worshipper hall of King Khalid mosque, Penang, Malaysia .Budaiwi and Abdou [10]
investigated the impact of operational zoning and HVAC system intermittent opera-
tion strategies on the energy performance of mosques while thermal comfort was
maintained. Energy simulation modeling was used for evaluating alternative zoning
and HVAC operation strategies. Results indicate that up to 23% reduction in annual
cooling energy was achieved by employing suitable HVAC operation strategy and
system over-sizing, and 30% reduction was achieved by appropriate operational
zoning, Khalil et al [11] utilizing a numerical investigation, addressed the factors
affecting the air outlets position, size and orientation in various places of worship. A
commercial CFD package was utilized with more than 1000000 tetrahedral grid
volumes. The activity level, position of occupant and arrangement in the designated
spaces were among the parameters investigated. The performance of the air conditi-
oning system was characterized by air flow patterns, temperature and relative
humidity contours as well as the PMV and PPD [12].
3. Characteristics of Mosques
2B
The common specifications and design features of mosques in Islamic world

can be mainly described as below:
Shape: Every mosque has a Mihrab, a niche in the wall that indicates the
direction of Kaaba (Qibla) in the city of Makkah, Saudi Arabia, the direction
towards which Muslims pray, and there is no door on this wall in most mosques.
Minarets are highly visible and are closely identified with mosques. Normally there
is a large square or rectangular worshipper area and the roof consists of a single
large dome on pendentives, there are also other forms of designs according to each
country's architectural designs.
Zoning: Typically one zone for small daily worshipper mosques. Two zones
for medium mosques, small one for daily worshippers and a large zone for Friday
worshipper every week. Three zones for large mosques, small one for daily
worshippers and a large zone for Friday worshipper. In addition, Third zone is for
women, which could be a partial second floor or a zone in the back end of the main
worshipper zone. An ablution area is usually attached to the mosque.
Air-conditioning type: Type A/C units for small size mosques and split DX
units to central systems for large size mosques.
Internal loads: Mainly from people and lighting without loads from the
equipment.
Occupancy: On average ranges as (0.65 - 0.72 m2/person).
Operating schedule: Typically five times daily intermittent occupancy with
an average of one to two hours for each occupancy.
Inside conditions: (23 -26 C) and (50 -55%) relative humidity [1].
313
4. Mathematical modeling
Governing Equations
The main governing equations are continuity, momentum (Navier stokes
equations), energy, and species concentrations which are described as follows:

+ =0

() ()
+ =
+ +

() ()
+ =
+ +

() ()
+ =
+

+

() ( )
+ = + ++

() ( )
+ = +

Turbulence Modeling1B
The form of the RNG (k ) model as follows:

() + ( ) = + + +

And the following (simplified) model equation for was commonly used:
2
() + ( ) = + 1 ( + 3 ) 2 +

= ( / + / )( / ) , = ( )/( ) , =
3 (1/ ) 2
,
1+ 3
12 1
= , = 2 , = ( + )
2
Turbulence Model Constants:

12B
1 = 1.42, 2 = 1.68, 3 = 1.0, C =0.0845, k = 1.393, =1.393, t=

0.7, o= 4.38, and = 0.012
Thermal Comfort Factors
13B
PMV-PPD model incorporated here assumes steady state energy balance; it

describes the thermal comfort of the human in grouped ceremonies, these parameters
are described as follows:
Where PMV denotes the Predicted Mean Vote, while PPD refers to Predicted
Percentage Dissatisfied.
314
= [0.352 . [(0.036 . )] + 0.028]{( ) 3.05[5.73 0.007(
) ] 0.42[( ) 58.15] 0.0173(5.87 ) 0.0014(34
) 3.96 108 [( + 273)4 ( + 273)4 ] ( )}
= 100 95[(0.03353 4 + 0.2179 2 )]
Seven-point thermal sensation scale of the PMV values proposed by
ASHRAE [2] and Fanger [3] as, (-3) cold, (-2) cool, (-1) slightly cool, (0) neutral,
(1) slightly warm, (2) warm, and (3) hot. Thus, PPD is in the range from 0% to
+99.12%.
5. Assessment of Validity
The validation presented here was based on prediction of the work of Abou-
Deif et al.[7]. They used the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and measurement
technique to simulate and analyze the indoor airflow on the lecture room at building
number 17" Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, which has main dimensions
as shown in the following Fig. 1. One place was chosen to perform measurements a
plane passing with a supply grill by them. A vertical plane perpendicular to the
supply grill of air conditioner number 3 to show the decay in inlet air velocity and
temperature variation downstream. This plane was taken to pass with a supply grill
of air conditioner number 3. Measuring points are selected at each 20 cm on this
plane. Temperature and velocity are measured at 110 points in this plane. The
layouts of these measuring points are shown in Fig. 2. The conditioned air is suppli-
ed to the room through four air conditioners with outside dimensions as shown in
Fig. 3. [7].
Fig. 1. Lecture Room Configuration [7].
315
Fig. 2. Lines Of Measurements Near Supply Grill [7].
Fig. 3. Air Conditioner Configuration [7] .

Figures (4.a, 4.b) show comparisons between measured, predicted air tempe-
rature profiles and air velocity by Abou-Deif and present work at line 5.
Comparison between previous experimental, numerical results obtained using
CFD code (Fluent 6.2 by Abou-Deif and present numerical results obtained using
CFD code (Fluent 15by present work) has been presented in this work. This compa-
rison shows a good agreement between the results of the different CFD codes with
addition to the advantages of the used CFD code (Fluent 15) as multi-dimensions,
unlimited number of mesh volumes, ability to simulate complicated geometries and
options to display the results. For the measuring points, the average velocity and
temperature prediction errors were calculated are equal to 0.04 , 0.07 m/s and 0.5 C
,0.17 C by Abou-Deif and present work, respectively.
line 5
12
10
Velocity (m/s)
8
6
4
2
0
1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2 2,2 2,4 2,6 2,8
Height (m)
Fig. 4.a. Comparison between Measured and Predicted Air Velocities Profiles.
316
line 5
14,5
14
Temperature (C)
13,5
13
12,5
12
11,5
11
1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2 2,2 2,4 2,6 2,8
Height (m)
Fig. 4.b. Comparison between Measured and Predicted Air Temperatures Profiles.
6. Numerical Simulations
5B
The mosque is located in Cairo, with area of 279 m2 and a height of 6 m,

with maximum capacity (around 286 worshippers), after the minus of a private space
for books, Imam room, spaces for air conditioners and shoes etc. In most Islamic
countries, participation in congregational worshiped in mosques is very common.
This is considered as a basic assumption step, in order to facilitate calculations.
Therefore, a worshiper body in a standing posture is modeled as a vertical rectangu-
lar box enveloping the body with dimensions 1.7 [m] height x 0.25 [m] width x 0.5
[m] length as shown in Fig. 5. The Mosque is Air-Conditioned with commercial
floor (free-Stand units), each of cooling capacity 12.25 kW cooling. The units are
modeled with typical dimensions of 2 [m] height x 0.4 [m] width x 0.6 [m] length,
such that supply air grille is of typical dimensions 0.3 [m] height x 0.6 [m] length,
while return air grille is of typical dimensions 0.9 [m] height x 0.6 [m] length and
height from the ground level to floor of A/C units 0.3 [m] , in cases (1 and 2) the
mosque is air conditioned with 6 commercial A/C units.
The number of units is reduced to 2 and 3 when the occupancy is reduced to
143 and to 72 worshippers in the mosque, respectively. This configuration is used
here as an initial trial for being the simplest in geometry. The number of person (P)
in each the row (R): for case 1(R, R2)=(39,32 P) and for case 2 (R1,R2,R3,R4)=
(39,44,46,13 P) and Imam, respectively as shown in Figures 6 and 7 here after.
317
Fig. 5. Simulation of Worshiper Body in A Standing Position
and Consequently A Row of Worshiper.
Fig. 6. Mosque Simulation with 25 % From the Mosque Capacity

Utilizing 5A/C units
Fig. 7. Mosque Simulation with 50 % From the Mosque Capacity

utilizing 6 A/C units.
318
Boundary Conditions
Fangers model as a prediction tool for thermal comfort assumes a steady sta-
te conditions. Thus, the indoor initial and boundary conditions are simply assumed
according to moderate summer conditions [1].
Table 1: Boundary Conditions Details.
Boundary value
Roof Temperature 306 [K].
Walls Temperature 305 [K].
Floor Temperature 302[K].
Outlet Air Temperature 285.8 [K]
3
Air Flow Rate 1800 [m /h]
2
Lights 20.7 [W/m ]
Initial Air Temperature 304 [K]
Table 2: Occupant Data Details.

Occupant Data value
Gender Male
Activity Type Standing, Relaxed
Metabolic Rate 1.2 [Met].
Skin Temperature 307 [K]
Breathing Rate 8 L/Min
Species Mass Fraction From Mouth 0.042 Kgw / Kgdda
Co2 Concentration In The Human Respiration 0.03715 Lco2/La
7. Results and Discussion

6B
(Case 1) Horizontal Plane (XY) at 1.6 m from Floor Level.

In this case the occupancy is 25% of the mosque capacity with 5 air conditio-
ning units in operation.
Figure 8 below shows the thermal pattern in terms of air temperature at 1.6 m
above the finished floor. Temperatures were predicted to be in the vicinity of 24oC
that provided comfort for the occupants.
319
Fig. 8. Predicted Air Temperature Contours (K), Case 1
The corresponding relative humidity is indicated in Figure 9 and it can be
noticed that the air streams from the air conditioning units are well identified and
indicated higher relative humidity which is expected as cold air has generally higher
relative humidity.
Fig. 9. Predicted Relative Humidity contours (%), Case 1

On the other hand Figure 10 indicated the predicted Mean vote PMV conto-
urs, a value between 0.5 and 0.5 identify thermal comfort. Away from the
downstream of the air jets, the PMV attained values of thermal comfort for the
occupants indicated by the two horizontal lines.
Hence the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) attained an acceptable level in most
locations inside the mosque.
Fig. 10. Predicted Mean Vote Contours .Case 1

An important parameter is the air velocities that transfer the energy from one
location to another in the mosque. It should be noted that the air velocities should not
320
exceed 0.25 m/s at occupancy level to ensure thermal comfort and eliminate drafts and
high speeds. The jets from the air supply grilles results in higher air velocities as indi-
cated in Figure 11, where velocities of the order of 1.0 m/s were observed.
Fig. 11. Predicted Air Velocity Contours (m/s), case 1.

The predicted air temperature, relative humidity and velocity magnitudes in
front of Air conditioners were (290K, 66%, 1.4 m/s) as shown in Figures 8,9 and
11, respectively.
Predicted PPD % contours are shown in Figure 12 with levels between 10-
20% that confirms the comfort level.
Fig.12. Predicted Percentage Dissatisfaction PPD Contours %, Case 1

Finally for the present base case of 25% occupancy, the contours of the pre-
dicted CO2 concentrations are shown in Figure 13.
Fig. 13 . Predicted CO2 Concentrations, Case 1
321
(Case 2) Horizontal Plane (XY) at 1.6 m from Floor Level.
In this case the occupancy is 50% of the mosque capacity with 6 air conditio-
ning units in operation.
Figure 14 below shows the thermal pattern in terms of air temperature at 1.6
m above the finished floor. Temperatures were predicted to be in the vicinity of
24oC that provided comfort for the occupants
Fig. 14. Predicted Air Temperature Contours (K), Case 2

The corresponding relative humidity is indicated in Figure 15 and it can be
noticed that the air streams from the air conditioning units are well identified and
indicated higher relative humidity which is expected as cold air has generally higher
relative humidity.
Fig. 15. Predicted Relative Humidity contours (%), Case 2

On the other hand Figure 16 indicated the predicted Mean vote PMV conto-
urs, a value between 0.5 and 0.5 identify thermal comfort. Away from the
downstream of the air jets, the PMV attained values of thermal comfort for the
occupants indicated by the two horizontal lines.
Hence the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) attained an acceptable level in most
locations inside the mosque.
322
Fig. 16. Predicted Mean Vote Contours .Case 2
An important parameter is the air velocities that transfer the energy from one
location to another in the mosque. It should be noted that the air velocities should
not exceed 0.25 m/s at occupancy level to ensure thermal comfort and eliminate
drafts and high speeds. The jets from the air supply grilles results in higher air velo-
cities as indicated in Figure 17, where velocities of the order of 1.0 m/s were obser-
ved.
Fig. 17. Predicted Velocity Contours (m/s)., Case 2
Fig. 18. Predicted PPD Contours (%), Case 2.

Air temperature, PMV and PPD magnitudes are increasing and RH magnitu-
des is decreasing at rows of worshippers relative to the other region due to the gene-
rated heat from humans as shown in Figures 14,15,16,17 and 18, respectively.
323
Fig. 19. Predicted CO2 Concentrations, Case 2.
CO2 concentrations are increasing due to respiration of humans in the mosque
but stays within the allowed range.
The corresponding vertical section in the mosque at x=12.5 m for case 2 with
4 rows of worshipers is shown here in Figure 20.
Fig. 20. Predicted Cross sectional view of Temperature Contours (K) ,

Case 2 at x=12.5 m.
High temperatures observed near the roof of the mosque top are due to the
effects of ceiling mounted lighting fixtures and thermal conductivity from the roof.
Figure 21 presents the corresponding relative humidity distributions at the same
section.
Respi-
Fig. 21. Predicted Cross Sectional View Of Relative Humidity Contours (%),
Case 2.
The differences shown for the air Rh values from bottom to top can be attri-
buted to the effect of the gravitational force and the density of air.
The average temperatures are (295.73, 295.01K), average PMV are (0.564,
0.406) and average PPD is (10.64%) in the horizontal plane at Z= 1.6 m as shown in
324
Figures 8, 14, 10 and 16), respectively. Air temperature, PMV and PPD magnitudes
are increasing and RH magnitudes is decreasing from bottom (floor) to top (roof)
due to effect of the gravity force on the density of air and generated heat from the
lights and thermal conductivity from roof of the mosque .
8. Conclusions
From the previous chapters and according to the results obtained using the
numerical investigation, the following conclusions can be expressed concerning
different mosques configurations:
1. The increase in a number of worshippers showed a significant negative
effect on the thermal comfort, thus number of worshippers increasing in
the mosque leads to increase in convection required for thermal comfort
and therefore we need more conditioning units for worshippers thermal
comfort. In addition, the CO2 concentration increases in the mosque be-
cause of worshippers breathing, but stays within the allowed range.
2. Rows of worshippers act like a barrier or obstacle to the movement of air
inside the mosque, which leads to the existence of dead zones and the air
distribution between worshippers is non-homogenous , this requires ad-
ditional convection, therefore it is preferred to wear clothes which do not
prevent the movement of air.
3. Using wall mounted air-conditioners may attain thermal comfort with
reduction of the consumed energy due to its proximity to the occupied or
busy zone, especially in mosques with high-ceilings. Also the effect of
gravitational forces, the mosque height will be divided into several ther-
mal layers, the lower layers ((from floor to middle height (0-3 m)) will
be thermally comfortable as it is the zone of the worshippers and upper
layers will be warm, the height of the air supplier inlets should be located
as low as possible (i.e. around 2.3 m above the floor level).
4. Desired values for thermal sensation scales PMV and PPD of Fangers
model can be used as set points to control and adjust HVAC systems in
order to reduce the energy consumption.
9. Nomenclature
D Diameter of the air jet , m
I Enthalpy kJ/kg
T Temperature , K
Greek Symbols
Air Dynamic Viscosity, Pa.s
Air Density, kg/m3
Subscripts
0 Reference value
325
10. References
[1] AL-Gabri, R. N., Numerical Investigation of Flow Patterns and Thermal
Comfort in Air-Conditioned Mosque, (MSc Thesis), University of Cairo, 2015.
[2] *** ASHRAE Standard 55: Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human
Occupancy, ASHRAE, 2013
[3] Fanger, P.O., Thermal Comfort: Analysis and Application in Environmental
Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1972.
[4] J. Abanto, D. Barrero, M. Reggio, and B.Ozell, "Air flow modeling in a
computer room", Building and Environment 39, pp.1393 1402, 2004.
[5] Q. Chen, Ventilation performance prediction for buildings: A method
overview and recent applications, Building and Environment, 44(4), pp.848-
858, 2009.
[6] Pereira, M. L., Vilain, R., and Tribes, A., Thermal comfort conditions in a
room ventilated with split system numerical and experimental analysis, In
14th Brazilian Congress of Thermal Sciences and Engineering, Rio de Janeiro,
RJ, Brazi, pp.18-22, 2012.
[7] Abou-Deif, T. M., Fouad, M. A., and Khalil, E. E., Numerical Investigation
of Flow Patterns and Thermal Comfort in Air-Conditioned Lecture Rooms,
International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 7(5), PP.426-431,
June 2013
[8] Hussain, A., Salleh, E., Chan, H.Y. and Mat, S., Thermal Comfort during
daily worshipper times in an air-conditioned Mosque in Malaysia, In Procee-
dings of 8th Windsor Conference: Counting the Cost of Comfort in a changing
world , pp.10-13, 2014.
[9] M.S. Bakhlah, and A. S Hassan, The Study of Air Temperature When the
Sun Path Direction to Kaabah: with a Case Study of Al-Malik Khalid Mosque,
Malaysia, International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, &
Applied Sciences & Technologies, 2012.
[10] I. Budaiwi, A. Abdou, HVAC system operational strategies for reduced
energy consumption in buildings with intermittent occupancy: The case of
Mosques, Energy Conversion and Management 73, pp.: 3750, 2013.
[11] Khalil, E.E., Huzayyin, O. A., Ragab, R. H., Air Flow in Places of
Worship, ASHRAE Transactions, ASHRAE 2013, DE-13-C021, June 2013.
[12] Khalil, E.E., Air Distribution in Buildings, Taylor and Francis, CRC Press,
USA, 2013.
326
SPOLJANJE HLAENJE ZA POSTIZANJE
TOPLOTNOG KOMFORA OKO GLEDALACA
U KLIMATIZOVANIM SPORTSKIM OBJEKTIMA
OUTDOOR COOLING FOR THERMAL COMFORT AROUND
SPECTATORS IN AIR CONDITIONED SPORT FACILITIES
Essam E. KHALIL
Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Cairo University,
Cairo-Egypt, khalile1@asme.org
U toku je napredak u razvoju klimatizacionih sistema u sportskim objektima pri-
menom nekoliko tehnologija za hlaenje unutranjeg/spoljanjeg prostora, kao to su
stadioni i sportske arene, radi utede energije i obezbeivanja toplotnog komfora. Najo-
zbiljniji izazov za klimatizaciju spoljanjeg prostora jeste tekoa da se reguliu tempe-
ratura i vlanost na otvorenom prostoru, kao i ogromna koliina energija koju troi
rashladni sistem. Glavni zadatak kod analiziranog modela bio je da se obezbedi bolji
metod za rasporeivanje vazduha kojim se postiu ugodni uslovi sredine za igrae i
gledaoce unutar sportskog objekata. Cilj ovoga rada jeste da ispita tehnike aspekte
kojima se studija bavi, kako bi se prouila efikasnost kliamtizacionog sistema pomou
pravila raunarske dinamike fluida (CFD), s ciljem da se odredi najbolji nain za raspo-
reivanje ulaznih otvora za vazduh i simulira vazduna struja, da bi se spreavanjem
visoke temperature i vlanosti postigao prihvatljiv komfor za ljude. Dati su primeri za
arenu za skvo, teren za rukomet i fudbalske terene. U ovom radu se numeriki ispituje
uticaj mesta i broja dovodnih i odvodnih otvora za klimatizaciju na kvalitet vazdune
struje u prostoru za gledaoce unutar sportskog objekta. Ovaj rad je usmeren na
predvianje obrazaca vazdunog strujanja i toplotnog ponaanja kroz ispitivanje reima
strujanja vazduha i sadraja vlage unutar prostora za gledaoce. Takoe, u radu se
ispituje ponaanje prenosa toplote kroz analizu profila temperature i relativne vlanosti
unutar tog prostora. U ovom istraivanju su korienje tehnike simulacije raunarske
dinamike fluida (CFD).
Advances on developing air conditioning systems in sports facilities by employing

several technologies to cool the indoor/ outdoor spaces such as stadiums and sports
arenas is underway to save energy and provide thermal comfort . The most serious chal-
lenge of air conditioning in outdoor spaces is the difficulty to control the temperature
and humidity in the open spaces and also the enormous energy needed by the cooling
system. The main task for the analysed model was to ensure the better method to distri-
bute air to achieve the human comfortable for players and spectators inside the sport
facility .The present work aimed to investigate the technical aspects addressed to study
the air conditioning system effectiveness using Computational Fluid Dynamics CFD
code to determine the best way to distribute the air inlets and simulating the flows in air
to overcome the high temperature and humidity to reach acceptable human comfort.
327
Examples are given here for squash arenas, handball playground and soccer fields. The
current paper numerically investigates the influence of location and number of air condi-
tioning supply and extracts openings on air flow properties in spectators area within
sport facility. The present work focuses on predicting air flow patterns and thermal
behaviour through investigating of the air flow regimes and moisture content inside the
spectators area. Furthermore, the work investigates the heat transfer behaviour through
analysing temperature and relative humidity profiles within the area. The present inves-
tigation made use of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation techniques.
Introductory remarks
The present investigation addresses the air flow distribution and its properties
in air-conditioned spectators' areas in squash courts and soccer playgrounds. The
parametric studies on this application are based on understanding the effect of
changing supply/extract grilles positions on flow regimes, temperature and relative
humidity and to compare these values within the occupied zones with the recom-
mended standards and thermal comfort values, [1-7]. As recirculatory flows and
stagnant zones can cause human discomfort, it is best to reduce or eliminate these
zones. The game of squash was historically developed based on other pre-existing
racquet sports. Football games are very popular worldwide, now many of the foot-
ball arenas are air conditioned for the comfort of occupants. Occupancy issues in
newly developed sports stadia and leisure complexes are becoming increasingly
paramount, particularly with regard to comfort, health and safety, as well as sustain-
able development, in terms of capital cost and energy consumption. The needs and
comfort of these building occupants have to be addressed just as stringently as
those who use internal areas such as restaurants and function areas. Occupant com-
fort in mechanically ventilated environments is affected by the air temperature, rela-
tive humidity, the air movement and solar radiation, [9-12]. In the open literature,
previous works reported applications of CFD modelling techniques to predict and
achieve the best degree of ventilation, occupancy comfort, and fire and health safety
conformance during the process of environment design of sports arenas and stadia as
well as other occupied zones. Few attempts were reported for Squash courts, [13].
Many programs were developed for CFD numerical investigations of flow and heat
transfer inside occupied zones; such as FLUENT [12], ANSYS, CFX, STAR-CD,
CFDS-FL0W3D, VORTEX, EXP'AIR, 3DHVAC, PHOENICS, and ESTET [13].In
the present work ANSYS is utilized.
Numerical investigation
The current work focuses on air flow modelling inside squash arenas specta-
tors area as a specific application. The CFD modelling technique used in the present
work solved the equations:
328
1. Continuity equation, which can be generally formulated as:
( u ) ( u ) ( w)
+ + + 0
=
t x y z
2. Momentum equation, which have the following forms in the 3 Cartesian x ,y and
z coordinates ,neglecting buoyancy:
Du P t xx t yx t zx
= gx + + +
Dt x x y z
D P t xy t yy t zy
= gy + + +
Dt y x y z
Dw P t xz t yz t zz
= gz + + +
Dt z x y z
3. And energy conservation equation:

Dh DP
= + div ( k T ) +
Dt Dt
Where,
g Gravitational acceleration, m/s2
h Enthalpy, kJ/kg
Density, kg/m3
u, , w Instantaneous velocity components in x, y, and z-directions respectively, m/s
P Pressure, Pa
Shear Stress, kg/m.s2
k Turbulent kinetic energy, m2/s2 Thermal conductivity coefficient, W/m oK
4. In addition, standard k model equations for turbulence closure were solved
5. Also, chemical species concentration distribution was investigated for CO2.
Squash Courts
The first example is carried out on a two level spectators area that is de-
signed to be common between two standard single squash courts as shown in figure
1. The numerical procedures followed, [14-19], solved the aforementioned govern-
ing integral equations for the conservation of mass, momentum, energy and other
scalars such as turbulence, [20-22] and chemical species. Where a control-volume-
based technique is used that consists of:
Division of the domain into discrete control volumes using a computa-
tional grid.
329
Figure 1. Configuration and main dimensions for spectators area of squash arena
Integration of the governing equations on the individual control volumes
to construct algebraic equations for the discrete dependent variables such
as velocities, pressure, temperature, and conserved scalars.
Linearization of the discretized equations and solution of the resultant
linear equation system to yield updated values of the dependent varia-
bles.
The geometry construction and grid generation during this study is carried
out by utilizing ANSYS 14 program to perform uniform three-dimensional fine
tetrahedral finite volumes mesh. Then exported this meshing into ANSYS 14 pro-
gram, [12] to solve the governing equations (after specifying the boundary, internal
and initial conditions for the constructed geometry) then simulate the flow patterns
inside the case studies. The segregated solution algorithm was used in the current
work. Using this algorithm, the governing (continuity, momentum, and energy)
equations are solved sequentially. Because the governing equations are non-linear
(and coupled), several iterations of the solution loop must be performed before a
converged solution is obtained. Each iteration consists of the steps illustrated in
Figure 3 outlined below. In the segregated solution method each discrete governing
equation is linearized implicitly with respect to that equation's dependent variable.
This will result in a system of linear equations with one equation for each cell in the
domain. Because there is only one equation per cell, this is sometimes called a "sca-
lar'' system of equations. In summary, the segregated approach solves for a single
variable field (e.g. P) by considering all cells at the same time. It then solves for the
next variable field by again considering all cells at the same time, and so on. There
is no explicit option for the segregated solver in ANSYS, [12].
A design option is to locate a number of supply and return air ports on the
ceiling as indicated in Figure 2. Both supply and return ports are located in the court
ceiling (Figure 2), a second option is to locate the supply air on the back wall ,while
330
the return ports are in the side walls (Figure 3), and the third option is a mixed sup-
ply from both ceiling and side walls ,similarly are the return ports, (Figure 4). The
selection of grid size was based on a grid independency check; which has been made
to guarantee the stability and robustness of the numerical model.
5 Supply ports
3 Supply ports 4 return ports
4 return ports
Figure 2: Case 1 configurations
4 return
4 return ports
4 Supply ports
Figure 3. Case 2 configurations

Occupants models were made as shown in Figure 5. The bodies of the occu-
pants are considered isothermal walls maintained at the mean skin surface tempera-
ture 30 oC. Human body mean skin surface temperature and the expired air exits
from oval (mouth and nose) on the face are a function of the metabolic rate. While
the human face dissipated species mass fraction of 0.042 kgw /kgd.a at 37 oC (tem-
perature of body core) in order to consider the moisture gain from the person respi-
ration to the gymnasium airflow, and zero diffusive sweat mass flux from skin sur-
331
face is assumed to facilitate the study. Lights heat loads were calculated based on the
number of the lighting fixture units that are mounted at the ceiling; the light heat
flux is set to a value of 250 W/m2 for an area of 0.36 m2. . Modelling of spectators
in this work is based on full load design and it is assumed that no free spaces are
between setting spectators' bodies in the same raw. This check is made through
comparisons of the same design case but for different grid sizes. The comparison is
made along a horizontal line plotted along the spectators zone above the upper
balcony, which is an important location as occupied zone. The check showed that a
grid size of 6700000 cell can be used hence it will provide a stable model without
taking a very long time to be calculated and converged. Local values of carbon diox-
ide were also predicted using the present computational capabilities and the assump-
tions listed in references [23 and 24]. Examples are shown here in Figure 6 and 7
and have been developed for the aforementioned air properties for the three design
alternatives (cases). Examples for the contours are shown in Figures 6 and 7. It was
concluded that the most favourable design is that based on ceiling air supply rather
than that based on side wall air supply.
Figure 4. Case 3 configurations
Figure 5 Spectators' Body Model
332
Figure 6. Predicted velocity magnitude m/s,
And relative humidity contours Rh%, vertical plane at X= 7.5 m, Case 1
High velocity
Low velocity magni-
Figure 7 :( Case 3) velocity magnitude contours (m/s), vertical plane at Y= 2.7 m
Football Sports Stadium and HVAC System

Lekhwiya Sports Stadium is based in the city of Doha and exposed to sun
rays. The official capacity is 12,000 spectators, and the stadium is located within the
complex of the Internal Security Forces in the Duhail district of the capital Doha
[25], as shown in Figure 8. To select the locations of the air inlets and air outlets to
achieve the human comfort, Computational Fluid Dynamics techniques were used
[26-32]. Spectators' zone can be served by air conditioning systems through grilles
located at the back of the seating areas to achieve the human comfort. So far, CFD is
mainly used for the following three domains in the spectators' area:
The first Stadium case (Case 4), is to supply cold air from behind the seats
with the velocity is 15 m/s, Figure 9, and temperature is 20C with the knowledge
that the human skin temperature is about 27C and the outside air temperature is
about 40C and speed 0.5 m/s and the humidity of outside air is 70% and the per-
centage composition of the gases must be taken into account when making calcula-
tions and simulation in the CFD program.
333
Figure 8. Lekhwiya Sport Stadium in Doha [25]
Figure 9. Supply the cold air from behind the seats: Case 4, [31].
The second case (Case 5), is to supply cold air from above the seats with the
velocity is 5 m/s to 25 m/s and temperature is 18C and this difference in the supply
air velocity as a result of difference in the form of the stands, where the stands in
front row are far from the locations of the jet air nozzles and the stands in last row
are very close from the locations of the jet air nozzles so the supply air velocity in
the stands in front row is 25 m/s and the supply air velocity in the stands in last row
is 5 m/s. The human skin temperature is about 27C and the outside air temperature
is about 40C and speed 0.5 m/s and the humidity of outside air is 70%. % and the
percentage composition of the gases must be taken into account when making calcu-
lations and simulation in the CFD program. Figure 10 illustrates the case 5 of stadi-
um air conditioning, [31].
The third case, (Case 6) is to supply cold air from above the seats with the
velocity is 5 m/s to 25 m/s and temperature is 18C and in this case will be added
another source is the radiant cooling in the slab of stands to absorb the heat and keep
the temperature of stands, where the pipes are embedded in the slab concrete and the
diameter of pipes are 15mm and the cold water temperature is about 6C flows
through the pipes. The supply air velocity in the stands in front row is 25 m/s and the
334
supply air velocity in the stands in last row is 5 m/s. The human skin temperature is
about 27C and the outside air temperature is about 40C and speed 0.5 m/s and the
humidity of outside air is 70% and the percentage composition of gases must be
taken into account when making calculations and simulation in the CFD program.
The following Figure 11 illustrates the case 6 of stadium air conditioning.
Figure 10. Supply the cold air from above and air return from behind the seats:
Case 5
Figure 11. Supply the cold air from above and air return from behind the seats and
radiant cooling in the slab of stands Case 6, [31].
Case 4: Supply the cold air from behind the seats

These results will present by the following figure and note that the distribu-
tion inside the stadium and the effects of supply cold air from behind the seats. The
following Figures 12-15 show the temperature, velocity and species of H2O and CO2
contours for this case.
335
Figure 12. Temperature contours (C) for supply cold air from behind the seats:
case 4
Figure 13. The effect of Velocity on the spectators: case 4
336
Figure 14. The distribution of H2O species on the stands: case 4
Figure 15. The distribution of CO2 species on the stands: case 4, [31].
The above figures illustrated the results; where the distribution of tempera-
ture in the stands is not suitable and note that the temperature is low about 23C
behind the chairs only. In addition, the chairs and spectators become the obstacle of
the cold air movement and shall be used the chairs that are made of materials that do
not keep the temperature such as: wood or plastic because the materials that keep the
temperature such as: metals may be harmful the spectator's back. Also note that the
distribution of humidity, where the humidity is high concentration in areas far from
the location of supply air diffusers.
Case 5: Supply the cold air from above and air return from behind the seats
This design option is presented by Figures 16-19 that show the temperature,
velocity and species of H2O and CO2 contours in vertical plane for this case.
337
Figure 16. Temperature contours (C) for supply the cold air from above and air
return from behind the seats: case 5, [31].
Figure 17. Velocity contours (m/s) for supply the cold air from above and air return
from behind the seats: case 5, [31].
338
Figure 18. Species of H2O contours for supply the cold air from above and air re-
turn from behind the seats: case 5
Figure 19. The distribution of CO2 species on the stands: case 5

The above figures illustrated the results for case 5, where the distribution of
temperature in the stands is more suitable than case 4 and note that the temperature
is 24C about spectators. In addition, the chairs and spectators don't become the
obstacle of the cold air movement. Also note that the distribution of humidity, where
the humidity is low concentration in areas of stands.
339
Case 6: Supply the cold air from above and air return from behind the seats and
radiant cooling in the slab of stands
This design option is presented by Figures 20 to 24 that show the tempera-
ture, velocity and species of H2O and CO2 contours in vertical plane for this case.
Figure 20. Temperature contours (C) for supply the cold air from above and air
return from behind the seats and radiant cooling in the slab of stands: case 6
Figure 21. Radiant temperature (C) for supply the cold air from above and air
340
Figure 22. Velocity contours (m/s) for supply the cold air from above and air return
from behind the seats and radiant cooling in the slab of stands: case 6
Figure 23. Velocity distributions for supply the cold air from above and air return
from behind the seats and radiant cooling in the slab of stands: case 6
341
Figure 24. H2O Species distributions for supply the cold air from above and air
The above figures illustrated the results, where the distribution of temperature
in the stands is more suitable than case 5 and add the radiant cooling in the slab of
stands to absorb the heat and keep the temperature of stands, where the pipes are
embedded in the concrete slab, the diameter of pipes is 15mm and the cold water
temperature is about 6C flowing through the pipes. Note that the temperature is
24C around the spectators and slab. In addition, the seats and spectators don't form
an obstacle to the cold air movement. Also note that the relative humidity distribu-
tion near the stands indicated low percentages.
Conclusions
The present work investigated the air flow regimes, temperature distributions
and relative humidity distributions inside spectators' area related to squash court.
Also, CO2 dispersion is investigated with the presence of spectators as shown earlier
It was found that supply air from above the seats with radiant cooling
could improve the thermal comfort in the Stadium. CFD simulation indi-
cated the influence of supply grilles installing positions on human com-
fort.
Chairs and Furniture should be made of wood or plastic because the ma-
terials that better transfers the heat such as metals may be harmful the
spectator's back.
Application of CFD in HVAC design is very favorable as it allows engi-
neers to visualize flow velocity, density, thermal impact and chemical
concentrations for any region where the flow occurs.
342
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344
EFIKASNI SISTEMI KGH U BOLNICAMA
Izvod iz tehnikih smernica za izgradnju
zdravstvenih objekata/bolnica
poglavlje ventilacija i klimatizacija
EFFICIENT HVAC SYSTEMS IN HOSPITALS
Extract from the technical guidelines
for construction of healthcare facilities / hospitals
chapter ventilation and air-conditioning
Egon VENKO,
direktor programa Apsolutna filtracija vazduha i
Damjan MAKUC,
voa projekta, Lindab IMP Klima, d.o.o.,
Godovi 150, SL-5275 Godovi, Slovenija
Instalacije za sisteme KGH odreuju kakve e vrste instalacija biti u objektu,
kao i zahteve u vezi sa optim i tehnikim uslovima koje moraju ispunjavati zgrada i
same instalacije. U opisima su propisani zahtevi za pojedinane vrste instalacija.
Na lokaciji graenja (Slovenija), pored vaee regulative, prilikom izrade tehnikih
smernica uzeti su u obzir i inostrani propisi u oblasti zdravstva koji su ve na snazi,
ali nisu preuzeti, npr.: DIN, VDE i VDI, ISO, Euro COde, British Standard, Health
Tehnical Memorandum i drugi. Za objekte i prostorije moraju se uzeti u obzir vaei
tehniki propisi i standardi koji su harmonizovani sa evropskom pravnom tekovi-
nom. Za propise koji navode obavezne standarde, oni se moraju uzeti u obzir. Zbog
velike potronje energije u sistemima KGH, neophodno je posvetiti panju njenoj
racionalizaciji. Svi sistemi KGH moraju imati mogunost ponovnog korienja
toplote rekuperacije.
Kljune rei: sistemi KGH; bolnica; ventilacija; kvalitet vazduha; tehnike
smernice; instalacije
Installations for HVAC systems determine the type of installations in the
building as well as the requirements related to general and technical conditions that
must be met by the building and installations. The requirements for specific types of
installations are prescribed in the descriptions. On the construction site (Slovenia),
in addition to the current regulations, when preparing the technical guidelines,
foreign regulations from the field of healthcare have been taken into account, those
that are already effective, but that have not been taken over yet, e. g.: DIN, VDE and
345
VDI, ISO, Euro COde, British Standard, Health Technical Memorandum and others.
For buildings and rooms, we must take into account the effective technical regulati-
ons and standards that have been harmonized with EU acquis communautaire. For
the regulations citing mandatory standards, the same must be taken into considera-
tion. Due to large energy consumption of HVAC systems, a special attention must be
paid to consumption rationalization. All HVAC systems must have a heat recovery
option.
Key words: HVAC&R systems; hospital; ventilation; air quality; technical
guidelines; installations
1. Opte zahtevane karakteristike ventilacionih

i klimatizacionih sistema
Za prethlaenje ako je mogue, koristi se hlaenje sa isparavanjem.
Elektrini pogoni ventilatora moraju biti frekventno regulisani. U viezon-
skim sistemima, oni moraju samostalno obezbeivati potrebnu koliinu vazduha u
pojedinim zonama.
Regulacija ventilacije moe biti voena u odnosu na konstantan protok ili u
odnosu na konstantnu razliku pritisaka (dp regulacija) u sistemu.
Pri ventilaciji je potrebno spreiti kontaminaciju dovodnog vazduha odvo-
dnim vazduhom.
Ventilacioni sistemi moraju imati filtraciju G2 ve na dovodu sveeg vaz-
duha.
Koliina i temperatura pripremljenog vazduha odreuju se prema vaeim
lokalnim propisima.
Za vlaenje vazduha koristi se higijenski besprekorna vodena para, koja se
priprema u centralnom ureaju.
2. Kvalitet i istoa vazduha

Zbog razliitih higijenskih i mikrobiolokih zahteva, u bolnicama postoje raz-
liiti stepeni filtracija:
prvi stepen: najnii kvalitet filtracije F5;
drugi stepen: najnii kvalitet filtracije F7;
trei stepen: najnii kvalitet filtracije H13.
U bolnicama su predviena dva kvaliteta istoe prostorija i trei za nezahte-
vne prostorije.
kvalitet prostora I najzahtevniji prostori (OP trakt, priprema lekova,
intenzivna nega) zahtevaju trostepenu filtraciju: F5, F7 F9 i H13;
kvalitet prostora II prostori kao to su laboratorije, bolnika odeljenja,
ambulante i sl. zahtevaju dvostepenu filtraciju F5 i F7-9:
kvalitet prostora III prostorije od sekundarnog znaaja koje slue za
pomone delatnosti (servis, administracija, skladita i dr.) zahtevaju jednostepenu
filtraciju kvaliteta G4-F5.
346
Odvodni vazduh je potrebno filtrirati samo ako je takvo filtriranje propisano
u uslovima planiranja objekta.
3. Ventilacioni i klimatizacioni sistemi

Kvalitet prostora I sistemi higijenskih karakteristika 1 moraju obezbei-
vati trostepenu filtraciju. Unutranjost ureaja mora biti higijenski besprekorna,
adekvatno zatiena ili izraena od nerajueg lima. Povrine moraju biti pogodne
za pranje, da se mogu izvlaiti i otporne na dezinfekciju. Ventilatori moraju garan-
tovati natpritisak u dovodnim i potpritisak u odvodnim granama.
Kvalitet prostora II sistemi higijenskih karakteristika 2 moraju obezbe-
ivati dvostepenu filtraciju F5 i F7-F9. Unutranjost ureaja mora biti besprekorno
obojena ili plastificirana. Povrine moraju biti dostupne i moraju se redovno istiti.
Ventilatori moraju obezbeivati natpritisak u dovodnim kanalima i potpritisak u
odvodnim kanalima.
Kvalitet prostora III normalni sistemi imaju jednostepenu filtraciju F5,
jer u higijenskom i medicinskom smislu nemaju posebnih zahteva.
4. Regulacija i centralni nadzor

Sistem mora obezbeivati rezervno runo ukljuenje pumpi i runo podea-
vanje regulacionog ventila za grejanje. Osnova za regulaciju je digitalna procesna
tehnika sa mogunou prostog programiranja. Izmeu pojedinanih ureaja u okvi-
ru sistema KGH mora biti obezbeena kompatibilna komunikacija.
5. Ventilacioni kanali
Kanali za vazduh moraju imati glatke zidove (pocinkovani lim) i moraju biti
to krai. Fleksibilne konekcije mogu postojati samo kod distribucionih elemenata i
ne smeju prelaziti duinu od 2 m. Oblik kanala mora biti to aerodinaminiji. Kanali
po treem stepenu filtracije moraju se istiti i mora biti omoguena dezinfekcija
brisanjem. Elementi kanalnog sistema (klapne, regulatori protoka) moraju biti dos-
tupni (revizioni otvori) i dobro i vidno oznaeni. Kanali za usisavanje spoljanjeg
vazduha zahtevaju II stepen zaptivanja po DIN 24194, delu 2. Moraju biti izvedeni
tako da se mogu istiti. Dovodni kanali u predelu prostorija kvaliteta I moraju obez-
beivati zaptivenost III po DIN 24194, delu 2. Kanali sa natpritiskom moraju biti to
krai i imati zaptivanje stepena II po DIN 24194, delu 2. Izolacija kanala zahteva
zaptivno lepljene spojeve i korienje lepljenih aluminijumskih traka kod drugoga
sloja.
Osnovna izolacija kanala za ventilaciju izraena je od materijala sa zatvore-
nom elijskom strukturom. Ona mora obezbeivati difuzionu otpornost iznad 5000,
toplotnu provodljivost ispod 0,038 W/mK pri 20 C i kvalitet poarne zatite B1 po
DIN 4102.
347
Dovodni kanali u dvostrukim plafonima i svi kanali u negrejanim zonama i
kinetama moraju biti dodatno izolovani materijalom toplotne provodljivosti ispod
0,04 W/mK pri 20 C. Mineralna vuna nije dozvoljena.
Kanali za odvod vazduha moraju biti izolovani zbog spreavanja toplotnih
gubitaka prilikom transporta vazduha.
6. Elementi kanala
Zaporne klapne moraju spreavati prodor vazduha usled potiska ili vetra,
kada ventilacioni ureaji nisu u radu. Zahteva se ugradnja vazduno zaptivnih klapni
sa oprugom. Ugradnja vazduno zaptivnih klapni zahteva se i u sistemu sa III stepe-
nom filtracije pre uduvnih elemenata, zbog mogunosti zamene ab filtera tokom
rada. Uobiajene klapne (aluzine) mogu se ugraditi samo ispred I stepena filtracije
na dovodu i iza ventilatora u odvodu.
Protivpoarne klapne se ugrauju tamo gde ventilacioni kanali prolaze izme-
u etaa ili prolaze izmeu poarnih zona. Za III stepen filtracije vie nije dozvolje-
na ugradnja poarnih klapni. Automatika mora prilikom zatvaranja poarne klapne
iskljuiti ventilaciju.
Dozvoljena je upotreba parnog ovlaivaa na paru iz centralnog ureaja
ugraenog pre II stepena filtracije. Mora biti predvien nain za uzimanje uzoraka
ovlaenog vazduha za mikrobioloka istraivanja.
Za hladnjak vazduha sa odvlaivanjem predviena je ugradnja pre II stepena
filtracije. Mora se obezbediti dovoljno velika kada za kondenzat, sa odvodom odgo-
varajue veliine. Moraju biti omogueni jednostavno ienje i dezinfekcija urea-
ja. Odvod kondenzata u mreu odvodne kanalizacije nije dozvoljen.
Separator odnosno eliminator kapljica moe biti ugraen ispred II stepena fil-
tracije. On mora biti otporan na koroziju i mora omoguavati pranje i dezinfekciju.
Radi postizanja visoke efikasnosti rekuperator otpadne toplote mora vraati
8595% osetne i 5075% latentne toplote. Rekuperator je visoko efikasan sa stepe-
nom vraanja osetne toplote od 75% do 85%. Ureaj je postavljen izmeu I i II
stepena filtracije.
Priguiva zvuka se ugrauje pre II stepena filtracije. Njegova povrina mora
biti mehaniki postojana i otporna na oteenja.
Distribucioni elementi moraju biti dimenzionisani tako da brzina vazduha u
prostoriji ne prelazi dozvoljene granice. Moraju se omoguiti ienje i dezinfekcija
elemenata.
7. Zagrevanje vazduha
Predgrevanje vazduha u normalnom radu predvia se vraanjem otpadne
toplote.
Vazduh se dogreva u toplovodnim razmenjivaima, vodom reima
70/50 C.
348
Elektrino predgrevanje se moe koristiti kad postoji opasnost od zamrza-
vanja razmenjivaa pri ispadu grejnog sistema.
U viezonskim sistemima KGH potrebno je zonsko kanalno dogrevanje sa
samostalnom regulacijom.
8. Hlaenje vazduha
Vazduh se po pravilu hladi hladnom vodom reima 7/12 C. U ureajima sa
integrisanim toplotnim pumpama moe biti izvedeno i hlaenje sa direktnim ispara-
vanjem.
9. Vlaenje vazduha
U istim prostorijama dozvoljeno je parno vlaenje sa centralnom pripre-
mom medicinske i higijenski besprekorne pare maksimalnog pritiska 2 bar na raz-
delniku.
U ostalim prostorijama je dozvoljeno vlaenje vodom.
10. Opti podaci za dimenzionisanje sistema KGH

Potrebno je uzeti u obzir lokalne propise o koliini i temperaturi vazduha.
(Pravilnik o ventilaciji i klimatizaciji zgrada).
Za zagrevanje prostorija se ne koristi vazduno grejanje, ve se one zagre-
vaju radijatorima ili podno. Izuzetak su specifine prostorije odreene tehnolokim
projektom.
Potrebna koliina vazduha na ulazu u operacione prostorije odreuje se na
osnovu normirane koliine vazduha po operacionom mestu (2400 m3/h), odnosno
adekvatno vea, ako to zahtevaju rashladno optereenje ili kontaminacija prostora.
Elementi za uduvavanje u operacione prostorije moraju obezbeivati lami-
naran protok oienog vazduha visoko efikasnim filterima za lebdee estice HEPA
H13 po EN 1822.
Odvod vazduha iz operacionih prostorija je pri podu (min. 1200 m3/h) i pod
plafonom.
Potrebno je obezbediti stalan protok vazduha i stalan vazduni natpritisak u
operacionim prostorijama.
PRAKTINI PRIMERI
Obezbeivanje ugodnosti u bolnikim sobama

1. Opti tehniki zahtevi
Pored funkcionalnih zahteva, za bolnike sobe je znaajno i obezbeivanje
adekvatnog unutranjeg ambijenta, to obuhvata toplotnu ugodnost, kvalitet vazdu-
ha, kretanje vazduha, nivo buke i adekvatno osvetljenje.
349
Odravanje adekvatne temperature i vlage blagotvorno deluje na pacijente,
dobra ventilacija obezbeuje kvalitetnu unutranju sredinu i smanjuje stepen opas-
nosti po zdravlje ljudi u prostoriji. Prinudna ventilacija sa dovodom sveeg istog
vazduha smanjuje broj klica u prostoru i doprinosi smanjenju infekcija. Poto nije
vie potrebno otvarati prozore, smanjuju se i spoljanji uticaji na unutranju sredinu.
Zbog toga za odeljenja u bolnicama vai da se odravanjem adekvatne unutranje
sredine moe skratiti i vreme leanja u bolnici odnosno smanjiti vreme hospitalizaci-
je.
Zadatak klimatizacije i ventilacije bolnikih soba jeste odravanje odgovara-
jue temperature i vlage u prostoru, nezavisno od spoljanjih uslova. Dovoenjem
sveeg vazduha postie se eljeni kvalitet vazduha, a natpritiskom u prostoriji spre-
ava se prodor vazduha iz okoline. Sistem KGH mora omoguiti lokalno podeava-
nje parametara u prostoriji, u ovom sluaju podeavanje temperature, vlanosti i
protoka vazduha. Sistem mora raditi to tie. Pogonski trokovi i trokovi odrava-
nja treba da budu to nii.
Po bolnikim standardima (npr. DIN 1946-4, iz decembra 2008) obine
bolnike sobe ne spadaju u prostorije sa povienim higijenskim zahtevima. Ovi
standardi ne propisuju posebne zahteve za odravanje unutranjeg okruenja u bol-
nikim sobama. Za takve prostorije vai SIST EN 13779. Na taj nain moemo da
predloimo sledee parametre za unutranju sredinu bolnikih soba:
temperature 2226 C;
relativna vlanost 4060%;
koliina sveeg vazduha za ventilaciju 40 m3/h po krevetu;
maksimalni nivo buke 30 dB(A).
Kao pomo za planiranje sistema za klimatizaciju i ventilaciju bolnikih
prostorija slue:
DIN 1946-4, decembar 2008,
TSG-12640-001:2008, Zdravstveni objekti,
ASHRAE /ASHE Standard 170-2008, Ventilation of Health Care Facilities,
Pravilnik o efikasnom korienju energije u zgradama (Sl. l. RS, br.
52/2010),
Pravilnik o ventilaciji i klimatizaciji zgrada (Sl. l. RS, br. 42/2002),
SIST CR 1752:1999 Kriterijumi za planiranje unutranjeg okruenja,
SIST prEN 13779:2001, Zahtevane karakteristike za ventilacione i klimati-
zacione sisteme,
(090814 Ventilation for hospitals Draft February 2010),
SIST EN 12464-1:2004, Svetlost i rasveta -Rasveta na radnom mestu 1.
deo.
2. Ostali sistemi koji se nalaze u bolnikoj sobi
Upravljanje rasvetom na razliite naine,
upravljanje aluzinama, odnosno roletnama,
upravljanje i regulacija zagrevanja i hlaenja razliitim sistemima.
350
3. Primenjeni sistemi moraju obezbediti sledee:
adekvatno unutranje okruenje,
energetsku efikasnost sistema (URE),
upotrebu obnovljivih izvora energije,
obezbeivanje tehnikog kvaliteta, npr. jednostavnost za ienje, dezinfe-
kciju i ostale elemente odravanja.
Energetska efikasnost odnosno efikasna potronja energije (URE) pri obez-
beivanju unutranje ugodnosti obuhvata:
ventilaciju sa rekuperacijom toplote,
upravljanje sistemima i nadzor nad radom sistema,
kvalitetnu zatitu staklenih povrina od sunevog zraenja,
pravilno i energetski efikasno osvetljenje prostorija,
upotrebu pasivnih sunanih sistema.
4. Predmet opisanih sistema
Sistemi za KGH sa adekvatnom regulacijom;
sistemi za osvetljenje sa adekvatnim upravljanjem prilagoeno stvarnim
potrebama;
sistem upravljanja i regulacije prozorskih aluzina/roletni;
centralni nadzor nad celokupnim sistemom KGH;
mogunost runog upravljanja osvetljenjem, temperaturom i zasenenjem
za svaku prostoriju posebno;
praenje distribucije i potronje energije po pojedinanim segmentima;
uvoenje savremenog sistema odravanja koji se zasniva na preventivnim
merama;
arhiviranje podataka o potronji energije, ispadima, remontima;
analiza podataka i priprema izvetaja.
Opis pojedinanih sistema

Tip A
Sistem tipa A je pogodan za rekonstrukciju postojeih objekata, gde zbog
nedostataka prostora nije mogue ugraditi mehaniku ventilaciju. Provetravanje je
prirodno, otvaranjem prozora. Zagrevanje je najee postojee, radijatorsko. Za
hlaenje prostorija predvieni su ventilatorski konvektori. Zbog udobnijeg unutra-
njeg okruenja predlaemo hlaenje sa ovlaivaem vazduha. Konvektor mora biti
adekvatno uraen i zbog odravanja higijene prilagoen eem ienju u periodu
rada, kada dolazi do kondenzacije na rashladnom registru. Elementi za sakupljanje
kondenzata u konvektoru moraju biti paljivo izraeni i jednostavni u pogledu pris-
tupa do unutranjih elemenata (razmenjiva, kada za kondenzat), a adekvatno mora
biti uraen i sistem za odvod kondenzata.
Regulacija grejanja je izvedena preko termostatskog ventila na dovodu tople
vode u radijator, a regulacija hlaenja promenom brzine okretanja ventilatora u
ventilator konvektoru, preko sobnog regulatora.
351
Slika 1. Varijanta A
TIP B
Sistem tipa B je pogodan za novogradnje i postojee zgrade, gde postoji
dovoljno prostora za razvoenje ventilacionih kanala. Sistem je sastavljen od venti-
lacionog dela koji odrava adekvatan kvalitet vazduha i natpritisak u sobi i iz dela za
grejanje/hlaenje, gde se ventilator konvektorom odrava temperatura prostorije.
Predvien je 4-cevni sistem grejanja i hlaenja. Znaajno je ugraditi senzor otvore-
nosti prozora, koji iskljuuje delovanje ventilator konvektora kada se prozor otvori.
Prednosti ovakvog sistema:
manja potronja energije za grejanje/hlaenje vazduha uvedenog u sobu
(vraanje otpadne toplote, > 75%);
suvo hlaenje bez pojave kondenzacije na rashladnom registru konvektora;
vlaenje vazduha zimi.
Slika 2. Varijanta B
Za regulaciju se koristi sobni upravlja sa konekcijom. Modul preko ulaznih
signala prati informacije, kao to su otvorenost prozora, eljena temperatura, signal
za upravljanje roletnama. Preko izlaza se vri upravljanje ventilator konvektorom
(brzina, reim) i poloajem roletni. Upravlja sa konekcijom omoguava poveziva-
352
nje sa nadzornim sistemom preko kojeg je mogue praenje stanja i daljinsko uprav-
ljanje, bilo preko nadzornog raunara ili elemenata za upravljanje (daljinska instru-
ment tabla) npr. iz sestrinske sobe.
TIP C
Tip C je u osnovi jednak tipu B, osim to je umesto vertikalnog konvektora
predvien plafonski ventilator konvektor Climmy. Konvektor je horizontalno
ugraen u ulaznom delu sobe (slino kao u hotelskim sobama). Predvien je 4-cevni
sistem grejanja i hlaenja. Uslovno, to moe biti i dvocevni sistem.
Slika 3. Varijanta C
TIP D
U ovom sistemu predvieno je grejanje u prozor ugraenim parapetnim radi-
jatorom. Hlaenje se izvodi rashladnim gredama. Dovodni vazduh, odnosno primar-
ni vazduh, slui za funkcionisanje rashladne grede i za ventilaciju prostorije.
Za ventilacioni sistem vai isto kao u sistemu tipa B. Takav sistem hlaenja
zahteva ugradnju dodatnih regulacionih elemenata:
senzora za rosu na dovodnom prikljuku vode za hlaenje na rashladnoj
gredi, koji pri pojavi rose zatvara dovod rashladne vode u rashladnu gredu;
prozorskog prekidaa kojim se u sluaju otvaranja prozora zatvara dovod
hladne vode u rashladnu gredu.
Prednosti ovakvog sistema
Nema mehanikih elemenata u prostoriji;
manja buka;
manja potronja energije za grejanje/hlaenje dovodnog vazduha (rekupe-
racija, > 75%);
suvo hlaenje bez pojave kondenzacije na rashladnom registru rashladne
grede;
vlaenje vazduha zimi;
353
regulacija temperature lokalnim sobnim regulatorom ili daljinski, npr. iz
sestrinske sobe ili preko centralnog nadzora.
Upravljanje i regulacija
Sistem je u osnovi delovanja slian tipu A, samo to se koristi drugaije ras-
hladno telo. Grejanje je radijatorsko, kojim se toplotna snaga regulie pritvaranjem
termo ventila na dovodu tople vode i sobnim upravljaem. Regulacija hlaenja vri
se ventilom na sistemu rashladnih greda. Zbog problema sa roenjem, rashladna
greda ima ugraene senzore za roenje, vezane za upravlja.
Slika 4. Varijanta D
Procena investicionih trokova, trokova za pogonsku energiju i radnih trokova
analiza LCCA (Life Cycle Cost Analysis)
Uraena je uporedna analiza svih trokova za bolniku trokrevetnu sobu tipa
A, B/C i D sa proraunima po Pravilniku o efikasnoj potronji energije u zgradama
PURES, Sl. glasnik RS br. 52/2010.
U uporednoj tabeli dobijenih rezultata, u obzir su uzeti:
cene za energiju (energente);
trokovi rada;
trokovi kapitala;
korieni hidrometeoroloki uslovi za Ljubljanu.
Prorauni su bili raeni za svaki primer A, B/C i D, odvojeno za vodeni i za
vazduni deo. U obzir su uzeti:
procena investicije;
godinja potronja energije za pogon ventilatora, za grejanje, za vlaenje i
za hlaenje
godinji trokovi energije.
354
Rezultat prorauna trokova radnog perioda od 15 godina, uzimajui u obzir
3% kamate (evro) za investiciju + troak za potroenu energiju + trokovi odrava-
nja (3% godinje od investicije), pokazuje da je troak na vodenom delu je jednak za
sva tri primera i da je troak na vazdunom delu najnii u sluaju primera A, a jed-
nak u sluaju primera B i D.
Tabela 1. Trokovi veka trajanja preraunati na 1 m2 povrine sobe

Trokovi veka trajanja (VDI 2067) Tip A (/m2) Tip B, C (/m2) Tip D (/m2)
1. Kapital 120 169 176
2. Elektrina energija 61 118 102
3. Toplotna energija 352 162 162
4. Energija za hlaenje 54 49 49
5. Energija za vlaenje 0 42 42
6. Odravanje, upravljanje i dr. 45 63 66
7. UKUPNO trokovi veka trajanja 632 603 596
8. Investicija 83 117 122
Obraun trokova za period ivota

800
600
400
200
0
tip A (EUR) tip B,C (EUR) tip D (EUR)
Kapital Elektrina energija

Toplotna energija Energija za hlaenje
Energija za vlaenje Odravanje, upravljanje,...
UKUPNO trokovi za period ivota Investicija
Dijagram 1. Proraun trokova veka trajanja

Iz navedenog sledi da za razliite sisteme nema znaajnijih razlika u ukupnim
trokovima, ali su sistemi sa mehanikom ventilacijom znatno bolji u pogledu isto-
355
e vazduha i nude kvalitetniju unutranju ugodnost. Sledi da ovo kvalitetnije okru-
enje utie na smanjenje perioda hospitalizacije bolesnika. Ta uteda znaajno utie
na ekonominost navedenih sistema.
Zakljuak
Mainski instalacioni sistemi u zdravstvenim objektima obezbeuju: grejanje
objekata, snabdevanje vodom i odvod potroene vode kao i ventilaciju i klimatizaci-
ju objekata. Za pravilno planiranje i realizaciju, efikasno delovanje i jednostavno
odravanje mainskih instalacija u zdravstvenom objektu najznaajniji je projekat
objekta koji mora uzeti u obzir sve posebnosti pojedinanih sistema, pravilno locirati
i dimenzionisati prostorije za njihov smetaj i rad i obezbediti dovoljno prostora za
njihove vertikalne i horizontalne razvode.
Zadatak investitora i projektanata mainskih instalacija je da uzmu u obzir
meunarodne standarde koji se bave racionalnom potronjom energije. Pored racio-
nalne potronje energije, potrebno je obezbediti ugodnost u prostoriji, a veoma zna-
ajno je da se savremenim sistemima maksimalno doprinese smanjenju bolnikih
infekcija koje su veliki problem.
Literatura
[1] *** Prostorna tehnika smernica TSG-12640-001: 2008; Zdravstveni objekti,
Ministarstvo zdravlja Republike Slovenije.
[2] Mokri, Matja, Udobnost u sobama za pacijente, Biro Es, Ljubljana.
[3] Wiebicke, Martin, Lindab grede za hlaenje, Lindab.
356
ZIMSKI POVRAAJ TOPLOTE
U VENTILACIONIM SISTEMIMA: POTENCIJALI
I OGRANIENJA OSETNE TOPLOTE I UKUPNI
POVRAAJ U EVROPSKIM KLIMATSKIM USLOVIMA
WINTER HEAT RECOVERY IN VENTILATION SYSTEMS:
POTENTIAL AND LIMITATIONS OF SENSIBLE AND
TOTAL RECOVERY IN THE EUROPEAN CLIMATES
Stefanie TAFELMEIER, Giacomo PERNIGOTTO,
Giovanni PERNIGOTTO, Andrea GASPARELLA
Faculty of Science and Technology, Free University of Bolzano
andrea.gasparella@unibz.it
Omoguavanje pravilne ventilacije i odgovarajueg kvaliteta unutranjeg
vazduha bitan je faktor odreivanja potronje energije u novim zgradama. Rekupe-
ratori toplote spregnuti sa sistemima mehanike ventilacije mogu doprineti utedi
energije. Prilikom projektovanja radnih ciklusa njihov doprinos se obino procenju-
je nominalnom efikasnou. Meutim, radni uslovi i, konano, strategija upravljanja
mogu bitno uticati na rekuperaciju toplote. U ovom radu su analizirane mogue
utede energije rekuperatora osetne i ukupne toplote. Poevi od asovne vremenske
prognoze, analiziran je uticaj unutranjih uslova na rekuperaciju osetne i latentne
toplote, uz definisanje odgovarajuih kontrolnih strategije na spreavanju rekupe-
racije ukoliko je potrebno odvlaivanje hlaenjem. Sistemi za rekuperaciju osetne
toplote uporeeni su tokovima entalpije. Parametrizacijom radnih ogranienja i
iskazivanjem glavnih koliina, u funkciji upotrebe u posmatranoj zgradi, bilo je
mogue uoptiti glavne rezultate i porediti razliite tehnologije i strategije u iro-
kom spektru raznih klimatskih uslova. Kvantifikovani su sezonske potrebe za energi-
jom i ekonomski pokazatelji i napravljena je evropska mapa tehnikih i ekonomskih
pokazatelja za posmatrane tehnologije.
Kljune rei: rekuperacija toplote ventilacijom; rekuperacija osetne toplote;
ukupna rekuperacija toplote; kontrola vlage
Ensuring an appropriate ventilation rate and a suitable indoor air quality is
a major energy consumption driver particularly in high performance buildings.
Heat recovery devices coupled with mechanical ventilation systems can help saving
energy. In the design or operating phases their contribution is typically estimated in
terms of nominal effectiveness. However, operating conditions and eventually con-
trol strategy can strongly affect the heat recovery performance. In this work, the
potential energy savings of sensible and total heat recovery devices is analyzed.
Starting from hourly weather data, the impact of indoor conditions on the sensible
357
and latent recovery is analyzed, defining appropriate control strategies to prevent
recovery when dehumidification by cooling would then be required. Sensible heat
recovery systems have been compared with enthalpy wheels. By means of a parame-
terization of the operating constraints and the expression of the main quantities in
specific terms, only as a function of the building use, it has been possible to genera-
lize the main results, and to compare different technologies and strategies in a com-
prehensive range of climatic contexts. Seasonal energy and economic performances
have been quantified, providing a European map of the technical and economic
performance of the considered technologies.
Key words: ventilation heat recovery; sensible heat recovery; total heat
recovery; humidity control
1. Introduction
The provision of a suitable ventilation rate contributes to a significant share
of the energy demand of the building, which becomes predominant when high per-
formance buildings are considered. The most effective solution to reduce energy
needs for ventilation, or building ventilation load, are heat recovery devices, which
can be combined with mechanical ventilation systems.
To contain these needs while providing appropriate comfort conditions, a
control strategy is required to maintain suitable indoor temperature and particularly
relative humidity. While a high tolerance in the sensation of relative humidity is
often reported by some field studies [1, 2], some other works discuss the influence
of the relative humidity on the occupants performance. A theoretical approach by
Kosonen and Tan [3] led to the conclusion that a rising relative humidity is expected
to increase productivity losses. In addition, higher activity levels and therefore hig-
her evaporative losses with an increasing metabolic rate could result in a more signi-
ficant performance loss if the humidity is not controlled. Tsutsumi et al.
experimentally investigated the correlation between a step change in humidity level
and occupants comfort and productivity [4]. Even though no significant correlations
were found between the sensation or performance and the humidity variation, the
total number of complaints for relative humidity of 70 % were higher than for any
lower humidity value, possibly implying that that longer exposure time to higher
humidity can lead to a measurable performance loss. Similar observations were
made in a similar study with college-aged persons, which had more complaints abo-
ut fatigue, but for low humidity [5]. Excessive humidity not only affects the thermal
comfort sensation and the productivity of occupants, but also the building materials
and occupants health, promoting conditions for fungi and mold growth or surface or
interstitial condensation [6]. For the above reasons, the control strategy of mechani-
cal ventilation systems should account for the humidity as well as temperature when
heat recovery is considered.
This work aims at evaluating Sensible and Total Heat Recovery (SHR and
THR) potential in reducing the building ventilation load in winter mode operation.
Since heat recovery from the exhausted air is counter-productive whenever dehumi-
358
dification by cooling is required, a bypass configuration should be adopted under
excessive outside humidity. Moreover, total heat exchangers need to be partialized
in order to prevent excessive vapor recovery from the exhausted air well before they
need to be bypassed. The analysis has been generalized recurring to the definition of
Specific Latent Load (SLL) [7], namely the ratio between the latent load and the
fresh air flow rate. In particular, the ventilation load reduction can be quantified
taking into account only the specific latent load of the air-conditioned space and the
outside air conditions. Actual heat recovery when a control strategy is adopted with
SHR or THR have been compared to the theoretical recovery based on the nominal
effectiveness of the heat exchangers. All considerations have been conducted sta-
rting from the typical reference years of 66 different cities all over Europe, in order
to characterize the average performance in each of the Kppen-Geiger climate clas-
ses. Seasonal energy and economic performances have been quantified, allowing the
geographical mapping of the seasonal energy and economic performance of the
considered technologies and strategies.
2. Methods
2.1. Air Handling Unit Configuration and Heat Recovery System
The analysis has been conducted assuming an air handling unit (AHU) with
heat recovery (HR), in which the Return Air (RA) from the conditioned space is
partially recirculated (CA) and partially exhausted (EA). An Outside Air (OA) rate
is preconditioned to the Recovery conditions (R) exchanging heat - and mass for
total heat recovery with the EA in the HR system. It is then mixed with the CA
into a Mixed Air (MA) rate, to be conditioned to the supply conditions (SA) in a set
of heating/cooling and dehumidification, humidification and reheating coils. Heat
recovery can be expressed by the sensible s, latent l, and enthalpy (or total) t
effectiveness:
s = (mOA/mmin)(TR-TOA)/(TRA-TOA) (1)
l = (mOA/mmin)(xR-xOA)/(xRA-xOA) (2)
t = (mOA/mmin)(hR-hOA)/(hRA-hOA) (3)
where mOA and mmin are the OA and the minimum between the OA and the
EA mass flow rates respectively, T is the temperature, x the humidity ratio, h the
enthalpy and the remaining subscripts refer to the positions in Figure 1. In the
following, the ratio of OA and EA mass flow rates is considered as unitary. Moreo-
ver, sensible heat exchangers are assumed to have null l, while it is quite common
to assume equal values for s, l and so t for THR devices.
359
Figure 1. Ventilation and air conditioning cycle with heat recovery.
2.2. Relative Humidity Control and Heat Recovery Limitation in Winter Mode
In winter mode operation, humidification of the MA is often necessary to the
supply conditions, because of the quite low winter outside humidity ratio. Neverthe-
less, SA should be provided with a humidity ratio lower than the internal one, in
order to compensate for the internal latent load. Under steady state approximation
the conditions could be written after the mass balance:
xSA = xRA mL/mMA (4)
While for xMA lower than or equal to xSA a quite energy inexpensive process
of adiabatic humidification by water injection can fill the gap, for xMA larger than
xSA a costly dehumidification by cooling process is required.
Although mixing conditions depends on the R and CA conditions, it can be
shown [7] that an equivalent condition to
xMA xSA = xRA mL/mMA (5)
can be expressed as a condition on the recovery humidity xR and is a function only
of the OA mass flow rate, the moisture production and the room humidity ratio xRA:
xR xRA mL/mOA (6)
In case of no heat recovery or SHR only, xR in equation (6) corresponds to
xOA.
The ratio
x = mL/mOA (7)
in equation (6) is called the Specific Latent Load (SLL) and can be calculated
starting just from the activity level in a given space, neglecting any consideration
about the actual building characteristics, as reported in Table 1.
National standards and regulations could lead to different values in different
countries, however the SLL for a combination of values is quite constant during the
occupation period, so that the analysis can be conducted from a general perspective.
360
Table 1: Thermal loads gain depending on the activity and building type
Thermal load per person (1)
Activity Type of Total Sensible Latent Latent Airchange(2) SLL
Building W W W g/h l/(s person) gv/kgda
Seated, Theatre,
100 60 40 57.6 5.5 2.4
relaxed Cinema
Seated, Offices,
writing Hotel, 120 65 55 79.2 11.0 1.7
Apartments
Eating Restaurants 170 75 95 136.7 10.0 3.2
Seated, Offices,
light Hotel,
150 75 75 108.0 11.0 2.3
activity, Apartments
typing
Slowly Retail store,
185 90 95 136.7 11.5 2.8
walking Bank
Moderate Dance Hall
375 120 255 367.1 16.5 5.1
dancing
Heavy Gymnasium
525 185 340 489.4 16.5 6.9
activity
(1)
ISO 7730; (2) UNI 10339
To prevent excessive humidity, a control strategy can be applied to stop heat

recovery for SHR or to limit t and correspondingly l for THR, depending on the
OA humidity ratio. The control can be actually implemented by either introducing a
bypass for a plate heat exchanger or acting on the rotational speed of an enthalpy
wheel. The limitation in (6) can then be expressed for SHR as:
xOA xRA x (7)
or in terms of a maximum allowed latent effectiveness for the THR devices:
l 1 x/(xRA xOA) (8)
for xOA < xRA. It can be seen that l reduces from a maximum value of 1
x/xRA when xOA is zero, to zero when xOA is xRA-x, as in the case of SHR.
For values of the supply humidity ratio higher than the return air, such as in
summer operation, dehumidification is always required and there is no reason to
limit to the effectiveness, provided heat recovery reduces enthalpy.
2.3 Seasonal energy and economic performance
The analysis is aimed at comparing the nominal performance (i.e., the theore-
tical potential) of SHR and THR, namely energy and costs savings on the ventilation
361
load, with the actual one, accounting for the limitations described in paragraph 2.2.
In particular, the nominal performance does not consider any limitation and assume
full effectiveness recovery for TOA<20 C for SHR, or hOA<38.55 kJ/kg (20 C; 50
%) for THR.
The energy savings have been determined considering hourly weather data
(outside temperature and relative humidity) for a whole representative year, as pro-
vided by the EnergyPlus weather data base, expressed per unit of outside air flow
rate [l/s]. This way the results are independent of the set actual size of the ventilation
or air conditioning system and can be generalized for buildings of different dimensi-
ons. The following assumptions have been made for the analysis:
a nominal effectiveness for sensible and total heat recovery of 70 %
a seasonal efficiency of 0.8 for the gas water heater
costs charged per kWh for natural gas referred to final domestic users with
annual gas consumption for the countries available in [8, 9].
To represent the outcomes, a Geographic Information System (GIS) applica-
tion called QGIS (version 2.16.2) has been used, averaging the results for all the
cities in the same climatic zone according Kppen-Geiger climate classification.

As it can be seen in Figure 2, the largest potential for sensible savings in
winter is in the coldest climatic zones, such as Dfc in Scandinavia and Iceland, while
the smallest is in the Mediterranean climates, particularly in Csa regions. Conside-
ring the analysed localities, the SHR ranges from 29.6 kWh (l/s)-1 in Messina in
Sicily, Italy, to 195.9 kWh (l/s)-1 in Kiruna, northern Sweden. The energy savings in
climatic zones Csa, Csb, BSk, Cfa, Cfb, Dfa, Dsb, Dfb and Dfc are, respectively,
47.4 11.4, 67.3 19.9, 71.5 12.7, 74 9, 93.3 15.4, 94.1 5.4, 103.7, 118.7
13.2 and 163.2 21.3 kWh (l/s)-1. The most representative cities in each of the abo-
ve zones are, respectively, Bari (Italy), La Coruna (Spain), Madrid, Venice, London,
Bucharest, Ankara, Kiev and Ostersund (Sweden). The largest standard deviation
can be seen in zone Csb (i.e., 29.3 %) and the smallest one in zone Dfa (i.e., 5.7 %).
When considering the heat recovery strategy limitations, SHR is reducing,
with a small impact for Dfc zone and a large impact for Csa. Depending on the SLL
(Table 2), savings are reduced by 5.3 % to 34.4 % for SSL = 0.8 g kg-1, 7 % to 42 %
for SSL = 1.2 g kg-1, 9.3 % to 49.7 % for SSL = 1.6 g kg-1, 12 % to 57.4 % for SSL
= 2 g kg-1 and 15.2 % to 65.3 % for SSL = 2.4 g kg-1. The location with the largest
saving potential is still Kiruna while those with the lowest are always in Csa or Csb
zone (i.e., Messina in Italy, Lisbon and Faro in Portugal, La Coruna in Spain).
362
Figure 2. Heating energy savings on the ventilation load for SHR without limita-
tions. Colours and red bars indicate the average in the climatic zone. Yellow bar
indicates the performance of each locality
Table 2. SHR savings reduction (kWh l-1s and %) with respect to the potential for the control
strategy.
0.8 g/kg 1.2 g/kg 1.6 g/kg 2.0 g/kg 2.4 g/kg
% % % % %
Csa -16.3 -34.4% -19.9 -42.0% -23.5 -49.7% -27.2 -57.4% -30.9 -65.3%
Csb -22.2 -32.8% -27.0 -39.8% -32.4 -47.8% -37.8 -55.8% -41.9 -61.8%
BSk -7.8 -11.0% -10.4 -14.6% -14.0 -19.5% -20.0 -28.0% -26.0 -36.4%
Cfa -16.3 -22.0% -19.4 -26.2% -22.9 -30.9% -26.7 -36.1% -32.0 -43.2%
Cfb -19.2 -20.6% -23.7 -25.5% -29.3 -31.4% -35.7 -38.2% -43.0 -46.1%
Dfa -12.5 -13.3% -14.7 -15.6% -18.5 -19.6% -22.2 -23.6% -26.9 -28.6%
Dsb -6.8 -6.6% -9.7 -9.3% -12.4 -12.0% -15.5 -15.0% -19.3 -18.6%
Dfb -13.5 -11.4% -16.4 -13.8% -19.9 -16.7% -23.6 -19.9% -28.3 -23.8%
Dfc -8.7 -5.3% -11.4 -7.0% -15.1 -9.3% -19.6 -12.0% -24.9 -15.2%
As for the cost savings, the analysis has to be conducted by country, since
each has different market features. The largest average savings are in Sweden, with
Kiruna (22.99 EUR (l/s)-1) while the smallest are in Greece, even if Messina, Italy, is
the worst case (2.68 EUR (l/s)-1). The maximum savings in the countries with at
least 4 analysed localities are Munich (Germany-Dfb) with 7.82 EUR (l/s)-1, Leon
(Spain-Csb) with 8.45 EUR (l/s)-1, Strasbourg (France-Cfb) with 6.90 EUR (l/s)-1,
Milan (Italy-Cfa) with 7.63 EUR (l/s)-1, Kiruna (Sweden-Dfc) with 22.99 EUR (l/s)-1
and Aberdeen (UK-Cfb) with 7.25 EUR (l/s)-1. Increasing the SLL all cost savings
363
decrease, similarly to the energy savings. As example, the case with SLL = 1.6 g kg-
1
is showed in Figure 3.
SHR nominal (no limitations) SHR actual (with SLL = 1.6 g kg-1)
Economic Savings [EUR (l/s)-1]
Figure 3. Nominal (left) and actual cost savings (right) with SLL = 1.6 g kg-1, for
SHR. The 9-color scale ranges from less than 2 EUR (l/s)-1 to more than 16 EUR
(l/s)-1 in steps of 2 EUR (l/s)-1.
Regarding THR, the largest nominal savings in the winter season can be
found in the coldest climatic zones, especially Dfc, while the smallest are in Csa
zones. While SHR is insensitive to the indoor humidity, THR depends in particular
on the internal SLL: in case of SLL = 0.8 g kg-1 THR ranges from 53.6 kWh (l/s)-1 in
Messina to 300.8 kWh (l/s)-1 in Kiruna while with SLL = 2.4 g kg-1 from 104.4 kWh
(l/s)-1 in Larnaca (Cyprus) to 380.4 kWh (l/s)-1 in Kiruna. The average sensible
savings for SLL = 1.6 g kg-1 (Figure 4) are 111.9 18.6, 153.8 37.7, 165.1 22.2,
148.1 14.3, 193.3 23.6, 176.6 9.6, 208.4, 223.1 19.5 and 284.7 30.5 kWh
(l/s)-1, respectively for Csa, Csb, BSk, Cfa, Cfb, Dfa, Dsb, Dfb and Dfc zones. The
most representative locations are respectively Rome, La Coruna, Madrid, Venice,
Frankfurt, Bucharest, Munich and Arkhangelsk. The largest standard deviation is in
zone Csb (e.g., 24.5 %) and the smallest in Dfa (e. g., 5.4 %).
Considering the control strategy, savings significantly decrease (Table 3).
The smallest impact is in zone Dfc and the largest in Csa, respectively with reducti-
ons of -10.1 %, -18.8 %, -30.9 %, -44.8 % and -57.5 % for the first and of -48.4 %, -
66.2 %, -78.8 %, -87.1 % and -92.3 % for the latter, in case of SLL equal to 0.8, 1.2,
1.6, 2 and 2.4 g kg-1. Again, Kiruna has the largest savings while the lowest are
always in Csa or Csb zone (i.e., Messina, Lisbon, La Coruna).
364
Figure 4 Heating energy savings on the ventilation load for THR without limita-
tions and SLL =1.6 g kg-1. Colours and red bars indicate the average in the climatic
zone. Yellow bar indicates the performance of each locality.
Table 3: THR savings reduction (kWh l-1s and %) with respect to the potential for
the control strategy.
0.8 g/kg 1.2 g/kg 1.6 g/kg 2.0 g/kg 2.4 g/kg
% % % % %
Csa -38.9 -48.4% -63.1 -66.2% -88.2 -78.8% -112.2 -87.1% -134.5 -92.3%
Csb -51.5 -46.2% -84.4 -64.3% -119.8 -77.9% -152.5 -86.4% -183.2 -92.0%
BSk -29.2 -23.4% -61.2 -43.1% -102.8 -62.3% -143.1 -75.8% -180.7 -85.0%
Cfa -35.4 -30.7% -61.3 -47.1% -93.1 -62.8% -125.6 -75.0% -156.3 -83.7%
Cfb -48.7 -32.7% -85.0 -50.3% -127.8 -66.1% -170.1 -77.7% -209.7 -85.8%
Dfa -27.8 -19.1% -52.0 -32.9% -86.4 -48.9% -124.4 -63.0% -161.6 -73.9%
Dsb -26.1 -15.0% -50.6 -27.0% -87.1 -41.8% -132.9 -56.8% -178.3 -68.5%
Dfb -33.5 -18.0% -60.1 -29.8% -99.7 -44.7% -146.0 -58.7% -192.6 -70.0%
Dfc -25.5 -10.1% -49.7 -18.8% -87.8 -30.9% -139.5 -44.8% -196.1 -57.5%
Regarding the costs, without control strategy, the largest average savings are
in Sweden, where Kiruna is the best case (e.g., 38.18 EUR (l/s)-1 with SLL = 1.6 g
kg-1) while the smallest are in Serbia, where Belgrade has the minimum economic
savings in most of the cases (e.g., 6.7 EUR (l/s)-1 with SLL = 1.6 g kg-1). The
maximum savings in the countries with at least 4 analysed localities are often for
Munich (Dfb), Leon (Csb), Strasbourg (Cfb), Milan (Cfa), Kiruna (Dfc), and
365
Finningley (Cfb), with 14.92 EUR (l/s)-1, 18.91 EUR (l/s)-1, 13.72 EUR (l/s)-1, 14.78
EUR (l/s)-1, 38.18 EUR (l/s)-1 and 15.15 EUR (l/s)-1 respectively in case of SLL =
1.6 g kg-1. Increasing the SLL, all economic savings increase.
Adopting the control strategy, the savings decrease is proportional to the
amount of SLL. Sweden is still the most convenient country, particularly with Kiru-
na, while Portugal is the least one. For SLL larger than or equal to 2 g kg-1, the worst
performance is in La Coruna. As an example, the case with SLL = 1.6 g kg-1 is
showed in the Figure 5, comparing strategies A (on the left) and B (on the right).
THR A with SLL = 1.6 g kg-1 THR B with SLL = 1.6 g kg-1
Economic Savings [EUR (l/s)-1]
Figure 4 Nominal (left) and actual cost savings (right) with SLL = 1.6 g kg-1, for
THR. The 16-color scale ranges from less than 2 EUR (l/s)-1 to more than 30 EUR
(l/s)-1 in steps of 2 EUR (l/s)-1.
4. Conclusion
In this work, the SHR and THR potential in reducing the building ventilation
load has been investigated in winter mode operation. Heat recovery from the
exhausted air may become counter-productive whenever dehumidification by coo-
ling is required. Therefore, actual savings are less than the ones expected from the
temperature or the enthalpy gradient between outside and exhausted air and from the
heat exchanger effectiveness. The analysis can be generalized recurring to the defi-
nition of Specific Latent Load (SLL) which allows expressing control strategies and
heat recovery for either SHR or THR, without going into details about the building
characteristics. Therefore, it has been possible to quantify the nominal and the actual
heat recovery for sensible and total devices, starting from the typical reference years
of 66 different cities all over Europe. The average performance in terms of energy
and cost savings in each of the Kppen-Geiger climate classes has been mapped.
Seasonal energy and economic performance have been quantified, finding that:
Sensible and total heat recovery increases as expected with the duration and
severity of the winter climatic conditions, from southern and Mediterranean
climates to the northern regions
366
Nominal heat recovery without taking into account any control strategy to
prevent excessive humidity is much higher for THR than for SHR, from
two to three times, depending on the SLL
SHR is affected by the control strategy from 5 to 65 %, from Nordic to
Mediterranean climates and from low to high SLL
THR is more affected than SHR by the control strategy, with a reduction
from 10 to 93 %, moving from Nordic to Mediterranean climates and from
low to high SLL
Costs follow a similar trend as energy savings, with some variations due to
the national energy prices, which may be different in countries with similar
climates. The energy market can affect the competitiveness of the heat
recovery technology.
5 References
[1] Hwang, R. L., T. P. Lin, N. J. Kuo, Field experiments on thermal comfort in
campus classrooms in Taiwan, Energy and Buildings, 38(1) (2006), pp. 5362
[2] Mishra, A. K., M. Ramgopal, Thermal comfort field study in undergraduate
laboratories - An analysis of occupant perceptions, Building and Environment,
76 (2014), 6272
[3] Kosonen, R., F. Tan, Assessment of productivity loss in air-conditioned buil-
dings using PMV index, Energy and Buildings, 36(10 SPEC. ISS.) (2004), pp.
987993
[4] Tsutsumi, H., S. I. Tanabe, J. Harigaya, Y. Iguchi, G. Nakamura, Effect of
humidity on human comfort and productivity after step changes from warm and
humid environment, Building and Environment, 42(12) (2007), 40344042
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.06.037
[5] Chen, Y., H. Tsutsumi, T. Akimotob, S. Tanabe, Subjective experiments on
the effects of relative humidity and humidity ratio during summer season, Pro-
ceedings of ISIAQ 7th International Conference (2003) 293298
[6] Sterling, E. M., A. Arundel, T. D. Sterling, Criteria for Human Exposure To
Humidity in Occupied Buildings, ASHRAE Transactions, 91(pt 1B) (1985),
611622
[7] Lazzarin, R. M., A. Gasparella, G. A. Longo, M. Perbellini, Gli scambia tori
di calore aria aria: potenzialit applicative nella riduzione del carico di
ventilazione degli edifici, Proc. Of the 55th ATI national congress, Matera, 2000
[8] *** Eurostat (2016). Retrieved from
http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/about/overview in July 2016
[9] StatisticsFinland (2016).
[10] *** Retrieved from http://www.stat.fi/til/ehi/2015/04/ehi_2015_04_2016-03-
09_tau_002_en.html in July 2016
367
PROMJENA TERMIKE UGODNOSTI U FAZI
POTHLAIVANJA PUTNIKOG PROSTORA
CHANGE OF THE THERMAL COMFORT
IN THE COOLING PHASE OF A VEHICLE INTERIOR
Svetozar GRAHOVAC
D-68259 Mannheim i e-mail, svetozargrahovac@aol.com
Jedan od zadataka prizvoaa dananjih vozila predstavlja razvoj novih i

optimizacija postojeih sistema za postizanje i odravanje termike ugodnosti u
putnikom prostoru. Bez ispravnog izbora i dimenzionisanja sistema grijanja, hla-
enja i provjetravanja putnikog prostora, nema ni termike ugodnosti. Za raunar-
sku obradu termike ugodnosti na dva izabrana sjedita koriste se 4 mjerena para-
metra: brzina kretanja vazduha, vlanost vazduha, temperatura vazduha i tempera-
tura crne kugle. Pored predskazivanja procenta nezadovoljnih u fazi pothlaivanja
unutranjosti vozila, ukazuje se i na specifinost termikih uslova u vozilima. U radu
se vri poreenje termike ugodnosti za nehomogenu i homogenu sredinu. Korite-
njem operativne i ekvivalentne temperature prema SAE J2234, dolazi se do homo-
gene sredine. Na sjeditima se pretpostavlja ista aktivnost osoba i ista vrsta odjee.
Uslovi vanjske okoline: brzina nastrujavanja vozila, temperatura vazduha i vlanost
vazduha su konstantni. Cilj rada je ukazati i na sloenost ispitivanja termike ugod-
nosti u putnikim vozilima.
Kljune rijei: klimatizacija; ispitivanje; termika ugodnost; procenat neza-
dovoljnih; vozilo
One of the aims that the manufacturers of modern vehicles have in mind is
the development of new and optimization of the existing systems for achieving and
maintaining thermal comfort in the passenger area. Without correct selection and
sizing of the HVAC system for passenger area, there is no thermal comfort. For the
computerized evaluation of thermal comfort on the selected two seats the 4 following
measured variables are used: air speed, humidity, air temperature and the tempera-
ture of the black ball. In addition to the prediction regarding the percentage of un-
satisfied persons during the cool-down phase of the vehicle interior, the special
thermal characteristics in the vehicle are pointed out. Within the scope of the work
the thermal comfort of the inhomogeneous is compared with the homogeneous envi-
ronment. Using the operational and the equivalent temperature according to SAE
J2234 the homogeneous environments are determined. On the seat-plan the same
transformation of energy per person as well as the same clothing are accepted. The
369
following external conditions are constant; incident-flow velocity of the vehicle, air
temperature and humidity. The aim of the paper is to indicate a complexity of
determining the thermal comfort conditions in passenger vehicles.
Key words: air conditioning; test; thermal comfort; percentage of dissatisfi-
ed; vehicle
Uvod
Potreba za odravanjem ugodne klime, u odreenom zatvorenom prostoru u
kome borave ljudi, nalazei zatitu od spoljnih nepogodnosti, postoji oduvijek. Kon-
trolisano odravanje karakteristika sredine zatvorenog prostora u uskim granicama
optimalnih vrijednosti naziva se klimatizacijom. U putnikim vozilima se tei posti-
zanju uslova termike ugodnosti, bez obzira na brzinu vonje i na uslove okoline,
kao to su: temperatura vazduha, vlanost vazduha, intenzitet sunevog zraenja,
brzina vonje, uticaj vjetra, uticaj padavina, itd.. Istraivanje termike ugodnosti u
dananjim putnikim vozilima predstavlja jo uvijek veliki izazov za njihove proiz-
voae. Uzroke treba traiti prije svega u postojanju znatnih odstupanja izmeu
vrijednosti temperatura i brzina strujanja vazduha u podruju glave i nogu. Iz vida
ne treba ispustiti ni uticaj hladnih prozorskih stakala zimi, odnosno uticaj razlike
zagrijanosti stakala ljeti zbog sunevog zraenja
Predskazivanje ukupne termike ugodnosti [1]

ovjekova toplota se odaje okolini na slijedeih pet naina:
1) Zraenjem (R) sa povrine koe ili odjee na okolne povrine ili obratno;
2) Provoenjem (K) sa povrine koe kroz odjeu na predmeta sa kojima je
ovjek u dodiru;
3) Konvekcijom (C) na okolni vazduh;
4) Zagrijavanjem (Cres) i vlaenjem vazduha u pluima (Eres) prilikom
disanja;
5) Isparavanjem znoja sa povrine koe ili odjee difuzijom (Edif) i (Esw)
znojenjem.
U uslovima termike ugodnosti, glavni dio toplote se odaje zraenjem i kon-
vekcijom sa povrine koe odnosno odjee. U uslovima koji su za ovjeka neugodni,
toplotna ravnotea se postie promjenom odnosa odavanja toplote pojedinim nai-
nima, pa u izvjesnim sluajevima odavanje toplote isparavanjem postaje dominantan
vid termoregulacije. Imajui u vidu, da temperatura ljudskog tijela ostaje konstantna,
pod uslovom da se osigura ravnotea izmeu proizvedene i sa okolinom razmijenje-
ne toplote, moe se za bilans ovjeka postaviti jednakost:
= (1)
Pozitivna vrijednost desne strane gornje jednaine vodi porastu temperature
tijela, dok negativna vrijednost desne strane vodi njenom smanjenju, nula znai da je
tijelo u termikoj ravnotei. Toplote zraenja (R), konvekcije (C) i provoenja (K)
imaju zajedniko svojstvo, da utiu na porast temperature okruujue sredine, pa se
370
zato ove toplote nazivaju osjetnim ili suvim toplotama. U ovaj vid odavanja toplote
spada i predaja toplote vazduha u pluima disanjem (Cres). Pri daljim razmatranjima
se usvaja pretpostavka, da je koliina provedene toplote na predmete (K) sa kojima
je gornja povrina tijela u kontaktu jednaka koliini toplote razmijenjene zraenjem
(R) i konvekcijom (C), za sluaj da ova povrina nije u kontaktu sa predmetima. Na
ovaj nain se konduktivni prenos toplote (K) indirektno uzima u obzir. Mehaniki
rad (W) se u daljim razmatranjima u ovome radu zanemaruje.
Koliina toplote koju organizam oslobaa isparavanjem znoja (Esw) sa povr-
ine koe, odnosno difuzijom vodene pare kroz kou (Edif), kao i isparavanjem
vlage iz plua disanjem (Eres), ne utie na temperaturu vazduha, nego na njegovu
vlanost i predstavlja ukupnu skrivenu ili vlanu toplotu. Indeks srednjeg glasa se
odreuje prema slijedeem izrazu:
= [0,303 exp(0,036 ) + 0,028] [
] (2)
Primjena indeksa srednjeg glasa PMV se preporuuje u granicama izmeu -2
und +2. Pored preporuenih granica za PMV, potrebno je i da se est kljunih para-
metara nalazi u granicama:
metabolina toplota (M) od 46 W/m do 232 W/m (0,8 met do 4 met),
izolacija odjee (Icl) od 0 mK/W do 0,310 mK/W (0 clo do 2 clo),
temperatura sredine (ta) od 10 C do 30 C,
srednja temperatura zraenja (tr) od 10 C do 40 C,
brzina nastrujavanja osobe (var) od 0 m/s do 1 m/s,
parcijalni pritisak vodene pare (pa) od 0 Pa do 2700 Pa.
Od linih parametara vrednuju se samo prva dva parametra i ne uzima se u
obzir starost i zdravstveno stanje osoba. Prvi lini parametar, metabolina toplota
osobe je ovisna od stepena fizike aktivnosti, stajanja ili sjedenja, a drugi parametar
je ovisan od vrste odjee osobe. Preostala etiri parametra su poznata kao termiki
uslovi sredine. Temperatura sredine (ta) direktno utie na veliinu odavanja toplote
konvekcijom. Srednja temperatura povrine odjee (tcl) je funkcija temperature
sredine i srednje temperature koe (tsk) za koju vrijedi izraz:
= 35,7 0,028 ( ) (3)
Temperatura zraenja (tr) je u stvari usrednjena temperatura zraenja svih
okruujuih povrina. To su prije svega zidovi, prozori, pod, plafon i ostale povrine
sa kojima osoba razmijenjuje toplotu zraenjem.
Za srednju temperaturu zraenje se koristi slijedei izraz:

= [ Tg 4 + ( )] (4)

Za prirodnu konvekciju za crnu kuglu ili globetermometer temperature (Tg)

koristi se slijedei izraz:
||
= 1,4 (5)

371
Za prinudnu konvekciju za crnu kuglu ili globetermometer prenika (D =
0,15m) vrijedi slijedei izraz:
0,6
= 6,3 (6)
0,4
Za raunarska obradu se koriste slijedee vrijednosti: = 5,6710-8W/mK4 i

g = 0,95.
Za odreivanje srednje temperature zraenja se moe koristiti i izraz (7), koji
je relativno komplikovan [2].
4 = 14 _1 + 24 _2 + 4 _ (7)
Fp_n oznaava ugaoni faktor izmeu osobe i razmatrane povrine n. Suma
svih uglovnih faktora iznosi 1.
Za pritisak zasienja u mbar se koristi slijedei izraz za temperaturu okruu-
jue sredine (ta):
4064,95
ln() = 19,0160 (8)
ta+236,25
Na osnovu izmjerene relativne vlanosti () dolazi se do kljunog parametra

parcijalnog pritiska (pa) iz slijedeeg izraza:
pa
= (9)
ps
U hladnim zimskim danima ovjek predaje toplotu na hladne povrine tempe-

rature (tr) putem zraenja, radi se o toplotnim gubicima ljudskog organizma. Ljeti je
mogua obratna situacija, da ovjek prima toplotu putem zraenja od toplijih okru-
ujuih povrina iznad temperature odjee (tcl), radi se o toplotnim dobicima. Za
razmjenu toplote zraenjem preko vanjske povrine osobe vrijedi izraz:
= ( ) (10)
Pri emu je (hr) koeficijent prelaza toplote zraenjem [2]. Koeficijent prelaza
toplote konvekcijom (hc) je funkcija brzine strujanja vazduha (var) sa kojim se vri
razmjena toplote. Veoj brzini strujanja vazduha odgovara i vea vrijednost koefici-
jenta prelaza toplote. Poveana brzina strujanja vazduha je povoljna u sredinama pri
relativno viim temperaturama a nepovoljna u sredinama sa niskim temperaturama.
Za razmjenu toplote konvekcijom vrijedi izraz:
= ( ) (11)
U izrazima 10 i 11 (fcl) predstavlja odnos vanjske povrine obuenog tijela i
povrine nagog tijela [1].
Gubitak suve toplote disanjem odnosno konvekcijom se odreuje slijedeim
izrazom:
= 0,0014 (34 ) (12)
372
Gubitak toplote zbog razlike koliine pare izdisanog i udisanog vazduha
odreuje se slijedeim izrazom:
= 1,7 (5867 ) 105 (13)
Gubitak toplote isparavanja difuzijom vode kroz kou za pritisak zasienja na
koi (psk) odreuje se izrazom:
= 3,05 ( ) 103 (14)
Za gubitak toplote isparavanjem zbog znojenja se koristi slijedei izraz:
= 0,42 ( 58,15) (15)
Za aktivnosti, kod kojih je (M - W) 58,15W/m vrijedi jednakost Esw = 0.
Predskazani procenat nezadovoljnih se odreuje iz slijedeeg izraza:
= 100 95 exp(0,03353 4 0,2179 2 ) (16)
Za analizu termike ugodnosti u graevinskim objektima uobiajeno je koris-
titi operativnu temperaturu (top) a za analizu termike ugodnosti u vozilima je uve-
dena ekvivalentna temperatura (teq).
Za dalja razmatranja se koristi operativna temperatura definisana kao homo-
gena temperatura okruenja (ta = tr, var = var) u kome osoba razmjenjuje istu koli-
inu suve toplote zraenjem i konvekcijom, kao i u nehomogenom okruenju. Ope-
rativna temperatura se odreuje izrazom:
hcta+hrtr
= (17)
hc+hr
U gornjem izrazu (hc) se odnosi na koeficijent prelaza toplote konvekcijom a

(hr) na koeficijent prelaza toplote zraenjem. Kao i operativna temperatura i ekviva-
lentna temperatura je definisana kao homogena temperatura okruenja (ta=tr, var=0)
u kome osoba razmijenjuje istu koliinu suve toplote zraenjem i konvekcijom, kao i
u nehomogenom okruenju [3]. Ekvivalentna temperatura uzima u obzir brzinu
nastrujavanja osobe i statiku izolaciju odjee prema izrazu:
0,240,75var
= 0,55 ta + 0,45 tr + (36,5 ) (18)
1+Icl
Za sluaj da je brzina kretanja vazduha manja od 0,1 (m/s) ekvivalentna i

operativna temperatura se podudaraju, tako da vrijedi slijedei izraz:
= = 0,5 ( + ) (19)
III. Ispitivanje sistema hlaenja putnikog prostora

Reproduktivne provjere pouzdanosti rada sistema grijanja, provjetravanja i
hlaenja dananjih vozila vrlo uspjeno se obavljaju u certifikovanim klimatski
kontrolisanim kanalima sa vjetrom. Protok vazduha kroz sistem hlaenja putnikog
prostora se obino regulie automatskim putem.
373
Konstantni ulazni parametri za proces hlaenja su:
podeena brzina kretanja vazduha pred vozilom u kanalu sa vjetrom,
temperatura vanskog vazduha u kanalu sa vjetrom 40 C,
vlanost vanjskog vazduha u kanalu sa vjetrom 40%,
broj obrtaja motora vozila 1500 1/min,
zadana temperatura vazduha u putnikom prostoru,
zadana temperatura izlaznog vazduha na mjestu vozaa,
maksimalni protok vazduha kroz sistem hlaenja vozaa,
simulacija toplotnog optereenja 50 putnika.
Ukupna toplota od 50 putnika se procjenjuje na 6 kW. Ukupna toplota jedne
osobe od 120 W se dijeli na osjetnu ili suvu toplotu ca. 90 W i na vlanu ili latentnu
toplotu ca. 30 W.
Analiziraju se usrednjeni rezultati za vremenski interval od dvije minute. Za
razliku od procesa grijanja, kod procesa hlaenja se vlanosti vazduha pridaje vea
panja.
Za ocjenu sistema hlaenja je potrebno izvriti pripremu putnikog prostora,
to podrazumijeva dranje vozila odreeno vrijeme na konstantnoj okolnoj tempera-
turi i postizanje homogene temperature u vozilu, to se opet regulie odgovarajuim
normama i ugovorima.
IV. Rezultati i zakljuak

U tabeli 1 su data 4 kljuna parametra za predskazivanje ukupne ili globalne
termike neugodnosti tijela kao cjeline za 2 sjedita. Za obadva sjedita se uzima
metabolina toplota 1met ili 58,15 W/m a statika izolacija odjee 0,8 clo ili
0,124m C/W. Vrijednosti u tabeli su date za etiri vremenska intervala u fazi pot-
hlaivnja putnikog prostora. Brzine kretanja vazduha na obadva sjedita se neznat-
no razlikuju za razliku od temperatura vazduha i srednjih temperatura zraenja, ije
vrijednosti su vie na prednjem sjeditu. U fazi pothlaivanja, temperatura vazduha
(ta) ispunjava uslove za primjenu indeksa srednjeg glasa (PMV) tek nakon 32 minu-
te trajanja hlaenja. Za kontrolu koritenog raunarskog programa se koriste rezulta-
ti iz [1].
Tabela 1. Ulazni parametri za prednje [zadnje] sjedite u toku pothlaivanja

broj t[min] interval ta_0,6m[C] _1,1m[%] var_0,6m[m/s] tg_0,6m[C] tr[C]
1. 32 8:23-8:25 29,76[27,43] 49,27[48,35] 0,40[0,39] 32,21[29,79] 35,24[32,76]
2. 44 8:35-8:37 27,56[25,92] 45,81[45,00] 0,41[0,36] 30,26[28,35] 33,74[31,31]
3. 56 8:47-8:49 26,42[25,24] 45,74[44,54] 0,37[0,37] 28,83[27,46] 31,80[30,23]
4. 68 8:59-9:01 26,08[24,84] 45,36[44,51] 0,35[0,34] 28,06[26,74] 30,44[29,02]

Na slici 1 su date temperature vazduha i zraenja na prednjem i na zadnjem
sjeditu. Uoljivo je da su obadvije temperature vie za prednje nego za zadnje sje-
374
dite, iako su izlazne temperature dovodnog vazduha iz krova u podruju prednjeg i
zadnjeg sjedita skoro identina. U prednjem dijelu putnikoga prostora je vea
ukupna okruujua povrina po jedinici duine vozila u poreenju sa zadnjim dije-
lom putnikog prostora. Ovim razlikama doprinose i vea povrina ostakljenja, to je
opet rezultat konstruktivnog koncepta samoga putnikoga prostora.
Temperature zracenja i temperatura vazduha
tr_ps tr_zs ta_ps ta_zs

36
Temperatura [C]
33
30
27
24
32 44 56 68
Trajanje hladjenja [min]
Slika 1. Temperature u nehomogenoj sredini
Na slikama 2 i 3 su date vrijednosti temperatura pojedinano za prednje i za

zadnje sjedite, za homogenu i za nehomogenu sredinu. Nie vrijednosti ekvivalent-
ne temperature u poreenju sa operativnom temperaturom se mogu objasniti samom
definicijom ove temperature. Razlika operativne i ekvivalentne temperature raste sa
duim hlaenjem. Obe temperature se odreuju za specijalne sluajeve sredine,
ekvivalentna temperatura za (ta = tr, var = 0), a operativna temperatura za (ta = tr,
var = var) za stvarnu suvu toplotu preko koe osobe.
Na slici 4 su dati procenti nezadovoljnih i ukupni toplotni bilans osoba (Qu)
na prednjem i na zadnjem sjeditu za nehomogenu sredinu. Presudni parametri za
procenat nezadovoljnih na sjeditima su temperatura vazduha i temperatura zraenja.
Posmatrajui tokove ukupne toplote za obadva sjedita, olako se zakljuuje,
da je na sjeditima u poetku pretoplo i da se duim hlaenjem obadvije ukupne
toplote pribliavaju metabolinoj toploti (M). Na zadnjem sjeditu se nakon 68
minuta skoro dostie termika ravnotea osobe.
Sa slike 5 se vidi, da su ukupne toplote za idealizovane homogene sredine
nie od ukupne toplote u nehomogenoj sredini. Ukupna tolota za operativnu
temperaturu se dosta dobro pribliava ukupnoj toploti za nehomogenu sredinu.
375
Temperature za prednje sjediste
tr_ps top_ps teq_ps ta_ps

37
Temperatura [C]
34
31
28
25
32 44 56 68
Slika 2. Temperature za prednje sjedite u nehomogenoj i homogenoj sredini
Temperature za zadnje sjediste
tr_zs top_zs teq_zs ta_zs

34
Temperatura [C]
32
30
28
26
24
32 44 56 68
Slika 3 Temperature za zadnje sjedite u nehomogenoj i homogenoj sredini
376
Procenat nezadovoljnih i ukupna toplota osobe
PPD_ps PPD_zs Qu_ps Qu_zs M

90
75
PPD[%] i Qu[W/m]
60
45
30
15
0
32 44 56 68
Slika 4. Procenat nezadovoljnih i toplota osobe u nehomogenoj sredini
Ukupna toplota osobe

M Qu_zs Qu_topzs Qu_teqzs
60
55
Toplota [W/m]
50
45
40
35
32 44 56 68
trajanje hladjenja [min]
Slika 5. Toplota osobe u nehomogenoj i homogenoj sredini za zadnje sjedite

Sa slike 6 se vidi, da su procenti nezadovoljnih (PPD) za idealizovane
homogene sredine vii od procenata nezadovoljnih u nehomogenoj sredini. Procenat
nezadovoljnih za operativnu temperaturu se pribliava procentu nezadovoljnih za
nehomogenu sredinu.
377
Procenat nezadovoljnih
PPD_zs PPD_top PPD_teq

50
40
30
PPD[%]
20
10
0
32 44 56 68
Slika 6. Procenat nezadovoljnih u nehomogenoj i homogenoj sredini

za zadnje sjedite
V. Literatura
[1] *** DIN EN ISO 7730, Ergonomie der thermischen Umgebung - Analytische
Bestimmung und
[2] *** Interpretation der thermischen Behaglichkeit durch Berechnung des PMV-
und des PPD- Indexes und Kriterien der lokalen thermischen Behaglichkeit,
Njemaka, 2006
[3] *** DIN EN ISO 7726 Umgebungsklima - Instrumente zur Messung
physikalischer Gren, Njemaka, 2002
[4] *** SAE J 2234 Equivalent Temperature-Truck and Bus, Surface Vehicle
Information Report, SAD, 2012
[5] Grahovac, S., Analiza termike ugodnosti u grijanim putnikim vozilima,
zbornik radova za 42. Kongres o KGH, SMEITS, Beograd, 2011
[6] Grahovac, S., Prilog predskazivanju globalne termike neugodnosti u
putnikim vozilima, Zbornik radova za 40. Kongres o KGH Kongres, SMEITS,
Beograd, 2009
[7] Todorovi, B., Provera funkcionalnosti klimatizacionog postrojenja u
prelaznim termikim reimima, asopis KGH, br. 2-3/1999
378
PORENJE I ISKUSTVO SA ENERGETSKIH PREGLEDA
KOMERCIJALNIH OBJEKATA PO EU DIREKTIVI I
ASHRAE METODOLOGIJI SA PREDLOZIMA ZA
UNAPREENJE SRPSKE METODOLOGIJE
ENERGETSKIH PREGLEDA
COMPARISON AND EXPERIENCE
FROM ENERGY AUDITS ACCORDING TO EU DIRECTIVE
AND ASHRAE METHODOLOGY WITH
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF SERBIAN
METHODLOGYOF ENERGY AUDITS
Rade UKANOVI, Milan UKANOVI,
Rade ukanovi agencija za projektovanje i consulting,
radedjuk@hotmail.com
U ovom lanku bie prikazano iskustvo i poreenje sa sprovedenog pregleda

i sertifikacije objekta prema ASHRAE metodologiji i najnovijoj EU direktivi, kao i
srpskom Zakonu o energetskoj efikasnosti u cilju mogunosti poboljanja budue
srpske metodologije energetskih pregleda objekata.
Na osnovu iskustva sa sprovedenih pregleda i poreenja metodologija pre-
gleda predlau se sledei elementi energetskih pregleda objekata za buduu Srpsku
metodologiju:
1. poreenje i sertifikacija objekata prema ukupnoj isporuenoj elektrinoj i
toplotnoj energiji objekta;
2. Fazno sprovoenje energetskih pregleda, gde se u 1. Fazi, inicijalni pre-
gled odreuje nivo, potronje, mogih uteda i planiranih investicija na osnovu
kojih se definie obim posla i cena pregleda u fazi 2 detaljni pregled;
3. Merenje parametara unutranjeg komfora i parametara sistema kao sasta-
vni deo energetskog pregleda. Posebno je vano merenje parametara unutranjeg
komfora koji ne treba da budu ugroeni merama utede energije.
Kljune rei: energetski pregled; sertifikacija; direktiva EU
In this article experience and comparison from Energy audit and certification
carried according to ASHRAE methodology and latest EU directive will be presen-
ted, as well as according to Serbian law on energy efficiency with aim to improve
future Serbian methodology of building energy audits.
379
Based on experience from conducted audits and comparison of audits metho-
dologies following elements of building energy audits are proposed for future Serbi-
an methodology:
1. Comparison and certification of buildings according to total delivered
electric and heat energy;
2. Energy audit phasing, with 1.st Phase initial energy audit determining
level of consumption, possible savings and planned investments based on which
scope of work and cost of audits 2nd Phase, detailed audit is determined;
3. Measurement of indoor comfort parameters and systems parameters as
integral part of audit. Particularly important is measurement of indoor comfort
parameters which should not be compromised with energy savings;
Key words: energy audit; certification; EU directive
1 Zahtevi za energetskim pregledima prema EU direktivi

Prema Evropskoj direktivi 2012/27/EU, 25.Oktobra 2012, lan 8, Energetski
pregledi i sistem energetskog menadzmenta, zemlje lanice su u obavezi sprovoe-
nja energetskih pregleda i ili uvoenja sistema energetskog menadzmenta u skladu
sa ISO 50001.
2 Plan za uvoenje energetskog menadzmenta i energetskih pregleda u Srbiji i

obaveze prema Zakonu o energetskoj efikasnosti i sertifikacija objekata
Srbija je zapoela uvoenje sistema energetskog menadzmenta sa obavezom
uvoenja energetskih menadzera u Optine, industrijska preduzea i komercijalna
preduzea u sektoru trgovine i usluga sa veom potronjom energije. Od 2017 plani-
ra se uvoenje energetskih savetnika koji bi trebalo da vre nezavisne energetske
preglede obveznika sistema energetskog menadzmenta.
Trenutno su u toku obuke za energetske menadzere, a metodologija za ener-
getske preglede jo nije definisana.
Postoji samo zakonska obaveza sertifikacije novih i rekonstruisanih objekata.
Ta sertifikacija se zasniva na potrebnoj energiji za grejanje objekta koja ne uzima u
obzir instalacije u objektu.
Prema pravilniku o uslovima, sadrini i nainu izdavanja sertifikata o ener-
getskim svojstvima zgrada ("Sl. glasnik RS", br. 69/2012) rauna se potrebna godi-
nja toplota za grejanje objekta, a ne ukupna isporuena godinja energija koju bi
objekat trebalo da troi. Energetski razred u naem propisu poredi samo toplotne
karakteristike u okviru odreene kategorije zgrada i nije pokazatelj ukupne efikasno-
sti sistema i ne moe da poslui kao pokazatelj ukupne potronje i utede energije.
Predlaganje uteda u energiji van toplotnih ne utie na energetski razred i ne pove-
ava upotrebnu vrednost objekta, to je posebno sluaj kod zgrada koje nisu name-
njene stanovanju.
380
Propisana potrebna toplotna izolacija objekata ima ekonomsku opravdanost
kod objekata koji imaju dominantnu potrebu za grejanjem objekta, sa malom potre-
bom za hlaenje i bez vetake ventilacije, kao to su stambeni objekti.
Kod komercijalnih objekata, sa velikom potrebom za hlaenjem, a malom
potrebom za grejanjem, kao na primer oping centra, na jednom primeru u Srbiji,
period otplate za izolaciju krova prema zahtevima iz Zakona o energetskoj efikasno-
sti je bio 20 godina.
3 Iskustvo sa energetskim pregledima u Hrvatskoj

3.1 Hrvatski zakon i obaveze prema njemu
Hrvatska je meu prvim lanicama uvela obavezu energetskih pregleda veli-
kih preduzea u skladu sa Evropskom direktivom.
Hrvatski zakon o energetskoj efikasnosti iz 2014 godine uvodi obavezu ene-
regetskih pregleda velikih preduzea. Ova obaveza stupila je na snagu 2016 godine
sa obavezom pregleda svih velikih preduzea i zgada koje su u njihovom vlasnitvu.
Eneregetski pregledi ukljuuju i izradu sertifikata.
Po metodologiji sertifikovanja objekata do Septembra 2016 godine sertifika-
cija je sprovoena samo na osnovu potrebne toplotne energije za grejanje objekta,
kao to je i sada u Srbiji.
Prema metodlogiji za sertifikaciju postojeih objekata od Septembra 2016
posmatra se ukupna stvarna potronja, isporuena elektrine i toplotna energija
objekta, koja uzima u obzir potronju svih instalacija u objektu.
Indikatori nivoa energetskih svojstava zgrade (finalna potronja elektrine i
toplotne energije po m2) odreeni su na osnovu trokovno optimalnih nivoa (poziti-
vni rezultati analize trokova i koristi) procenjenih za ukupni ekonomski vek trajanja
objekta. Energetski pregledi objekata u vlasnitvu preduzea prate metodologiju
energetskih pregleda zgrada i njihovo sertifikovanje, iz 2013 godine, sa dopunom iz
2016 godine.
Prema datoj metodologiji energetski pregled sadri:
Analizu potronje energije u zadnje tri godine;
Predlog mera za poboljanje sa ekonsomskom opravdanou;
Provoenje kontrolnih merenja po potrebi;
U sklopu analize potronje energije sprovode se analize koje se odnose na:
Omota objekta,
Sve mainske instalacije,
Elektrino osvetljenje,
Druge elektro potroae,
Nain snabdevanja i upravljanja energijom.
381
3.2 Iskustvo na sprovedenim pregledima
Ja sam kao konsultant Britanske firme Arup, uz saradnju sa Hrvatskim kon-
sultantima sproveo energetske preglede prodajnih objekata za klijenta koji ima lanac
prodavnica odee u Hrvatskoj.
Cilj energetskih pregleda je bio:
Da se obave obavezni energetski pregledi i sertifikacija objekata po Hrvat-
skim propisima;
Da se sprovede analiza nedavno postavljenog sistema monitoringa KGH
instalacija i definiu mere i potencijali za poboljanje energetske efikas-
nosti u objektima.
Pregledi su sprovedeni do januara 2016, pa ukupna potronja energije objekta
nije ulazila u analizu za sertifikaciju objekata.
Iskustvo sa energetskim pregledima koji su obavezni po Hrvatskim propisma,
po metodologiji do Septembra 2016 je da su ti pregledi uglavnom bazirani na:
Detaljnoj analizi omotaa objekta;
Pregledu postojee dokumentacije i specifikaciji instalisane opreme KGH
sistema, sistema osvetljenja i drugih elektro potroaa;
Proraunu godinje specifine toplote za grejanje i hlaenje objekta uz
pomo softvera koji su razvijeni za Hrvatsko trite;
Analizi potronje energije postojeih sistema i poreenje sa raunima o
potronji enrgije objekta;
Prema propisu merenja su potrebna samo ako se ukae da su potrebna. Od
merenja je bilo zastupljeno samo snimanje infracrvenom kamerom u zim-
skom periodu;
Glavni nedostatak pregleda, prema metodologiji od pre Septembra 2016, je
to je sertifikacija objekata bazirana na potrebnoj energiji za grejanje objekta, kao
to je sada u Srbiji. Samim tim i analize pregleda su usresreene na detaljan pregled
omotaa objekta, bez detaljne analize rada sistema KGH i ostalih instalacija u objek-
tu.
3.3 Dodatne analize na bazi merenih vrednosti, konstatovani problemi i predloene mere
Dodatni pregledi na bazi merenih vrednosti parametra sistema monitoringa i
pregleda instalacija sprovedeni su po ASHRAE metodologiji energetskih pregleda.
Dodatni pregled instalacija i analiza rada sistema za monitoring pokazali
su sledee potencijale za utedu energije i unapreenje rada instalacija:
Osvetljenje u veini objekata radi van radnog vremena i vremena za odr-
avanje, ime je ukupna potronja energije vea za 18%;
Jedino sistemi grejanja imaju redovne preglede instalacija. Sistemi hlae-
nja uglavnom nisu pregledani nekoliko godina po putanju u rad;
Odravanje sistema hlaenja u veini objekata svodi se na ienje filtera;
Sistem hlaenja radi van perioda radnog vremena i vremena za odrava-
nje, potronja energije vea za 15% u odnosu na ukupnu potronju;
382
Sistem hlaenja sa VRV kondenzacionim jedinicama u jednom objektu
ima pogreno izvedenu ventilaciju tavanskog prostora ,u kome su smete-
ne kondenzacione jedinice, to dovodi do pregrevanja prostora sa konden-
zacionim jedinicama i nepovoljnih uslova rada u toku letnjih dana;
Sistem ventilacije u prodajnom prostoru u koji se nalazi u okviru trnih
centara, ne snabdeva dovoljnu koliinu vazduha po projektu. Izmerene
vrednosti CO2 iznad 1500 ppm.
Analiza sistema monitoringa je pokazala da merene veliine nisu praene
dui period vremena i da ima vie signala sa mernih instrumenata koji
nisu u funkciji;
Detaljna analiza, sa dinamikim simulacijama pokazala je da prirodna
ventilacija kroz otvorena vrata smanjuje potrebu za rashladnom energijom
u veem periodu godine. Ista analiza je pokazala da u prelaznom periodu
godine moe da se smanji energija za zagrevanje vazduha za vetaku
ventilaciju. Predloena je hibridna kontrola sistema ventilacije, korie-
njem prirodne ventilacije.
Kao najznaajnija utede energije na objektu je predloena mera zamene
postojeih metal halid svetiljki sa LED rasvetom. Ova intervencija je i
najkompleksnija, jer zahteva izradu novih svetiljki, posebno proizvedenih
za ovaj projekat da bi se zadovoljili zahtevi za kvalitetom osvetljenja u
prostoru.
Table 1 Pregled mera energetske efikasnosti kao rezultat pregleda

na bazi merenih parametarara sistema
Mera energetske efikasnosti Uteda Period
energije otplate
(%) (godina)
Kontrola ukljiivanja svetla 18 0
Kontrola ukljuivanja sistema za klimatizaciju 15 0,3
Unapreenje kontrole ventilacije kondenzacionih jedinica 8 1,1
VRV sistema
Hibridni sistem kontrole ventilacije, korienjem prirodne 30 0,9
ventilacije
Zamena postojeeg osvetljenja LED osvetljenjem 22 7,6
Dodatni pregledi na bazi merenih vrednosti parametara sistema, po ASHRAE

metodologiji, omoguavaju dijagnostiku problema u radu instalacija u objektu i
jasno definisanje mera sa brzim periodom otplate i onih sa duim periodom otplate.
U sluajevim gde nije postojao sistem monitoringa parametara sistema spro-
vedena su merenje sa snimanjem vrednosti, data logerima, u odreenom vremen-
skom periodu.
383
4 ASHRAE metodologija energetskih pregleda
ASHRAE metodologija energetskih pregleda je organizovana u tri stepena:
Energetski pregled nivo 1, podrazumeva obilazak objekta sa:
Analizom rauna potronje energije;
Razgovorom sa osobljem odravanja objekta;
Analizom moguih uteda energije na bazi prmene tarifnog sistema i
uoenih nepravilnosti u raunima i podacima o potronji;
Analizom potronje prema referentnim objektima, standardima. Vri se
poreenje realne potronje energije prema bazi podataka objekata, sa
istom namenom u razliitim klimatskim predelima (definisanim brojem
stpen dana grejanja i hlaenja);
Definisanjem moguih uteda da bi se ostvario cilj (definisan standardom
ili referntnim objektima);
Definisanjem primeenih nedostaka u radu i odravanju instalacija u obje-
ktu;
Merenjem parametara komfora tokom obilaska objekta: temperatura, rela-
tivna vlanost, CO2 koncentracija, merenjem brzine strujanja vazduha,
merenje intenziteta osvetljenosti u prostoru.
Definisanjem mera sa niskim investicionim trokovima i bez dodatnih tro-
kova;
Definisanjem planiranih i potrebnih kapitalnih investicija i preliminarna,
gruba procena potrebnog nivoa investicija.
Rezultati ovog pregleda mogu se koristiti za razvoj prioritetne liste za
obavljanje enrgetskih pregleda nivoa 2 i 3.
Energetski pregled nivio 2, je detaljan energetski pregled i analize, koji
ukljuuje:
Detaljan obilazak objekta, snimanje postojeeg stanja;
Pregled postojee projektne dokumentacije, izvetaljima i planu odrava-
nja i rada sistema;
Merenje kljunih parametara (analiza postojeih sistema monitoringa rada
instalacija, merenje parametara komfora i rada instalacija pomou logera
sa vremenskim snimanjem podataka u referentnom vremenskom periodu).
Praenje parametara komfora (temperatura, vlanost, CO2), praenje elek-
trine snage i potronje energije na kljunim potroaima;
Pregled potronje eneregije po potroaima u objektu;
Lista svih potencijalnih mera, koje imaju opravdanost;
Analiza mera sa kapitalnim investicijama (investicija, uteda i interakcija);
Finansijska analiza ekonomske isplativosti primene pojedinih mera;
Predloeni metod za merenje i potvrivanje ostvarenih uteda;
Energetski pregled nivo 3, je energetski pregled sa detaljnim analizama, koji
ukljuuje:
384
Detaljnu analizu pojedinih mera, sa razvojem idejnih projekata i emat-
skim crteima za pojedine mere;
Energetsko modelovanje objekta;
Energetski pregled nivo 3 se sprovodi za specifine mere, ili potvrdu deta-
ljniju analizu mera utvrenih u toku energetskog pregleda nivo 2.
Energetske preglede po ASHRAE metodologiji obavljaju inenjeri, energet-
ski auditori koji su sertifikovani od starne ASHRAE, kao ASHRAE BEAP (Building
Energy Assesment Professional).
Od nedavno je uvedena ASHRAE sertifikacija zgrada bEQ (Building Energy
Qutient), koja pored poreenja potronje energije u postojeim objektima, zahteva
energetske preglede prema ASHRAE nivo 1, merenje i analizu parametara unutra-
njeg komfora. Prema ASHRAE izvorima energetski pregledi i sertifikacija zgrada po
bEQ metodi dovodi do utede energije od 20% u sertifikovanim objektima. Prednost
sertifikacije po bEQ metodi je to su trokovi sertifikacije daleko nii od trokova
nekih drugih internacionalnih sistema sertifikacije, kao to je na primer LEED.
5 Razlike u praksi i metodologiji ASHRAE energetskih pregleda

u poreenju sa energetskim pregledima po EU direktivi
Glavna razlika izmeu Amerikog, ASHRAE sistema pregleda i Evropskog
sistema pregleda to ASHRAE pregledi nisu obavezni osim za dravne institucije,
tako da je cilj da se na osnovu Energetskog pregleda nivio 1, komercijalnim klijen-
tima predstavi situacija vezana za:
Sadanji nivo potronje energije u objektu i poreenje sa bazom podataka
referentnih objekata u istim klimatskim uslovima;
Mere sa malim niviom investicionih trokova ili bez trokova;
Mere sa kapitalnim investicijama;
Dalja analiza i nivo detaljnosti merenja, a samim tim trokova energetskog
pregleda u Nivou 2, definie se u odnosu na finansijsku vrednost planiranih uteda
energije i investicija.
ASHRAE metodologija podrazumeva obavezna merenja kako parametara
komfora u objektu, (temperatura, vlanost vazduha, CO2 koncentracija) kao klju-
nog pokazatelja rada instalacija, tako i merenja radnih parametara instalacija. Na
bazi tih merenja definiu se mere za poboljanje parametara unutranjeg komfora,
rada instalacija i procenjuje nivo utede energije. Vano je da u sklopu energetskih
pregleda budu ukljuena i merenja parametara unutranjeg komfora, jer je est sluaj
da se utede energije ostvaruju na raun unutranjeg komfora.
Kod ASHRAE metodlogije ukupna potronja energije se poredi sa bazom
podataka objekata sline namene i klimatske zone (prema broju stepen dana grejanja
i hlaenja) i u odnosu na tu potronju se odreuje referentna potronja i sertifikacija
objekta po bEQ metodi.
Kod ASHRAE metodologije utvrena je referentna lista energetski efikasnih
mera koje treba razmatrati, definisan je metod za merenje i potvrivanje ostvarenih
uteda i utvrena je forma prikazivanja rezultata i izvetaja.
385
6 Koje prednosti ASHRAE metodologije bi trebalo ukljuiti
u novu srpsku metodologiju
Na osnovu navedenog poreenja Evropske metodologije energetskih pregleda
i ASHRAE metodologije sledei elementi ASHRAE metodologije se predlau za
Srpsku metodologiju energetskih pregleda:
1. Potrebno je da se poredi ukupna finalna potronja elektrine i toplotne energi-
je i da se po njoj odredi klasifikacija objekata prema bazi podatka o potronje
energije za referentne klimatske zone (stepen dane).
Po sadanjem Srpskom zakonu o Energetskoj efikasnosti i sertifikaciji obje-

kata poredi se samo potrebna energija za grejanje koja ne uzima u obzir stvarnu
potronju svih instalacija u objektu
I prema Evropskoj regulativi, koja je meu prvima poela da se primenjuje u
Hrvatskoj, od Septembra 2016, za sertifikaciju postojeih objekata uzima se stvarna
potronja elektrine i toplotne energije prema raunima o potronji energije.
Da bi se uvela klasfikacija objekata prema finalnoj potronji, potrebno je
sprovesti tehnoekonomsku analizu, koja uzima u obzir lokalne ekonomske uslove
(cena energije i investicija).
2. Energetski pregled treba da se odija u dve faze.
Incijalni pregled, slino ASHRAE nivo 1 energetskom pregledu koji definie
nivo potencijalnih uteda sa brzim periodom otplate i merama koje zahtevaju
kapitalne investicije. Na bazi ovog preliminarnog pregleda treba da se defini-
e koje mere treba detaljnije analizirati u sklopu detaljne faze energetskog
pregleda, slino ASHRAE nivo 2. Obim posla i cena ovih energetskog pre-
gleda, slino kao ASHRAE nivo 2, treba da zavisi od planiranih uteda i
investicija.
3. Energetski pregled treba obavezno da sadri merenja parametara unutranjeg
komfora (temperatura, vlanost vazduha, CO2 koncentracija) i parametara
sistema (elektrine snage/energije, temperature vazduha ili vode u siste-
mu).Posebno je vano da energetski pregled sadri merenje i analizu parame-
tara unutranjeg komfora, jer utede energije, bez kontrole parametara unut-
ranjeg komfora nemaju smisla. est je sluaj da se u velikim trnim centri-
ma utede energije ostvaruju ba na ovaj nain smanjenjem koliine sveeg
vazduha, bez kontrole CO2 u prostoru.
4. Potrebno je za svaki tip komercijalnog objekata definisati bilans potronje
energije po potroaima i u skladu sa tim definisati odgovarajue mere na
instalacijama u objektu.
7 Reference
[1] Deru M., Kelsey J. Procedures for Commercial Building Energy Audits,
ASHRAE, US, 2011
386
ENERGETSKI EFIKASNI PROJEKTI KGH
POTVRIVANJE UTEDA ENERGIJE ISPLATIVI
ARANMANI SUB-MERENJA
HVAC ENERGY EFFICIENCY PROJECTS- VERIFICATION
OF ENERGY SAVINGS - COST EFFECTIVE
SUB-METERING ARRANGEMENTS
Aleksandar KONAR
Director of energy management consulting company
GreenKon, Sydney, Australia
alexkoncar@greenkon.com.au
This paper presents cost effective methods for M & V (Measurements and
Verification) of energy savings achieved through implementation of HVAC energy
efficiency projects. The proposed
M & V Plan is based on IPMVP (International Performance, Measurement
and Verification Protocol) and the use of suitably qualified professional certified
energy management engineers CMVP (Certified Measurement and Verification
Professional).
It provides better understanding on what are engineering challenges to
design the most cost effective sub-metering system as part of M & V Plan, within the
given four M & V generic options (IPMVP Options A, B, C & D).
Emphasis of the paper is to highlight the key M & V design concepts that
ensure optimal number of sub-meters at suitable locations, as well as basic
requirements for processing, diagnostics and reporting of the collected data.
The paper also analyses one case study that fully demonstrates DOs and
DONTs of how to prepare M & V plan, how to ensure smooth implementation and
transparent ongoing monitoring and verification of achieved savings of implemented
HVAC energy efficiency.
Normalisation of actual weather data (BOM Bureau of Meteorology), as
part of M & V Plan, for a given location and a given period of time, is demonstrated
via regression analysis, using correlation between actual CDD, HDD (Coo-
ling/Heating Degree Days) and actual energy consumption data.
Creation of cost effective sub-metering, as part of M & V Plan, include use of
VSD (Variable Speed Drive) controllers with HLI (High Level Interface) as sub-
meters with sufficient accuracy for M & V purpose, as well as use of temporary data
loggers.
The paper also addresses an issue of the current M & V practices where
many BMS companies up-sell sub-metering arrangements that are not based on the
387
best M & V engineering practices (IPMVP) and in many cases do not represent
good value for money for clients.
The paper also explains how proper M & V plan can reduce capital costs of
implementation of HVAC projects in Australia, via creation and sale of Energy
Saving Certificates.
Key words: M & V, CMVP, IPMVP, Energy Efficiency, Energy Management
Introduction
Metering or tracking energy use has traditionally been accomplished by
minimal number of utility meters (in the most of cases just one), in order to minimi-
se cost of metering.
This type of metering however, does not provide information on energy use
at points of use (where, when and how much energy was consumed by different
building services lighting, air conditioning, vertical transportation, etc).
Sustainable energy and energy reduction goals are driving the need for better
understanding of energy use by the end users. With energy prices rising and budget
tightening, energy efficiency upgrades has become increasingly important as the
most cost effective mean to reduce energy consumption of building services.
Capturing this low hanging fruit starts with metering and sub-metering (lower
levels and sub-levels of metering, compared to utility metering), which provides a
backbone of knowledge about where resources are being used and energy saving
potential.
Sub-metering and M & V plan
Measurement and Verification (M & V), according to IPMVP (International
Performance, Measurements and Verification Protocol written by Efficiency Valu-
ation Organisation - EVO) is the process of using measurements (including metering
and sub-metering) to reliably determine actual energy savings.
An adequate M & V Plan is essential to economically justify introduction of
sub-metering, before the level of energy saving is known.
EVO runs worldwide trainings and exams for obtaining M & V certification -
CMVP (Certified Measurement & Verification Professional) to ensure a minimum
quality for writing proper M & V plans for different facilities and energy systems.
It is clear that meters, on their own, do not save energy and money, but cost
money to purchase and install. Thats why the key to maximising energy saving is to
complement sub-metering system with appropriate procedures:
Collect the data
Keep records
Analyse the data
Take Action
The main roles of M & V include:
Verify utility bills

Allocate energy costs & assign accountabilities
388
Determine equipment and system efficiencies
Identify equipment and process problems
Identify energy saving opportunities
M & V has to be:
Accurate
Complete
Conservative
Consistent
Relevant
Transparent
Cost effective
Suitable to the readers level of understanding
Energy Saving quantification (IPMVP)
IPMVP prescribes four options to quantify energy savings:
Option A (Retrofit Isolation: Key Parameter Measurement)

Option B (Retrofit Isolation: All Parameter Measurement)
Option C (Whole Facility)
Option D (Calibrated Simulation)
The above table shows that metering is essential for Options A & B, which
could represent individual or limited HVAC Upgrade projects.
389
Basis for quantification of energy savings (ES), according to IPMVP is the
following formula:
ES = Baseline energy consumption Post-implementation energy consump-
tion (Reporting Period) + adjustments.
Adjustments address differences in conditions between the baseline and the
reporting periods.
Energy savings, according to IPMVP, can be defined either as avoided
energy or normalised savings.
To collect the data required for quantification of energy saving (IPMVP), the
following processes are involved:
Visual inspection
Sample spot measurements
Short-term performance testing
Data-trending and control-logic review
Cost effective sub-metering
Cost effective sub-metering considers an optimal number of meters, suffici-
ent for a robust and reliable M & V system, that can determine energy savings ari-
sing from energy efficiency upgrades in a reliable way.
Cost effective sub-metering M & V system requires a comprehensive M & V
plan that considers:
Thorough knowledge of employed HVAC System (Design and opera-
tions of equipment and controls) and other energy systems.
Thorough knowledge of electrical reticulation/switchrooms and posi-
tion/loads of HVAC System components in it (represented in Electrical
Single Line Diagram)
Load measurements (to ascertain size of current transformers considering
the difference between a maximum load and name plate reading)
Thorough knowledge about trend of energy use/power demand (using
utility bills and smart metering interval data) and its correlation to varia-
ble weather conditions (regression analysis using CDD and HDD Cool-
ing and Heating Degree Days, ands actual energy consumption data.
Awareness of available budget
Knowledge on cost effective meters and processing softwares
Use of existing sub-meters (properly validated) and the likes (VSD con-
trollers for pumps and fans with HLI- High Level Interface, temporary
loggers, etc.)
Creation of virtual meters
Minimal ongoing fees for analysis and reporting
390
Schematic location of electrical switchboards
Schematic electricity reticulation

Case Study - an example of a cost effective
multiple sub-metering arrangement
Large museum in Sydney, with a complex HVAC System (three magnetic
bearing chillers, sea water CW cooling, primary and secondary CHW distribution,
Condensing gas HW Heater with pumps, multiple CHW and HW AHUs with carbon
filtration, Demand Ventilation, pressurisation and Economy Cycle, electric steam
humidifiers, VSD controllers on all pumps and fans, electric duct heaters on FCUs,
etc.) tendered for sub-metering system. Two large companies (one BMS and one
specialised for sub-metering) offered around 40 sub-meters (initial capital cost aro-
und $200k with ongoing reporting fee of around $40,000 pa). They spent minimal
time to get familiar with HVAC Systems and electrical reticulation. GreenKon,
based on its intimate knowledge of site from previous energy auditing and HVAC
Design works, has proposed much more cost effective solution for a fraction of
t=cost that was offered by two other competitors - $40K and $12K for ongoing
reporting.
The below spreadsheet outlines this very cost effective M & V plan and sub-
metering design:
391
Substation
Supply No.1 Supply No.2
Summation Utility Meter No.1 Summation Utility Meter No.2

Schneider's existing sub-meter Schneider's existing sub-meter
MSB 1 MSB 2
MCC1 Plantroom & Chillers
PCHW pump 1 EWIS,FIB,Lifts Fire Panel
Remote plantrooms MCC2, MCC3, MCC4, MCC5 & MCC
PCHW pump 2 New 2
PCHW pump 3 AHU 1 MCC2
CW pump 1 AHU 2
CW pump 2 AHU 3
CW pump 3 AHU 4
SCHW Pump 1 AHU 9
SCHW Pump 2 PFC
SCHW Pump 3 Light and Power
SCHW Pump 4 3 x 3x 14.4kW HW
HW pump 1
HW pump 2
SWP 1
SWP 2
SWP 3
SWP 4
AHU 5
AHU 6
PFC
Chiller 1
Chiller 2
LEGEND
Utility Meter
Existing Schneider's sub-meters
New submeters
Existing VSDs used as submeters via HLI
New VSDs to be used as sub-meters
Virtual Meter
Chillers HLI sub-meter
Additional benefits from energy efficiency upgrades in Australia, when using a

proper M & V system reduces capital cost of energy efficiency upgrades
NSW Government has introduced Energy Saving Certificates (ESCs) via
Energy Saving Scheme (ESS) that can reduce capital costs of upgrades by typically
20-30%.
Verified energy savings via M & V systems, compliant with ESS
requirements, are eligible for creation of ESCs (1x ESC equal to 1x saved CO2 tonne
pa) and upfront claiming of benefits for around 6-7 years (if savings is verified using
PIAMV method Project Impact Assessment Measurement and Verification method).
Current value of 1 x ESC is around AU$ 25, so creation and sale of ESCs
generated from one office building control optimisations (around 1,500 ESCs) can
generate around $AU35,000 (EU 20,000).
392
SAMOPODEAVANJE PID KONTROLERA
POMOU VETAKE INTELIGENCIJE
AUTO TUNING OF PID CONTROLLER
USING ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Velimir ONGRADAC, Slaana LAZAREVI i Dubravka BOJANI
Faculty of Technical Sciences Novi Sad, Novi sad
U ovom radu je predstavljeno automatsko podeavanje parametara PID

regulatora upotrebom vetake inteligencije sa primenom u KGH sistemima. Para-
metri su podeavani korenjem genetskog algoritma i PSO algoritma, ija je efika-
snost u pronalaenju optimalnih reenja ocenjena pomou fuzzy logike. Rezultati su
verifikovani na primeru regulacije pritiska vazduha koji se iz klima komore distribu-
ira ka termalnim zonama objekta.
Kljune rei: PID regulator; automatsko podeavanje parametara; vetaka
inteligencija
This paper presents auto tuning of PID controller using artificial intelligence
with the application in HVAC systems. Controller parameters are adjusted using
Genetic Algorithm and Particle Swarm Optimization, and their efficiency in attai-
ning optimal solutions is graded by concepts of fuzzy logic. Results are verified in
the example of supply air pressure regulation which is distributed from the air
chamber to the thermal zones.
Key words: PID controller; auto tuning; artificial intelligence
1. Introduction
As in other industrial fields, PID (Proportional, Integral and Derivative) con-
troller is the most commonly used heating, ventilation and cooling (HVAC) systems,
because it is simple and usually sufficient for various processes. [1] If a mathemati-
cal model of a process can be derived then it is possible to determine parameters of
the controller so that closed-loop performance, regarding steady-state behavior, can
be achieved. [2] The standard tuning procedures are time consuming, and poorly
tuned control system may waste energy, reduce occupant comfort and cause
excessive wear of actuators.
Auto tuning has been successfully applied in many industries, taking into
account linear [1], nonlinear [3] and fractional [4] systems, systems of variable order
[5] and the systems with time delay [1][6]. To this day, many different methods for
self-tuning were studied [1], such as Global Search, One Parameter Search, Hooke
Jeeves Search, Genetic Algorithm [7][8], Particle Swarm Optimization [9], fuzzy
logic [8] etc., and minimization of energy consumption was the only optimization
393
criteria. Research has shown that analyzing performance indicators such as oversho-
ot [10] and transient time [11] provide improved control law, and therefore, occu-
pant comfort can be assured.
2. Method
The PID controller continuously calculates the error value e(t) as the diffe-
rence of the desired set point and a measured process variable and applies correction
based on proportional, integral and derivative actions, Figure 1.
Figure 1 PID controller

Controller output u(t) which ensures the minimization of e(t) over time is
given as:
t
de ( t )
u (t ) =
K p e ( t ) + Ki e (t ) dt + K d
0
dt
(1)
The tuning is the adjustment process of proportional gain Kp, integral gain Ki
and derivative gain Kd to the optimum values for the desired response. To the time,
tuning is mostly intuitive, but it can be hard if multiple and often conflicting
requirements are to be achieved. The basic requirement for tuning is stability, but
regarding different systems behavior, others can be considered such as peak overs-
hoot, rising and transient time.
In this paper, parameters of PID controller are determined using the methods
of artificial intelligence: Genetic Algorithm and Particle Swarm Optimization. The
SISO system of interest is described with second order transfer function:
Y (s) b1s + b0
G
= (s) = (2)
U ( s ) a2 s 2 + a1s + a0
Potential solutions are given in three dimensional space as (Kp, Ki, Kd). Every
potential solution is graded using fuzzy logic based on peak overshoot and transient
time.
394
2.1 Genetic Algorithm
Genetic Algorithm GA is global stochastic search algorithm based on the
principles of evolution, such as mutation, crossover and selection. Each potential
solution is called individual having a set of properties (chromosomes or genotype)
which can be changed, i.e. mutated. A set of individuals is called population. The
algorithm starts from a population of randomly selected individuals which is modifi-
ed through generations (i.e. iterations). In each generation, measure of quality is
evaluated for every individual using the fitness function. Based on the individuals
fitness, they are selected as the parents for crossover forming a new generation of
descendants. Descendants are the result of recombination of parents chromosomes
and random mutation of the genes. The new generation of descendants is used in the
next iteration of the algorithm.
2.2 Particle Swarm Optimization
Particle Swarm Optimization PSO is iterative algorithm based on imitation
of the behavior of animal groups or individuals in these groups such as birds, fish or
insects.
Figure 2 Principles of PSO algorithm

The algorithm works by having a set, i.e. swarm, of randomly selected possi-
ble solutions called particles. The swarm propagates from iteration to iteration and
moves through space of solutions trying to improve candidate solution with regard
to given measure of quality. In addition to the particles current position x (represen-
ting a potential solution), each particle is described by its current velocity v. Particles
are able to remember their best position p and swarm, as a whole, remembers the
best position ever attained by any of its particles, g. The movement of one particle is
shown in Figure 2.
x [ k + 1=
] x [k ] + v [k ] (3)
395
v [ k=
] w [ k ] v [ k 1] +
c p [ k ] rp [ k ] ( p [ k ] x [ k ]) + (4)
cg [ k ] rg [ k ] ( g [ k ] x [ k ])
The first addend in (4) is called inertial component and performance of the
algorithm, especially the precision around solution, can be substantially improved
when the inertial factor w decreases from 0.9 to 0.4 through the iterations. Second
and third addends in (4) are called cognitive and social components, retrospectively.
Variable acceleration factors cp and cg increase the ability of the algorithm to search
the space of solutions reducing the likelihood of getting stuck in a local optimum.
Initially, the particles are driven by their own experience, but the influence of cogni-
tive component is reduced over time by decreasing the cp factor. Consequently,
social component is improved by increasing the cg factor, encouraging the group
experience.

Both optimization algorithms start from the same initial set of candidates for
solution. Measure of quality calculated using fuzzy logic is used during selection of
the individuals for crossover for GA, and in the case of PSO algorithm it is used for
determining the step size of the particle in the search space. Termination condition
for both algorithms is achieving the given number of iterations so they have the
same number of attempts to attain the best solution.
3.1 Example Supply air pressure
In the heating, ventilation and cooling system, supply air pressure is regula-
ted by the speed of supply air fan. The relation between fan speed and air pressure
can be described with second order transfer function [1]:
1
Gsap ( s ) = (5)
0.12 s 2 + 1.33s + 1.24
Set point for supply air pressure during PID controller tuning was 8 Pa. In
this example, 30 potential solutions are propagated through 30 iterations, but both
algorithms return the ordinal in which the best solution was attained.
Genetic Algorithm obtained the best solution after 22 iterations giving
following control for fan speed, show in Figure 3:
1.5221
U ( s )= 0.92303 + 0.021553s E ( s ) (6)
s
396
Figure 3 GA optimization control signal
Figure 4 GA optimization system response

System response with the PID parameters tuned by genetic algorithm is
shown in Figure 4. It has mild overshoot of 3.79% and settling time of 6.29 s.
PSO algorithm obtained optimal solution after 7 iterations, giving the
following control for fan speed, shown in Figure 5:
1.9504
U ( s ) = 1.802 + + 0.2473s E ( s ) (7)
s
397
Figure 5 PSO algorithm control signal
Figure 6 PSO algorithm system response

The system response with PID parameters tuned by PSO algorithm is shown
in Figure 6. It has overshoot of 0.1942% and settling time of 3.31 s.
4. Conclusion
Since both algorithms are stochastic and depending on the initial population,
it is preferable to have large set of solution candidates over the search space. This
entails considerable number of calculations and it can be time consuming. Indeed,
multiple executions of the auto tuning algorithms have shown that even with smaller
sets of candidates PSO algorithm is faster in obtaining the optimal PID parameters.
Nonetheless, final result, i.e. system response, was always better regarding the over-
398
shoot and settling time. The reason for this is hidden in the fact that GA descendants
are limited by their parents genes which shouldnt be overwhelmed by the mutation.
PSO particles are much more flexible having greater freedom of movement in the
search space. This auto-tuner could be applied in other industry fields. In the future,
the solution could be improved including other performance indicators in the opti-
mization criteria.
5. References
[1] Bi, Q., et. al., Advanced controller auto-tuning and its application in HVAC
systems, Control Engineering Practice, Vol. 8 (2000), pp. 633-644
[2] Yu, C. C., Autotuning of PID Controllers: A Relay Feedback Approach, 2nd
Edition, Springer, 2006
[3] Tan, K.K., Ferdous, R., Huang, S., Closed-loop automatic tuning of PID con-
troller for nonlinear systems, Chemical Engineering Science, Vol. 57 (2002),
pp. 3005-3011
[4] Alagoz, B. B., Ates, A., Yeroglu, C., Auto-tuning of PID controller according
to fractional-order reference model approximation for DC rotor control, Mec-
hatronics, Vol. 23 (2013), pp. 789-797
[5] Tavakoli, S., Griffin, I., Fleming, P. J., Tuning of decentralized PI (PID) con-
trollers for TITO processes, Control Engineering Practice Vol. 14 (2006), pp.
1069-1080
[6] Wang, Y. G., Shao, H. H., PID auto-tuner based on sensitivity specification,
Trans IChemE, Vol. 78 (2000), pp. 312-316
[7] Huang, W., Lam, H. N., Using genetic algorithms to optimize controller
parameters for HVAC systems, Energy and Buildings, Vol. 26, pp. 277-282
[8] Sharkawy, A. B., Genetic fuzzy self-tuning PID controllers for antilock braking
systems, Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 23 (2010), pp.
1041-1052
[9] Omar, M. H. T., Ali, W. M., Mostafa, M. Z., Auto Tuning of PID Controller
Using Swarm Intelligence, International Review of Automatic Contrl, Vol. 4,
No. 3 (2011), pp. 319-327
[10] Pavkovi, D., Polak, S., Zorc, D., PID controller auto-tuning based on pro-
cess step response and damping optimum criterion, ISA Transactions, Vol. 53
(2014), pp. 85-96
[11] Boiko, I., Self-tuning PI controller, IFAC Symposium on Power Plants and
Power Systems Control, Kananaskis, Canada, 2006
399
KVANTITATIVNA I KVALITATIVNA PROCENA
UNUTRANJEG TOPLOTNOG KOMFORA I
KVALITETA VAZDUHA U DVE POSLOVNE
(KANCELARIJSKE) ZGRADE
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE EVALUATION
OF INDOOR THERMAL AND AIR QUALITY
IN TWO OFFICE BUILDINGS
Panagiota ANTONIADOU*, Christina KONSTANTINIDOU,
George MANTIKAS, Agis M. PAPADOPOULOS
Process Engineering Design Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering,
Aristotle University Thessaloniki, Building D, 8th Floor, Thessaloniki
pantoniadou@auth.gr
Poboljanje energetskih karakteristika zgada je imperativ vie nego ikada

ranije. Meunarodni propisi i standardi istiu potrebu da se dostignu energetski
efikasne zgrade (2010/31/EE) i omogui ugodan toplotni ambijent za stanare od-
nosno korisnike zgrada (ISO 7730). To se naroito primenjuje na poslovne zgrade,
gde su dobrobit (zdravlje) i produktivnost zaposlenih od kljunog znaaja i ne-
raskidivo povezani sa unutranjim toplotnim komforom i uslovima kvaliteta
vazduha.
U okviru ovog rada prikazani su rezultati procene uslova nakon boravka
ljudi u prostorijama i odnose se na unutranji kvalitet vazduha u dve zgrade u Solu-
nu. Klimatske karakteristike ovog regiona su sline onima u veini gradova na
Mediteranu. Dve poslovne (kancelarijske) zgrade su izgraene 1995. i 1998., tako
da su graene u skladu sa prvim nacionalnim propisom o toplotnoj izolaciji. Tokom
procene na licu mesta mereni su razni parametri unutranje sredine, kao to su
unutranja temperatura, relativna vlanost i nivo CO2 , zajedno sa indeksom PMV
(Predicted Mean Vote - subjektivne ocene ugodnosti boravka u sredini).
Pored praenja navedenih parametara, izvrena je i kvalitativna procena
unutranjih uslova. U oba sluaja je obavljena anketa o preferencijama korisnika i
utvren je veliki broj drutvenih karakteristika i linih uverenja koji se tie unu-
tranjeg ambijenta. Takoe je izvrena inferencijalna statistika analiza i utvrene
su mogue korelacije izmeu prigovora koje korisnici imaju na unutranje uslove i
unutranjeg toplotnog komfora i kvaliteta vazduha tokom zimskog perioda.
Moe se zakljuiti da je izuzetno vano da se odrede i procene unutranji
uslovi u postojeim zgradama i njihova povezanost sa linim karakteristika i uveren-
jima, budui da to moe da pokae koje parametre treba da uzmu u obzir kreatori
politike i graditelji zgrada kako bi izgradili ne samo zgrade nulte energije, ve i
401
odrive zgrade u kojima se stanari odnosno korisnici dobro oseaju. Stoga je po-
trebno da se u svakoj fazi procesa donoenja odluka izvri solidna procena posto-
jeih uslova i da se odrede parametri zbog kojih se stanari odnosno korisnici zgrade
ale.
Kljune rei: unutranji kvalitet vadzuha; poslovne (kancelarijske) zgrade;
inferencijalna analiza; percepcija stanara/korisnika zgrade; oseaj toplote
The improvement of the buildings energy performance is being realized to

be more than ever imperative. The international legislation framework and the
standards outline the need to achieve buildings that achieve energy efficiency
(2010/31/EE) and ensure a comfortable thermal environment for the occupants (ISO
7730). This applies in particular in the case of office buildings, where the well-being
and productivity of the employees is essential and is inextricably linked with the
prevailing indoor thermal comfort and air quality conditions.
In the framework of this paper, the results of a post occupancy evaluation
campaign focusing on indoor air quality conditions, in two buildings in Thessaloni-
ki, Greece, are presented. The climate characteristics of the area are similar to the
majority of the cities in Mediterranean. The two office buildings were constructed in
1995 and 1998, therefore they complied with the first national thermal insulation
regulation. During the in situ evaluation a variety of indoor parameters were meas-
ured, as the indoor temperature, relative humidity and CO2 levels along with the
PMV index.
In addition to the monitoring of the aforementioned parameters, a qualitative
evaluation of the indoor conditions was carried out. In both cases, a reveal prefer-
ence survey was conducted and a variety of social characteristics and personal
beliefs concerning the indoor environment was determined. Moreover, an inferential
statistical analysis was carried out and probable correlations between the occu-
pants complaints about indoor conditions and the indoor thermal and air quality
during winter period were specified.
Concluding, the determination and evaluation of the indoor conditions of the
existing building stock and their linkage to personal characteristics and beliefs is
essential, as it can demonstrate the parameters that should be taken into considera-
tion both from policy makers and building developers for creating not only nearly
zero energy but also sustainable ones and such that are friendly to their occupants.
Therefore, a firmed evaluation of the existing conditions and the designation of the
parameters that affects the occupants expression of complaints should be specified
and evaluated in every stage of the deciding making process.
Key words: indoor air quality; office buildings; inferential analysis; occu-
pants perception; thermal sensation
402
1 Introduction
The need to create a safe and comfortable work environment constitutes a
fundamental goal of the building industry. However, historically energy was cheap
until the 1970s, whilst internal loads and requirements on thermal comfort and in-
door air quality increased after the 1980s; hence and despite the progress in energy
efficiency that was achieved- the building stock consumes 36% of the total final
energy in Europe [1]. In this framework, the European Parliament approved the
Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) 2002/91/EC and the recast
Directive 2010/31/EC. Except from those Directives, the EU set the main goals for
energy, transport and GHG emissions not only for 2020 but also for the following
decades; 2030 and 2050 [2].
Regarding the building sector and the non-residential buildings, the Odyssee
Database outlines that the total energy consumed in 2013 by the tertiary sector was
161.46 Mtoe (1.02 Mtoe/employee) [3]. Therefore, the implementation of strategies
and measures is imperative for achieving the desirable indoor environment condi-
tions that upgrade the occupants well-being and productivity.
In this study, two main objectives are evaluated; (a) the indoor air conditions
and (b) the occupants perception of indoor conditions. These parameters constitute
domains that affect the occupants well-being and productivity during their stay in
the building. Specifically, the parameters that describe the indoor conditions are the
levels of temperature, relative humidity and CO2, along with the PMV/PPD indexes.
Therefore, it can easily be outlined whether the appropriate indoor condition princi-
ples are followed by the occupants or an irrational use of the HVAC systems is tak-
ing place leading to an unnecessarily high energy consumption [4].
The parameters of comfort sensation and thermal comfort vary. In case of P.
O. Fangers model, parameters like the age, gender, clothing, activity and body mass
of the occupants, are measured in order to calculate the level of thermal comfort [5].
However, within the framework of this study an alternative approach of comfort
sensation is presented, based on the occupants perception and attitude towards the
indoor conditions and sensation. The evaluation of comfort sensation in the office
buildings is achieved through a revealed preference survey where probable correla-
tions between the occupants complaints about indoor conditions and the indoor
thermal and air quality conditions during winter period were specified.
Concluding, in situ measurements were conducted in two public office build-
ings, in Thessaloniki, northern Greece. The climate characteristics of the area corre-
spond to the second cooler zone in Greece, (Zone C) and both buildings constitute
representative examples of the Greek building stock, as constructed in 1965 and
1998.
2 Case Study
For evaluating the indoor environmental conditions of the existing building
stock, two office buildings were monitored. Both buildings are public and are locat-
ed in Thessaloniki, Greece, a typical Mediterranean city with both cold winter and
403
warm summer periods. Both buildings are located in the suburbs of Thessaloniki and
a meteorological station is set up, determining the microclimate conditions of the
area. In order to evaluate the indoor environment conditions, a description of the
buildings structural elements and HVAC systems is essential.
2.1 Technical Service of Pylaia-Hortiatis Municipality
The Technical Service is located in a two-storied building with a basement,
ground-floor and two upper floors. The entire building is occupied by offices and its
construction was carried out in 1998, after the Greek Thermal Insulation Regulation
that took place 1979, and therefore is in compliance with him. Its successor is the
Regulation on the Energy Performance of Buildings, known as KENAK, which was
adopted in 2010. Then, in 2013 the Greek Law 4122/2013 was published, introduc-
ing the definition of the net zero energy buildings for both commercial and private
buildings [6].
Concerning the current state of the building, the two main areas of interest
are (a) the buildings envelope and (b) the HVAC systems. For the architectural
characteristics, it should be outlined that its a corner, square building with a variety
of openings in all areas. Moreover, the building has double glazed, aluminum
framed windows, with no external sun-protection systems but internal blinds. The
number and dimensions of openings in every office is considered to be sufficient for
lighting and ventilation, based on the offices dimensions, number of employees and
usage.
In order to achieve the appropriate indoor conditions during winter, a central
gas boiler with autonomy per zone is used, that is feeding radiator panels. Further-
more, local heat pumps (room air-conditioners) are installed almost in every office
and are occasionally used for heating. The operation schedule of the central heating
system corresponds with the office hours of the Municipality, namely from 07:00
am to 04:00 pm. During summer period, cooling is achieved by means of natural
ventilation and by the aforementioned local air conditioning unit. Concerning the
artificial lighting, the majority of the lamps used are fluorescent and the total level of
lighting in all offices can be characterized as adequate. However, there are neither
occupancy nor lighting intensity sensors.
2.2 Former Town Hall of Pylaia-Hortiatis Municipality
The other under evaluation building is the former Town Hall of Pylaia-
Hortiatis Municipality which is constructed in 1995 and is in compliance with the
first National Thermal Insulating Regulation. It is a two building construction, con-
nected with an external corridor, with a ground-floor and two upper floors.
Concerning the architectural characteristics of the building, it features open-
ings in every faade and all windows are tinted double glazed, aluminum framed
windows for achieving energy efficiency of the building and sufficient natural light-
ing control. The building was constructed after the introduction of the first Thermal
Insulation Regulation, therefore is adequate insulated, at least with respect to con-
temporary requirements.
404
In order to achieve a better understanding of the building the HVAC systems
should also be considered. During the winter period heating in the former Town Hall
is achieved by means of geothermal system and extra local heating means (e.g. elec-
tric heater). It operates from 7:00am to 4:00pm. Also, in cooling period the geo-
thermal system is applied. Finally, concerning the artificial lighting, fluorescent
tubes are used and the total level of lighting in offices is found to be adequate. In
cases of corridors an autonomous artificial lighting system is implemented that de-
tects movement, to achieve decrease of the energy consumed for lighting.
3 In Situ Evaluation
The determination of indoor environment conditions and perceived thermal
comfort sensation can be achieved through a series of in situ measurements. In case
of the under evaluation buildings, measurements are carried during the late winter
period for a week in each office building. In parallel to the measurements, a revealed
preference survey is conducted specifying the behavioural characteristics of the
occupants.
During the in situ evaluation measurements are carried out by means of ther-
mo- and hygrometers. The parameters under evaluation in both buildings are the
indoor air temperature and the relative humidity, using the HOBO UX100 sensors in
all under monitoring areas, along with the levels of CO2, air velocity, radiative tem-
perature and PMV index, in a representative area.
The indoor environment conditions affect the occupants well-being and
productivity, therefore, a firmed evaluation is appropriate. Based on the National
Technical Guideline of the Technical Chamber of Greece, for office buildings dur-
ing winter the design and desirable temperature level is 20C [7]. However, achiev-
ing stable indoor air temperature conditions in these buildings is difficult, as a varie-
ty of parameters can affect them. Those parameters are the microclimate, the archi-
tectural and structural characteristics of the building, along with the operation and
efficiency of the HVAC systems [8].
Moreover, an integrated evaluation of the indoor conditions has to consider
the levels of CO2, as a reliable index for indoor air quality. The determination of
poor air quality in a building can lead to a variety of health problems on occupants.
Therefore, the monitoring of indoor CO2 level is essential and can improve the in-
door environment conditions and well-being of the occupants in a building.
3.1 Technical Service of Pylaia-Hortiatis Municipality
In case of the Technical Service of Pylaia-Hortiatis Municipality, the afore-
mentioned data loggers are placed in five representative offices achieving a firm
evaluation of the buildings indoor conditions. The location and orientation of the
areas are:
Office 1: a corner office on the 2nd floor, with three external surfaces and
openings on the North-West and South-East faades.
405
Office 2: a corner office on the 2nd floor, with three external surfaces and
openings on the North-West and North-East faades.
Office 3: a corner office on the 1st floor, with three external surfaces and
openings on the North-West and South-East faades.
Office 4: a corner office on the 1st floor, with three external surfaces and
openings on the North-West and North-East faades.
Office 5: a corner office on the ground floor, with two external surfaces
and openings on the North-West and North-East faades.
The temperature levels of the under evaluation areas are depicted in Figure 1
along with the external temperature levels. The evaluation demonstrates that in all
cases, the indoor temperature conditions are higher than the external varying from
18C to 27C, with the lowest monitor during the late night and early morning peri-
ods. During the office hours, the temperature levels varies from 21C to 26C creat-
ing a comfortable work environment for the occupants . Moreover, during the week-
end (20-21/02/2016) the monitored temperature levels decrease compared to week
but do not reach the outdoor levels as they vary from 17C to 22C, despite the fact
that no heating system is in use.
Figure 1. Temperature levels of external environments and all under evaluation

areas of the Technical Service of Pylaia-Hortiatis Municipality.
Except for the indoor temperature, the CO2 levels are monitored and the re-
sults of the measurement period are presented in Figure 2. Based on ASHRAE rec-
ommendations, the maximum levels of CO2 should not exceed 1000ppm. As de-
duced from the analysis, the CO2 levels during the weekend and the under no use
periods of the building, are very low (400 ppm). However, during the week and
office hours (7.00-16.00) the CO2 levels are higher reaching even the 1600ppm. In
detail, they vary from 500ppm in the morning to 1200pm at noon and even
1600ppm. The office area where the CO2 sensor is placed has permanent four occu-
pants and is rarely ventilated, moreover as a public service building a variety of
406
citizens circa fifteen per day visit the under evaluation area. Therefore, the moni-
tored increase of the CO2 levels can be explained.
Figure 2. CO2 levels of under evaluation area of the Technical Service of Pylaia-
Hortiatis Municipality.
Final under evaluation parameter is the PMV index. The determination of this
parameters is achieved through testo 480 measurement instrument. In order to de-
termine the PMV index, the metabolic rate and the clothing of the occupants is spec-
ified. In both case, it is determined based on ISO 7730:2005 that the clothing of the
occupants corresponds to 1.1clo, which involves casual office clothing choices, and
a metabolic rate of 70W/m2 [9]. During the measurement period, the PMV index
varies from 0 to 1 during the week, while during the weekend, that no heating sys-
tem is operating the PMV index levels are lower and reach even -0.6.
Figure 3. Variation of PMV during a typical day (23/02/2016) along with the
respective PPD rates.
407
Regarding a typical day of the under evaluation period (Figure 3), the analy-
sis outlines that during early morning PMV index have to negative values and after
7.00a.m., its levels rises reaching the higher at 4.00p.m., where the heating system
and the buildings operation are stopped. The increase of the PMV index affects as
expected the PPD index, however the monitored conditions correspond to preferable
work environment conditions.
3.2 Former Town Hall of Pylaia-Hortiatis Municipality
The same data loggers are implemented in the other under evaluation office
building and 8 areas are evaluated achieving a firm monitoring of the buildings
indoor conditions. The location and orientation of the areas are:
Office 1: a corner office on the 1st floor, with two external surfaces and
openings on the North and North-West faades.
Office 2: a corner office on the 2nd floor, with two external surfaces and
openings on the North and North-West faades.
Office 3: an intermediate office on the ground floor, with an external sur-
face and openings on the North-West faade.
Office 4: an intermediate office on the 1st floor, with an external surface
and openings on the North-West faade.
Office 5: a corner office on the 2nd floor, with two external surfaces and
openings on the North and North-East faade.
Office 8: an intermediate office on the 1st floor, with an external surface
and openings on the North-West faade.
The temperature levels of the under evaluation areas are depicted in Figure 4
along with the external temperature levels. The evaluation demonstrates that in all
cases, the indoor temperature conditions are higher than the external varying from
19C to 28C with the lowest monitor during the late night and early morning peri-
ods. During office hours the temperature levels vary from 20C to 28C creating a
comfortable for the occupants work environment. Moreover, during the weekend
(27-28/02/2016) the monitored temperature levels decrease compared to week but
do not reach the outdoor levels as they vary from 19C to 23C, despite the fact that
no heating system is in use.
Moreover, the CO2 levels are monitored and the results of the measured peri-
od are presented in Figure 5. As aforementioned, based on ASHRAE recommenda-
tions, the maximum levels of CO2 should not exceed 1000ppm. As depicted from the
analysis, the CO2 levels during the weekend and the periods that the buildings is
under no use, are very low (400 ppm). However, during the week and office hours
(7.00-16.00) the CO2 levels are higher but do not overcome the 1000ppm limit ex-
cept for a certain day and period of time. In the under evaluation area two people are
408
permanently working and is determined that almost twenty people enter the area
during a day.
Figure 4. Temperature levels of external environments and all under evaluation

areas of the former Town Hall of Pylaia-Hortiatis Municipality.
Figure 5. CO2 levels of under evaluation area of the former Town Hall of Pylaia-
Hortiatis Municipality.
The last under evaluation parameter is the PMV index. The determination of
this parameters is achieved through testo 480 measurement instruments, with the
clothing and metabolic rates specified as aforementioned. During the measurement
period, the PMV index varies from 0.2 to 0.9 during the week, while during the
weekend when no heating system is operating the PMV index levels are lower and
vary from 0 to 0.4.
409
Regarding a typical day of the under evaluation period (Figure 6), the analy-
sis outlines that during early morning period, the PMV index is lower compared to
the office hours period where a gradual increase of the PMV is determined. The
PMV index levels correspond to a desirable indoor environment conditions.
Figure 6. Variation of PMV during a typical day (01/03/2016) along with the
respective PPD rates.
4 Statistical Analysis
In addition to the indoor evaluation, a behavoural analysis on the occupants
attitude towards the indoor conditions is implemented. The determination of the
occupants perception of indoor conditions is achieved through a revealed prefer-
ence survey, where indirect conditions and goods can be specified [10]. The applied
methodology is based on four stages; (a) evaluation of criteria, (b) construction of
questionnaires, (c) data collection and (d) data analysis. This methodological ap-
proach has already been applied in other surveys of Antoniadou et al, emphasizing
the affect of individual characteristics and indoor conditions parameters on the oc-
cupants perception of heating and ventilation conditions in non-residential build-
ings [11, 12].
Main goal of this approach is the detailed evaluation of the parameters that
affect the occupants perception of indoor conditions during winter. The collected
sample size is 43 questionnaires and has an error of 8% and a confidential level of
95% based on the population. In the framework of this study, the correlations among
the occupants complaints on indoor environment conditions and the perceived in-
door conditions during winter are analyzed.
The respondents are asked to determine whether they have any complaints
concerning, heating, cooling, ventilation, natural and artificial lighting, noise and
work environment conditions and determine their perception of indoor conditions
during winter in a Likert scale from 1 (unsatisfied) to 7 (satisfied). Due to the nature
of the data a non-parametric Mann-Whitney U statistical analysis is conducted and
410
the results are depicted in Table 1. Therefore, it can be deduced that the complaints
expressed for heating are correlated with a confidential interval of 99% (p<0.01)
with the artificial and total lighting during the winter period, while with the per-
ceived indoor temperature conditions are correlated with a confidential interval of
98%. In detail, the respondents who do not express complaints on the matter, deter-
mine the perceived indoor temperature, artificial lighting and total lighting condi-
tions during winter as satisfactory.
Table 1. Correlations among occupants complaints and indoor conditions during

winter.
Asymp. Sig. (2-
Z
tailed)
Indoor temperature conditions during winter - Heating Complaints -2.234 0.025
Artificial lighting during winter - Heating Complaints -2.964 0.003
Total lighting during winter -Heating Complaints -2.695 0.007
Natural lighting during winter - Natural Lighting Complaints -2.440 0.015
Artificial lighting during winter - Natural Lighting Complaints -2.709 0.007
Total lighting during winter -Natural Lighting Complaints -2.703 0.007
Total comfort satisfaction during winter- Natural Lighting Complaints -2.328 0.020
Glare due to natural lighting during winter -Noise Complaints -2.056 0.040
Total noise during winter- Noise Complaints -2.042 0.041
Total noise during winter- Work Environment Complaints -3.139 0.002
Total comfort satisfaction during winter- Work Environment Complaints -2.038 0.042
Moreover, concerning the natural lighting complaints, the analysis outlines

that this complaint is correlated with a confidential interval of 99% (p<0.01) with
the perceived natural, artificial and total lighting conditions during winter. Also, it is
depicted that the complaints on natural lighting are correlated with the total comfort
satisfaction of the respondents with a confidential interval of 98% (p=0.020). Re-
garding, natural lighting complaints, is demonstrated that, as expected, the more
unsatisfied the respondent are concerning natural, artificial, total lighting conditions
and total comfort satisfaction during winter, the more complaints on the matter are
expressed.
Another complaint analyzed, is concerning noise and as outlined from the
analysis is correlated with the indoor glare due to natural lighting and total noise
levels during winter with a confidential interval of 96% (p=0.040). The statistical
testes deduce that complaints on the matter are expressed when the occupants are
neutral to slightly satisfied with the indoor glare due to natural lighting during the
winter and while the total noise levels are described as neutral and unsatisfied.
411
Finally, the last complaint correlated with indoor conditions, is the work en-
vironment conditions. The analysis demonstrates that the complaints about work
environment are correlated with the total noise and comfort satisfaction of the occu-
pants during winter, with a confidential interval of 99% and 96%, respectively. In
detail, the analysis states that the more unsatisfied the total comfort satisfaction of
the occupants and total noise levels during winter are described, the more com-
plaints on the matter are expressed.
5 Conclusions
The quantitative and qualitative evaluation of the indoor conditions in office
buildings areas is compulsory, as it can clearly set the framework of the indoor envi-
ronmental conditions of the existing building stock, which will be refurbished in the
near future, in accordance with the requirements of the energy efficiency legislation.
Moreover, the determination of the working environment is fundamental for the
occupants as it affects their health and productivity, creating either a desirable or
hostile environment. In this framework and considering the gradual adjustments of
the institutional framework, a firm evaluation of the indoor conditions is implement-
ed in two office buildings through this study.
The quantitative evaluation outlined that in both cases the indoor environ-
ment conditions can be characterized as preferable for the winter period, as the ma-
jority of the under evaluation parameters are in desirable ranges. In detail, in both
cases the indoor temperature and PMV levels correspond to values that state healthy
indoor conditions. However, care should be expressed on ventilation, as the CO2
levels on certain cases reach values over the recommended limits, affecting the oc-
cupants health. Therefore, proper ventilation strategies should be applied.
Except for the in situ evaluation, a statistical analysis based on a revealed
preference survey is applied demonstrating the indoor parameters that affect the
occupants expression of complaints. The analysis depicted that the heating, natural
lighting, noise and work environments complaints expressed by the occupants are
statistically important correlated with a variety of perceived indoor environment
conditions during winter.
Concluding, the determination of indoor conditions and the linkage of the
perceived conditions to the expression of complaints by the occupants, can lead to
an initial understanding of the parameters that affect the occupants and create an
approach where both the structural and occupants characteristics are implemented.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Mayor and Employ-
ees of the Technical Service and former Town Hall of Pylaia-Hortiatis Municipali-
ty, Greece, for their support and participation in the survey. The survey of the study
was funded within the framework of the research project entitled Identification and
Evaluation of the perceived level of comfort in office buildings using hybrid, per-
412
sonalized models. The project was funded under the RESEARCH PROJECT FOR
EXCELLENCE IKY/SIEMENS.
6 References
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=en&pcode=tsdpc320&plugin=1, Date: 18/10/2016.
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M. Zampara, L. Paroussos, K. Fragiadakis, N. Kouvaritakis, L. Hoglund-
Isaksson, W. Winiwarter, P. Purohit, H. Bottcher, S. Frank, P. Havlik, M.
Gusti, H.P. Witzke. EU Energy, Transport and GHG Emissions. Trends to
2050. Reference scenario 2013, December 2013.
[3] Odyssee Database, http://www.indicators.odyssee-mure.eu/online-indicators.
html, Date: 19/01/2016.
[4] Papadopoulos A.M. , A. Avgelis, Indoor environmental quality in naturally
ventilated office buildings and its impact on their energy performance,
International Journal of Ventilation, (2003), 2(3), pp. 203-212.
[5] Fanger P.O., Thermal comfort, Analysis and applications in environmental
engineering, 1970.
[6] Greek National Legislation on Buildings Energy Efficiency, Law 4122/2013.
[7] Technical Instruction of the Technical Chamber of Greece, TOTEE 20701-
1/2010
[8] Oxizidis S., A.M. Papadopoulos, Performance of radiant cooling surfaces with
respect to energy consumption and thermal comfort, Energy and buildings
(2013), 57,pp 199-209.
[9] International Standard Organisation, ISO 7730. Ergonomics of the thermal
environment analytical determination and interpretation of thermal comfort
using calculation of the PMV and PPD indices and local thermal comfort crite-
ria; 2005.
[10] Samuelson P.A., A note on the pure theory of consumer's behaviour, Economi-
ca, (1938), pp 61-71.
[11] Antoniadou P., E. Kyriaki, A. Manoloudis , A.M. Papadopoulos, Evaluation
of Indoor Conditions in Non-residential Buildings: A Case Study in Greece. 5th
International Conference on Renewable Energy Sources & Energy Efficiency-
New Challenges. Nicosia; 2016
[12] Antoniadou P., A.M. Papadopoulos, Occupants Perception of Indoor Condi-
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413
UNAPREENJE ENERGETSKIH KARAKTERISTIKA
ZGRADA OPTIMIZACIJOM UPRAVLJAKE
STRATEGIJE
IMPROVEMENT OF BUILDING PERFORMANCE
THROUGH OPTIMIZATION OF HVAC CONTROL
STRATEGY
Alojz TOVAROVI,
Ministry of Defence of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
talojz@yahoo.com
Duan GOLUBOVI,
Mainski fakultet,Univerzitet I.Sarajevo,
dusan.golubovic54@gmail.com
Sistem za grijanje, ventilaciju i klimatizaciju (KGH) je najvei pojedinani

potroa energije u zgradama. KGH sistem treba da obezbijedi dinamian odgovor
na nelinearne promjene utjecajnih parameta, promjenu godinjih doba ili ak
dnevne promjene i zadovolji visoke zahtjeve toplinske udobnosti i kvalitet vazduha u
toku radnog vremena. Postoji mnogo uticajnih faktora u ivotnom ciklusu zgrade,
ukljuujui vlasnike, dizajnere, konstruktore, menadere, operatore i korisnike.
Kako sloenost zgrada raste, komunikacije i razumijevanja meu njima se obino
smanjuje. Brojna istraivanja ukazuju na to da se mnoge zgrade ne ponaaju onako
kako su zamiljene i njihove stvarne energetske potrebe su esto znatno vee od
teoretskih. Razlozi za to su greke u izgradnji, neispravnost opreme, nepravilno
konfiguriran sistema upuravljanja, uticaj vremena, promjena svrhu ili namjen, pa
do neprilagoenih operativnih procedura. Zbog toga je potrebno utvrditi mogunos-
ti za poboljanje performansi i za efikasnu nadogradnju sistema. Upravljaki sistem
zgrade (Building Management System - BMS) prua mnogo podataka o energetskim
karakteristikama zgrade koji se mogu koristiti od strane operatora u u cilju razumi-
jevanja ta se stvarno dogaa.
Ako je sistem pravilno dizajniran, profesionalno instalirana i redovito od-
ravan, poveanja njegove energetske efikasnosti se moe postii kroz optimizaciju
upravljake strategije. Efikasna upravljaka strategija KGH sistema i upravljake
logike je esto najisplativija opcija za poboljanje energetske efikasnosti zgrade.
Definisanje sloene strategije upravljanja zahtijeva razumijevanje procesa prijenosa
toplote, principa rada mehanikih elemenata i koncepta upravljakog segmenta
KGH sistema. Da bi se dobilo potuno razumijevanje kako dobro, ili kako loe, zgra-
da i njeni sistemi funkcioniu neophodno je primijeniti multidisciplinarni pristup pri
analizi karakteristika zgrade, a u cilju identifikacije potencijalnih oblasti za utede
415
energije i redefinisanje upravljake strategije. Ovaj rad predstavlja mogui pristup
rjeavanju opisanog problema kroz praktian primjer.
Kljune rei: optimizacija;energetska efikasnost; karakteristike zgrade; up-
ravljaka strategija; putanje u rad
Energy management of heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC)
systems is the biggest single energy consumer among all building services, installa-
tions and electrical appliances. HVAC system should provide a dynamic response to
the non-linear change of influential parameters on a seasonal or even daily basis
and meet the high demands of thermal comfort and air quality during working
hours. There are many participants involved during the building life cycle including
owners, designers, constructor, managers, operators, and users. As the building
complexity grows, communication and understanding among them usually decreas-
ing.
Numerous evidence suggests that many buildings do not perform as intended
by their designers and their actual energy performance is often significantly higher
than theoretical. The reasons for this include faulty construction, malfunctioning
equipment, incorrectly configured control systems, system ageing, purpose or de-
mand changing and inappropriate operating procedures. Therefore, it is necessary
to identify opportunities for building performance improvement and to implement
effective system upgrades. Building management system (BMS) provides much data
about building energy effectiveness that can be used by operators and managers in
comprehending what really happens in a building.
If the system is properly designed, professionally installed and regularly
maintained, increasing its energy efficiency could be achieved through optimization
of control strategy. Efficient HVAC control and tuning control loops is often the
most cost effective option to improve the energy efficiency of a building. Defining
such a complex control strategy requires understanding of the heat transfer pro-
cesses, principles of operation of mechanical, as well as control segment of HVAC
system. Besides, significant level of cooperation between different scientific disci-
plines and is necessary to get full understanding how well, or how poorly, building
and its systems are functioning. In order to identify potential for energy savings in
building and to redefine control scenarios, HVAC system commissioning should be
carried out. This paper presents a possible approach of solving described problem
through practical example
Key words: optimization, energy efficiency, building performance, control
strategy, commissioning
1 Introduction
The building sector in the European Union is the largest end-use energy con-
sumer, with a total share of approximately 40%. Besides, it is responsible for more
than one third of overall GHG emission and it is growing. It is estimated that by the
2050 the building stock will increase with 25% [1]. Therefore, energy efficiency is
416
one of the key objectives of the European policies to address the challenges of ener-
gy security and climate change [2].
In this respect, the Directive on Energy Performances of Buildings (EPBD)
was published in 2002. This Directive underpins the majority of policies and regula-
tions adopted by the EU Member States to improve energy performance of buildings
in the first decade of 21st century [3]. The EPBD recast published in 2010 made one
step forward by reducing area thresholds that make the EPBD requirements applica-
ble to new and existing buildings and introducing nearly Zero Energy Buildings
(nZEB) principle as a future requirement. It also mandates the Member States to set
minimum cost-optimal requirements for energy performance of buildings to ensure
there is a right balance between the investments involved and the energy costs saved
throughout the lifecycle of a building [3].
Moreover, the EUs Energy Efficiency Plan from 2011 states that the sectors
that deserves the highest attention are residential, tertiary and transport among
which, the residential sector has the biggest technical potential for increasing the
energy efficiency, estimated at 30% [1].
Directive on Energy Efficiency (2012/27/EU) also reinforced recast EPBD
version emphasizing exemplary role of public bodies buildings. With article 5 EU
Member States are obliged to renovate 3% of buildings owned by its central gov-
ernment each year in order to meet at least the minimum energy performance re-
quirements that it has set in application of Article 4 of Directive 2010/31/EU. Im-
plementing this concept for new and retrofit buildings it is expected to reach a main
energy savings of 27% for residential sector by the year 2020 [1], with only one
assumption: buildings' energy performance should be in line with predicted thermal
model or calculation.
1.1 Problem definition
Thermal modeling is a very useful and wide accepted method to calculate en-
ergy performance of buildings. It should comprise related physical properties of the
building as well as operating conditions including adjacent climatic conditions. This
is helpful tool to assess energy efficiency of facility under standard conditions, but
because of many unknown factors and other uncertainties actual performance very
often differ from predicted. Even with a correct model applied by a well trained
analyst, all predictions remain subject to fundamental uncertainties, especially with
regards to variation in aspects such as actual weather conditions, occupancy sched-
ule, internal heat gains, and plug loads [4].There are extensive evidence suggesting
that buildings usually do not perform as well as predicted [5].This can seriously
compromise energy efficiency of building stock in the EU.
Researches on the energy performance gap identified different causes for the
discrepancy between prediction and measurements. They are related to the design,
construction or operational stage and in practice they usually appear in combination
specific for each building. Possible solution is prescribed in Directive on Energy
Efficiency by introducing obligatory periodical cost-effective audits carried out by
in-house experts or certified energy auditors. Another approach is to accept optimi-
417
zation of HVAC systems as a constant task for energy management as well as all
employees. A cautious estimate in German business management (based on EN
15232) indicates that 20 % of primary energy use in non-residential buildings can be
saved by building automation and control. This finding certainly applies to a similar
extend for other countries, so that the intelligent use of building automation and
control can make a significant contribution to EU savings targets of 20 % in 2020
[6]. But, automation by itself does not imply optimal consumption. Only well adjust
systems with its current needs can provide it. This paper will aligns itself to in-house
achievement in increasing energy efficiency with general focus on readjusting con-
trol strategy according to current needs.
2 Case Study
2.1 Methodology
Taking a case study approach, this paper analyses the energy performance of
described building. It is focused solely on oil and electricity consumption for air
conditioning, ventilation, water heating and circulation of media on both: cold and
hot side. Annual oil and electricity consumption presented reference point for com-
parison after redefining control strategy. Electricity consumption was calculated
according to placed time schedule. Additional sub-meters are not installed.
HVAC equipment consumes energy for basic heat exchange processes such
as heating, cooling, drying and humidifying or most often combination of those.
Energy is also consumed for ventilation and transport of media on both hot and cold
side. According Todorovic [7], individual shares of total HVAC system energy
consumption in the continental climate conditions are:
- heating elements (air and hot media) - 40 %,
- fans and pumps - 38 %,
- cooling and drying elements - 20 % and
- humidification equipment 2 %.
Presented case study is focused on biggest share of consumption without spe-
cial attention to humidification process. System analysis started with users' feedback
as a start point for identifications of faults and issues in building performance. After
that, relevant data were collected from BMS and compared with valid standards of
thermal comfort. Control strategy for selected HVAC elements has been considered
and adjusted in three basic areas: daily/weekly time schedule, control points, com-
fort zone limits and operational modes. Faults diagnostic as well as validation of
improvements were done by tracking equipment behavior through trend viewer
charts. Occupancy patterns were also monitored by tracking the number of occu-
pants within the office on working days as well as during the weekends.
The comfort surveys on satisfactory level were carried out periodically before
and during the implementation of new control strategy while thermal comfort values
were scanned constantly.
418
2.2 Building & HVAC description
Case study building is an educational facility built-up nearby Sarajevo in
2005. It is two stores, rectangular shaped building, positioned in South-North direc-
tion with approximately fifteen hundred square meters of useful space. Its first floor
provides offices for about 40 members of staff, in both academic and administrative
roles, while the ground floor contains a lecture theatre with adjacent interpreter's
boots, as well as 5 smaller classroom spaces, library, server room and other neces-
sary common areas.
It is divided in three zones and fully air-conditioned. Main lobby, classrooms,
library and other common areas at the ground floor belong to zone one, main lecture
hall with interpreters' boots represent zone two and zone three covers staff offices
and meeting rooms on upper floor. Three related air handling units (AHUs) provide
necessary heating/cooling, as well as fresh air to all teaching and office spaces. They
are designed to provide mechanical ventilation with constant air volume without
mixing chambers -Figure 1. Run-around heat recovery system is installed in each of
them. Only main lecture hall is directly supplied with outside air, whilst hot ceiling
approach is applied in the rest of the building. Besides, each office, meeting room
and classroom is equipped with channel fan coil unit (FCU) with separate room
control unit for additional heating/cooling. Two oil-burned boilers provide heating
medium as well as hot domestic water while s medium for cold side is provided by
one liquid chiller. A building management system (BMS) is installed to control and
monitor mechanical and electrical elements within the HVAC system.
Figure 1: Air-handling unit scheme
419
2.3 Analysis of control strategy
Control logic for all three AHUs is almost the same. Control variables are
temperature and humidity but measured at different control points. Relative humidi-
ty dead band was set from 45% to 55% while variable temperature set point is posi-
tioned in range from 21 to 24 C depending of outside air temperature from 6 to
24C. Control point for auditorium is active temperature/humidity sensor at exhaust
branch (B6). Humidity and temperature values of supply air (B5) represent control
point for other two units.
Although direct outdoor reset is applied in both concepts it has huge differ-
ence in actual performance. In the first one, applied for the main lecture hall, air
temperature is indirectly controlled with more or less appropriate seasonal tempera-
ture compensation but not so well adjusted temperature range. Its application has
been estimated quite well by users. Minor complains indicated occasional dissatis-
faction in short intervals up to fifteen minutes connected with increased system
inertia. Deeper analysis showed that delay of control devices (in this case three way
valve at heating/cooling section) was a consequence of control point position. Much
faster reaction has been achieved by taking average temperature of two temperature
sensors within the auditorium as a control point.
On the other hand there were a lot of complains regarding thermal comfort in
offices and classrooms. Temperature overview showed significant discrepancy with
amount and capability of installed equipment as well as control devices. Analyzing
sequence of operations within and belonging air handling units and fan coil units
indicated contradictions in control strategy. According to design and applied control
logic, AHU purpose should be preparation of outside air, according to assumed
average needs in offices and classrooms, which could be additionally handled
through FCU.
Trend viewer snapshot (figure 2) illustrates changes of control point in rela-
tion with control device and its effects on supply air temperature for main lecture
hall. According to this diagram energy demand is closely connected with working
hours or to be more precise with internal gains. Since building envelope is the same
for both floors and intensity of internal gains is quite close it is obvious that value of
supply air temperature for offices and classrooms should replicate variation applied
in AHU-2. It has been achieved by choosing reverse outdoor reset instead of direct
one and adjusting temperature limits of both supply and outdoor air.
There was no any registered problem to achieve demanded values but the air
handling process throughout air handling units was questionable from optimization
aspect. Physical position of run-around heat exchanger after pre-heating section and
its high setup temperature diminished ability of heat recovery unit to use a waste
heat potential. Run-around coil efficiency ratio is approximately 45 % but its abso-
lute possible heat transfer is directly dependent of exhaust and intake air temperature
difference. Minimizing set point at pre-heating section from 12 C to the frost pro-
tection value (3 C) exhaust/intake temperature difference has been raised for nine
degrees. As a result potential absolute heat gains within run-around system been
enhanced for more than 4 C.
420
Besides, sometimes during the seasonal changes, heat recovery and cooling
section work in opposite mode. As a consequence, heating and cooling of incoming
air occurs at the same time often followed by short cycled mode switching and hunt-
ing set point temperature. Heating/cooling mode was determined according to dif-
ference between control point temperature of intake (B5) and outside air (B1) more
than 1 C (positive - heating; negative - cooling). Condition for circulation in run-
around system was absolute difference between exhaust and outside air more than 2
C (B6 - B1> 2 C). In order to avoid occurrence of described opposite mode
outlined mode condition has been increased to 6 C. Run-around circulation condi-
tion within heating mode has also been increased to 3 C with additional condition
of difference between control point temperatures of intake air measured at B5 and
B3 sensor to more than 1 C (B5 - B3> 1 C).
Figure 2: Trend viewer snapshoot (AHU-2)

Mechanical ventilation with constant air volume without mixing chambers is
applied all three AHUs. Two of them were set at maximum capacity while the third
one is set at 70 % on both exhaust and intake side. Air volume directly affects the
energy consumption and operating costs, so it is desirable to assess appropriate
amount of fresh air for all three AHUs in order to minimize rations. This quantity
has been determined combining occupancy and air change rate. Taking into calcula-
tion 50 m3/h per person and 6 air changes per hour as standardized comfortable
values are achievable with 60 % of capacity for all three AHUs. The main goal of
listed adjustment was performance improvement of all three air-handling units dur-
421
ing seasonal changes because it presents the main indicator of their energy efficien-
cy [8].
Fan Coil Units take required air from the ceiling and push it into the working
space according to customers' requirements chosen at room unit. Three different
operational modes are available:
- Comfortable (temp. range: 21 - 24 C; time sch.: 06:00 - 22:00)
- Reduce Comfortable (temp. range: 18 - 28 C; time sch.: 22:00 - 06:00)
- Night time (temp. range: 15 - 35 C; time sch.: not used)
Listed values for FCU operational modes have been adjusted in order to ad-
just temperature in working spaces with standard EN 15251 and prevent misuse or
inappropriate setup. Temperature range in comfortable mode has been extended for
one degree and time runtime shortened and synchronized with depending air-
handling unit in accordance with daily needs.
Runtime of all air-handling units was adjusted to educational activities, staff
duties as well as their working habits during the first year after the Centre has been
established. It was a typical academic regime used throughout the year, which sees
use from early in the morning (06:00) to late (22:00), on workdays as well as week-
ends. Time schedule remains the same although there were significant changes in the
length of daily classes as well as staff members and their daily routine. Working
load during system commissioning was from 08:00 to 16:00 on workdays. There
were no regular activities during the weekend but a few staff members and students
were using facility. All those facts indicated substantial waste of energy because
AHUs are unnecessary turned on without occupants. Weekly runtime has been de-
creased from 112 hours to 50 - 70 hours depending of building zone or season. In-
stead FCU are programmed for pre-heating/pre-cooling of office spaces as well as
classrooms. With this simple measure electricity consumption of air-handling unit
has been decreased from 37 to 55 percent and thermal comfort standard has not been
violated.
3 Results
By described adjusting and fine tuning of main elements of HVAC system
the new control strategy has been established in order to eliminate identified prob-
lems and increase its energy efficiency. By cutting down runtime of AHU and
FCU and extending dead bands out of working hours unnecessary heating/cooling
of non-used spaces is avoided. Besides, amount of handled fresh air is significantly
reduces as well as consumed energy during the hottest and coldest months but still
within approved ventilation standards. On the other hand extending temperature
range within outdoor reset dependencies together with maximized ventilation rate
during seasonal changes resulted in less overall energy consumption because ther-
mal comfort within the working space have been achieved by pure ventilation heat
recovery only, without hot or cold media usage. Finally, it appears that application
of control strategy strongly relies on final users. If they are not familiar with a
system rebound effect is almost inevitable but with a few simple presentations and
short instructions for new-comers energy efficiency of HVAC system will proba-
422
bly increase and even pre-bound effect is achievable. The consumption data for
both years are presented in table 1.
Table 1: HVAC consumption overview
Year 1 Year 2 Difference
Oil [ l ] 26610 18606 8004 30.1%
Electricity [kWh] 265440 206980 58460 22.0%
4 Discussion and conclusion

It is important for everyone who participates in the design, operation and
maintenance of the building to realize that, however energy efficient the system as
initially designed and installed, the energy efficiency will degrade unless it is oper-
ated correctly and deliberately maintained. Presenting the methodology and steps of
the experiment, and in particular the analysis of the HVAC elements, it is empha-
sized that control strategy modification, and success of defined measures for im-
proving energy efficiency are directly related to understanding of mechanical as well
as control segment. Key findings from this paper highlight the need for better under-
standing of occupancy patterns, behavior of building users and HVAC tuning ac-
cording to their needs. Ignorance of any of those components generally leads to
inadequate system performance, increased energy consumption, long repayment
period and dissatisfied users.
5 References
[1] Carutasiu, M.B., V. Tanasiev, C. Ionescu, A. Danu, H. Necula, A. Badea,
Reducing energy consumption in low energy buildings through implementation
of a policy system used in automated heating systems, Energy and Buildings,
Volume 94 (2015), pp. 227239
[2] Carvalho M., EU energy and climate change strategy, Energy, V40 (2012),
issue 1, pp.1922
[3] Burman, E., D. Mumovic, J. Kimpian, Towards measurement and verification
of energy performance under the framework of the European directive for ener-
gy performance of buildings, Energy, Volume 77 (2014), pp. 153163
[4] DeWilde, P., The gap between predicted and measured energy performance of
buildings: A framework for investigation, Automation in Construction, Volume
41 (2014), pp. 4049
[5] Menezes, A. C., A. Cripps, D. Bouchlaghem, R. Buswell, Predicted vs. actual
energy performance of non-domestic buildings: Using post-occupancy evalua-
tion data to reduce the performance gap, Applied Energy, Volume 97 (2012), pp.
355364
423
[6] http://w3.siemens.com/market-specific/global/en/data-centers/Documents/BAU-
impact-on-energy-efficiency.pdf
[7] Todorovi, B., Klimatizacija, SMEITS, Beograd, Srbija, 2009
[8] McDowall R., R. Montgomery, Fundamentals of HVAC Control Systems,
Elsevier, Burlington, SAD, 2008
424
METODOLOKI PRISTUP OPTIMIZACIJI
OMOTAA ZGRADE POMOU FAZNO
PROMENLJIVIH MATERIJALA
METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH ON THE BUILDING
ENVELOPE OPTIMIZATION USING PCM
Christina V. KONSTANTINIDOU1*, Werner LANG2,
Agis M. PAPADOPOULOS1
1
Process Equipment Design Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
2
Institute of Energy Efficient and Sustainable Design and Building, Centre for
Sustainable Building, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
*corresponding author, email: chrkonst@meng.auth.gr
Sektor zgradarstva ima veliki uticaj na ivotnu sredinu, jer je odgovoran za oko
40% svetske potronje energije, za 30% potronje sirovina, 25% vrstog otpada, 25%
potronje vode, 12% korienja zemljita i 33% povezanih emisija gasova staklene bate
na globalnom planu. Konkretno u Evropi, nestambene zgrada ine etvrtinu graevin-
skog fonda zgrada u Evropskoj Uniji i one troe otprilike jednu treinu energije koju
potroe sve zgrade, dok su poslovne (kancelarijske) zgrade meu glavnim potroaima
koji doprinose poveanju energetskih potreba. Ekoloko unapreenje ovog fonda zato
predstavlja glavni cilj za evropske zemlje. Omota zgrade predstavlja mogunosti da se
znatno smanje energetske potrebe zgrade, i istrovremeno poboljava njen uticaj na ivo-
tnu sredinu tokom celog ivotnog ciklusa. Konkretno, na toplotne karakteristike omotaa
zgrade mogu da utiu materijali koji se koriste u njenoj izgradnji, a kljuni parametri su
toplotna zatita omotaa zgrade i toplotni kapacitet komponenata koje je okruuju.
Poslednih decenija korienje akumulatora latentne toplote sa FPM u omotau
zgrade privlai dosta panje i prua mogunost za bolji unutranji toplotni komfor sta-
nara i za manju ukupnu potronju energije. U nekoliko studija FPM su ugraeni u omo-
tae zgrada kako bi poboljali unutranji toplotni komfor i energetske karakteristike, i u
tim studijama se navodi pozitivnan uticaj koji FPM imaju na godinja rashladna i grejna
optereenja zgrada u razliitim klimatskim zonama. Takoe, rezultati prethodnih radova
pokazuju pozivitan uticaj na ivotnu sredinu koju ima ugraivanje FPM u zgrada-
ma.Ovaj rad predstavlja pregled metodolokog pristupa optimizaciji omotaa zgrade u
raznim klimatskim tipovima Kppenovoj mapi klasifikacije, uz korienje kombinacije
dinamike simulacije i viekriterijumske optimizacije u kojoj se koristi NSGA-II genetski
algoritam. Predloena metodologija ima za cilj optimizaciju omotaa zgrade u pogledu
njene emisije ugljenika i u pogledu trokova, pri emu trokovi obuhvataju i investicione
i operativne trokove, uz odravanje unutranjeg toplotnog komfora u utvrenim grani-
cama. Da bi se uspeno optimizirao projekat zgrade, veinu odlika treba donositi u
poetnim fazama procesa projektovanja. U ovom sluaju izazov predstavlja izrada pro-
jekat visokih performansi kombinovanjem maksimalnog ukupnog kvaliteta po pitanju
425
ekonominosti, komfora i arhitektonskog reenja uz minimalno korienje energije i
resursa. Stoga je izuzetno korisno, ako ne i apsolutno neophodno, primeniti raunske
metode za optimizaciju projekta.
Kljune rei: energetska efikasnost, odrive zgrade, omota zgrade, fazno pro-
menljivi materijali (FPM)
The building sector has a considerable environmental impact, being responsible

for about 40% of the worlds energy consumption, 30% of raw material use, 25% of
solid waste, 25% of water use, 12% of land use, and 33% of the related global greenhou-
se gas (GHG) emissions. Specifically in Europe, non-residential buildings comprise a
quarter of the EU building stock and cause approximately one third of this stocks
energy consumption, while office buildings are among the most crucial contributors to
demand growth. The environmental improvement of this stock is thus a key target for the
European countries. The building envelope presents an opportunity to significantly redu-
ce the building energy demand, while improving its environmental impact through its
life-cycle. Specifically, the thermal performance of the building envelope, can be deter-
mined by the materials used in its construction with key parameters the thermal protecti-
on of the building envelope and the heat capacity of the enclosing components.
The use of latent heat storage by utilizing Phase Change Materials (PCM) in the
building envelope has received much attention during the past decades and provides a
potential for better indoor thermal comfort for occupants, as well as for overall lower
energy consumption. In several studies, PCMs have been incorporated into building
envelopes to enhance indoor thermal comfort and energy performance reporting the
positive impact of PCMs on the building annual cooling and heating loads in various
climate zones. Furthermore, results of past works have demonstrated a positive environ-
mental impact from the incorporation of PCM in buildings. This paper presents an
overview of a methodological approach for building envelope optimization in various
climatic types based on the Kppen classification map, using a combination of dynamic
simulation and multi-objective optimization using NSGA-II genetic algorithm. The pro-
posed methodology aims to optimize the building envelope in respect to its carbon emis-
sions and cost, where cost includes both investment and operational costs, while keeping
the indoor thermal comfort in specific constraints. In order to effectively optimize buil-
ding design, the majority of the decisions have to be made very early in the design pro-
cess. The challenge in this case is to achieve a high performance design combining the
maximum overall economy, comfort and architectural quality with the minimum use of
energy and resources. The application of computational methods of design optimization
is therefore distinctly advantageous, if not absolutely necessary.
Key words: Energy Efficiency; Sustainable Buildings; Building Envelope; Opti-
mization; Phase Change Materials (PCM)
Introduction
Non-residential buildings comprise a quarter of the building stock in the EU
and account for approximately one third of its energy consumption, while office
buildings are among the most crucial contributors to the increase in energy demand.
Compared to other building types, office buildings have one of the highest levels of
426
specific energy consumption, which varies between 100 and 1000 kWh/m2 per
annum [1], mainly for heating, cooling and lighting purposes. A significant portion
is devoted to the requirements of office equipment which eventually becomes ther-
mal loads [2]. Improving the environmental impact of non-residential buildings,
specifically office buildings, is therefore a key target in European countries. This
implies, among other things, increasing the energy efficiency of existing buildings,
while also designing high energy efficiency new buildings [3].
The building envelope presents an opportunity to significantly reduce the
buildings energy demand, while improving its environmental impact over its life-
cycle. The implementation of phase change materials (PCM) in the building envelo-
pe can have a significant impact on the building performance. In several studies,
PCMs have been incorporated into building envelopes to enhance indoor thermal
comfort and energy performance reporting the positive impact of PCMs on the buil-
ding annual cooling and heating loads in various climate zones [4]. Furthermore,
results of past works have demonstrated a positive environmental impact from the
incorporation of PCM in buildings. The main objective of this research is to evaluate
these findings, focusing on the impact that PCM can have on building comfort and
energy performance with respect to the climate region considered.
In this line of approach, this paper presents an overview of the methodologi-
cal approach on the design of high energy efficiency office buildings. The primary
goal of the proposed methodology is to create a flexible decision making tool with
specific guiding principles on the optimization of the building envelope with the use
of latent heat storage with phase change materials for the various climatic types in
Europe according to the Kppen classification map.
In order to effectively optimize the buildings design, the majority of the
decisions have to be made quite early in the design process. The challenge in this
case is to achieve a high performance design combining the maximum overall
economy, comfort and architectural quality with the minimum use of energy and
resources. The proposed methodology aims to optimize the building envelope in
respect to its carbon emissions and cost, where cost includes both investment and
operational costs, while keeping the indoor thermal comfort within satisfactory
levels.
Methodological approach
Multi-objective optimization
Sustainable building design is not a straightforward issue; several parameters
have to be addressed and evaluated before the resulting design achieves high per-
formance requirements at the lowest possible cost. During this process there are
various physical parameters leading to conflicting objectives, thus creating a very
large design space of possible solutions. These challenges have made the application
of computational methods of design optimization distinctly advantageous, if not
absolutely necessary [5].
427
Optimization refers to finding one or more feasible solutions which corres-
pond to extreme values of one or more objectives which simultaneously satisfy a
number of specified constraints; designing a solution for minimum cost of fabricati-
on or for maximum possible durability are examples of such optimization problems
[6, 7]. The general concept of optimization is described by a number of objective
functions (F) which by convention need to be either minimized or maximized, and a
number of constraints (G) which need to be greater than, or equal to, a specific valu-
e. Each of the design variables (xi) is constrained to specific values (si) defined by
either discrete or boundary values. Depending on the type of problem and how it is
formulated, objectives and constraints may be interchangeable [5].
Optimization problems can be referred to either as single- or multi-objective,
depending on the number of objective functions that need to be optimized. A single-
objective optimization problem, by definition, involves the optimization of a single
objective function, usually resulting in one optimal solution [6,7]. In real world
applications and optimization problems, multiple objectives are inevitably involved,
often leading to conflicting scenarios [6]. Therefore, multi-objective optimization
problems include multiple, usually conflicting, objective functions which have to be
addressed simultaneously. In the case of multi-objective optimization, there is
usually a set of alternative solutions involving different trade-offs, called Pareto
optimal or non-dominated solutions[7].
Genetic Algorithms have been widely used in various problem domains as
optimization tools, including commerce, science and engineering. They are optimi-
zation procedures that are based on natural principles of genetics and selection;
some fundamental genetic principals are used to artificially construct robust algo-
rithms that require minimum problem information [5, 6]. The most common imple-
mentation of GA in multi-objective optimization is Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic
Algorithm (NSGA-II), which comes from the idea of using the non-dominated sor-
ting concept in GAs [8] and was developed by Srinivas and Deb, 1994 [9]. The
NSGA-II procedure attempts to find multiple Pareto-optimal solutions within a mul-
ti-objective optimization problem using an elitist principle, as well as an explicit
diversity preserving mechanism while emphasizing non-dominated solutions [7].
On a number of real-world optimization problems, among which are nume-
rous engineering problems, NSGA-II has been found to provide a wide-spread Pare-
to-optimal or near Pareto-optimal solutions [7]. Evins, 2013 [5] presented a compre-
hensive review on the research regarding computational optimization problems
dealing with different fields of sustainable building design problems; building enve-
lope, systems, energy generations, as well as some holistic approached mostly focu-
sing on residential buildings and building retrofit. Areas such as envelope design
that comprise of form and construction; control of various building design and con-
figuration; holistic optimizations and the generation or renewable energy are
reviewed extensively. Hamdy et al., 2016 [10] highlight the fact that many optimiza-
tion algorithms have been developed but few have undergone testing to identify
various problems that face building design sector, while they identify NSGA-II as
one of the optimization logarithms that can be used to solve optimization problems
428
for buildings and HVAC. Preliminary tests were conducted using pNSGA-II indica-
ting that they are significantly effective with increased performance, where pNSGA-
II is an NSGA-II algorithm with a passive archive which acts as a storage for the
analyzed solutions. Finally, Youssef et al. 2016 [11] indicate the importance of
Genetic Algorithms (GA) on solving various challenges that are simulation related
in the optimal design of buildings.
Problem definition structure of the proposed methodology
This research focuses on the optimization of the building envelope with the
use of latent heat storage PCMs for the various climatic types in Europe according to
the Kppen classification map. Specifically, the proposed methodology aims to
optimize the building envelope with respect to its operational carbon emissions and
cost, while maintaining indoor thermal comfort within the required conditions. A
combination of dynamic simulation and multi-objective optimization, using NSGA-
II genetic algorithm, is thus used to evaluate various design alternatives on typical
office spaces; a fully "open" and a fully "closed" office spaces, respectively.
The first step of this methodology is to create a building typology on which
the optimization will be performed. This task takes into consideration several
aspects of the European urban and building structure, respectively, by means of its
geometry and form, materials and construction characteristics, climatic parameters,
energy behavior and building typology in general. Extensive research is performed
on various energy efficiency approaches depending on the type of climate; climatic
conditions are examined based on the Kppen classification map, in order to evalua-
te energy efficiency approaches for each climate type. Subsequently, design alterna-
tives and various types of office buildings are investigated to identify the most
typical office building spaces, which in turn lead to the building models used for the
need of this study. The second step, the parameterization process, involves the iden-
tification of the variables and constraints that will define the details of the multi-
objective optimization problem of this methodology. Therefore, after extensive
literature research and selective simulation cases, the factors that influence the buil-
ding energy performance and are considered crucial for the purposes of this study
are identified, thus the specific set of variables and their range of values, as well as
the required constraints are defined. This analysis procedure is significant for the
formulation of the multi-objective optimization problem, the exact identification of
objectives and constraints, as well as the desired variables that are evaluated.
Optimization model and analysis

The starting point for the development of the aforementioned building
typology and the multi-objective optimization is determining the boundary conditi-
ons used in this study, which can be divided in four groups; climate, usage, legislati-
on and architecture.
429
Boundary conditions
1.1.1Climatic conditions
Kppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classifi-
cation systems and is used for this study. It was first published by Russian German
Wladimir Kppen in 1884, with several later modifications by Kppen, notably in
1918 and 1936. Later, climatologist Rudolf Geiger collaborated with Kppen on
changes to the classification system, which is thus sometimes called the Kppen
Geiger climate classification system. [12]
Fig. 1. World map of Kppen-Geiger classification [12]
This study focuses on the geographical area of EU-28 member states plus
Norway, as shown in fig. 01 and also in fig. 02 within the limits of the dashed line.
Therefore, the countries and the respective climates of the Arabian Peninsula and the
Middle East are not taken into consideration. In order to represent the most common
conditions of the continent and different latitudes, one representative city is used for
each climate type. Details on the selected locations - Nicosia, Madrid, Athens, Porto,
Toulouse, London, Constanta, Munich, Rovaniemi - are found in Table 01.
430
Fig. 2. Europe map of Kppen-Geiger classification [12]
Table 1. Different locations used for the simulations: climate classification and
some key characteristics [12]
Location Latitude Kppen climate Climate description
classification
Nicosia, Cyprus 3510' N Bsh Subtropical-hot semi-arid
climate
Madrid, Spain 4023' N Bsk Cold semi-arid climate
Athens, Greece 3758' N Csa Hot-summer Mediterranean
climate
Porto, Portugal 419'43.71'' N Csb Warm-summer
Mediterranean climate
Toulouse, France 4336'16'' N Cfa Humid subtropical climate
London, UK 513026 N Cfb Oceanic climate
Constanta, Romania 4410' N Dfa Humid continental climate
with oceanic and semi-arid
influences.
Munich, Germany 488 N Dfb Humid continental climate
Rovaniemi, Finland 6630' N Dfc Subarctic climate
1.1.2 User related boundary conditions

Tertiary sector buildings, and office buildings in particular, are heavy users of
energy and hence have the potential to make significant improvements in their
energy efficiency [13]. Studies carried out over the last forty years to evaluate the
431
energy usage of office buildings from the early design phase, considered numerous
parameters that influence the design of an urban office building, accompanied by
measures and effective ways to achieve thermal, optical and acoustic comfort and
indoor air quality, as well as ways to improve conditions in existing buildings [13,
14, 15]. In this context, office buildings must benefit from an integrated design
approach that focuses on meeting a list of objectives, including increased worker
satisfaction and productivity, improved health, greater flexibility, and enhanced
energy and environmental performance [16]. Typically, these projects apply life-
cycle analysis to optimize initial investments in architectural design, systems selec-
tion, and building construction.
1.1.3Technical and legal boundary conditions
With the adoption of the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (Direc-
tive 2010/31/EU EPBD) in 2010, both the building industry and Member States
(MSs) faced new challenges, including making progress towards new Nearly Zero
Energy Buildings (NZEB) by 2021in general and by 2019 in the case of public buil-
dings, while supporting in parallel the transformation of existing buildings into
NZEBs. Since the implementation of Nearly Zero Energy Buildings is becoming the
norm by 20182020, there is an increasing need for Member States to clarify their
understanding of NZEBs [17].
A significant issue in comparing and evaluating the implementation of the
aforementioned measures is the differing ways Member States deal with setting
energy performance requirements for new and existing buildings. Specifically,
regarding new buildings the requirement diversity among the Member States, not
only in terms of energy performance levels, but also in terms of other properties in
the building envelope is high. Given this problem of variation covering several
fields, designers need to establish a margin capable of absorbing the variations cau-
sed by user behavior and different climates.
The Concentrated Action (CA) EPBD identified examples of existing buil-
dings with energy performance levels either within, or approaching, the expected
range of NZEB in the different EU Member States. Through a total of thirtytwo
practical examples of NZEBlike buildings from twenty different Member States
covering a wide range of climates, building types and sizes, a useful overview of
what kind of buildings are expected to be NZEB in the different countries and EU
regions is obtained [17]. For the needs of this study, the reference building typology
follows the examples of the abovementioned NZEBlike buildings from the twenty
different Member States. Thus, the average U-values observed in these examples, as
well as the most typical HVAC systems, are used in order to be able to compare and
evaluate the respective results for the examined climates.
1.1.4Architectural boundary conditions
When developing an energy concept, the diverse interactions between the
building and the surrounding environment represents a crucial architectural
boundary condition. Geometrical aspects, such as ratio of floor area to building
432
volume, ratio of usable floor area to potential solar area, shadowing by neighboring
structures and the respective solar radiation compass from different directions lead
to specific requirements regarding transparent elements of construction or shading
[18]. It is thus evident that decisive criteria for energy efficiency optimization have
to be determined at an early stage of the design phase through the building shape and
form of a building. Historically, rule of thumb assessments regarding passive solar
building design emphasize on the fact that form and orientation matter to overall
energy performance [19]. The choice of a form substantially influences energy per-
formance since it determines the surface of the external envelope [20], thus this
factor is evaluated in the process of selecting the reference building for this study.
The variables related to building shape which influence heating and cooling
requirements are: form compactness, shape factor, climate and the influence of sha-
pe on the life cycle of the building [18, 19, 21]. Designing a high performance buil-
ding envelope thus constitutes a complex problem, given the need to balance multi-
ple variables of form, shape and volume, in combination with daylight and construc-
tion. In order to overcome this problem, for the multi-objective optimization perfor-
med in this work, two typical office spaces are modeled and their performance is
evaluated. The extrapolated results can then be projected to the building level,
depending on the respective work spaces within the office building. Regarding the
layout of the usable floor area, office space plans can be arranged in several scenari-
os ranging from completely closed offices to completely open offices [16]. An open
work space is suitable for more than ten people and includes open communication
between the work spaces, while an enclosed work space is suitable for one or two
people with minimum communication between the work spaces. For the needs of
this study, a fully open office and a fully closed office are modeled and evaluated in
various orientations.
Formulation of the optimization problem
The design of a high-performance building is a multivariable problem, lea-
ding to a large number of alternative solutions that cannot be all simulated in a time
span compatible with the design phase of a building. In order to explore a very large
number of building alternatives in a relatively short time, specifically during the
early design phase, the adopted methodology consists of: (i) identifying the design
objectives to be optimized, as well as setting the specific constraints of the design,
(ii) defining the design variables, as well the range of variation for each design vari-
able, (iii) running the dynamic energy simulation of the building in free-running
mode via a dynamic simulation engine and, respectively, running the multi-objective
optimization via an optimization engine.
1.1.5 Optimization strategy and algorithm
In the methodology being proposed, Design Builder simulation software is
used, which comprises of a core 3D modeler and nine different modules including
the multi-objective optimization tool that uses a Genetic Algorithm (GA) based on
the NSGA-II method. Design Builder works as a graphic interface for Energy Plus
433
simulation engine, a whole building energy simulation program that engineers,
architects, and researchers use to model both energy consumptionfor heating,
cooling, ventilation, lighting, and plug and process loadsand water use in buil-
dings [22].
Design Builder design software recently integrated an optimization tool
which uses Genetic Algorithms (GA), based on the NSGA-II method, to search for
optimal design solutions, much more efficiently than was possible with parametric
analysis. The current version of the software has some limitations related to optimi-
zation that are worth mentioning. Initially, a simulation run with monthly/annual
output for the model should be performed before initiating the optimization procedu-
re. Furthermore, the daylight availability is not yet enabled, and it is not yet possible
to store multiple optimization results sets within the Design Builder model. One
more limitation of the Design Builder optimization tool is that it can reach an opti-
mization of only two objectives, while including up to ten design variables in the
analysis [22].
1.1.6Optimization objectives and constraints
Studies reported so far have mainly addressed the optimization of energy per-
formance of the building envelope and systems, giving secondary importance to
thermal comfort and usually neglecting visual comfort and indoor air quality [23].
One of the aims of this study is to find the set of design alternatives in various cli-
mates that optimize simultaneously the economic and environmental performance of
the examined building, while keeping the thermal comfort between acceptable
limits. More specifically, the design is optimized in respect to the building's total
carbon emissions and its construction and operational cost, given a specific range of
comfort conditions. Given the software limitations to two design objectives, the
aforementioned optimization problem in respect to total carbon emissions and cost,
as well as thermal comfort is formulated having thermal comfort defined as a cons-
traint in the software.
Regarding thermal comfort optimization, most researchers refer exclusively
to the Fangers model [24] that assesses thermal comfort conditions by means of two
correlated indices: the Predicted mean vote (PMV) and the Predicted percentage of
dissatisfied (PPD). A few analyses use metrics based on one of the two available
adaptive comfort models, the EN version and the ASHRAE one [25]. For this study
the EN adaptive comfort model (CEN, 2007) is used as a constraint and specifically,
the Discomfort Summer CEN 15251 Adaptive Category I [22], which reports
whether the operative temperature falls into the Category I (90% acceptability)
limits of the adaptive comfort in the European Standard EN15251-2007 during
occupied hours when the running mean outdoor air temperature is higher than 10C.
1.1.7Design variables and alternatives
The starting point in setting up the multi-objective optimization model and
determining the design variables to be evaluated and the alternatives to be examined
is formed by the aforementioned boundary conditions. Based on these boundary
434
conditions the initial design variable used in this multi-objective optimization is the
Design Builder location template. Apart from the climatic conditions, which have
already been discussed in detail, other parameters that affect the building perfor-
mance and constitute design variables for this multi-objective optimization are the
building orientation, the window-to-wall ratio, the shading percentage of the facade,
as well as the Design Builder construction template which constitutes of various
combinations of insulation and thermal mass materials and positions.
Furthermore, this research is focusing on the impact that PCM can have on
building comfort and energy performance with respect to the climate region conside-
red. Thus, the use of several PCMs with varying melting temperatures and varying
locations within the building structure are implemented in the optimization model as
design variable in order to evaluate their performance depending the various climatic
conditions. In most passive applications, PCMs are integrated into building envelope
as part of the building structure in order to increase the building thermal mass. A
considerable amount of studies investigate the dynamic characteristics and the
energy performance of buildings using PCM located on interior surfaces and signifi-
cant amount of commercial products are already available [26-32].
One of the major challenges in the use of PCM in the building envelope is
achieving the daily melting and solidification cycle of the PCM. When conventional
ventilation is used, the phase change materials might not melt/freeze completely and
therefore not used to their full extent. In air-conditioned buildings, the melting cycle
of the PCM depends on the set-point temperature and the HVACs control strategy
implemented. Two control strategies, namely load shifting control strategy and
demand limiting control strategy are used [32]. These control strategies may be
effective towards the direction of achieving a full melt/solidification cycle; if the
PCM can be frozen to charge cold, mostly using pre-cooling during off-peak time,
and melt to discharge cold during on-peak time, the peak cooling load will be redu-
ced effectively so that to reduce the on-peak electrical charge. The load shifting
control strategy attempts to maximize the reduction of the energy consumption
during the peak period by using the lower electricity to store the cooling energy
during the off-peak period. The demand limiting control strategy attempts to
maximize the reduction of the peak demand during the demand limiting period by
resetting the zone temperature set-point. These two control strategies aim at saving
daily electricity cost in time-based pricing and energy-plus-demand pricing policies,
respectively.
Conclusions
An overview of the methodological approach on the design of high energy
efficiency office buildings has been presented in this paper. The primary goal of the
proposed methodology is to create a flexible decision making tool with specific
guiding principles on the optimization of the building envelope with the use of latent
heat storage with phase change materials for the various climatic types in Europe
according to the Kppen classification map.
435
In order to effectively optimize the building design process, the majority of
the decisions have to be made very early in the design process. The challenge in this
case is to achieve a high performance design combining the maximum overall
economy, comfort and architectural quality with the minimum use of energy and
resources. The application of computational methods of design optimization is there-
fore distinctly advantageous, if not an absolute necessity. The proposed
methodology aims, also, to optimize the building envelope in respect to its carbon
emissions and cost, where cost includes both investment and operational costs, while
keeping the indoor thermal comfort in specific constraints. Specifically, the building
envelope is being optimized with respect to its operational carbon emissions and
cost, while maintaining indoor thermal comfort within the required conditions. A
combination of dynamic simulation and multi-objective optimization, using NSGA-
II genetic algorithm, is thus used to evaluate various design alternatives on typical
office spaces; a fully "open" and a fully "closed" office spaces, respectively.
The numerical results are evaluated in terms of their energy, economic and
environmental feasibility, while the appropriateness of each measure and the various
possible trade-offs depending on the type of climate is discussed. The extrapolation
of these results is then displayed geographically by means of a GIS interface giving
an overview of design alternatives and trade-off solutions on a European level. Hen-
ce, the results can provide illustrated information about conserved energy, CO2
emissions and cost of the design alternatives for various climates.
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objective optimization algorithms for solving nearly-zero-energy-building de-
sign problems, Energy And Buildings, (2016), pp. 57-71.
[11] Youssef, A., Zhai, Z., & Reffat, R., Genetic algorithm based optimization for
photovoltaics integrated building envelope, Energy And Buildings, (2016), pp.
627-636.
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Kppen-Geiger climate classification, Hydrology and earth systems science,
(2008), pp.16331644.
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A. M., Thermal performance of office building envelopes: the role of window-
to-wall ratio and thermal mass in Mediterranean and Oceanic climates, Journal
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438
PRIMENA STUDIJE SLUAJA
O PRIRODNIM RASHLADNIM FLUIDIMA
NATURAL REFRIGERANTS
STUDY CASE APPLICATION
Gratiela Maria TARLEA(b), Ana TARLEA(a),
Mioara VINCERIUC(a), Ion ZABET(a)
(a) Romanian General Association of Refrigeration, Bucharest, Romania,
office@agfro.ro
(b) Tecnical University of Civil Engineering, Bucharest, Romania,
mgtarlea2001@yahoo.com
U ovom radu je prikazana studija o usklaivanju rumunskih propisa sa pro-
pisima Evropske Unije o zatiti ivotne sredine, hlaenju i klimatizaciji, uz prepo-
ruku da se koriste R717 i R744 kao ekoloki alternativni rashladni fluidi u rashlad-
nim sistemima.
U cilju sprovoenja meunarodnih propisa, potrebno je da se u budunosti
HFC rashladni fluidi zamene ekolokim rashladnim fluidima.
Rad se bavi prirodnim radnim fluidom i neprirodnim radnim fluidom koji
imaju nulti i niski potencijal globalnog zagrevanja (GWP). Uporedna studija ovih
postrojenja je pratila koeficijent uinka potrojenja i faktor TEWI (ukupni ekvivalen-
tni uticaj na zagrevanje u odnosu na EN 378-1).
Energetska efikasnost je direktno povezana sa globalnim zagrevanjem i emi-
sijom gasova staklene bate.
Kljune rei: hlaenje, amonijak, ugljen-dioksid, kompresori, isparivai,
energetska efikasnost
The article presents a study of the Romanian line up to the environment, re-
frigeration and air-conditioning EU legislation with the recommendation of using
R717 and R744 as ecological refrigerant alternatives in refrigeration systems.
To implement the International Legislation, in the future it is necessary to
retrofit HFC refrigerants with ecological refrigerants.
The work has focused on the natural working fluid used in association with
non natural working fluid with zero and low global warming potential (GWP). The
comparative study of these facilities followed the coefficient of performance of a
plant and also the TEWI factor (Total Equivalent Warming Impact in respect with
EN 378-1).
Energy efficiency is directly related to global warming and greenhouse gases
emissions.
Key words: Refrigeration, Ammonia, Carbon Dioxide, Compressors, Evapo-
rators, Energy Efficiency
439
1. Introduction
Romania signed Kyoto (1997) and Montreal Protocol (1987) and in the same
time as a new member of EU has the obligation to respect the environmental legisla-
tion (Tarlea et al., 2015). CFC's have been replaced in many applications with HFC's
(hydrofluorocarbons).
Minimizing the presence in the atmosphere of F-gases deriving from activi-
ties in the field of refrigeration, air-conditioning and heat pumps, can only be carried
out by observing the F-Gas Regulations, namely the (CE) 517/2014 Regulation and
its relevant Subsidiaries, along with the European (and Romanian) refrigeration
safety standard SR EN 378.
To implement the International Legislation, in the future it is necessary to ret-
rofit HFC refrigerant with an ecological refrigerant R717 or R744 which has the
advantage of a lower GWP. In this paper, the ecological alternatives R717 and R744
are proposed for a modulated refrigeration system, instead of using the common
R404A refrigerant mixtures. Thermodynamic properties of these simulations were
done using software Pack Calculation Pro.
2. Theoretical study case

The refrigeration system theoretically analyzed, worked with R404A refrig-
erant at an evaporating temperature between -23 C and 7.2 C and condensing
temperature between 10 C and 60 C.
The refrigeration (classical one stage vapor compression) system was a mod-
ulated system with two compressors and used the pulse width modulation technolo-
gy (Tarlea et al., 2011). In this way the energy consumption was minimized through
continuous modulation of the refrigeration capacity. In Figure 1, the technical draw-
ing of the refrigerating system is presented.
The cooling capacity was 100 kW, condensing temperature 25C and evapo-
rating temperature -10C.
To calculate the TEWI factor (Total Equivalent Warming Impact relations
are explained in the Standard EN 378-1) the following assumptions were made:
mass of refrigerants was: 14kg for R404A, 13.4 kg for R744 and 6.5 kg for R717.
Table 1: The theoretical results

Refrigerant R404A R744 R717
Qo(kW) 100 100 100
GWP 3260 1 0
TEWI [tonnes of CO2] 1.125.4 908.4 886.1
In Table 1, the theoretical simulations results of TEWI factor for R404A,

R744 and R717 refrigerants are shown.
440
Figure1. Technical drawing
Figure 2. Yearly consumption comparison
441
In figure 2 it can be observed the yearly consumption comparison for R404A,
R717 and R 744 refrigerants. R717 has the lowest consumption and is the best ener-
gy efficiency alternative.
Figure 3. TEWI comparison

In figure 3 the TEWI comparison is shown and the R717 refrigerant is much
ecological than R404A and R744 .
Figure 4. LCC comparison
442
For maintenance and energy consumption the life cycle cost of R404A is
higher than R744 and R717 (figure 4).
3. Conclusions
In the theoretical study case, after the analysis of the thermo- physical proper-
ties, one could observe that the main disadvantages of R744 are high condensing
temperatures and pressures in comparison with refrigerant R404A and R717. From
the environmental perspective (factor TEWI Figure 3) R717 and R744 have the
advantage of a lower global warming potential (GWP) than R-404A. For the point of
view of energetically efficiency and yearly consumption (Figure 2) the R717 is the
best alternative and has a higher EER than R744 and R404A.
After a global analysis of the Romanian Refrigeration situation, it could be
said that our country remains a traditional ammonia user. Demonstrating a strong
commitment to protect the environment through the use of natural refrigerants and
most advanced refrigeration solutions, Romania decided to use green technology for
CO2 cascade, pumped and transcritic new commercial applications.
References
[1] Tarlea G. M.,Vinceriuc M., Zabet I., Tarlea A. August 2011, Theoretical study
regarding the ecological alternatives for R404A refrigerant, published at the 23rd
IIR International Congress of Refrigeration, Prague, Czech Republic :21-26.
[2] Tarlea G. M.,Vinceriuc M., Zabet I., Tarlea A 2011, Theoretically study of eco-
logical alternative for R404A, R507A and R22, Romanian General Association for
Refrigeration, Bucharest, Romania published at the 42nd international Congress and
Exibition Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Belgrade, 30th November
2nd December: 279- 286.
[3] Tarlea, G., Vinceriuc, M., Zabet, I., Tarlea,A. 2013, R404A Refrigerant Retrofit
Study, Romanian General Association of Refrigeration, Pache, Protopopescu nr. 66,
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Alternatives Retrofit Eco Eficiency Comparative Study Case , Technical University
of Civil Engineering , Bd. Pache, Protopopescu nr. 66, Bucharest, 021414, Romania,
IIR International Congress of Refrigeration,Yokohama Japan.
[6] Gratiela Tarlea, Ion Zabet, Ana Tarlea , 2016, Modeling of Thermodynamic
Processes for One Stage Refrigeration Systems with Scroll Compressors, 12 th
World REHVA Congress - CLIMA 2016, Aalborg , DK.
[7] Gratiela -Maria Tarlea(b), Ana Tarlea(a), Mioara Vinceriuc(a), Ion Zabet(a) ,
2016, Romania Natural Refrigerants User , The 12th IIR Gustav Lorentzen Natural
Working Fluids Conference, Edinburgh, August . UK.
443
ANALIZA MERA ZA UTEDU ENERGIJE POTREBNE
ZA ZAGREVANJE POSTOJEE STAMBENE ZGRADE
ANALYSIS OF ENERGY SAVING MEASURES FOR AN
EXISTING RESIDENTIAL BUILDING
Novak NIKOLI, Neboja LUKI, Zoran KONALOVI
Faculty of Engineering, University of Kragujevac, Kragujevac,
novak.nikolic@kg.ac.rs
U okviru ovog rada izvrena je analiza implementacije mera utede energije
postojee stambene zgrade. Simulacija energetskog ponaanja stambene zgrade,
korisne grejne povrine od 1247,68 m2, je sprovedena upotrebom softvera
EnergyPlus. est predloenih mera je analizirano: zamena prozora i vrata (sluaj
1); izmena krovne konstrukcije (sluaj 2); izmena konstrukcija poda na zemlji i
meuspratnih konstrukcija (sluaj 3); izmena unutranjih zidova izmeu razliitih
korisnika (sluaj 4); izmena unutranjih zidova ka negrejanom prostoru (sluaj 5) i
implementacija svih prethodno pomenutih mera (sluaj 6). Rezultati simulacija
ukazuju da su prosene utede toplotne energije analizirane zgrade, respektivno:
12,71% (sluaj 1); 9,35% (sluaj 2); 5,2% (sluaj 3); 0,56% (sluaj 4); 2,04% (slu-
aj 5) and 29,37% (sluaj 6). Za rekonstrukciju svih konstrukcija zgrade u cilju
dostizanja vrednosti U - koeficijenta koje ispunjavaju uslove Pravilnika o energet-
skoj efikasnosti zgrada, potrebna su velika ulaganja. Sa aspekta investicija najbolje
reenje se vezuje za izmenu krovne konstrukcije. Ovaj rad je deo istraivanja koje je
vezano za analizu potronje toplotne energije grejanih stanova usled smanjenja
temperature vazduha ili negrejanja susednih stanova jedne stambene zgrade.
Kljune rei: mere utede energije; potronja toplotne energije; simulacija
In this paper the analysis of implementation of energy saving measures in an

existing residential building was conducted. Simulation of the energy behavior of the
residential building, with useful heating area of 1247,68 m2, was performed by
using software EnergyPlus. Six proposed measures was analyzed: replacement of
windows and doors (case 1); change of the roof construction (case 2); change of the
ground floor and ceiling constructions (case 3); change of the interior walls
between different users (case 4); change of the interior walls toward unheated space
(case 5) and implementation of all previously mentioned measures (case 6). The
simulation results indicate that the average savings of heating energy of analyzed
biulding are, respectively: 12,71% (case 1); 9,35% (case 2); 5,2% (case 3); 0,56%
(case 4); 2,04% (case 5) and 29,37% (case 6). For reconstruction of all building
constructions in order to achieve the value of U - coefficient that meets the Regula-
tions on energy efficiency of buildings, a large investments are needed. In terms of
investments the best solution is related to the change of the roof construction. This
445
paper is a part of investigation that is related to the analysis of heating consumption
in heated apartments during the reduction of air temperature or unheating of adja-
cent apartments of an residential building.
Keywords: energy saving measures; heating consumption; simulation
Introduction
Averagely 65% of final energy consumption in Serbia is consumed for hea-
ting, which is close to the European average [1]. Unfortunately, the most of these
apartments were built until 1980 as a part of the building within the urban areas.
These buildings are characterized by oversized heating systems, lack of insulation
and high specific heating consumption [2]. According to the scarce information
about the specific heating consumption in the residential sector in Serbia, for space
heating and heating of a domestic hot water in apartments in Serbia an average of
220 kWh/m2a is consumed, which is far more than the average in the EU [3]. The
most common measures taken in order to increase energy efficiency and thereby
reduce emissions of greenhouse gases are: insulation of a building, replacement of
dilapidated windows and doors and installation of measuring and regulating devices
(heat meters and thermostatic valves). The objective of this paper is reffered to the
analysis of energy saving measures for existing residential building. Analysis was
performed comparing the building with existing constructions and building with
implemented energy saving measures that are related to: replacement of windows
and doors, change of the roof construction, change of the ground floor and ceiling
constructions, change of the interior walls between different users and change of the
interior walls toward unheated space.
Description of the residential building

The total area of the analyzed residential building is 1504 m2 and useful hea-
ting area 1247.68 m2. The building has a total of 24 apartments distributed on 4
levels (Fig. 1). Distribution of apartments per levels is given in Fig. 2.
The physical characteristics of the building constructions (the values of the
heat transfer coefficient of walls, window, roof, etc.) are given in Table 1 while the
characteristics of materials of the added layers are given in Table 2. Only constructi-
on of the exterior wall meets the Regulations on energy efficiency of buildings (Tab-
le 3). The layers added to the building constructions are bolded as well as new obta-
ined values for U - coefficient.
446
Fig. 1 Isometric view of the analyzed residential building
Fig. 2 Distribution of apartments per levels of the analyzed residential building
447
Table 1 The characteristics of the building constructions
Construction Layer U
[W/m2K]
Window and balcony Glass (0.3 cm), Air (1.3 cm), Glass (0.3 cm); Glass 2.72; 1.5
door (0.6 cm), Xenon (1.6 cm), Glass (0.6 cm), Xenon (1.6
cm), Glass (0.6 cm)
Exterior door Wood (3.5 cm); Wood (2 cm), Cellulose fibers (2 cm), 4; 1.27
Wood (2 cm)
Exterior wall Brick (12 cm), Expanded polystyrene foam (15 cm), Air 0.22
(2 cm), Clay block (25 cm), Lime mortar (2.5 cm)
Interior wall Lime mortar (2.5 cm), Brick (12 cm), Lime mortar (2.5 2.17
cm)
Interior wall between Lime mortar (2.5 cm), Expanded polystyrene foam (1.5 2.17; 0.81
different users cm), Brick (12 cm), Expanded polystyrene foam (1.5
cm), Lime mortar (2.5 cm)
Interior wall toward Lime mortar (2.5 cm), Brick (12 cm), Expanded polysty- 2.17; 0.51
unheated space rene foam (6 cm), Lime mortar (2.5 cm)
Roof Gravel (5 cm), Waterproofing (0.5 cm; 1.5 cm), Mineral 0.51; 0.19
wool (12 cm), Cotton (5 cm), Vapor barrier (0.5 cm),
Lightweight concrete 1 (5 cm), Lightweight concrete 2 (4
cm), Lightweight concrete 3 (16 cm), Lime mortar (2.5
cm);
Floor with tiles Stone (25 cm), Gravel (5 cm), Lightweight concrete 2 (4 1.68; 0.38
cm), Waterproofing (0.8 cm), Lightweight concrete 2 (4
cm), Expanded polystyrene foam (8 cm), Waterproofing
(1 cm), Ceramic tile (1.5 cm)
Floor with hardwood Stone (25 cm), Gravel (5 cm), Lightweight concrete 2 (4 1.46; 0.37
cm), Waterproofing (0.8 cm), Lightweight concrete 2 (4
cm), Expanded polystyrene foam (8 cm), Waterproofing
(1 cm), Hardwood (2 cm)
Interior ceiling (with Lime mortar (2.5 cm), Lightweight concrete 3 (16 cm), 2.06; 0.76
tiles) Lightweight concrete 2 (4 cm), Expanded polystyrene
foam (3 cm), Waterproofing (1 cm), Ceramic tile (1.5
cm)
Interior ceiling (with Lime mortar (2.5 cm), Lightweight concrete 3 (16 cm), 1.77; 0.71
hardwood) Lightweight concrete 2 (4 cm), Expanded polystyrene
foam (3 cm), Waterproofing (1 cm), Hardwood (2 cm)
448
Table 2 The characteristics of materials of the added layers
Thickness Density Specific heat Thermal
Material [m] [kg/m3] c [J/kgK] transmittance
coefficient
[W/mK]
Waterproofing 0.01 1100 1050 0.17
Expanded polystyrene 0.015; 0.03; 0.06; 30 1260 0.041
foam 0.08
Mineral wool 0.12 180 840 0.039
Cellulose fibers 0.02 85 1800 0.04
Table 3 Maximum acceptable values for heat transfer coefficient, Umax

[W/(m2K)],for building constructions [4]
Existing build- New building
Building construction ing Umax
Umax [W/m2K]
[W/m2K]
Exterior wall 0.4 0.3
Walls and ceiling constructions between heated spaces of 0.9 0.9
the different units, different users
Flat roof above heated space 0.2 0.15
Windows, balcony doors of the heated spaces and heated 1.5 1.5
winter gardens
Exterior door 1.6 1.6
Wall toward unheated space 0.55 0.4
Floor on the ground 0.4 0.3
The most apartments consists of: living room, bedroom, kitchen and bathro-
om. It is assumed that the building is not surrounded with any object. Use of lig-
hting, electric equipment and occupancy in the building is defined by the schedules
within the software EnergyPlus. Total number of people that accommodates each
appartment is 4. During the interval of 8 to 16 h there is no presence of people. Total
power of lighting and electric equipment is approximately the same for every appar-
tment.
The building is heated by hot water from the heating system that consists of a
boiler on natural gas, convective baseboard heaters and variable flow pump. The
water convective baseboard heaters are put in each of the heated rooms. The heating
system operates each day of the heating season from 15th of October to 15th of April.
449
During the day, they operates from 7:00 am to 9:00 pm, if the room temperature is
below 20C (22C), from 9:00 pm to 12:00 pm if the room temperature is below
18C and from 12:00 pm to 7:00 am if the room temperature is below 15C. Air
temperatures in the heated rooms are set to 20 C for living room, bedroom and
kitchen and 22 C for bathroom.
Results and discussion

To simulate energy behavior of the analysed building, software EnergyPlus
(version 7.1.0) was used. EnergyPlus takes into account all factors that influence
thermal loads in the building, such as electricity devices, lighting, people in the
building, solar radiation, wind, infiltration, and shading of open rooms [5, 6]. In this
direction, the complex schedules of heating and cooling can be defined together with
schedules for use of lighting, internal energy devices and occupancy in the building.
This paper is related to the analysis of implementation of energy saving mea-
sures in an existing residential building. Six measures was proposed and analyzed:
replacement of windows and doors (case 1), change of the roof construction (case 2),
change of the ground floor and ceiling constructions (case 3), change of the interior
walls between different users (case 4) and change of the interior walls toward unhea-
ted space (case 5). Case 6 is related to the situation when all previously mentioned
measures would be implemented.
Case 1 - Replacement of windows and doors
The heating consumption of the analyzed building before (Baseline case) and
after possible reconstruction (case 1) is presented in Fig. 3. It can be concluded that
first six appartments, on the ground floor (first level), have identical change of hea-
ting consumption as appartments on the upper levels. This pattern does not include
the largest appartments on the level (1, 6, 7, 12, 13, 18, 19 and 24). These appar-
tments have the highest heating consumption in the building because they have the
highest number of exterior surfaces. On the other side, the appartments with the
lowest heating consumption are 2, 8, 14 and 20. They have the lowest number of
exterior surfaces (only one).
The percentage savings of heating energy are presented in Fig. 4. By repla-
cing the balcony doors and windows (U = 1.5 W/m2K) and exterior door (U = 1.27
W/m2K) it can be saved 8 to 17% of heating energy. The average heating consump-
tion of the building for this case would decrease form 40.97 to 35.81 kWh/m2 and
average percentage savings of heating energy would be 12.71%.
450
Fig. 3 Heating consumption of the analyzed building for Baseline case and case 1
Fig. 4 Percentage heating energy savings of the analyzed building for case 1
1.1 Case 2 - Change of the roof construction
Change of the roof construction is reffered to the addition of the hydro insu-
lation (waterproofing (1.5 cm)) and thermal insulation (mineral wool (12 cm)). By
adding this layers the U - coefficient changed form value of 0.51 to 0.19 W/m2K.
The percentage heating energy savings for this case are presented in Fig. 5.
451
The highest energy savings would appear on the highest (fourth) level
(27.76%) which is in direct contact with roof construction. The change of this cons-
truction would lead to the decrease of the heating consumption on the other levels.
The average percentage savings of heating energy for this case would be 9.35%.
1.2 Case 3 - Change of the ground floor and ceiling constructions
There are two types of floor and ceiling constructions. One includes
hardwood layer and the other one layer of tiles. Hardwood is placed in hallways,
living room and bedrooms while the layer of tiles is mounted in kitchens and bat-
hrooms.
By adding the thermal insulation (expanded polystyrene foam (8 cm)) and
hydro insulation (waterproofing (1 cm)) the U-coefficient change its value from 1.46
to 0.37 W/m2K for floor with hardwood and 1.68 to 0.38 W/m2K for floor with tiles.
The ceiling construction is changed by adding the same insulation layers but with
different thickness: expanded polystyrene foam (3 cm) and waterproofing (1 cm).
The value of U-coefficient drops from 1.77 to 0.71 W/m2K for ceiling with
hardwood and 2.06 to 0.76 for ceiling with tiles.
The percentage heating energy savings for case 3 are presented in Fig. 6.
452
The highest energy savings would be achieved on the first level (12.69%)
because of its direct contact with ground. Because of the slower cooling of appar-
tments on this level and lower heat transfer rate through the ceiling constructions
the decrease of heating consumption would be achieved on the second and third
level, too. On the other side, in appartments of the highest level the increase of hea-
ting consumption would occur (-3.42%), as a consequence of its position in the
building (last level) and decrease of U - coefficient of ceiling construction. The
average percentage savings of heating energy for this case and building would be
5.2%.
Case 4 - Change of the interior walls between different users
The term interior wall between different users is reffered to all walls that
separate two different users (tenants) or appartments. The U - coefficient for these
walls is changed from value 2.17 to 0.81 by adding two layers of thermal insulation
(expanded polystyrene foam) with thickness of 1.5 cm. The percentage heating
energy savings for case 4 are presented in Fig. 7.
453
Also, in this case it can be noticed that heating consumption in some appar-
tments decrease and in some appartments increase. The increase is recordered in
appartments that have the most exterior surfaces (1, 3, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, 15, 18, 19, 21
and 24). The change of interior wall construction would lead to the decrease of heat
transfer rate through these walls and in relation to that decrease of heat gains of
these appartments. The average percentage savings of heating energy for this case 4
would be 0.56%.
Case 5 - Change of the interior walls toward unheated space
Unheated spaces of the analyzed building are related to the pantries (storage
rooms) and building hallways. The appartments that does not include pantry are: 1,
2, 7, 8, 13, 14, 19 and 20. The Regulations on energy efficiency of buildings indica-
tes that the maximum value of U - coefficient (for an existing building) has to be
0.55 W/m2K (Table 3). For the analyzed building (before possible reconstruction)
the value of this parameter is 2.17 W/m2K. In order to achieve value of U - coeffici-
ent that is less than value of 0.55 W/m2K the interior wall has to be insulated with 6
cm of expanded polystyrene foam. The new obtained value for this parameter would
be 0.51 W/m2K. The percentage heating energy savings for case 5 are presented in
Fig. 8.
454
As well as in the previous case, there is increase and decrease of heating con-
sumption in certain appartments. The highest increase is noticed in the appartments
that have the most exterior surfaces, pantry and the lowest area of the interior walls
toward unheated space. On the other side, the decrease of heating consumption is
reffered to the appartments that have large area of the interior wall toward unheated
space. The average percentage savings of heating energy for this case 5 would be
2.04%.
Case 6 - Implementation of all previously mentioned measures
Case 6 includes a situation when all building constructions would have a
value of U - coefficient that meets the Regulations on energy efficiency of buildings.
In other words, this case represents possible implementation of all previously menti-
oned measures. In relation to that, the average heating consumption of the building
would be 28.67 kWh/m2 and the average percentage savings of heating energy
would be 29.37% (Fig. 9).
455
The highest energy savings would be achieved on the last level (38.7%) and
first level (28.17%) of the building. For the second and third level of the building
heating energy savings would be 24.09% and 26.5%, respectively.
Conclusions
In this paper the analysis of implementation of different energy saving mea-
sures in an existing residential building was conducted. Simulation of the energy
behavior of the residential building, with useful heating area of 1247.68 m2, was
performed by using software EnergyPlus. Six proposed measures was analyzed:
replacement of windows and doors (case 1); change of the roof construction (case
2); change of the ground floor and ceiling constructions (case 3); change of the inte-
rior walls between different users (case 4); change of the interior walls toward unhe-
ated space (case 5) and implementation of all previously mentioned measures (case
6). The simulation results indicate that the average savings of heating energy of
analyzed biulding are, respectively: 12.71% (case 1); 9.35% (case 2); 5.2% (case 3);
0.56% (case 4); 2.04% (case 5) and 29.37% (case 6). For reconstruction of all buil-
ding constructions in order to achieve the value of U - coefficient that meets the
Regulations on energy efficiency of buildings, a large investments are needed. In
terms of investments the best solution is related to the change of the roof constructi-
on. According to the obtained results the highest energy savings, for case 6, would
be achieved on the last level (38.7%) and first level (28.17%) of the building. This
paper is a part of investigation that is related to the analysis of heating consumption
in heated apartments during the reduction of air temperature or unheating of adjacent
apartments of an residential building.
456
Acknowledgements
This investigation is part of project TR 33015 of the Technological Deve-
lopment of the Republic of Serbia and project III 42006 of Integral and
Interdisciplinary investigations of the Republic of Serbia. We would like to thank
the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic
of Serbia for their financial support during this investigation.
References
[1] Jovanovic, V., Stieldorf, K., Influence of Energy Prices and Income
Inequalities on Retrofit Strategies in Developing Countries: Comparative
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Vienna, Proceedings - 8. Internationale Energiewirtschaftstagung (IEWT), TU
Wien, Vienna, Austria, 2013.
[2] Luki, N., Jurievi, N., Nikoli, N., Gordi, D., Specific heating consumption
in the residential sector of Serbia-Example of the city of Kragujevac, Energy
and Buildings, Vol. 107 (2015), pp. 163-171.
[3] Todorovi, M., First NEEAP/BS national energy efficiency action
plan/building sector 2009-2018: Study Report and NEEAP-BS for the Republic
of Serbia Ministry of Mining and Energy, Washington: IRG, 2010.
[4] *** Pravilnik o energetskoj efikasnosti zgrada, Ministarstvo graevinarstva,
saobraaja i infrastrukture Republike Srbije, 2011.
[5] Boji, M., Nikoli, N., Nikoli, D., Skerli, J., Mileti, I., Toward a positive-
net-energy residential building in Serbian conditions, Applied Energy, Vol. 88
(2011), pp. 2407-2419.
[6] Boji, M., Nikoli, N., Nikoli, D., Skerli, J., Mileti, I., A simulation apprai-
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457
UTICAJ TROMBOVOG ZIDA NA POTRONJU
ENERGIJE ZA GREJANJE I HLAENJE KUE
NETO-NULTE POTRONJE ENERGIJE
THE INFLUENCE OF THE TROMBE WALL
ON ENERGY CONSUMTION FOR HEATING AND
COOLING OF NET-ZERO ENERGY HOUSE
Jovan MALEEVI, Dragan CVETKOVI
Fakultet inenjerskih nauka u Kragujevcu, Univerzitet u Kragujevcu
jmjovan49@gmail.com
Ovaj rad se bavi izuavanjem uticaja Trombovog zida na grejanje i hlaenje
kue neto-nulte potronje energije. Kua neto-nulte potronje energije sastoji se iz est
prostorija koje se greju i hlade i nalazi se na podruju Beograda. Trombov zid, kao
pasivni solarni sistem, postavljen je na junu vertikalnu stranu kue, kao i na juni kosi
deo krova. Osnovni model za simulaciju je kua bez Trombovog zida. Simulacija je ura-
ena i za modele kue sa vertikalnim Trombovim zidom, za model kue sa kosim Trom-
bovim zidom i za model kue sa oba ova Trombova zida. Kue, kao i grejanje i hlaenje
u njima, modeliraju se pomou softvera EnergyPlus. Za grejanje i hlaenje koristi se
elektrina energija. Radi utede energije, na svakom grejnon telu i sobnom klimatizeru,
nalaze se termostatski ventili. Simulacija je uraena za celu godinu. Za sve kue, kao i za
odgovarajue prostorije u njima, porede se temperature i utroak energije. Simulacijom
se dobija uteda energije za grejanje i hlaenje oko 15% pri upotrebi Trombovog zida.
Kljune rei: Trombov zid, kua neto-nulte potronje energije, potronja energi-
je, temperatura, EnergyPlus.
This paper deals with the influence Trombe wall on heating and cooling low
energy house. House net-zero energy consists of six rooms that are heated and cooled
and is located in the Belgrade area. Trombe wall as a passive solar system is set on the
vertical and sloped south side of the house. The basic house does not contain Trombe
wall. The simulation was performed for models of houses with vertical Trombe wall,
sloped Trombe wall and for a model house with both Trombe walls. Houses, as well as
heating and cooling in them, are modeled using the software EnergyPlus. Heating and
cooling uses the electricity. To save energy, there are thermostatic valves. The simulati-
on is done for a year. For all the houses, as well as appropriate facilities in them, the
temperatures and energy consumption are compared. By simulating to yield energy
savings for heating and cooling of about 15% for the Trombe wall.
Key words: Trombe wall, net-zero energy house, energy consumption, temperatu-
re, EnergyPlus
459
Uvod
Kua neto nulte potronje energije (popularan naziv nulta kua), teoretski
bi mogla biti nezavisna od energetske mree, to u praksi znai da elektrinu energi-
ju dobijenu od sunca pomou odreenih aktivnih i pasivnih ureaja, tokom godine,
alje u javnu energetsku mreu i da je njen energetski bilans potronje i proizvodnje
energije jednak nuli. Da bi se to postiglo, energija se mora stvarati unutar objekta, i
to korienjem obnovljivih izvora energije koji ne zagauju okolinu, odnosno ispu-
taju vrlo malo ili ak nimalo ugljendioksida.
Energija Sunca spada u obnovljive izvore energije i moe se koristiti aktivno
i pasivno. Aktivno korienje Sunevog zraenja podrazumeva njegovu direktnu
transformaciju u elektrinu ili toplotnu energiju. Ova transformacija se vri pomou
razliitih ureaja. Najee se koriste solarni kolektori za dobijanje toplotne energije
i fotonaponski paneli za dobijanje elektrine energije. Kod pasivnog korienja
Sunevog zraenja nema komplikovanih ureaja i tehnologija, ve se pomou klasi-
nih materijala za graenje (beton, metal, kamen, staklo, drvo itd.) iskoriava ener-
gija Sunca. Zadatak pasivnog solarnog sistema je da akumulira to vie Suneve
energije u stambenoj zgradi u sezoni grejanja. Meutim, u letnjem periodu, zadatak
pasivnog solarnog sistema je da zatiti zgradu od pregrevanja prostorija usled inten-
zivnog Sunevog zraenja.
Jedan od naina pasivnog korienja Sunevog zraenja je primena Trombo-
vog zida. Feliks Trombe je francuski naunik, koji je konstruisao solarnu kuu u
Pirinejima 1956.godine [9]. Trombov zid je graevinska konstrukcija (najee
cigla, beton), debljine 100 do 400 mm. Spoljanja povrina zida obojena je crnom
bojom koja ima sposobnost da apsorbuje Suneve zrake. Ispred zida, na rastojanju
od 20 do 100 mm, postavlja se staklo, koje moe biti jednostruko, dvostruko ili
trostruko. Unutranja povrina zida je neravna kako bi se poveala povrina za raz-
menu toplote sa odgovarajuom prostorijom u zgradi. Vertikalni presek pasivnog
solarnog sistema sa Trombovim zidom prikazan je shematski na sledeoj slici:
Princip rada ovog pasivnog solarnog sistema je sledei:
Sunevi zraci (1) prolaze kroz staklo (2) i padaju na crnu prednju stranu
Trombovog zida (3). Trombov zid je najee od masivnog betona, koji se zagreva.
Polovinu solarne energije akumulira zid, a druga polovina stvara prirodnu cirkulaci-
ju vazduha, kroz otvore (4) i (6), zbog efekta staklene bate. S druge strane, Trom-
bov zid zrai akumuliranu toplotu u eljenu prostoriju (8). Da se Trombov zid ne bi
nou hladio, ugrauje se zavesa (9) izmeu stakla i zida. Nou, kada prestane zrae-
nje Sunca, zavesa se sputa i ima ulogu termalnog zastora. Meutim, leti se ova
zavesa sputa danju da bi se spreilo pregrevanje zida i prostorije. Nou se ona podi-
e da se omogui hlaenje zida zraenjem. Na taj nain, zavesa sa otvorima za topli
vazduh (9) i sve vazduh (10), obavlja proces klimatizacije u letnjem periodu.
Korienje Sunevog zraenja primenom Trombovog zida izuavali su mnogi
autori. Tako na primer Fares [1] je ispitivao uticaj raznih komponenti Trombovog
zida na toplotno optereenje kua u Siriji obzirom na klimatske uslove koji vladaju u
460
Slika 1 Vertikalni presek Trombovog zida
toj sredini. Chel i ostali autori [2] su ispitivali primenu Trombovog zida kod skladi-
ta meda u mestu Gvalior u Indiji. U prostoriji gde se skladiti med potrebno je odr-
avati temperaturu u opsegu 18-27oC, to je bilo teko jer su zime u toj oblasti Indije
vrlo otre. Jaber drugi autori [3] su istraivali optimalnu konstrukciju Trombovog
zida u mediteranskom regionu. Znaajan rezultat ovog istraivanja je da se
Trombovim zidom dobija manje emitovanje ugljen-dioksida (CO2) za 445 kg
godinje. Nwachukwu i Okonkwo [4] su ispitivali razliite premaze spoljne povrine
Trombovog zida koji imaju visoku mo apsorpcije i vrlo nisku emisiju Sunevog
zraenja. Saadatian i drugi autori [5] su prouavali primere primene devet razliitih
tipova Trombovog zida u zgradama kako po obliku tako i po materijalu komponenti
od najstarijih i najednostavnijih do savremenih sa sloenijom konstrukcijom. Shen i
drugi autori [6] su uporeivali klasine i kompozitne Trombove zidove uz
konstataciju da kompozitni Trombovi zidovi imaju bolje toplotne performanse od
klasinih. Stazi i drugi autori [7] su eksperimentalnim putem ispitivali neeljeno
pregrevanje Trombovog zida u toplim klimatskim uslovima i kako se osenenjem i
ventilacijom mogu umanjiti ovi neeljeni efekti. Jilmaz i Kundakci [8] su izuavali
mogunosti renoviranja i ugradnje Trombovog zida na junu fasadu, kako ve
postojeih stambenih zgrada u Istambulu, tako i obaveznu ugradnju Trombovog zida
na junu fasadu novih stambenih zgrada, obzirom na veliki broj Sunanih dana u
Istambulu.
U ovom radu dati su rezultati utede elektrine energije, tokom cele godine, u
kui neto-nulte potronje energije sa Trombovim zidom u odnosu na kuu neto-nulte
potronje energije bez Trombovog zida. Elektrina energija se troi na grejanje,
hlaenje, unutranju opremu i osvetljenje.
461
Termike i geometrijske karakteristike
kue neto-nulte potronje energije
2.1 Modeli kue
Modelirane su etiri kue neto-nulte potronje energije. Osnovni model za
simulaciju je kua bez Trombovog zida (MODEL BTrZ slika 2). Simulacija je
uraena i za modele kue sa vertikalnim Trombovim zidom (MODEL VTrZ slika
3), za model kue sa kosim Trombovim zidom (MODEL KTrZ slika 4) i za
model kue sa oba ova Trombova zida (MODEL 2TrZ slika 5).
Slika 2 MODEL BTrZ Slika 3 MODEL VTrZ
Slika 4 MODEL KTrZ Slika 5 MODEL 2TrZ

Svaki od modela kue sastoji se iz est prostorija koje se greju (dnevna soba,
dve spavae sobe, kupatilo, hodnik i sprat), a hlade se etiri prostorije (dnevna soba,
dve spavae sobe i sprat). Popreni preseci za prizemlje i sprat dati su na sledeim
slikama:
462
Slika 6 Presek za prizemni deo kue u 3D Slika 7 Presek za prizemni deo
kue u 2D
Slika 8 Presek za spratni deo kue u 3D Slika 9 Presek za spratni deo kue u 2D
Softver EnergyPlus omoguava modeliranje grejanja stambene zgrade uzima-
jui u obzir sve faktore koji utiu na termiko optereenje zgrade kao i sve faktore
koji utiu na dobitke energije. Ovaj softver daje mogunosti modeliranja razliitih
scenarija grejanja zgrade. U ovom radu je analiziran scenario sa dobicima energije
od strane elekrinih ureaja, elektrinih sijalica kao i prisustva ljudi u prostorijama.
2.2 Konstrukcija Trombovog zida
Trombov zid se sastoji iz masivnog dela (armirani beton), debljine 30 cm i
troslojnog stakla debljine (4; 18; 4; 13; 4) mm [10], gde su 18mm i 13mm rastojanja
izmeu dva sloja stakla. Staklena konstrukcija je postavljena na 10 cm od armiranog
betona. Prednja strana armiranog betona obojena je crnom bojom iji je koeficijent
apsorpcije 0.91.
Da bi se zimi nou umanjilo hlaenje betona, a u toku leta danju spreilo nje-
govo pregrevanje, a time i prostorija kue, izmeu betona i stakla je postavljena
463
roletna [11]. Ona se zimi sputa nou, a leti danju. Roletna je od aluminijuma, visine
2.4m i duine 8.6m. Sastoji se iz 165 lamela punjenih poliuretanom.
Rezultati i diskusija
Simulacija je uraena za celu godinu. Grejna sezona traje od 15. oktobra do
15. aprila sledee kalendarske godine, a sezona hlaenja od 15. aprila do 15. oktobra
iste kalendarske godine. Rezultati su prikazani u HTML fajlu tabelarno i korie-
njem programskog paketa Microsoft Excel-a. Rezultati simulacije su dobijeni i pri-
kazani na svakih 15 minuta.
3.1 Specifina potronja elektrine energije za celu godinu
U HTML fajlu data je ukupna potronja elektrine energije na grejanje, hla-
enje, unutranju opremu i osvetljenje.
Za jednogodinji period simulacija softverom EnergyPlus pokazala je da je
najvea specifina potronja ukupne elektrine energije za kuu bez Trombovog
zida (122.41 KWh/m2), zatim za kuu sa vertikalnim Trombovim zidom (118.53
KWh/m2), za kuu sa kosim Trombovim zidom (106.77 KWh/m2) i najmanja speci-
fina potronja ukupne elektrine energije je za kuu sa 2 Trombova zida (104.24
KWh/m2). Ovi rezultati su prikazani na slici 10.
Ako je osnovni model za simulaciju kua bez Trombovog zida, onda je ute-
da ukupne elektrine energije za kuu sa 2 Trombova zida 14.84%, za kuu sa kosim
Trombovim zidom 12.78% i za kuu sa vertikalnim Trombovim zidom 3.17%.
Spec el. en. u KWh/m2
Razliiti modeli kue

Slika 10 Specifina potronja elektrine energije za razliite modele
Ukoliko se posmatra potronja elektrine energije samo za grejanje, rezultati

su sledei: najvea specifina potronja elektrine energije za grejanje je za kuu bez
Trombovog zida (56.30 KWh/m2), zatim za kuu sa vertikalnim Trombovim zidom
(51.00 KWh/m2), za kuu sa kosim Trombovim zidom (36.40 KWh/m2) i najmanja
specifina potronja elektrine energije za grejanje je za kuu sa 2 Trombova zida
(32.83 KWh/m2). Rezultati su dati na slici 11.
464
Posmatrajui kuu bez Trombovog zida kao osnovni model za simulaciju,
uteda elektrine energije za grejanje je za kuu sa 2 Trombova zida 41.69%, za
kuu sa kosim Trombovim zidom 35.35% i za kuu sa vertikalnim Trombovim
zidom 9.41%.
Spec.Elektr.Energija
u KWh/m2
Razliiti modeli kue
Slika 11 Specifina potronja elektrine energije za grejanje

3.2 Najhladniji dan meteorolokog fajla
Slika 12 prikazuje temperature vazduha u dnevnoj sobi svih tipova kua za
24.decembar, koji je najhladniji dan meteorolokog fajla za Beograd. Na slici se vidi
da temperature u dnevnoj sobi dostiu konstantnu vrednost kada je grejanje ukljue-
no. Te vrednosti su zadate na termostatima i to za dnevnu sobu 20 0C. Po prekidu
grejanja, temperature u dnevnoj sobi opadaju u zavisnosti od konstrukcije njihovog
omotaa, tj. od koeficijenta prolaza toplote tako da e srednje vrednosti temperature
biti nie od zadanih. Poreenjem temperature u dnevnoj sobi svih tipova kua dobi-
jaju se sledei rezultati: srednja temperatura u dnevnoj sobi kue sa 2 Trombova zida
vea je za 1,80C od temperature u dnevnoj sobi osnovnog modela za simulaciju, u
dnevnoj sobi kue sa vertikalnim Trombovim zidom vea je za 1,6 0C i dnevnoj sobi
sa kosim Trombovim zidom vea je za 0,3 0C od osnovnog modela kue.
Pored temperature mogu se analizirati snage grejnih tela u prostorijama za
ekstremno niske temperature, tj. za 24. decembar. Za analizu je koriena slika 13,
koja prikazuju snagu grejnih tela po prostorijama za model kue sa 2 Trombova
zida. Jasno se vidi da grejna tela poinju sa radom u 7 sati i rade do 22 sata. U
prvom satu svog rada grejno telo dostie svoju maksimalnu snagu da bi se postigla
zahtevana temperatura u prostoriji. Tokom dana zapaaju se oscilacije snage grejnih
tela.
465
Slika 12 Temperature u dnevnim sobama za najhladniji dan
Kada se grejna tela iskljue u 22 sata, snaga naglo opada. Slika takoe poka-
zuje da je najvea snaga gejnih tela potrebna za prostoriju na spratu, jer je ona naj-
vea.
DS
Snaga u W
Slika 13 Snaga grejnih tela za najhladniji dan za kuu sa 2TrZ

3.3 Najtopliji dan meteorolokog fajla
Sa stanovita hlaenja interesantno je posmatrati najtopliji dan meteorolo-
kog fajla za Beograd, a to je 15. juni. Slika 14 prikazuje temperature u prostorijama
kue sa 2 Trombova zida.
466
SPO
LJNA
DS
Temperatura u 0C
HOD
KUP
SS1
SS2
Slika 14 Temperature u prostorijama kue sa 2TrZ za najtopliji dan

Na slici se vidi da se klima ureaji ukljuuju u 10 sati, a iskljuuju u 19 sati i
da se propisana temperatura na termostatima od 240C postie posle jednog sata rada,
tj.u 11 sati. Po iskljuenju klima ureaja temperatura naglo poraste u sledeem satu.
Naravno, ovo vai za etiri prostorije koje se hlade (dnevna soba, obe spavae sobe i
sprat).
Takoe, interesantno je posmatrati angaovanu snagu klima ureaja najtopli-
jeg dana meteorolokog fajla (slika 15).
Snaga u W
D
S
Slika 15 Snaga klima ureaja po prostorijama za najhladniji dan za kuu sa 2TrZ

Slika 15, kao i prethodna slika 14, jasno pokazuje vreme rada klima ureaja
od 10 do 19 sati. Najvee optereenje sistema je u prvom satu rada klima ureaja
kada se postie maksimalna snaga. Kasnije, tokom dana, zapaaju se oscilacije sna-
ge klima ureaja.
467
Zakljuci
U ovom radu prikazani su rezultati uticaja Trombovog zida na elektro greja-
nje i hlaenje kue neto-nulte potronje energije. Na grejnim telima i klima ureaji-
ma nalaze se termostatski ventili radi regulisanja temperature u prostorijama i utede
energije. Pri tome modelirano je grejanje i hlaenje etiri modela kue. Pored osno-
vnog modela (kua bez Trombovog zida), simulacija grejanja i hlaenja uraena je i
za modele kue sa vertikalnim Trombovim zidom, za model kue sa kosim Trombo-
vim zidom i za model kue sa oba ova Trombova zida. Na osnovu rezultata simula-
cije zakljuuje se da je najvea uteda ukupne elektrine energije ostvarena kod
modela kue sa 2 Trombova zida 14,84%, za model kue sa kosim Trombovim
zidom 12,78% i za model kue sa vertikalnim Trombovim zidom 3,17%. Uteda
elektrine energije je znatno vea ako se posmatra njena potronja samo na grejanje:
za model kue sa 2 Trombova zida 41,69%, za model kue sa kosim Trombovim
zidom 35,35% i za model kue sa vertikalnim Trombovim zidom 9,41%.
ZAHVALNICA: Ovaj rad je rezultat dva istraivanja: (1) projekat TR33015
Tehnolokog razvoja Republike Srbije, i (2) projekat III 42006 Integlralna i interdis-
ciplinarna istraivanja Republike Srbije. Prvi projekat je pod nazivom Istraivanje i
razvoj Srpske kue nulte neto postronje energije, i drugi projekat je pod nazivom
Istraivanje i razvoj energijski i ekoloki visoko efikasnih sistema poligeneracije
zasnovanoj na obnovljivim energijskim izvorima. elimo da se zahvalimo Ministar-
svu obrazovanja i nauke Republike Srbije na njihovj finansijskoj podrci tokom ovih
istraivanja.
Literatura
[1] Fares, ., The Effect of Changing Trombe Wall Component on the Thermal
load, Energy Procedia 19 (2012) 47-54.
[2] Chel, A, Nayak, J. K; Kaushik, G., Energy conservation in honey storage
building using Trombe wall; Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi.
[3] Jaber, S, Ajib, S., Optimum design of Trombe wall system in mediterranean
region, Solar Energy; 85 (2011) 18911898.
[4] Nwosu P. Nwachukwu; Wilfred I. Okonkwo, Effect of an Absorptive Coating
on Solar Energy Storage in a Thrombe wall system, Energy and Buildings 40
(2008) 371-374.
[5] Omidreza Saadatian; K. Sopian; C. H. Lim; Nilofar Asim; M. Y. Sulaiman,
Trombe walls: A review of opportunities and challenges in research and deve-
lopment, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 6340-6351.
[6] Shen, J; Lassue, S; Zalewski, L; Huang, D. Numerical study on thermal
behavior of classical or composite Trombe solar walls. Energy and Buildings 39
(2007) 962974.
[7] Stazi, F; Mastrucci, A; Perna, C. Trombe wall management in summer condi-
tions: An experimental study. Solar Energy 86 (2012) 28392851.
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[8] Zerrin Yilmaz; Arch Basak Kundakci, An approach for energy conscious
renovation of residential buildings in Istambul by Trombe wall system. Building
and Environment 43 (2008) 508-517.
[9] Zrni, S.,ulum, ., Grejanje i klimatizacija sa primenom solarne energije,
osmo izdanje, Beograd, 1988.
[10] *** Prozori, Low-e ; http://www.staklo-spudic.hr/izo_ staklo.html. (pris-
tupljeno 15.06.2015).
[11] *** ALUROLL, D.O.O, roletne, centrale, tajmeri, elektro motor;
[12] http://www.aluroll.rs/ (pristupljeno 25.12. 2015).
469
INTEGRALNI I ODRIVI PRISTUP PROJEKTOVANJU
U ZGRADARSTVU IDEJNO REENJE OBJEKTA
JAVNE UPRAVE U PEKINGU
INTEGRATED SUSTAINABLE BUILDING DESIGN
CONCEPTUAL SOLUTION OF A MUNICIPAL
GOVERNMENT BUILDING IN BEIJING
Vladislav IVANOVI a, Luka FRANCEKO b,
Gabor BEREC a, Dragan BOTI a,
Vladimir MUNANa, Igor MUJANa, Aleksandar ANELKOVIa
Univerzitet u Novom Sadu, Fakultet tehnikih nauka, Novi Sad
a
Departman za energetiku i procesnu tehniku
b
Departman za arhitekturu i urbanizam
Jedno od kljunih pitanja XXI veka jeste ouvanje kvaliteta ivotne sredine.
Iako su veliki uspesi postignuti u polju istih izvora energije, kontrola i maksimalno
smanjenje potronje energije je od velikog znaaja. Ova studija se bavi pitanjima u
okviru projekta za objekat javne uprave visoke efikasnosti koji je lociran u Pekingu,
Kina. Rad prouava sve aspekte integralnog projektovanja modernih zgrada, sa
ciljem niske potronje energije i kvaliteta unutranje sredine. Kroz proces integrisa-
nog dizajna promenjene su adekvatne mere vezane objekat ove vrste i njegovu loka-
ciju, dok se implementacije vrila na osnovu njihovih prednosti i nedostataka. Rezul-
tati dobijeni kombinovanjem ovih mera ukazuju na njihov znaaj, i u saglasnosti su
sa LEED standardom koji se koristi za projektovanja zgrada. Studija ukazuje na
znaaj primene integralnog pristupa projektovanju zgrada kako bi se umanjio njihov
negativan uticaj na ivotnu sredinu.
Kljune rei: ivotna sredina; odrivi razvoj
One of the most important issues of the 21st century is the preservation of the
environment and its quality. While great efforts have been made regarding clean
energy sources, it is crucial for us to monitor and minimize our energy consumption.
This paper tackles these issues in a framework of a high efficiency municipal build-
ing located in Beijing, China. Research explores all the aspects of intelligent build-
ing design, with the goal of low energy consumption and better indoor environmen-
tal quality. Through the process of integrated building design many techniques have
been tested and applied, relative to their benefits and drawbacks. The results pro-
duced by the combination of these techniques indicate their significance and are in
compliance with the LEED standard used for building design. The paper shows the
importance of adapting integrated building design for lowering their negative im-
pact on the environment.
Key words: environment; sustainable developmen
471
1 Introduction
1.1 Project goals
The goal of the project was to create sustainable and highly efficient munici-
pal building with a low environmental impact through integrated building design.
This includes a tendency for low energy consumption approaching Net Zero
Energy and reduction of CO2 emission, while also taking into account the high
level of comfort required in a modern building. LEED Rating System served as
guidance for achieving desired sustainability. Several other projects [3], [13] were
thoroughly analyzed in search for innovative solutions. The building is to be used as
a municipal center in Beijing.
1.2 Techniques for accomplishing goals
High performance Envelope design
HVAC system
Luminance level controlled lighting
Use of Photovoltaic panels
Use of PCM (Phase change materials) in envelope
1.3
Standards used for compliance
ASHRAE Standard 189.1 2014
ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2013 (I-P)
ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2013
ASHRAE Standard 55
ASHRAE Handbook HVAC Applications 2011
LEED v4
2 Architectural report
Beijing, the capital of Peoples Republic of China, one of the largest cities in
the world, a place where tradition meets modern day culture. This complex and
beautiful environment was the setting for our project.
2.1 Site and Accessibility
In the northern part of the city lies the Huayuan Road District. Mainly resi-
dential, but also containing a large number of commercial buildings along the main
streets and avenues, on one of which we have chosen a site for our building (Figure
1). The site is located on the Jianan Road, one of the largest ring roads that surro-
und Beijing. It is a high frequency location and a suitable location for a municipal
government building.
Just north of the site lies the Olympics village constructed during the
Olympics 2008. This means the site is accessible and easy to navigate to.
Accessibility is defined by the number of subway stations and bus lines surrounding
the site. Also the main roads contain cycling lanes, which contribute to the
accessibility.
472
Figure 1 Site Location
2.2 Concept
The idea was to design an inviting structure, housing an important city attri-
bute, a Municipal Government Building.
2.3 The Building design
The building design was guided by the location itself, while keeping in mind
the usage of space that it provides. Its main long axis runs North-South, and the
short axis from the East to the West following the orientation of the Beijing street
grid. This was used to define the areas of the facade, to be or not to be transparent,
taking into account the benefits of the suns energy and the beauty of daylight.
Figure 2 - The building design
473
The whole southern, and part of the eastern facade are tilted towards the gro-
und, forming a 71 degree angle with the horizontal plane (Figure 2). This was done
to minimize the entrance of suns rays during the summer months, but also allowing
the rays to enter the building during the winter months, thus not overheating the
space in the summer, and heating it up during the winter. Another example of
application of tilted facade is to be found at Federal Center South, the building
which is certified LEED platinum and is in top 1% of the most energy-efficient
office buildings in entire USA [12].
Figure 3 - Building exterior

As described, one of the goals was to create an inviting structure, thus the
large number of entrances. The idea was to place a main entrance used by everybody
who wanted to enter the space, this entrance is located on the south eastern side
facing the street corner. The street corner is the busiest place on a street, a high pro-
file space (Figure 3). There is one more entrance to the building, intended to be used
by the people working in it.
The architectural aspect of the building was simple. Providing the municipal
government building with all of the required rooms and spaces, but also adding
some features, like the skylight atrium for the office space and large glass facades
for the common grounds, which contribute to the work environment comfort (Figure
4).
The climate of Beijing is clearly of the continental monsoon type and is clas-
sified as Mixed-Humid (4A) with relatively dry and cold winters and humid, warm
summers. For obtaining psychrometric chart of Beijings climate we used Climate
Consultant 6.0 software only for working hours (6a.m.-6p.m.). Necessary HVAC
and architectural design strategies for providing maximal comfort are listed on the
chart.
474
Figure 4 - Building interior
3 Beijings climate and geothermal potential
Figure 5 - Psychometric Chart for Beijing
475
3.1 Geothermal energy potential of Beijing
Figure 6 - Beijing Geothermal potential map [1]

There is a rapid growth in usage of geothermal energy for HVAC purposes.
The application area of ground source heat pump projects has an annual growth rate
of over 150% in recent years. Particularly in Beijing, total heating power of more
than 1000MWt was installed by year 2009 and kept growing. [1], [2]. According to
several Reuters articles from 2012, most of the Olympic sport facilities with instal-
led Ground Source Hat Pumps are out of use [4] (e.g. Beijing Olympic Forest Park,
circa 140kW, Football court Birds Nest, Olympic tennis courts and Olympic
Badminton and Gymnastics Hall).
4 Mechanical Systems Design

4.1 Building Envelope and Thermal Loads
Envelope was designed to exceed standard requirements thus increasing buil-
dings overall performance. U-value criteria was used for envelope elements selecti-
on and no trade-offs were made regarding U-values of envelope constructions.
Additional attention was paid to selection of recyclable materials. The ther-
mal batt insulation for steel frame cavity is produced from up to 90% recycled plas-
tic PE bottles and is 100% recyclable, resistant to mold, zero ozone depleting poten-
tial and zero global warming potential. Metal framed walls are also recyclable, easi-
er for assembly and cheaper for transport.
476
Table 1 - Comparison between ASHRAE 90.1-2013 baseline
and final proposed envelope
U-Value [W/m2C]
Construction Type ASHRAE 90.1-2013
Proposed case
requirement
Exterior wall Steel Framed 0,327 0,195
Exterior Triple glazed with argon with low

2,15 0,785
Window (fixed) E coating, steel framed window
Skylight Triple pane low E 2,84 0,3
Roof IEAD roof 0,164 0,108
Heavy concrete, foam board insu-

Floor (Mass) 0,291 0,2
lation
Figure 7 - Steel framed walls and recycled PE insulation

Raised floor have air barriers which increase the R-value of these constructi-
ons. Vegetated surfaces and PV panels are roof-installed features which increase its
R-value. The skylight and its triple pane glazing have two low-E coatings and U-
value of 0.3 W/m2C, so it minimally affects overall roof insulation performance.
4.1.1 Thermal Loads
Thermal loads (heating/cooling loads) were determined according to the
ASHRAE Handbook [5] and ASHRAE Standard 90.1 2013 [6] in order to conduct
adequate system selection for maintaining thermal comfort. Software used for buil-
ding energy simulation is Sketchup plugin OpenStudio with EnergyPlus engine.
Ideal air load simulation was done using weather file for Beijing for two cases:
1. ASHRAE 90.1 2013 baseline envelope with Window-Wall Ratio of 40%
without skylight
2. Proposed improved envelope with skylight and described fenestration
477
The loads comparison is given in Table 2.
Table 2 Ideal Air Loads comparison for baseline envelope

and proposed case envelope
Envelope Proposed Envelope ASHRAE 90.1 2013 Baseline Envelope
Cooling Load Heating Load Cooling Load Heating Load
Month
(KWh) (kWh) (KWh) (kWh)
Jan 1,0 14,6 0,0 42,6
Feb 2,3 7,0 0,0 25,5
Mar 4,8 2,2 0,0 11,4
Apr 8,5 0,6 1,1 2,9
May 13,9 0,1 5,2 0,4
June 21,4 0,0 12,7 0,0
July 25,4 0,0 19,1 0,0
Aug 23,3 0,0 16,4 0,0
Sept 15,6 0,1 6,5 0,3
Oct 7,8 0,8 0,8 4,0
Nov 2,4 4,8 0,0 18,7
Dec 1,1 10,4 0,0 33,9
Annual 127,5 40,8 61,8 139,8
Total 168,3 201,6
Improved envelope makes savings of 17%. Window-Wall Ratios of southern,

western and eastern side of the faade are 100%, 70% and 60% respectively, increa-
sing the amount of sunlight for illumination of working space. Northern faade was
designed without fenestration to reduce conduction heat losses during winter, but the
skylight was added on the northern open office, illuminating all the spaces in the
northern part of the building and contributing to the heat loss reduction through solar
radiation heat gains during winter. The overall Window-Wall Ratio is slightly over
65%.
4.2 Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy
4.2.1 Indoor air quality
Summing up the air pollution situation, natural ventilation is disabled by
installing fixed windows in the whole building. A two stage air filter system is res-
ponsible for dealing with various contamination levels. When contamination level is
478
lower, the inlet airstream passes through the standard filter set consisting of a set of
medium filters with MERV 13 categorization by ASHRAE 52.2 [7]. This filter set
causes lower pressure drop, while combined with UV lights and ionic cleaning pro-
vides properly purified air. When contamination ratio reaches critical levels, the
airstream is bypassed to the advanced air purifier which consists of MERV 16 certi-
fied F-class filter which is fairly widespread in Beijing.
4.2.2 Under Floor Air Distribution
The Under Floor Air Distribu-
tion is sophisticated and elegant solu-
tion and meet the demands set by
standards ASHRAE 189 [8],
ASHRAE 55 [9] and ASHRAE 62.1
[10]. The Under Floor Air Distributi-
on provides isothermal environment
in the occupied zone, which is also
confirmed by the EZ = 1.0 (air distri-
bution effectiveness). Therefore,
warmer air and products of exhaled air
take place in upper-ceiling area. This
process of stratification has beneficial
effects on thermal comfort of the
occupants [11]. Furthermore, there is
no need for high air inlet speeds and Figure 8 - Under Floor Air Distribution
uncomfortably low inlet temperatures,
because of the diffusers displacement density. Air is ducted to the space through
swirl diffusers in the inner part of the rooms and through in floor active chilled
beams (Figure 8). Supply air covers designed sensible and latent loads while chilled
beams cover additional solar heat gains.
4.2.3 CFD analysis report
A CFD analysis in Design Builder software showed that the temperatures for
desired thermal comfort in the occupied zone can be maintained with Dedicated
Outdoor Air System supplying the minimum necessary outdoor air to all spaces
except atrium, where a 6% increase of the minimal flow rate maintains the conditi-
ons within the specified limits. In this way, both sensible and latent loads are cove-
red without additional systems.
The atrium with skyline and a common small office were taken as representa-
tive examples of spaces to preview the air stream lines and temperature zones for-
med by the Under Floor Air Distribution system. Cooling supply air temperature is
19C and air flow equals to space air flow divided by number of diffusers installed
in room. Active chilled beams were excluded from the analysis.
Flow pattern, shown on the CFD analysis reports is achieved with passive
swirl diffusers (Figure 9) that have a manual adjustment of the supply jet directions.
479
Manual adjustment means that the occupants can change the angle of the inlet air
stream to avoid draft in their exact location in the conditioned space.
The CFD analysis was performed on the 0-
degree position (straight up), so the final flow pattern
may change depending on personal adjustments of the
diffusers. This layout of the air inlet and outlet diffu-
sors, adapted to the size of the space is used in most
of the offices, conference rooms, etc. to ensure the
right comfort conditions in the occupied zone.
The
corridor
surrounding the atrium space on the first floor shares
the same air space with the atrium, therefore its
Figure 9 - Swirl diffuser necessary to maintain a higher pressure in the corri-
dor, to prevent the warmer and used air from the
upper layers of the atrium to get into the corridor.
4.2.4 Small Offices
Figure 10 - Small Office CFD

Figure 10 shows temperatures and air velocity vectors in common small offi-
ce. Air mixing achieved with this type of air distribution is obviously satisfying. In
addition, its proved that we could maintain the comfort needs with a 50% lower
flow rate, using the Under Floor Air Distribution system and two lengthwise placed
air extractors.
480
4.2.5 Atrium
Figure 11 - Atrium CFD

The atrium (Figure 11) is a considerably large space because of its height of 9
meters. The air outlet diffusors are installed in 1st floor ceiling because of the atri-
ums interior layout. Detailed analysis in the atrium showed that the calculated flow
rate of = 0,648 3 / was not sufficient to maintain the required thermal con-
ditions in the room, but an increase in total airflow of 6% was necssary to meet
required conditions.
4.2.6 HVAC System
The HVAC system is in charge of reaching and maintaining designed thermal
conditions in the building during the occupied hours (21/23C and 55% RH). Dedi-
cated Outdoor Air System with heat recovery equipment is used to constantly provi-
de 100% freshly treated outdoor air to the occupants whilst recovering sensible heat
from the return air with heat recovery wheel (Figure 12). The ventilation calculati-
ons have shown that the peak air flow rate through the AHU is 14.5 m3/sec. In floor
water cooled active chilled beams (IACB) integrated in raised floor cover additional
solar heat gains. Water is cooled by the ground source heat pump.
4.2.7 Ground Source Heat Pump system
The Ground Source Heat Pump system (GSHP) consists of 4 identical heat
pumps and each of them has heating/cooling capacity of 40kW. The example of
481
similar project [13] was studied and adopted in terms of connecting GSHPs, so they
are connected in series and start up sequentially depending of the load.
Figure 12 - DOAS Heat Recovery Figure 13 Vertically drilled

holes
An example from Case Study [1] was taken as reference for borehole disposi-
tion and depth assessment:
We see an example for #2 game hall in the Olympic tennis courts located in
Beijing Olympic Forest Park. GHP was used for summer cooling and winter space
heating. 35 holes were drilled to 100 m depth with diameter 150mm. They are in a
7m7m layout. Double U pipes of PE material were installed in the holes for heat
exchange. The GHP unit has 138.2 kW heating capacity (input power 37.5 kW) and
139.6 kW cooling capacity (input power 32 kW).
Table 3 Installed Heat Pumps

System Heat exchanger type Power COP
Heat pump Vertically drilled bore- 4x40 kW/piece 4.8

holes
The number of 42 vertically bored holes (Figure13) was determined

proportionally to the example, whereas the diameter of 150mm and depth of 100m
remained the same as in Beijing Olympic Forest Park, and the layout was increased
to 10m10m, placed on the northern side of the site. The Ground Source Heat Pump
system and HVAC system are situated in the basement. All the pumps are steered by
a CPU cascade control system, so only one heat pumps works on low demand and
all of them work on peak demand.
Arguments in favor of selecting Ground Source Heat Pump system:
Building Site is suitable for both ground- and groundwater source heat
pumps systems,
482
Several Ground Source Heat Pump with total nominal power of approx-
imately 150 kW would cover both heating and cooling peak loads, and
serve as spare service water heater,
Conditions in most thermal zones are similar, this means all zones can by
treated by the same HVAC system
If combined with PV panels, the CO2 emission would be reduced to a
considerable extent, giving possibility for Greenhouse Gases reduction
incomes in following years of system utilization.
4.3 Lighting
4.3.1 Interior lighting
Lighting types were selected with tendency to fit into interior while meeting
illumination level for specific spaces and minimizing electricity consumption.
According to Building Area Method-Table 9.5.1. ASHRAE 90.1-2013, Lig-
hting Power Density (LPD) for office space type is 0.82 W/ft2 (10.8 W/m2), which
amounts up to 27620 W when multiplied with total building area of 2566 m2. When
compared to the standards baseline, selected lighting system decreases electricity
demand by 53%. Table 4 shows selected illumination level, lights and installed
power.
Table 4 - Lighting levels and selected lighting

Lumi- Pow In-
[lux nous er Area Number stalled
Space type Lighting type
] Flux [m2] of lights power
[Lumen] [W] [W]
Open / Enclosed office 500 950 143 6864
Conference room / 600x600mm
Classroom / Break 300 dimmable LED 3300 48 573 52 2496
Room panel
Exhibition Hall 400 283 34 1632
Entrance / Lobbies /
200 300x300mm 634 181 1810
Corridors
dimmable LED 700 10
Restrooms / Mechani- panel
200 128 36 360
cal Room
Total installed power [W] 13162
4.3.2 Lighting control

Different types of sensors and controllers are to be installed in areas with dif-
ferent occupancies in order to use minimal energy needed for meeting required illu-
mination level (Figure 14).
483
Figure 14 - Lighting control equipment
However, all the interior lights should have scheduled shutoff during non-
working hours with override for eventual overtime hours of work.
4.3.3 Lighting level control
Lights in large spaces on the perimeter and atrium have automatic responsive
controls for sidelighting and toplighting respectively, due to its exposure to sunlight
of various intensity. The lights in Primary and Secondary Daylighted Areas will be
continuously controlled with dimmers.
Occupancy control
Spaces of relatively smaller area and rather discrete occupancy profiles such
as enclosed offices, restrooms, classrooms, meeting rooms and emergency vehicle
garage will have ceiling mounted occupant sensing devices that shut off lights after
the space is unoccupied longer than 10 minutes.
4.4 Photovoltaic System
Figure 15 Sky cover and solar elevation
484
Beijing sky is rather cloudy during summer months than it is during winter
months (Figure 15). This means that the electricity production by PV roof mounted
panels is equalized throughout the year, making better balance in electricity power
demand from network. The solar elevation never exceeds 75 in Beijing, so the tilt
angle of PV panels should be sloped to increase the irradiated surface.
Figure 16 - Optimal PV panels orientation

Calculation conducted in Skelion Sketchup extension showed that the optimal
orientation of PV panels is as previewed in Figure 16. The panels are fixed, lined up
in rows and orientated according to the optimal azimuth. The distance between two
rows is set to avoid shading on 21st December at 12h.
Table 5 Electricity production by PV panels

Location: Beijing / CHN PV panels orientation:
Latitude: 39,9765 Azimuth:172 Tilt:37
Longitude: 116,3952 Nominal Power: 230W
Em Em
Month Month
[kWh/month] [kWh/month]
Jan 3898 Jul 4121
Feb 3839 Aug 4110
Mar 4800 Sep 4576
Apr 4830 Oct 4200
May 4951 Nov 3444
Jun 4569 Dec 3608
Total energy [kWh/year] 50946
485
The building has unobstructed view of the sky with no neighbor building
throwing shadow on it. That increases its potential for electricity production
remarkably. Total number of 153 PV panels (230W each) with total nominal power
of 35.2kW is installed on the rooftop. Shading losses are estimated to be up to
0.35%. Estimated annual electricity production is nearly 51MWh per year which
represents over 23% of annual electricity consumption.
4.5 PCM material in floor
Southern, western and eastern side of the building have large fenestrated sur-
faces. Despite triple glazing windows with low-e coatings the biggest deal of cooling
loads origins from solar transmitted energy through windows/curtain walls. PCM
panels (60x60cm) are installed in floor surfaces which receive most of the direct
sunlight (perimeter spaces and atrium) to reduce the impact of the solar transmitted
energy and to minimize the cooling peak loads during summer days. They are able
to absorb excessive amounts of heat, and activate at temperature range of 22-24C
with approximate heat absorption capacity of 155 kJ/panel.
Temperatures of floor are previewed in Figure 17. Floor surfaces with tem-
peratures higher than mean room air temperature represent additional heat source in
rooms and transfer additional heat to the room air, also affecting the air in underfloor
plenum.
EnergyPlus simulation (without PCM floors) shows window transmitted
beam solar radiation rates and temperatures of certain floor surfaces exposed to
direct sunlight.
Figure 17 floor temperatures at 12h on 21st July Figure 18 PCM floor panels
486
Table shows solar beam radiation energy transmitted through windows (for
21st July) and total heat capacity of PCM floor panels if they were arrayed alongside
the curtain walls in 3 or 4 rows stretching to 1,8m or 2,4m inside the space area.
Depending on the area covered by PCM panels, heat capacity of the floors range
from 15% to 49% of the direct solar radiation energy transmitted through fenestrati-
on.
During the day the heat is absorbed and released during night hours, as depic-
ted on Figure 18. This feature could offset cooling peaks during summer, but also
help maintaining setback temperature during winter nights. Besides above mentio-
ned, constant floor temperature contributes to the uniform temperature interior sur-
faces and reduces interior heat exchange through radiation, thereby increasing
human comfort.
Table 6 Heat capacity of PCM floor panels compared with heat gains
from direct solar radiation
Capacity (kJ) % absorbed
Peak hours window
Lengt Num-
transmitted beam 3 4 3 4
h ber
solar radiation energy rows rows rows rows
(m) of tiles
(kJ)
East Ground Floor 94967 18,00 30 13950 18600 14,7 19,6
East 1st Floor 93850 18,00 30 13950 18600 14,9 19,8
Exhibition Hall 97420 47,00 78 36270 48360 37,2 49,6
West Ground
91204 22,50 37 17205 22940 18,9 25,2
Floor
West 1st Floor 92100 22,50 37 17205 22940 18,7 24,9
South Ground
98540 47,00 78 36270 48360 36,8 49,1
Floor
4.6 Conclusion
Integrated design contributed to the creation of a modern, energy efficient
and LEED certified administrative building with annual (electrical) energy con-
sumption per area of 83,5 kWh/m2, with 17% decrease of thermal loads achieved
with high performance building envelope, and 23% electricity needs covered by PV
panels. Installed lighting power is initially reduced by 53% through lights selection
based on illumination level. Minimizing electricity consumption of installed lighting
is achieved with continuously controlled light dimmers.
Acceptable thermal comfort and air quality are achieved with adequate air fil-
ters and underfloor air distribution as verified by CFD analysis. Table 7 and Figure
19 present energy consumption and peak power demand respectively for each
month.
487
Table 7 - Energy consumption
Interior Lighting
Humidification
Cooling Loads
Heating Loads
Misceleanious
Cooling Peak
Heating Peak
Total Annual
Equipment
Load/Area
Load/Area
Load/Area
Month
kWh/m2
Pumps
W/m2
W/m2
Fans
Jan 14643 0 1688 5032 611 1600 378 55,2 57,9 83,5
Feb 9954 0 1329 4565 436 1600 341
Energy consumption [kWh]
Mar 2676 415 1257 5129 440 1600 376

Apr 431 3406 1051 4765 355 1600 365
May 0 9759 1119 5129 296 1600 347
Jun 0 12780 964 4941 295 1600 305

Jul 0 14264 1056 4953 307 1600 316
Aug 0 13972 1197 5129 303 1600 294
Sep 30 7543 1182 4863 364 1600 295
Oct 814 337 1436 5032 463 1600 362
Nov 5614 0 1624 4941 429 1600 364
Dec 14435 0 1690 4953 495 1600 377
Annually 48597 62476 15592 59432 4794 19200 4120
156
144
132
120
Power [kW]
108
96
84
72
60
48
36
24
120
Lighting
Equipment Month
Figure 19 Graph of monthly power peak demand
488
5 Appendix: LEED Certification
In order to certify that the design of this building reached the health, durabil-
ity, affordability and environmental aim, LEED 2009 Green Building Rating System
[14] has been chosen for the evaluation. The final score of this project in LEED
rating is 81, which can be qualified as Platinum level (80-110 points).
Table 8 Leed certification
LEED v4 for BD+C: New Construction and Major Renovation
Project Name
Achie
Date
ved
points
Y ? N
:
Y Credi 1 Integrative Process 1 1
Possible
Location and Transportation 16 15
Points:
Credit 1 LEED for Neighborhood Development Location 16
Y Credit 2 Sensitive Land Protection 1 1
Y Credit 3 High Priority Site 2 1
Y Credit 4 Surrounding Density and Diverse Uses 5 5
Y Credit 5 Access to Quality Transit 5 5
N Credit 6 Bicycle Facilities 1 1
Y Credit 7 Reduced Parking Footprint 1 1
N Credit 8 Green Vehicles 1 1
Charging stations are planned (with existing PV
panels above parking lots)
Possible
Sustainable Sites 10 9
Points:
Y Prereq 1 Construction Activity Pollution Prevention Required
Y Credit 1 Site Assessment 1 1
Y Credit 2 Site Development--Protect or Restore Habitat 2 2
Y Credit 3 Open Space 1 1
Y Credit 4 Rainwater Management 3 2
Y Credit 5 Heat Island Reduction 2 2
Y Credit 6 Light Pollution Reduction 1 1
Possible
Water Efficiency 11 8
Points:
489
Y Prereq 1 Outdoor Water Use Reduction Required
Y Prereq 2 Indoor Water Use Reduction Required
Y Prereq 3 Building-Level Water Metering Required
Y Credit 1 Outdoor Water Use Reduction 2 1
Y Credit 2 Indoor Water Use Reduction 6 6
N Credit 3 Cooling Tower Water Use 2 0
Y Credit 4 Water Metering 1 1
Possible
Energy and Atmosphere 33 28
Points:
Y Prereq 1 Fundamental Commissioning and Verification Required
Y Prereq 2 Minimum Energy Performance Required
Y Prereq 3 Building-Level Energy Metering Required
Y Prereq 4 Fundamental Refrigerant Management Required
Y Credit 1 Enhanced Commissioning 6 6
Y Credit 2 Optimize Energy Performance 18 13
Y Credit 3 Advanced Energy Metering 1 1
Y Credit 4 Demand Response 2 2
The building is going to participat in demand-response
programs in the future!
Y Credit 5 Renewable Energy Production 3 3
Y Credit 6 Enhanced Refrigerant Management 1 1
Y Credit 7 Green Power and Carbon Offsets 2 2
Possible
Materials and Resources 13 9
Points:
Y Y Prereq 1 Storage and Collection of Recyclables Required
Construction and Demolition Waste Management
Y Y Prereq 2 Required
Planning
N Credit 1 Building Life-Cycle Impact Reduction 5 3
Building Product Disclosure and Optimization -

N Credit 2 2 1
Environmental Product Declarations
Y Credit 3 2 2
Sourcing of Raw Materials
N Credit 4 2 1
Material Ingredients
N Credit 5 Construction and Demolition Waste Management 2 2
75% of the construction waste will be recycled. Wood
waste to BIO-fuel.
Possible
Indoor Environmental Quality 16 15
Points:
490
Y Prereq 1 Minimum Indoor Air Quality Performance Required
Y Prereq 2 Environmental Tobacco Smoke Control Required
Y Credit 1 Enhanced Indoor Air Quality Strategies 2 2
Y Credit 2 Low-Emitting Materials 3 2
Construction Indoor Air Quality
Y Credit 3 1 1
Management Plan
Y Credit 4 Indoor Air Quality Assessment 2 2
Y Credit 5 Thermal Comfort 1 1
Y Credit 6 Interior Lighting 2 2
Y Credit 7 Daylight 3 3
Y Credit 8 Quality Views 1 1
Y Credit 9 Acoustic Performance 1 1
Possible
Innovation 6 3
Points:
N Credit 1 Innovation 5 3
Utilization of the waste heat from the Server room
N Credit 2 LEED Accredited Professional 1 0
Possible
Regional Priority 4 0
Points:
N Credit 1 Regional Priority: Specific Credit 1 0
Possible
Total 110 87
Points:
Certified 40 to 49 points Silver 50 to 59 points Gold 60 to 79 points
PLATINUM RATING
6 References
[1] Keyan Zheng, Geothermal China Energy Society, Growth of the Use of Geo-
thermal Heat Pumps in China, 2010.
[2] Zheng Jia, Yu Yuan, Liu Shaomin, Research on Large Scale Application of
Shallow Geothermal Resources in Beijing, 2015.
491
[3] Mujan, I., Anelkovi, A., Bjelakovi, R. (2012), Integrisani pristup pro-
jektovanju u zgradarstvu-Primer idejnog reenja muzeja Drake Well u Ti-
tusville-u, PA, SAD, KGH 2/2012, p. 75
[4] http://www.citylab.com/work/2012/07/beijings-olympic-ruins/2499/ ; May 2016
[5] ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals, ASHRAE Inc., 2009.
[6] ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2013, Energy Standard for Buildings except Low-Rise
Residential Buildings, 2013.
[7] ASHRAE Standard 52.2-2012 Air Filter Standard, 2012.
[8] ASHRAE Standard 189.1-2011, Standard for the Design of High-Performance
Green Buildings, 2011.
[9] ASHRAE 55-2013 Standard, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human
Occupancy, 2013.
[10] ASHRAE 62.1-2013 Standard, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality,
2013.
[11] ASHRAE sponsored research project 1161-RP
[12] Benjamin Gozart et al. , Framework for Savings, ASHRAE Journal Vol 57,
No.12, December 2015.
[13] Maja ivani, Vladimir Munan, Igor Mujan, Aleksandar Anelkovi,
Integrated sustainable building design of the two story office, research and de-
velopment facility, New York City, USA
[14] LEED 2009 for New Construction and Major Renovations Rating System,
USGBC, 2009.
492
BIOGORIVO DOBIJENO OD
LIGNOCELULOZNIH SIROVINA
BIOFUELS FROM
LIGNOCELLULOSIC FEEDSTOCK
Vladan MII1, Sabina BEGI2,
Zoran PETROVI1, Darko MANJENI3
1
Faculty of Technology Zvornik, University of East Sarajevo,
micicvladan@yahoo.com
2
Faculty of Technology Tuzla, University of Tuzla
3
Faculty of Technology Novi Sad, University of Novi Sad
Glavni izvor energije koja se koristi radi zadovoljenja ivotnih i ekonomskih

potreba su fosilna goriva. Sektor transporta kao glavni potroa fosilnih goriva
(dizela, benzina, tenog naftnog gasa i komprimovanog prirodnog gasa) e biti u
problemu zbog stalnog smanjenja rezervi nafte to vodi ka kontinualnom porastu
cena sirove nafte. Fosilna goriva emituju gasove koji izazivaju efekat staklene bate
(CO2, CH4 i CO) to za posledicu ima globalno zagrevanje i zagaenje. Da bi se
ovaj problem preduprevio vre se intenzivna istraivanja u cilju dobijanja iste i
odrive energije iz obnovljivih izvora ugljenika. Biogoriva predstavljaju ekoloka,
biodegradabilna, odriva, ekonomski konkurentna i obeavajua alternativna gori-
va. Primarni motiv za razvoj biogoriva je manja zavisnost pojedinih drava od
fosilnih tenih goriva a ne smanjenje CO2 emisije. U ovom radu dae se pregled
metoda za njihovo dobijanje iz lignoceluloznih sirovina kao i trenutno raspoloive
tehnologije.
Kljune rei: biogorivo; lignocelulozne sirovine; metode; energetski izvori
Major energy provider (80%) for current economy and lifestyle are fossil
fuels. Transport sector, a major consumer of petroleum fuels (diesel, gasoline, liquid
petroleum gas and compressed natural gas, is likely to suffer badly because oil re-
serves are decreasing, and therefore, there is a continuous rise of crude oil prices.
Fossil fuels emit greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4 and CO) resulting in global warming
and pollution. Intensive research is going on to generate clean and sustainable
energy sources from renewable carbon resources. Biofuels represent ecofriendly,
biodegradable, sustainable, cost competitive and promising alternative energy
source for fossil fuels. The primary motivation for the development of biofuels is
decreasing dependence from fossil fuels import in some countries and it is not re-
duce CO2 emissions.
This paper reviews methods for obtain biofuels from lignocellulosic feedstock
and technologies.
Key words: biofuels; lignocellulosic feedstocks; methods; energy sources
493
1. Introduction
A potential solution to the high first generation feedstock price and limited
supply is the development of second generation biofuels that utilise non-food plant
materials, such as sugar cane bagasse, native grasses, native perennials, forestry
waste, farm forestry, wheat straw, newsprint and cottontrash, which could be specif-
ically harvested or diverted from entering landfill. The major component of these
materials is lignocellulose - a complex store of the most widely available biological
polymers on earth: cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin which can be converted into
alternative fuels such as alcohols, ethers, synthetic diesel, hydrogen or biogas. It is
possible to convert a wide range of lignocellulosic materials into biofuels and there
is increasing global effort being devoted to achieving this end in an economically
viable fashion, [1, 2].
The primary advantage of having a lignocellulosic biofuels industry are that
the source materials are relatively cheap, domestically available, may not divert
resources from food markets, and they can be used to add value to existing rural
industry processes. Additionally, they provide unique opportunities for new agricul-
tural industries to be developed, particularly in less productive agricultural lands
where woody shrubs and perennial grasses can grow with few input sand may com-
pete less for land and water needed for food crops, [3].
However, there are many technological hurdles to overcome before conver-
sion of lignocellulose conversion to transport biofuels can be conducted cost effec-
tively and sustainably.
2. Lignocellulosic feedstocks
Lignocellulose is a complex polymeric material composed of cellulose (40-
60%), hemicellulose (20-40%) and lignin (10-25%).
The lignin and hemicellulose structures have evolved over many millions of
years to protect plants against attack by microorganisms and insects. Only a few
organisms, such as white rot fungus, have the ability to degrade lignin, and these act
quite slowly due mainly to the intractable nature of the material. Plants vary in their
content of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin although in general woody material
has more lignin, [3, 4].
Cellulose is the major polysaccharide of higher plant cell walls and provides
much of the strength of wood. It is a linear polymer of glucose units joined via -
1,4-glycoside bonds and arranged in disaccharide units known as cellobiose.
Hemicellulose is a heterogenous polymer of saccharides including five-
carbon sugars (pentoses: xylose and arabinose), 6-carbon sugars (hexoses: mannose,
glucose and galactose) as well as some sugar acids. The main 5-carbon sugar in
hemicellulose is known as D-xylose, making it the second most-abundant sugar in
the world after glucose. Hemicellulose polymers are found in plant cell walls closely
associated with cellulose microfibrils and covalently bound to lignin.
Lignin is an amorphous, 3-dimensional polymer of phenolic substances
which are bound through ether linkages. After cellulose, lignin is the most abundant
494
organic polymer on Earth and stores approximately 30 % of the total non-fossilised
carbon, [3]. Its role in plants is to bind the fibrous cellulose component of lignocel-
lulose and to shield the cellulose from attack by micro-organisms.
The fuel applications of lignin have so far been largely limited to direct com-
bustion for heat, or pyrolysis to produce syngas which can then be reformed to make
alcohols, methane and hydrocarbons. Currently, nearly all lignin left over from vari-
ous processes is either discarded or combusted (co-fired) for electricity generation,
however some first steps in research have been made towards finding methods for
extracting valuable chemicals from lignin, [5, 6].
3. Pretreatment methods for lignocellulose

All lignocellulosic biomass undergoes some pretreatment prior to processing
into biofuels.The treatment can be straight forward, for example size reduction,
chipping and drying which are usually required for thermochemical processing
methods.
The enzymatic conversion process generally requires more extensive pre-
treatment and ideally one that yields well exposed and reactive cellulose fibre, re-
turns a high yield of hemicellulose-derived sugars, produces few inhibitors of down-
stream processes, minimises energy, chemicals, and size and cost of reactor and
materials, and produces lignin as a byproduct for either power and steam generation
or as a value-added biomaterial, [6].
Comminution is the mechanical means used to reduce the particle size (hence
increase the surface area) of biomass prior to further treatment and many different
types of equipment and machinery have been developed to achieve this.
Acid hydrolysis conducted using either concentrated or dilute, batch or con-
tinuous, with hydrochloric, nitric or sulfuric acids at elevated temperature has been
well explored as pretreatment methods for lignocellulosic materials. During acid
treatment, hemicellulose and even cellulose at higher acid and temperature condi-
tions are hydrolysed to individual sugars.
The concentrated acid lignocellulosic conversion process aims for complete
hydrolysis of hemicellulose and cellulose to component sugars which can then un-
dergo combined C5 and C6 co-fermentation to ethanol (or other alcohols). There-
fore, it is not just a pretreatment process but also a saccharification step.
Steam explosion, also known as autohydrolysis, is an increasingly popular
pretreatment of raw lignocellulosic biomass to separate the cellulose and lignin, [6].
Liquid hot water treatment is relatively new treatment uses compressed hot
liquid water at a controlled pH at a pressure above saturation point to hydrolyse
hemicellulose. The treatment partially hydrolyses the hemicellulose to soluble oligo-
saccharides and disrupts the cellulose and lignin structures.
The organosolve pretreatment process involves cooking the raw biomass in
acidified (usually with hydrochloric or sulfuric acids) aqueous ethanol under various
pH, temperature, pressure and time conditions. The solvent-to-wood ratio isusually
approximately 7:1 to 10:1. This has been shown to yield a biomass product with less
495
lignin and gives better access to enzymes which is reflected in higher yields of re-
ducing sugars from saccharification steps.
The primary disadvantages of the organosolve technique are that it uses a
solvent and acids, though these can be recycled to some extent.
In general, alkaline hydrolysis is more effective at delignification of lignocel-
lulose sources with lower lignin contents and the remaining cellulose has a higher
reactivity and is more susceptible to enzyme attack. The hemicellulose is not hydro-
lysed in this method but is left as an insoluble polymer.Typical amounts required for
lime pretreatment are ~0.1 gper g biomass and at least 5 g water per g biomass is
also needed. The treatment can be conducted at temperatures from 25 -130C with
higher temperatures giving faster reactions. During lime treatment around one third
of the lignin contentis removed as well as all of the acetyl groups present on the
hemicellulose.
The disadvantages are generally the same as those for acid hydrolysis - neu-
tralisation/recycling and corrosion resistant vessel material are required.
Ammonia fibre explosion is very similar in concept to steam explosion, with
the main difference being the ammonia is used instead of superheated steam. Typical
loadings are 1 -2 kg of ammonia per dry kg of biomass.
Ozonolysis is a chemical method used to degrade lignin and some hemicellu-
lose. It leaves the cellulose bundles largely untouched. It has the advantage of being
performed at room temperature and pressure and leaves no toxic residues in the
material produced for down stream processes. The primary disadvantage is that it
requires a considerable amount of expensive ozone, which is not recyclable as it
reacts with the lignin.
Oxidative delignification is also sometimes known as wet oxidation and
involves the pretreatment of the biomass with an oxidizing agent (such as a 2 %
aqueous hydrogen peroxide solution).
Biological pretreatments of raw biomass are very slow, but have the ad-
vantage of employing mild reaction condition sand using very little energy. White
rot fungi are the most commonly used organisms for biological pretreatment and a
number of studies have been performed looking at the conversion rates and efficien-
cies of white rot fungi on a range of biomass feedstocks, such as wheat straw and
Bermuda grass, [7, 8].
The exploration of ionic liquids and other solvent mixtures as pretreatment
agents for lignocellulosic materials is increasing, with some recent reports showing
excellent cellulose recovery from many different types of biomass, [9-11] . Ionic
liquids have the advantage of being easily recovered and reused, being non-volatile
and having unique and tuneable solvating properties. Swatloski has been explored
the dissolution of cellulose using ionic liquids and found the most effective forms
incorporated an ions that were strong hydrogen bond acceptors, [12]. Chloride con-
taining ionic liquids performed best among the liquids they investigated and resulted
in microscopic changes to themorphology of the cellulose fibres.
496
The use of ultrasound energy as a pretreatment step in the conversion of lig-
nocellulosic biomass to fermentable sugars is not as well explored as most of the
other classical pretreatment methods.
4. Conversion processes for lignocellulose

There are two main approaches being pursued for the conversion of lignocel-
lulose to biofuels:
a) Enzymatic degradation of the polysaccharides to sugars which are then
fermented to fuel alcohols
b) Thermochemical treatment of the whole biomass to yield syngas (or bio-
oil via pyrolysis) which is then further converted to fuels.
The overall biological process of conversion of lignocellulose to ethanol (or
other alcohols) can be summarised as the series:
pretreatment of lignocellulose,
saccharification,
fermentation,
alcohol recovery.
Pyrolysis is treatment of biomass at moderately high temperatures in the ab-
sence of, or in low levels of oxygen, a process whereby organic material is convert-
ed to solids (char), oils and gases.
The proportions of products formed are highly dependent on the process
time, temperature and the feedstock. Thermal degradation of pure cellulose occurs at
240 - 350C to produce anhydrous cellulose and levoglucosan, [13, 14]. Hemicellu-
lose degradation occurs at 200 260C and compared with cellulose it produces
more volatile material, less char and less tar. Lignin decomposes to phenols at be-
tween 280 - 500C to produce substantial char, water soluble liquids and gases, [15].
There are many variants of pyrolysis processes that have been developed to
suit specific feedstocks and aimed at specific output streams. As a result, techniques
such as fast pyrolysis, fixed bed, fluidised bed, vacuum pyrolysis, flash-vacuum
pyrolysis, slow-pyrolysis, free-fall pyrolysis and others have been explored and
developed as industrial solutions to some biofuels production steps. Other high tem-
perature techniques such as plasma-arc (ultra-high temperature processing) have also
been developed to multi-tonne scales.
One by-product of pyrolysis is charcoal (char). It adds to the economic viabil-
ity of pyrolysis processes for the production of liquid biofuels as it has application in
energy production, water purification, agriculture and many other areas. Char can
make very good, stable soil carbon and has been shown to improve soil properties
and increase crop yield in some cases. However the benefits depend upon the nature
of the feedstock and the nature of the soil.
Gasification decomposes biomass by heating to very high temperatures,
breaking all molecular bonds in the material while controlling the amount of oxygen
present in the mix to produce a synthesis gas (syngas). In contrast to fast pyrolysis,
gasification usually occurs at 800C to 1400C and at elevated pressures of around
497
40 bar but similarly to pyrolysis, there is little or no need for pretreatment of ligno-
cellulose other than size reduction and drying to specific moisture content. Syngasis
comprised primarily of hydrogen and carbon monoxide and can be produced from
almost any biomass feedstock. There is little waste in the process. Most syngas is
currently produced by steam reforming of methane at 10 20 bar at 850C over a
nickel catalyst. This remains the most competitive process to biomass-derived syn-
gas and provides a cleaner feedstock, [16, 17].
5. Conclusion
Lignocellulose is the most widely available biological polymers on earth: cel-
lulose, hemicellulose and lignin which can be converted into alternative fuels such
as alcohols, ethers, synthetic diesel, hydrogen or biogas. It is possible to convert a
wide range of lignocellulosic materials into biofuels and there is increasing global
effort being devoted to achieving this end in an economically viable fashion.
Biofuels policies rarely make a distinction between first and second genera-
tion biomass sources other than the recognition that in expanding biofuels produc-
tion to replace a significant proportion of transport fuels will require the conversion
of more plentiful, second generation feedstocks.
The level of research and commercial effort occurring worldwide around lig-
nocellulosic biofuels is substantial and increasing at a spectacular rate.
With increasing sophistication of technology and intense research and devel-
opment done, one can safely infer that biofuel from lignocellulosic feedstock will
become more appealing and applicable to be used on a globally commercial level.
As such, biofuel obtained of lignocellulosic feedstock is acknowledged as the
Earths future energy source. Until such time where a newer and cleaner source of
energy is discovered, scientists will definitely persist to research and enhance biofu-
els to make them more cost-effective, while still being environmentally friendly.
6. References
[1] Becker, J., Boles, E., A Modified Saccharomyces cerevisiae Strain That Con-
sumes l-Arabinose and Produces Ethanol, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., Volume 69
(2003), issue 7, pp. 144150
[2] Bjerre, A. B., Olesen, A. B., Fernqvist, T., Plger, A., Schmidt, A. S., Pretre-
atment of wheat straw using combined wet oxidation and alkaline hydrolysis
resulting in convertible cellulose and hemicellulose, Biotechnol. Bioeng., Vol.
49 (1996), issue 5, pp. 68-77
[3] Boerjan, W., Ralph, J., Baucher, M., Lignin Biosynthesis, Plant Biol., Vol. 54
(2003), issue 1, pp. 19-46
[4] Cadoche, L., Lopez, G. D., Assessment of size reduction as a preliminary step
in the production of ethanol from lignocellulosic wastes, Biol. Wastes, Vol. 30
(1989), issue 2, pp. 153-157
498
[5] Dien, B.S., Hespell, R.B., Wyckoff, H.A., Bothast, R.J., Fermentation of
hexose and pentose sugars using a novel ethanologenic Escherichia coli strain,
Enzyme Microb. Technol., Vol. 23 (1998), issue 6, pp. 66-71
[6] Eggeman, T., Elander, R.T., Process and economic analysis of pretreatment
technologies, Biores. Technol., Volume 96 (2005), pp. 19-25.
[7] Fort, D. A., Remsing, R. C., Swatloski, R. P., Moyna, P., Moyna, G.,
Rogers, R. D. Can ionic liquids dissolve wood? Processing and analysis of lig-
nocellulosic materials with 1-n-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride, Green
Chem., Volume 9 (2006), pp. 63-69
[8] Hamelinck, C.N., van Hooijdonk, G., Faaij, A.P.C., Ethanol from lignocellu-
losic biomass: techno-economic performance in short-, middle- and long-term,
Biomass and Bioenergy, Volume 28 (2005), pp. 84-110.
[9] Jeffries, T. W., Grigoriev, I. V., Grimwood, J., Laplaza, J. M., Aerts, A.,
Salamov, A., Schmutz, J., Lindquist, E., Dehal, P., Shapiro, H., Jin, Y.-S.,
Passoth, V., Richardson, P. M., Genome sequence of the lignocellulose-
bioconverting and xylose-fermenting yeast Pichia stipitis, Nature Biotechnol.,
Volume 25 (2007), issue 3, pp. 19-26
[10] Dadi, A. P., Schall, C.A., Varanasi, S., Enhancement of cellulose saccharifica-
tion kinetics using an ionic liquid pretreatment step, Biotechnol. Bioeng., Volu-
me 95 (2006), issue 1, pp. 94-110
[11] Dadi, A. P., Schall, C.A., Varanasi, S., Mitigation of cellulose recalcitrance to
enzymatic hydrolysis by ionic liquid pretreatment, Appl Biochem Biotechnol,
Volume 1 (2007), issue 1, pp. 137-140
[12] Swatloski, R. P., Spear, S. K., Holbrey, J. D., Rogers, R. D., Dissolution of
cellulose with ionic liquids, J. Am. Chem Soc., Volume 124 (2002), issue 1, pp.
74-78
[13] Panagiotou, G., Olsson, L., Effect of compounds released during pretreatment
of wheat straw on microbial growth and enzymatic hydrolysis rates, Biotechnol.
Bioeng., Volume 96 (2006), issue 2, pp. 250-258
[14] Schubert, C., Can biofuels finally take center stage, Nature Biotech., Volume
24 (2006), pp. 77-84
[15] Skomarovsky, A. A., Markov, A. V., Gusakov1, A. V., Kondrateva1, E. G.,
Okunev, O. N., Bekkarevich, A. O., Matys V. Yu., Sinitsyn, A. P., New cel-
lulases efficiently hydrolyzing lignocellulose pulp, Appl. Biochem. and Micro-
biol., Volume 42 (2006), issue 6, pp. 92-97
[16] Sun, Y., Cheng, J., Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Materials for Ethanol Pro-
duction, Biores. Tech., Vol. 83 (2002), issue 1, pp. 1-11
[17] Wyman, C.E., Dale, B.E., Elander, R.T., Holtzapple, M., Ladisch, M.R.,
Lee, Y.Y., Coordinated development of leading biomass pretreatment technolo-
gies, Biores. Technol., Volume 96 (2005), pp. 59-66.
499
PROBLEMI KONDENZACIJE VLAGE NA STAKLENIM
POVRINAMA BAZENSKIH OBJEKATA I LCC
ANALIZA RAZNIH KOMPOZICIJA KLIMA KOMORA
THE PROBLEMS OF MOISTURE CONDENSATION ON
SWIMMING POOLS GLAZING AND LCC ANALYSIS OF
THE DIFFERENT AHU COMPOSITIONS
Aleksandar PJEVI,
Lindab IMP Klima, proezd Serebrjakova 6, 129343 Moskva, Ruska Federacija,
aleksandar.pjevic@lindab.com
Tel: +7 (499) 280-4037
U radu su predstavljeni problemi kondenzacije vlage iz vazduha na staklenim
povrinama bazenskih objekata u podrujima sa niskom temperaturom spoljanjeg
vazduha i preporuke za projektovanje. Takoe je prikazana uporedna analiza LCC
trokova ivotnog veka razliitih koncepcija klimatizacionih agregata za obradu
vazduha, izloeni zakljuci.
Kljune rei: bazenski objekti; CFD analiza; LCC analiza
This paper presents problems of moisture condensation from the air on

swimming pools glazing in area of low outside temperatures and recommendations
for designing as well comparing analysis of Life Cycle Costs, if different composi-
tions of AHU are applied in project, there are conclusions.
Key words: swimming pools objects; CFD analysis; LCC analysis
Uvod
Osnovni problem kod projektovanja sistema ventilacije bazenskih objekata
predstavlja velika verovatnoa pojave visoke vlanosti vazduha, kao posledica
isparavanja vode
U sluaju greaka pri projektovanju i ignorisanja preporuka iz standarda,
mogue su tragine posledice obruavanja krovne konstrukcije bazena upravo iz
razloga prodora vlage iz prostora bazena u graevinsku konstrukciju, trenutne
sublimacije u led u sluaju niskih temperatura spoljnjeg vazduha i nepovratnih
oteenja. Izuzetno je vano da svi uesnici u realizaciji projekta objekta sa
bazenom, a konkretno projektanti termotehnikih instalacija i organizacije koje se
bave montaom opreme rezumeju i prihvate ogromnu odgovornost za svoj rad.
501
Slika 1 Moskva, 2004.g.
Karakteristike projektovanja bazenskih objekata

Najee se u praksi projektanti susreu sa sledeim tipovima bazenskih
objekata: a) individualni bazeni, b) bazeni u hotelima i c) drutveni bazeni, pri emu
svaki od njih ima neku svoju unikalnu osobenost.
a) individualni bazeni
Slika 2 Individualni bazen

Grade se uz prioritetni zahtev maksimalnog estetskog i termikog komfora
prisutnih, smetaju se u dograenoj jednospratnoj zgradi, neposredno uz osnovnu, sa
vodenom povrinom ne veom od 50 m2.
b) hotelski bazeni
Za razliku od privatnih, karakterie ih produeni period eksploatacije i
poveana potronja vode za tuiranje, posebna panja se posveuje stvarawu
poveanog komfora gostu hotela, posetiocu bazena.
502
Slika 3 Hotel Kempinski, Moskva
c) drutveni bazeni
Definiu ih visoka vlanost i prisutstvo agresivnih hemikalija u vodi, zatim
krupne povrine prostorija, posete ljudi su podlone znaajnim promenama, delovi
graevinske konstrukcije su najee sa ostakljenjem.
Slika 4 Olimpijski bazen, Moskva

U skladu sa osnovnim karakteristikama drutvenih bazena proistiu i obaveze
za projektante: zatita graevinske konstrukcije od razaranja, dostizanje visokog
kvaliteta vazduha bez efekta zapare, i oseanja prisutstva hlora, dostizanje
neophodne temperature i vlanosti u prostoru, spreavanje pojave kondenzata i
korozije konstrukcija i plesni.
Zahtevi komfora, elementi distribucije vazduha

U skladu sa odredbama standarda VDI 2089, osnovna preporuka je da se
pripremljeni vazduh dovodi u donju zonu prostorije po perimetru, a pre svega uz
spoljnji zid, a izvlaenje vazduha iz prostorije je najbolje organizovati iz gornje zone.
503
Slika 5 ematski prikaz distribucije vazduha
Standard VDI 2089 dalje utvruje i preporuke za temperature vazduha u
prostoru 29-30 oC, dok je temperatura vode 2-3 oC nia od temperature vazduha.
Granica apsolutne vlanosti u prostoru bazena po ovom standardu je 14,3 k/kg
vazduha.
Tipini primeri raspodele vazduha u bazenima:
Slika 6 ubacivanje vazduha uz pomo linijskihdifuzora i podnih konvektora

Za manje bazene karakteristina je distribucija vazduha potiskivanjem preko
vodene povrine, kod velikih bazena se najvie koriste mlaznice sa znaajnim
dometom struje vazduha.
504
Slika 7 izvlaenje vazduha na suprotnom zidu uz pomo linijskih difuzora
Slika 8 raspodela vazduha u bazenu sa vodenim atrakcijama
CFD analiza Primer provere pojave kondenzata na zidu iz stakla za

sluaj niske temperature spoljanjeg vazduha
Polazni parametri za proraun:
Lokacija: Minsk, R.Belorusija, objekt Akvapark
Difuzor LD-16N/6
Koliina vazduha a) 480, b) 640 i c) 800 m3/ po dunom metru
Temperatura dovodnog vazduha 40 oC
Temperatura vazduha u prostoriji 31 oC
Relativna vlanost vazduha u prostoriji 54%
Temperatura spoljanjeg vazduha -24 oC
Koeficijent prolaza toplote spoljanjeg stakla 0,78 W/(m2 K)
505
Slika 9 podni difuzor LD-16N/6, Lindab IMP Klima
Slika 10 geometrija objekta
Slika 11 raspored temperatura vazduha u neposrednoj blizini stakla za koliinu

vazduha 800 m3/ po dunom metru difuzora
U skladu sa preporukama ASHRAE, po kojima je cilj projektovanja
odravanje temperature spoljanje staklene povrine ninimalno na 3 oC iznad
temperature take rose za stanje vazduha u prostoriji. Uvid u grafik (Slika 12)
ukazuje na jasan zakljuak da postoji opasnost od pojave kondenzata ve na visini
506
od 12 m od poda, te je stoga predloena koncepcija distribucije vazduha po kojoj e
se linijskim podnim difuzorima pridruiti i mlaznice u gornjoj zoni objekta.
Slika 12 poreenje temperatura vazduha u blizini stakla sa temperaturom take

rose ocena mogunosti pojave kondenzata
CFD analiza Odreivanje najoptimalnijeg ugla struje vazduha usmerene iz
gornje zone na spoljnju staklenu povrinu uz pomo mlaznice V-5, Lindab IMP
Klima
Slika 13 koncepcija ubacivanja vazduha iz gornje zone

Polazni parametri za proraun:
Temperatura dovodnog vazduha 35 oC
Temperatura vazduha u prostoriji 31 oC
Temperatura spoljanjeg vazduha -24 oC
Provera sledeih varijanti reenja:
1) V-5 veliina 250, ugao 15oC, koliina vazduha 450 m3/, ugao 30oC,
koliina vazduha 300 m3/
507
Slika 14 najoptimalnija koncepcija je varijanta 4
uzimajui u obzir domet struje vazduha, raspored temperatura, odsutstvo

zastojne zone
Slika 15 aerodinamika i temperature
508
Klimatizacione naprave
Slika 16 klima komora Lindab IMP Klima

Osnovna namena klimatizacionog ureaja je uspostavljanje i odravanje
neophodne temperature i vlanosti vazduha visokog kvaliteta u prostoru bazena.
Reimi rada:
Slika 17 Zagrevanje vazduha u vodenom grejau u nonom reimu

bez udaljenja vlage
Slika 18 Suenje vazduha iz prostora bazena uz pomo hlaenja

u rekuperatoru i isparivau toplotne pumpe
509
Slika 19 Za vreme korienja bazena obavezno se dovodi i
sve spoljanji vazduh u sanitarnoj normi
Slika 20 Suenje vazduha pri srednjim temperaturama spoljnjeg

vazduha tokom eksploatacije bazena
Slika 21 Eliminacija vlage iz spoljnjeg vazduha, bazenska voda se greje uz pomo

vodenih kondenzatora VK1 ili VK2, a u sluaju pregrevanja bazenske vode ukljuuje
se vazduni kondenzator ZK2
510
LCC analiza
Razmatrane su tri varijante kompozicije klimatskog agregata
01:
Slika 22 Bazenska klimatska naprava sa integrisanom toplotnom pumpom

(COP = 4.79) i rekuperatorom ( = 64,7%)
Tabela 1 Veliine stanja vazduha, varijanta toplotna pumpa i rekuperator

Odvodni vazduh Sve vazduh
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
t (C) 30,0 17,7 15,1 -2,1 18,7 26,7 30,0
(%) 57 95 98 100 24 15 12
x (g/kg) 15,22 12,04 10,5 3,17 3,17 3,17 3,17
h (kJ/kg) 69,07 48,31 41,74 5,80 26,91 35,02 38,35
3
V (m /h) 21118 20160 19931 18525 19947 20495 20718
Q (kW) -138,5 -42,8 53,5 22,2
Tabela 2 Veliine stanja vazduha, rekuperator bez toplotne pumpe

Odvodni vazduh Sve vazduh
1 2 3 4 5
t (C) 30,0 17,7 -2,0 18,7 30,0
(%) 57 95 100 24 12,2
x (g/kg) 15,22 12,04 3,19 3,19 3,19
h (kJ/kg) 69,07 48,31 5,97 26,91 38,35
3
V (m /h) 21118 20160 18532 19947 20719
Q (kW) -138,5 76,1
511
Slika 23 H-x dijagram, varijanta sa toplotnom pumpom i rekuperatorom
02:
Slika 24 Bazenska klimatska naprava bez integrisane toplotne pumpe,

sa rekuperatorom ( = 64,7%)
512
Slika 25 H-x dijagram, varijanta sa rekuperatorom, bez toplotne pumpe
03:
Slika 26 Bazenska klimatska naprava bez integrisane toplotne pumpe i rekupera-

tora, samo sa meanjem spoljanjeg i recirkulacionog vazduha
513
Tabela 3 Veliine stanja vazduha, varijanta bez toplotne pumpe i rekuperatora
Recirkulacioni vazduh Sve vazduh

1 2 3 4
t (C) 30,0 -28,0 -2,1 30,0
(%) 57 80 100 12,2
x (g/kg) 15,22 0,2 3,17 3,17
h (kJ/kg) 69,07 -27,6 5,8 38,35
V (m3/h) 9440 9222 18525 20718
Q (kW) 216,1
Slika 27 - H-x dijagram, varijanta bez rekuperatora i toplotne pumpe
514
Slika 28 dijagram uporednih trokova po kategorijama za tri razliite
kompozicije klimatske naprave za ventilaciju bazena
Tabela 4 Ukupni trokovi u investiciji i eksploataciji u periodu od 15 godina
U analizi ekonomske opravdanosti primene razliitih kompozicija klima

naprava je predstavljen uporedni proraun potronje elektrine i toplotne energije u
skladu sa odredbama standarda DIN V 18599-3 i VDI 2067-1. Proraun pokazuje da
se uveana uloena sredstva u sofisticirani agregat sa toplotnom pumpom i
rekuperatorom vraaju posle 1,5 godine u poreenju sa agregatom bez toplotne
pumpe i posle svega 1,35 godina, ako je klimatska naprava samo sa meanjem
spoljanjeg i recirkulacionog vazduha bez povrata toplote.
Zakljuak
Predstavljena analiza diktira upotrebu elemenata za rekuperaciju energije
prilikom projektovanja termotehnikih sistema za ventilaciju bazena. Evidentno je
da se kompenzacija gubitaka toplote moe racionalno i efektivno reiti uz pomo
primene klimatskih naprava sa rekuperatorima toplote i integrisanim toplotnim
pumpama.
Literatura
[1] Branislav Todorovi, Klimatizacija, SMEITS, Beograd, 1998.
[2] Branislav Todorovi, Projektovanje postrojenja za centralno grejanje, Univer-
zitet u Beogradu, Mainski fakultet, Beograd, 2005.
515
[3] Reknagel, prenger, ramek, eperkovi, Grejanje i klimatizacija, Interkli-
ma, Vrnjaka Banja, 1995.
[4] Kappler H. P., Individualni bazen, Stroyizdat, Moskva, 1993.
[5] *** VDI 2089, Building installations in swimming baths, VDI, 2011
[6] *** ASHRAE 1999 Handbook, Chapter 4 Places of assembly, 1999
516
UNAPREENJE OBRAZOVANJA I ZAPOLJAVANJA
STUDENATA INENJERSTVA U OBLASTI
UPRAVLJANJA ODRIVOU ENERGIJE
ENHANCED LEARNING AND EMPLOYABILITY OF
ENGINEERING STUDENTS
Aleksandar KONAR
This paper presents how Mechanical Engineering students/graduates in Sus-
tainability/Energy Management area, or engineering students/graduates in generic
terms, can enhance their employability, performance and engineering careers. It
includes methods for gaining knowledge and expertise required for practicing junior
consulting engineers, during studying at university. The benefits include:
Increased opportunities for employment
Increased confidence and shorter status as a junior engineer
Better remuneration
The paper also addresses challenges and provides better understanding of
requirements of modern energy management consulting practices. The proposed
learning method can effectively be adopted in teaching engineering students by
recognised energy management practising experts.
Key words: Sustainability, Engineering Education, Cost effectiveness, Inno-
vative Energy Management, Employability
1. Introduction
Difficulties that engineering graduates face include:
gap between learnings acquired at university and requirements at the work-
place in order to achieve competency of a professional engineer,
challenges of a competitive market,
communication with recruitment agents,
producing competitive CV,
learning job interview techniques,
selection of employers.
There is also a need to address issues of internship and a typical junior en-
gineer status in that context. Many vital areas of competency required for graduate
professional engineers need to be addressed, as there is a lack of focus of employ-
ers on integrated continual professional development (CPD) of junior staff beyond
517
their business goals, leaving graduate engineers with a lot of uncertainties, frustra-
tion, reduced chance for a proper CPD, prospective employment and prolonged
period, measured in years, with low salaries.
These shortcomings can be overcome through a structured, integrated ap-
proach at a university, by engaging practicing expert consultants as instructors or
mentors, via a structured educational program (through tutorials, workshops &
customised work experience) that would complement a standard curriculum.
2. Method
The method proposed in this paper considers implementation of an integrated
practical professional engineer skill program, via completion of two modules:
MODULE 1 In-class learning, provided by outsourced practicing senior
consultants and expert professional engineers.
MODULE 2 - Structured work experience with selected consulting compa-
nies, and detailed guidance for students/graduates, leading to enhancing their em-
ployment opportunities.
Concept of learning involves: revisiting key theoretical concepts, gaining
knowledge related to the requirements of relevant engineering market and consulting
practices, and analysis of the most recent research on good practices, state of the art,
applied to engineering projects, that follow the world most modern engineering
sustainability trends. The projects demonstrate, in a transparent way, the most cost
effective and innovative sustainability design, technologies and control strategies.
More specifically, this paper focuses on the importance of sustainable ap-
proach in Mechanical Engineering practice. For example, it is demonstrated through
the cost effective control optimisations of computerised HVAC (Heating, Ventila-
tion, and Air Conditioning) systems employed at commercial and other properties
(office buildings, shopping centre, hospitals, art galleries, museums, public building,
hotels and the likes), where in excess of 50% of energy is used by HVAC Services.
Return on investment on innovative energy efficient control optimisations is
often measured in months, not years, which significantly increases their chances for
approval and implementation.
However, the proposed method of learning is applicable to any engineering
discipline.
3. Details of the proposed structured educational program

Tutorial activities of MODULE 1 are very diverse, ranging from revisiting
relevant key principles and various engineering skills, to understanding consulting
environments, enhancing employment opportunities and expectations of future em-
ployers.
3.1 MODULE 1 - Tutorial Activities
Revisiting Theoretical concepts Phase 1 Design of equipment - Revis-
iting basic thermodynamics principles required for understanding of basics of opera-
518
tions and design of HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning) Systems
several workshops that would include analysis of various HVAC equipment and
various HVAC design concepts, using project documentation (including the actual
HVAC Design and energy audit reports of Sydney facilities office buildings, mu-
seums, shopping centres, hotels, clubs). Selection of equipment - Heat load model-
ling using CAMEL ACADS BSG software.
Revisiting Theoretical concepts - Phase 2 Design of controls basics of
HVAC Controls and analysis of various HVAC control concepts employed at the
local facilities. Introduction of BMS Control concept LAN schematics, BMS Point
List, BMS Functional Description, graphics, alarms, etc.
Schematic 3.1 Typical HVAC System for commercial properties office buildings,
public building, shopping centres, museums, art galleries, entertainment centres.
Advanced HVAC Control/BMS concepts with a focus on energy effi-
ciency
519
Schematic 3.1.2 Typical LAN (Local Area Network) BMS HVAC Control diagram
Basics of Energy Management topics would include: processing and
analysis of energy interval and other energy data, sub-metering concepts, BMS trend
logging, comfort conditions versus energy savings, energy saving calculations, esti-
520
mation of capital costs and CO2 emissions, calculation of pay-back period and ROI.
Basics of Measurements and Verifications (M & V Plan using IPMVP Internation-
al Protocol for creation of M & V plans). Creation of energy management daily
check lists. Energy consumption modelling using ACADS BSG Beaver energy
modelling program for typical commercial facilities. Basics of energy performance
and understanding NABERS Ratings.
Basic Australian Standards and other regulations related to HVAC De-
sign and Energy Management- AS 1668.2 (Ventilation Code), AS 3598 (Energy
Auditing), AS 3666 (Cooling Towers), BCA Section J.
Basics of HVAC Equipment and Control Maintenances typical scope
of works, typical operational, comfort and energy management issues encountered
with HVAC and BMS maintenances, and rectification measures.
Commissioning of energy management/energy efficiency projects im-
portance, typical issues and rectification measures.
Basics of energy auditing scope of work, planning and execution re-
quest for various information/documentation, site visit, induction and WH & S re-
quirements, communication with various parties (Facility Management, internal and
external maintenance contractors, admin personnel, security, etc), expected issues
and how to resolve them, observations, measurements, engineering, financial and
environmental analysis, and writing reports.
MS Word, Excel and PowerPoint - Minimal requirements.
Advanced Design and Energy Management concepts analysis of im-
plemented projects and necessity for an ongoing consulting support to clients.
Enhancing career opportunities Consulting environment - Overview
of nature and operations of consulting companies including their set of expectations.
Consulting office environment: non engineering aspects team envi-
ronment administration requirements, behavioural standards, working hours, cloth-
ing, verbal and written communication, soft and hard documentation, hierarchy,
DOs and DONTs.
Consulting office environment: engineering aspects working in a team
environment including effective communication and productive collaboration when
planning and implementing a project. Typical responsibilities and requirements in an
engineering role. Overview of general expectations from young engineers in a pro-
fessional role- importance of understanding given instructions and asking for clarifi-
cations/support initially and on an ongoing basis. What is required to be perceived
by management as a good worker and a colleague?
Understanding receivers of services - Clients overview of typical cli-
ents and their representatives expectations, site visits, meetings and communica-
tion. Request for information. Smooth project management. Typical issues and recti-
fication measures. Professional conduct.
Consideration of various engineering memberships EA, ASME,
AIRAH, ASHRAE, - pros and cons.
521
Expected additional qualifications and professional memberships EA,
NABERS, ASHRAE, EEC.
Importance of Continual Professional Development - Use of Internet, net-
working, employers educational programs, publications, seminars, conferences, etc.
3.2 MODULE 2 - Work experience and enhancement of opportunities
for employment
Work Experience content negotiated with consulting companies, as a part of
university course, which includes development of students skills, contributing to
their capability as future professional engineers.
Preparation of and participation in actual projects various phases which
maximise exposure to the above engineering and non-engineering aspects of con-
sulting environment, with the aim to acquire a set of targeted/planned engineering
skills, from Junior to Senior Engineer.
Preparation of CV, negotiation technique with recruitment agents, prepara-
tion for job interviews.
4. Conclusions
Implementation/Trial of the proposed educational program for engineering stu-
dents is recommended. Expected outcomes of the proposed enhanced learning are:
Students/graduates will acquire practical knowledge and expertise required
of a professional engineer while studying at a university, and thereby enhance their
future employment opportunities.
Students/graduates will better understand operations and requirements of
consulting environment in engineering and non-engineering terms, and therefore
become confident to fulfil junior engineer role and to understand the key aspects of
intermediate & senior engineer functions.
Whilst this paper is focused on Mechanical Engineers specialised in Energy
Management Area, the concept can generally apply to any other engineering discipline.
Acknowledgements
The author acknowledges the contribution made by Dragana Koncar, tutor at
Western Sydney University - School of Education, and the reviewers of the paper.
References
[1] *** HVAC Control Optimisation Guide NSW OEH & AIRAH (August 2015)
A. Koncar with group of co-authors
[2] *** GreenKon HVAC Control Training Manual (September 2013) A.Koncar
[3] *** ASHRAE Journal December 2004 Demand Controlled Ventilation and
Sustainability Tom Lawrence
[4] *** Practical Experience Program The University of Adelaide Faculty of
Engineering. Computer and Mathematical Sciences
522
ENERGETSKI ASPEKTI SUENJA DRVETA
ENERGY ASPECTS OF WOOD DRYING
Vuk MAROVI, Damir AKOVI
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of technical sciences, Novi Sad, Serbia,
vuk.marovic@outlook.com, djakovic@uns.ac.rs
Danas je drvo primarni energetski izvor za vise od dve milijarde ljudi na
svetu. Udeo drveta u ukupnoj primarnoj energiji je preko 14%. 2010. godine pro-
izvodnja drveta je bila preko 4 milijarde kubnih metara, od kojih je oko 60% bilo
korieno u energetske svrhe. U Republici Crnoj Gori 2011. oko 730 000 kubnih
metara ogreva je upotrebljeno, a ukupni godinji potencijal za drvnu biomasu
skupljenu iz uma je procenjen na preko milion kubnih metara godinje. Bez obzira
da li e drvo da se koristi u energetske svrhe ili za pravljenje nekog gotovog pro-
izvoda, potrebno je da se osui do odreene vrednosti sadraja vlage. Tip i kvalitet
gotovog proizvoda odreuje najvei dozvoljeni nivo sadraja vlage u drvetu koje se
koristi kao sirovina za dalje proizvodne procese. Ako je namera da se gorivo koristi
kao ogrev ili da slui za dobijanje biomase, takoe postoje zahtevi u vezi najveeg
dozvoljenog sadraja vlage kako bi se omoguio energetski efikasniji proces sagore-
vanja.
Osim prirodnog suenja (koje je nepredvidivo, moe da bude veoma sporo i
pomou njega ne mogu da se ostvare vrednosti sadraja vlage ispod odreene gra-
nice), suenje drveta je energetski zahtevan proces. Najvei deo od industrijskog
suenja drveta se obavlja u komornim suarama. U radu je pokazano da je najvie
toplote potrebno da bi se isparila vlaga iz drveta. Znaajna koliina energije je
potrebna za pogon cirkulacionih ventilator. Postoji vise tipova suara za suenje
drveta. U ovom radu naglasak je na konvencionalnim suarama, kao i suara kod
kojih se koristi toplotna pumpa za dobijanje toplote i za odvajanje vlage od vazduha
za suenje. Osnovni cilj ovog rada je da uporedi ove dve vrste suara sa tehnikog i
ekonomskog aspekta. Oigledno je da je sistem sa toplotnom pompom energetski
efikasniji u poreenju sa konvencionalnom suarom, ali postoji i pitanje poetnih
trokova opreme i perioda povrata investicije. U radu je prikazana detaljna analiza
ovih pitanja na primeru po jednog odabranog etinara i liara.
Kljune rei: drvo; vlaga; suenje; suara; toplotna pumpa; energija
Today, wood is primary energy source for more than two billion people in the
world. In total primary energy, share of wood is over 14 %. In year of 2010 wood
production was over 4 billion cubic meters, of which around 60 % was used to pro-
duce energy. In Republic of Montenegro in the year of 2011, around 730 000 cubic
meters of firewood was consumed, and overall annual potential for wood biomass
collected from forests has been estimated to over one million cubic meters per year.
523
Whether wood is used to produce energy, or to build some finished product, it has to
be dried to some value of moisture content. Type and quality of finished product
determine maximal moisture content allowed in wood used as raw material for fur-
ther manufacturing processes. If wood is to be used as firewood or to serve for bio-
mass production, there are also requirements concerning maximal allowed moisture
content in order to make combustion process energy efficient.
Besides seasoning by natural air drying (which is unpredictable, can be very
slow and cant achieve values of moisture content below some point), wood drying is
energy demanding process. Most of industrial wood drying today is carried out in
wood drying kilns. It is shown in this manuscript that great quantity of heat is re-
quired in order to evaporate moisture from wood. Considerable amount of energy is
required to power circulating fans. There are many types of kilns used for wood
drying. In this manuscript emphasis is on conventional kilns and kilns that use heat
pump to produce heat and separate moisture from drying air. Main purpose of this
manuscript is to compare these two types of kilns from technical and economy as-
pects. It is obvious that heat pump system is more energy efficient in comparison
with conventional kiln, but there is a question of initial costs of the equipment and
investment payback period. This manuscript provides detailed analysis of these
issues on the example of drying chosen type of deciduous and also of conifer.
Keywords: wood; moisture; drying; kiln; heat pump; energy
Introduction
Wood and wood products are used by mankind since its origin. At first wood
was used as firewood and for building tools and weapons. In time, wood application
area expanded. Wood was used in masonry, in shipbuilding, for building first
transport vehicles, and later in airplane industry. Even today wood is widely used: as
firewood, in construction industry, in furniture industry and many others
Today, wood is a primary energy source for over two billion people in the
world, and in overall global production of primary energy, wood and charcoal are
participating with over 14%. Overall wood production in the year of 2010 was
around 4 billion cubic meters of which 2, 4 billion m3 was used to produce heat.
That means that most of the wood produced in the world (around 60%) is used for
energy purposes.
Over 54% of total area of the Republic of Montenegro is consisted of forest
land. With 0.9 ha of forest land per capita, Montenegro is in 8th place in Europe by
forest cover. For comparison Slovenia has 0.6 ha per capita, Croatia 0.47 ha per
capita, and Serbia has 0.3 ha of forest land per capita. Overall wood supplies in
Montenegrin forest are estimated to around 72 million m3, and 81% of all forests are
intended for wood production. Annual wood growth is estimated to around 1.5 mil-
lion m3, and annual cutting is around 700 thousand m3, which means that there is
great accumulation of wood biomass in Montenegrin forests. Real annual potential
for wood biomass production in Republic of Montenegro is estimated to about 1.1
million m3 per year [1].
524
For heating purposes only in the Republic of Montenegro in the year of 2011
it was spent 732 911 m3 of firewood, 79 498 m3 of large wood residues from indus-
try, 6 695 m3 of small wood residues from industry (sawdust), 251 m3 of residues
from wine growing and fruit growing, 106 tons of wood, 692 tons of wood pellet, 5
254 m3 of wood residues from construction industry and 1039 tons of charcoal [2].
About wood drying

Reasons for wood drying
While water is necessary part of alive wood, when wood is intended for further
products manufacturing water is ballast. Since water is not quite adequate term
considering its physical state, when wood is intended for drying moisture is the term
that would be in further use. There are many reasons for wood drying. Dried wood is
more expensive, it weighs less, it is machined better, it glues better, it finishes better
On the other hand, if wood is not dried properly it cannot be used for building high
quality finished products, there are conditions for parasites infestations, there are pos-
sibilities for dimension changes and many other negative effects
Moisture in wood
Moisture in wood is determined by moisture content on dry basis which is
represented as:
where:
W - mass of moisture in wood [kg]

GSM mass of wood dry matter [kg]
G summary mass of matter intended for drying [kg] [4].
Whether wood is intended for building some finished products or for energy
purposes, it requires to be adequately dried to some moisture content level. If wood
is to be used for energy purposes it needs to be dried to around 15 20 % of mois-
ture content for firewood, around 12 15 % for wood pellet, and around 6 10 % of
moisture content for wood briquette.
Different types of finished products require different maximal moisture con-
tent. Some examples are shown in table below.
Methods for wood drying
There are many methods for wood drying. Some of them are: air drying, shed
drying, solar kiln drying, microwave drying, vacuum kiln drying In this article is
shown analysis of wood drying using conventional kiln, and wood drying using kiln
with heat pump.
525
Table 1 Maximal allowed moisture content for different wood products
Product Maximal moisture content [%]
Masonry wood 20
Wood constructions 17
Wood for shipbuilding 15
Wood for furniture 10
Wood for musical instruments 8
Wood for transformer cores 5
A conventional kiln uses heat provided by boiler and transferred by either

steam or hot water coils to heat the kiln chamber and remove moisture from the
wood. The moisture removed from the wood is evaporated, and then exhausted from
the kiln together with the heated air. This process requires large amount of heat and
requires constant heating of air, so these systems are very energy demanding. Be-
sides that, these kilns can provide very good quality of dried wood, as they allow all
relevant parameters of drying air (temperature, relative moisture and airflow) to be
controlled. Scheme of conventional kiln is shown in figure 3.
A kiln with heat pump uses heat pump for both heating the air and removing
moisture from air. In this type of kiln, heated air, is circulated over the wood load
with circulating fans, evaporating the moisture contained in the wood. The hot,
moist air then passes over a heat pump evaporator where it gets cooled down, mois-
ture gets condensed and flushed out of kiln as stream of water. Heat removed from
the air is brought back to it at heat pump condenser. Then heated dry air is used
again for drying process. This way theoretically, there is no heat exchange with the
surroundings, so it is clear that this type of kiln is more energy efficient in compari-
son to conventional kiln. Also, as conventional kiln it allows all important parame-
ters of drying air to be controlled, therefore allows high quality drying. Scheme of
kiln with heat pump is shown in figure below.
Figure 1 Scheme of kiln with heat pump
526
Energy and financial parameters of wood drying
Examples of drying oak and spruce boards are shown separately in this arti-
cle. In both cases dimensions of boards, their quantity, initial moisture content, and
final moisture content are identical and are 68% and 12 % respectively.
Load and kiln dimensions
The boards that are dried are 2 m long, 0.2 m wide, and 0.05 m thick. Load
consists of 2 520 boards. Volume of a board is Vd = 2 0.2 0.05 = 0.02 m3. Overall
volume of boards in drying load is:
VD = 2 520 0.02 = 50.4 m3 .
The boards are sorted in 18 stacks. Stacks are sorted in kiln chamber: 3 by
height, 3 by depth and 2 by width. Number of boards in each stack is 140 pieces. By
literature recommendations [3] the boards in a stack are separated from each other in
vertical order using slats that are 0.025 m thick and 0.035 m wide. Stacks are sepa-
rated from each other in vertical order using beams that are 0.075 m thick and 0.085
m wide. Height of chamber is: H = 4.65 m and width of chamber is: B = 5.5 m.
Having all the above considered, air inlet area has been calculated to:
A1 = 13.1745 m2.
In the picture below front view of drying kiln is shown and air inlet area is
visible.
Figure 2 Front view of drying kiln

Drying parameters calculation
In the figure below is shown side view of wood drying kiln with scheme of
drying parameters.
527
Figure 3 Side view of conventional drying kiln
In the first step drying regime is determined using method recommended by
institute FPL MEDISON, because it gains the best quality of dried lumber. Accord-
ing to this method, drying is performed in multiple phases of which everyone has its
determined air temperature and relative air humidity [3].
By using corresponding tables in literature [3] temperature and relative hu-
midity of inlet air has been determined for each drying phase. In the table below,
values of air temperature and relative air humidity for each phase of drying are
shown.
Also, by using nomogram and diagram from literature [3], duration of every
drying phase and overall drying duration are determined. Those times are also
shown in tables below.
Table 2 Air parameters and durations by phase for oak drying

Phase Moisture content Air temperature Relative air Phase dura- Overall dry-
range [%] [] humidity [%] tion [h] ing duration
[h]
1 68 40 43 89, 84 74 74
2 40 35 43 87, 2 18 92
3 35 30 43 82 21 113
4 30 25 49 72, 8 25 138
5 25 20 54 44, 6 31 169
6 20 15 60 14 40 209
7 15 - 12 71 20, 3 31 240
528
Table 3 Air parameters and durations by phase for spruce drying
Phase Moisture content Air temperature Relative air Phase dura- Overall
range [%] [C] humidity [%] tion [h] drying dura-
tion [h]
1 68 - 60 66 83 5 5
2 60 50 66 75 7 12
3 50 40 66 68 9 21
4 40 35 66 49 6 27
5 35 30 66 30 6 33
6 30 25 71 21 7 40
7 25 20 71 24 9 49
8 20 - 12 82 26 21 70
Next step is calculation of mass and energy balance for each phase separate-
ly. For calculation of air parameters in states 2 and m and for calculating air and
moisture flow rates equations from literature [4] are used.
State 1 is referred to temperature, absolute humidity and enthalpy of air in
the inlet of the load; state 2 is referred to same air parameters on the outlet of the
load, state 0 is referred to parameters of the air surrounding the kiln, and state m
is referred to parameters of mixture of surrounding air and state 2 air before mix-
ture enters air heater.
Final energy balances for each phase are:
h1 and hm [kJ/kg] - enthalpies of air in states 1 and m;

= 1,15 losses coefficient, adopted from general recommendations, in lack
of information about real losses;
529
350
Thermal power [kW]

300
250
200
150 Spruce
100
Oak
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Phase
Figure 4 Thermal power required by phases
8000
6000
Heat [kWh]
4000
Spruce
2000
Oak
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Phase
Figure 5 Amount of heat required by phases

Required boiler thermal power is determined by maximal thermal power re-
quired in drying process and overall heat consumed in drying process is calculated
by summing heat consumed in each phase. These values are shown in charts below.
350
300
Boiler thermal power
250
200 Spruce
[kW]
150 Oak
100
50
0
Figure 6 Boiler thermal power required
530
20000
15000
Heat [kWh]
Spruce
10000
Oak
5000
Figure 7Amount of heat required for drying process

In order to calculate drying costs using conventional kiln, wood briquette is
adopted as main boiler fuel with heating value of Hl = 18 MJ/kg [1] and cost of 134
euros per ton. In order to calculate drying costs using kiln with heat pump, power
required for running heat pump compressor and fans, which is in this case 10 kW
[5], is multiplied by overall drying duration in hours. Cost of 0.1 eurocents per kWh
is adopted as it is approximate real price of power in the Republic of Montenegro.
Comparison of drying costs using conventional kiln and kiln with heat pump is
shown in chart below.
600
500
Drying costs []
400
300 Spruce
200
Oak
100
0
Conventional Kiln with heat
kiln pump
Figure 8 Comparison of drying costs of conventional kiln and kiln with heat pump
As it is obvious kiln that uses heat pump is more energy efficient and cheaper
to run, but it is necessary to consider higher investment cost (which is approximately
1000 euros per cubic meter of wood load for kiln with heat pump, in comparison to
approximately 800 euros per cubic meter of wood load for conventional kiln) for
evaluating economy benefits of purchasing kiln with heat pump.
531
Number of drying cycles and working hours required to payback the invest-
ment of replacing the existing conventional kiln with kiln with heat pump and also
to payback the investment of choosing new kiln with heat pump over new conven-
tional kiln are shown in the charts below.
250
200
150
Cycles [-]
Spruce
100
Oak
50
0
Replacement of the Purchasing new kiln
existing kiln
Figure 9 Investment payback period in drying cycles
60000
50000
Working hours [h]
40000
30000 Spruce
20000 Oak
10000
0
Replacement of the Purchasing new kiln
existing kiln
Figure 9 Investment payback period in working hours

Remarks
Previously shown numbers should not be taken literally as some assumptions
and approximations were used in lack of concrete information and in order to simpli-
fy calculations. These simplifications are:
kiln was considered to be adiabatic;
kiln preheating has not been considered;
boards dimensions were identical;
tree bark was removed;
parameters of surrounding air were considered to be constant (average
values for city of Kolain for month May of 2014 [6]);
532
fixed initial and final moisture content for both wood types were adopted
and considered constants;
losses coefficient was adopted as = 1.15;
when calculating drying energy consumptions of heat pump, it was only
considered power required for running compressor and heat pump fan
multiplied by drying duration recommended by literature;
costs of running circulation fans, labor costs, maintenance costs and all
other expenses were not considered;
variation of factors like fuel costs, power costs and all other variations
were not considered;
density of absolutely dried wood was adopted to be 545 kg/m3 in calcula-
tions which is averaged value;
initial investment costs shown are only approximate values and are con-
sidered constant for both wood types, although it is clear from calcula-
tion that kiln intended to dry only spruce requires much larger boiler in
comparison with kiln intended to dry only oak.
Conclusion
In this article it was shown that there is a great potential for wood use in the
Republic of Montenegro, both for energy and other purposes. It is also important to
mention that there are no many alternatives for wood biomass use in Montenegro
since there are no sources of natural gas, or pipeline for its import. Because of the
vastness of wood area, especially if considered per capita, Republic of Montenegro
probably has greatest potential for wood biomass use in the entire region.
One of the most important element in making wood products is its drying,
whether its intended for energy purposes or for production of some finished product
and it was shown in this manuscript, wood drying is energy demanding process.
Calculations show that in some circumstances, using kiln with heat pump instead of
conventional kiln can be profitable. In this manuscript, fuel cost calculations were
based on wood biomass market values, but having considered that owners of wood
drying industry probably have their own sources of biomass in form of residues or
waste, or that they may have access to purchasing wood biomass for prices that are
below market prices, it is possible that choosing drying kiln with heat pump instead
of conventional drying kiln would be unprofitable in those cases.
Intentionally in this article were shown examples of drying two completely
different species of wood: oak, which requires mild drying regime (smaller tempera-
tures and higher relative humidity) and long drying time in comparison to spruce
which is resistant to harsh drying regime (higher temperatures and lower relative
humidity) and requires much shorter drying time. Calculations showed that spruce
drying require considerably bigger boiler which would, for sure, lead to bigger ini-
tial investment, but also that spruce drying is overall energy less demanding process
than oak drying due to shorter drying times. Also it is visible that in case of spruce
drying it requires shorter payback period of investment for purchasing kiln with heat
pump than in case of oak drying.
533
References
[1] Glavonji, B., Drvna goriva: vrste, karakteristike i pogodnosti za grejanje,
Podgorica: SNV Montenegro, 2011.
[2] Glavonji, B., Krajnc, N., Stijovi, A., Zvizdojevi, J., Pekovi, D.,
Savievi, M., Raievi, B., Ristovi, D., Pavlovi, M., Potronja drvnih gori-
va u 2011. godini u Crnoj Gori, Zavod za statistiku, Podorica, Crna Gora, 2013.
[3] Tomi, B., Suenje drveta, Zavod za udbenike i nastavna sredstva, Beograd,
SFRJ, 1981.
[4] akovi, D., uri, S., Tehnika suenja sa primerima skripta, Fakultet
tehnikih nauka, Novi Sad, Srbija, 2013.
[5] http://www.nigos.rs/susare_za_drvo.html. (accessed on 20th august 2016).
[6] Micev, S., Mijanovi, T., Drljevi, M., Ku, T., Alilovi, N., Popovi, M.
Adi, I., Obradovi, D., Godinjak meteorolokih i hidrolokih podataka
2014. Zavod za hidrometeorologiju u seizmologiju Crne Gore, Podgorica, Crna
Gora, 2016.
534
BMS UPRAVLJANJE POTENCIJALI ZA BOLJE
KORIENJE EKONOMSKOG CIKLUSA U
KLIMATIZOVANIM USLOVIMA POBOLJANJE
ENERGETSKE EFIKASNOSTI SISTEMA ZA KGH I
KVALITETA UNUTRANJEG VAZDUHA
BMS CONTROLS POTENTIAL FOR ENHANCED USE OF
ECONOMY CYCLE IN TEMPERATE CLIMATE
CONDITIONS IMPROVED ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF
HVAC SYSTEMS AND (IEQ) INDOOR AIR QUALITY
Aleksandar KONAR
This paper discusses an opportunity to improve energy efficiency of HVAC
systems by extending operating hours of Economy Cycle, an energy management
control function, via changing its control philosophy, through optimisation of con-
trol strategies, control parameters and control limits, which determine its operation.
Key words: BMS, Economy Cycle, Energy Efficiency, Cost Effectiveness,
Energy Management
The main proposed modification is to use Economy Cycle, not only as a first
stage of cooling when conditions of outside air are suitable (standard practice), but
also as a first stage of heating, and for pre-cooling.
It is estimated that the proposed enhanced use of Economy Cycle would pro-
long its operations by 30-50% (in temperate climate conditions), significantly redu-
cing energy consumption of HVAC systems and significantly improving IAQ of
conditioned spaces (Economy Cycle uses 100% outside air in most of the cases).
Emphasis of the paper is to highlight cost effectiveness of the proposed BMS
control modifications, as there are no requirements for modification of Economy
Cycles infrastructure, but programming only.
New control philosophy is demonstrated via control diagrams that show how
this enhanced control function can be easily implemented on any BMS.
The paper details various standard practices on how Economy Cycle is opera-
ted on BMS, and explain opportunities for enhanced use of this control function. It
also details Economy Cycles operational and maintenance requirements in order to
maximise its energy efficiency.
535
Dependency between improvement of energy efficiency of Economy Cycle
and proper selection of cooling, heating and dead space temperature bands, is also
given as a major factor to optimise this BMS control feature.
The Economy Cycle is an energy-conservation measure that utilises outside
air for space conditioning, It:
Reduces energy consumption
Reduces energy cost
Improves IAQ (Indoor Air Quality)
Reduces HVAC maintenance costs
Economy cycle traditionally allows for a 15% - 20% reduction of energy
consumption of AC compressors and improved indoor air quality, in temperate cli-
mate conditions.
Background
Economy Cycle is typically used at centralised HVAC systems with CHW,
direct expansion (DX) AHUs (Air Handling Units) and ducted packaged DX
systems with motorised O/A dampers connected to a central (BMS) or local HVAC
control system. Typically, AHUs facilitate this energy-conservation measure, as they
are source of mechanical ventilation for buildings.
When an air conditioning unit operates in cooling mode, it typically cools
supply air to 12-13 OC (for chilled water systems) or 8-9 OC (for DX direct
expansion systems). It should be noted that during mild weather conditions cooling
requirements can be satisfied with a higher temperature of supply air even as high
as 20 OC
Economy Cycle is typically used for cooling, with or without AC compres-
sors, thereby reducing the energy consumption of associated AC units (DX AC
units, chillers and the likes).
The Economy Cycle is normally one of the energy saving strategies of
complex HVAC control systems or BMS.
Minimum information required for the Economy Cycle program includes:
Return air temperature
Outside air temperature
Control strategy (Conditions for engagement and disengagement)
Control parameters (Conditions for engagement and disengagement)
Time delays for engagement and disengagement
Override criteria
Relative humidity (RH) of return air (%) or conditioned spaces
Absolute Humidity of Outside Air (O/A)
Minimum equipment required for the Economy Cycle program includes:
Field sensors (O/A and R/A, temperature and RH)
Controllers and data processors
Economy Cycle software
Automated operation of outside and return air dampers
Optional provision of relief air
536
Relief damper
Outside air cross section inlet to accommodate 100% O/A
Current Practices
Economy Cycle, in majority of cases, is underutilised due to an inefficient

control strategies and control parameters.
Typical control strategies for engagement of Economy Cycle include:
537
a) Outside Air (O/A) temperature is lower than the air temperature set point
for the Economy Cycle (16oC) cooler air than space air temperatures is
used to reduce load of AC compressors disadvantage of this method is
that it overlooks that warmer air can also be utilised if it has less energy
than return air.
b) O/A temperature is similar to Supply Air (S/A) temperature (12-13oC)
this strategy severely disadvantages use of Economy Cycle (minimises its
operating hours) as it only operates when outside air temperature is
close to the Off-Coil S/A temperature.
c) RH of O/A is lower than 60% or if Economy Cycle is within a given op-
erational temperature limits. This approach overlooks that sometimes
even higher RH of O/A (say 70%) does not compromise engagement of
Economy Cycle, if outside air temperature is in the lower or mid range
70%RH and 17 deg C.
d) Total energy (enthalpy) of O/A is less than total energy (enthalpy) of
R/A this is the most efficient control strategy (cooling mode).
Typical O/A operational limits for the Economy Cycle:
a) Temperature (10-20oC)
b) Relative Humidity (RH) less than 60%
Opportunity for optimisation
Use Economy Cycle for:
pre-cooling,
cooling and
heating.
Control Economy Cycle based on:
enthalpy or temperature differential of O/A and R/A

wide O/A temperature limits (5-30 deg C adjustable)
wide O/A High and Low absolute humidity limits (adjustable)
wide space air temperature cooling, heating and dead band temperature
bands
time delays for engagement and disengagement (adjustable)
538
Precooling and Cooling modes of operations of Economy Cycle
Heating Mode of operation of Economy Cycle
539
SISTEM ZA SKLADITENJE TOPLOTNE ENERGIJE
SA FAZNO PROMENLJIVIM MATERIJALOM
ZA HLAENJE I GREJANJE ZGRADA
PCM THERMAL STORAGE SYSTEM
FOR COOLING AND HEATING OF BUILDINGS
Uro STRITIH
Vincenc BUTALA
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Akereva 6, 1000 Ljubljana
uros.stritih@uni-lj.si; vincenc.butala@uni-lj.si
U cilju smanjenja korienja energije u zgradi, konstruisan je sistem sa fazno
promenljivim materijalom (FPM). Tokom letnjih noi, hladnoa se akumulira (FPM
se uvruje) i isporuuje tokom dana za prethlaenje sveeg vazduha, dok se zimi
akumulira odnosno skladiti toplota iz solarnog kolektora za vazduh (FPM se topi)
tokom sunanih dana, da bi se upotrebila za grejanje tokom hladnih veeri i noi.
Sistem se sastoji od samostalne jedinice, koju ini 30 ploa napunjenih parafinom
RT22HC, ventilatora, otvora (hatch) i solarnog kolektora za vazduh tokom zime.
Cilj rada je da se ispita funkcionisanje sistema u kancelariji na godinjem nivou.
Merenja su vrena tokom cele godine kako bi se odredila izvodljivost sistema i za
hlaenje i za grejanje.
Kljune rei: FPM, akumulator toplotne energije, CSM ploe; kolektor top-
log vazduha
In order to reduce building energy use, system with phase change material
(PCM) was constructed. During summer nights, cold is stored (PCM solidifies) and
is delivered during the day for pre cooling of the fresh air, whereas in winter, heat
from solar air collector is stored (PCM melts) during sunny day for heating during
cold evening and night hours. System consists of a stand-alone unit, composed of 30
plates filled with paraffin RT22HC, fan, hatch and solar air collector during winter
time. The objective was to examine the functioning of the system in the office room
on an annual basis. Measurements were conducted year round in order to determine
system feasibility for both cooling and heating.
Key words: PCM; Thermal energy storage; CSM plates; Hot air collector.
1. Introduction
In developed countries buildings account for a 40 % of the total final energy
consumption. More than 50 % of that energy goes to HVAC systems. Therefore one
of the priorities of the EU is to minimize the energy consumed by buildings. The
541
EPB Directive states that it is necessary to choose alternative solutions for heating
and cooling [1]. One option is thermal energy storage (TES) using phase change
materials (PCMs).
We built an experimental system for cooling and heating an office in our
building [3, 4, 5]. The idea was to utilize natural sources within stand-alone active
system. Outdoor cold during summer nights is stored and supplied to the indoor
environment during the day when the cooling load increases. For the heating re-
quirements, energy from the sun is used with help from solar hot air collector. Heat
during the sunny day is stored and supplied to the office in early mornings or late
evenings or in cloudy days. The main objective was to examine closely the function-
ing of the suggested system on an annual basis and to explore the feasibility of using
it for office cooling as well as for heating.
2. The existing systems for latent cooling with the use of the PCM materials
Quite a few companies in the world is dealing with systems for latent cooling
using PCM materials. One of these is the German company Emco Bau und
Klimatechnik GmbH & Co. KG, which has corporate offices in Hamburg Imtech
tying cooling system. This is one of the first cooling system of the individual area of
application of the PCM material. With calculations are dimensioned amount of PCM
material, determined the working principle and designed storage for cold with air
distribution. Per square meter of area is embedded 5 kilograms PCM material having
a melting point at 22 C, which is sufficient for the storage of 60 W / m cooling. In
summer, during the night, when the temperature drops below 18 C, the system is
throughout the day able to maintain the room temperature below 26 C. [6]
Figure 1: The building company Imtech in Hamburg, Germany [6]

The principle of operation of the cooling system is based on the 4 cycles. The
first cycle begins at 8:00 am, the time when the employees come into the office and
lasts until the ambient temperature reaches 26 C. During this cycle, the outdoor air
is supplied into the room through the accumulator. The second cycle or cooling
cycle lasts until consumption coolness stored in the PCM material. During this cycle
542
air is circulating in the room. In the accumulator of cold, air enters with a tempera-
ture of 26 C and is then cooled to 22 C and is returned back into the room. The
third cycle is an intermediate period after cooling and as long as the outside air tem-
perature drops below 22 C. During this cycle, in small quantities pulse supplied
outdoor air in order to avoid unnecessary overheating, but when the temperature
drops below the ambient air temperature in the room, the outdoor air is supplied to
normal. The fourth cycle or charging cycle starts when the outside air temperature
drops below 22 C and to 8:00 am when the first cycle starts again. During this
cycle, the outdoor air is supplied and thus coolness is stored in the PCM material.
Thus, there is provided a chill for the next day. In the picture below you can see the
individual cycles of the cooling system. [6]
Figure 2: The operating principle of latent cooling with the use of the PCM material
in the 4 cycles [6]
Cold storages are installed under the window and are protected by a metal
casing. The figure below shows the appearance and cross section of cold storage.
The German company Rubitherm Technologies GmbH also deals with sys-
tems for latent cooling using PCM material. In Berlin Botanical Gardens are dimen-
sioned cooling system to ensure optimal temperature in the greenhouse. In the
greenhouse are two towers with a PCM modules, which have a melting point of 25
C, intended for the circulation of air. During the day, the air in the roof of the green-
house heat up fast, then the fan at the top of the tower transported air down the tower
to plant. On the way through the tower, the air due to PCM modules to cool down
and the cool air gets to the plants. At night, the air from the roof of the greenhouse is
cooled rapidly, then the fan at the top of the tower is transported air down through
the tower to the plants. On the way through the tower, the air due to PCM modules
543
to warm up and warm air comes to plants. PCM modules during the day filled with
warmth at night with cold, this cycle repeats.
Figure 3: Section and the appearance of cold storage [6]
Figure 4: Botanic garden in Berlin[2]
3. Eperimental setup
An experimental rig for testing storage units thermal response was set up as
shown in figure 1. On the basis of calculations of office cooling and heating loads,
we determined type and quantity of phase change material for the thermal storage.
Chosen PCM should operate in temperature range between 20 and 26 C. We decid-
ed to use PCM RT22HC, produced by Rubitherm GmbH, with melting point around
22 C [5].
Thermal storage casing was made of 5 cm thick EPS and the internal dimen-
sions were 73 cm 45 cm 39 cm. Used PCM was macroencapsulated in the form
of CSM plates. Outer dimensions of plates were 30 cm 45 cm 1.5 cm and they
were horizontally positioned in the storage tank (the shorter side parallel to the
flow). The unit contained 29 CSM plates (air gap between plates was 0.8 cm).
544
Measured average mass of filled plate was 1361 g, weight of paraffin in the plate
was 1003 g and volume of each plate was 1.48 liters. Approximately 12% of the
plates volume is empty in order to compensate the volume expansion of the liquid
PCM and to avoid deformation of the plate due to higher pressure. Thermal storage
tank is on both sides gradually moving to the tube with diameter 110 mm. Tubes are
isolated with 20 mm of insulation. Fan, connected with speed regulator is installed
before the thermal storage tank. It has five speed levels. At the output of the air from
thermal storage we installed a hatch, which can direct airflow to the office or out.
Part of the setup is also a solar hot air collector which is installed on the outer wall
of the office. Experimental setup is shown on figure 2.
Figure 5: Conceptual design of experimental setup

Working of the experimental system is different for heating and cooling.
In heating mode system operates from 8 am to 4 pm. When there is enough
sun radiation, collector heats air and that heat is stored in thermal storage (PCM
melts). In evening and mornings or during days with low or no sun radiation, stored
heat is used to heat the office (PCM solidifies).
Figure 6: Experimental system: in room (left), solar air collector outside (right)
545
In cooling mode system is working in two cycles. First cycle is happening
during the night, when cold air is supplied to the thermal storage and its cold is
stored (PCM solidifies). Second cycle is happening during the day, when warm air
is supplied to the thermal storage where it is cooled down (PCM melts) and supplied
to the office.
4. Measurements
Measurements of air temperature, air flow and energy consumption were
conducted. Figure 3 show us positions of measuring sensors.
Figure 7: Testing line oF PCM storage with measurement points

Electrical power of the system was measured at the connection of system to
the electricity grid. Air speed was measured at the outlet of air from the system.
Temperature sensors were put to nine important places. In this way we get precise
data of temperature throughout the system.
Measurements in cooling mode were carried out in October 2014; in heating
mode in January 2016.
5. Results
A. Cooling mode
Figure 4 depict air temperature of inlet and outlet air in thermal storage for a
period of 24 hours in a day in October. We see big difference between lowest and
highest temperature of inlet air. It cools down to almost 14 C during the night (low-
est at 6 am) and warms up to almost 30 C during the day (between 1 and 3 pm).
Outlet air from the thermal storage has a lot smaller difference between lowest and
highest temperature. During the night PCM solidifies and give heat to the air so the
temperatures do not fall below 18 C. During the day opposite happen. Because of
high temperature of inlet air PCM melts and takes away heat from that air so the
outlet temperature do not exceed 22 C.
We calculate stored and used cold for each day. Theoretically calculated fig-
ures were not met in any day. Energy consumption was also calculated and system
efficiency was determined. Results show us efficiency between 0,6 and 2.44.
546
Figure 8: Air temperature cooling
B. Heating mode
When in heating mode system operates from 8 am to 4 pm. Figure 5 shows us
temperatures in inlet and outlet of thermal storage. Temperature in inlet of thermal
storage is also outlet temperature of solar hot air collector. It was partly sunny day
(foggy morning, some clouds in the afternoon) as we can conclude from the inlet air
temperature. In the morning cold inlet air was heated (PCM solidifies), but when sun
shows inlet air quickly became hot enough to reverse the process (PCM melts heat
is stored). Stored heat is then used in the afternoon and the next day.
Figure 9: Air temperature heating

Efficiency of heating mode is much greater - average 12.9. Mainly because of
two things: system is operating only for 8 hours (during work time) and temperature
difference between inlet air temperature and melting point of PCM is much greater
than in cooling mode which means that lower air flow is needed and that means low
energy consumption of the system. As we can see in figure 5 we have high inlet air
temperatures, but without thermal storage we cannot use all available heat because
of overheating. So in reality efficiency of system with thermal storage is much
greater than efficiency of system without thermal storage.
547
6. Conclusion
Systems with phase change technology definitely are promising alternative to
conventional systems. Our results show that in cooling mode system did cool down
the air, but also consume electrical energy for the fan. In heating mode results are
much better and show us that in solar hot air collector systems thermal storage is
mandatory. PCM thermal storage perform great with air cooling and heating systems
because it deliver outlet air of almost constant temperature. Electrical energy can be
decreased with using of PV modul.
7. Acknowledgment
This work has been done in the frame of IEA-ECES Annex 31: Integration of
energy storage with energy efficient Buildings and Districts: Optimisation and Au-
tomation.
8. References
[1] *** EU, Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council,
2010, June.
[2] *** Rubitherm Technologies: www.rubitherm.de.
[3] Stritih, Uro, Butala, Vincenc. Energy savings in building with a PCM free
cooling system. Journal of Mechanical Engineering, ISSN 0039-2480, Feb.
2011, vol. 57, no. 2, pages 125-134.
[4] Osterman, Eneja, Hagel, K., Rathgeber, C., Butala, Vincenc, Stritih, Uro.
Parametrical analysis of latent heat and cold storage for heating and cooling of
rooms. Applied thermal engineering, ISSN 1359-4311, Jun. 2015, vol. 84, pages
138-149.
[5] Osterman, Eneja, Butala, Vincenc, Stritih, Uro. PCM thermal storage
system for free heating and cooling of buildings. Energy and buildings, ISSN
0378-7788, 2015, pages 1-9.
[6] *** Emco Bau und Klimatechnik GmbH & Co. KG, Emcovent PCM individual
room conditioning, Subject to tecnical changes, januar 2009
548
OMOTA ZGRADE KLJUNI PARAMETAR
ZA ODRIVE ZGRADE
BUILDING ENVELOPE A KEY ROLE PARAMETER
FOR SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS
Elli KYRIAKI*, Effrosyni GIAMA, Agis M. PAPADOPOULOS
Process Equipment Design Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Building D, 8th Floor, Thessaloniki
kelli@auth.gr
Buildings have a considerable environmental impact that corresponds to al-

most 30% of the global carbon footprint, with a prediction for further growth, and to
40% of the final energy consumption in the EU. A key role parameter for sustaina-
ble building construction, is the appropriate building envelopes thermal insulation
in order to reduce its thermal losses. Sustainability in buildings life cycle remains
essential basically for two reasons: one is the improvement of the quality of living
and the other is the marketing of the systems and the products. Thermal insulation
was firstly introduced in Greece, with the Regulation of Building Insulation in 1979.
Therefore, the paper focuses on the implementation of thermal insulation at build-
ings in compliance with the Greek national legislation framework during the last
forty years. In this line of approach, measurements of the U-values and of the inter-
nal and external surface temperatures were carried out, in residential and office
buildings. The sample consisted of buildings with construction dates that mirrored
the development in legislation and in the building practice. Finally the environmen-
tal impacts deriving from the environmental evaluation analysis of the most widely
used construction envelope materials and thermal insulation solutions, are dis-
cussed on the base of Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) methodology. Considering the
building materials environmental impact the use of resources and raw materials
transportation lies in the heart of the materials impact. It is therefore necessary to
promote the use of best available techniques and to promote innovative solutions in
the production processes, in order to reduce the depletion of the natural, finite re-
sources and carbon footprint. Another interesting point mentioned within the paper
focus in the need to minimize the transport of raw materials, which is responsible
for significant environmental burden. In that sense promoting the use of resources
locally available is one of the most important measures to reduce transport emis-
sions and, not to forget, costs.
Key words: Energy Efficiency, U-value, Sustainable Buildings, LCA Analysis,
Insulation Materials
549
1. Introduction
It is well documented that building sector is responsible for the 40% of the
total final energy consumed in the EU. Specifically, the residential sector was re-
sponsible for the 27% of the total final energy consumption in 2010, while the ter-
tiary sector was responsible for the 16% respectively. Therefore, the European Par-
liament approved the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD)
2002/91/EC and the recast Directive 2010/31/EC. Except from those Directives, the
EU set the main goals for energy, transport and GHG emissions not only for 2020
but also for the following decades; 2030 and 2050. The main goal is no other than
the gradual reduction of the energy consumption and GHG emissions [1, 2].
On a global scale, building sector accounts 32% (118,6 EJ) of final energy
consumption for 2012 and 53% of global electricity consumption. According to the
International Energy Agency (IEA), final energy consumption in building sector was
increased by 1,5% every year, in 2000-2012. It is estimated that buildings energy
consumption will continue to have an increasing trend with a high rate (annually
1,4%), reaching 142,7 EJ [3], [4] .
Buildings can be divided in to two main categories: a) residential buildings
and b) non-residential buildings. In Europe, 75% of building stock are residential
buildings and only 25% are non-residential. More particularly, in Greece residential
buildings can be divided in to two main subcategories: a) single-family houses and
b) multi-family houses, as it is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1: Distribution of building sector in Europe and Greece

The most common goal is the reduction of energy consumption in buildings
at least up to 20% and in order to achieve this target, effective interventions in exist-
ing buildings are required. This need of improvement was initially expressed by
means of the Directive 2002/91/EC for the Energy Performance of Buildings and its
review (2010/31/EC). These Directives have been harmonized in Greek legislation
with the following Laws and Ministerial Decisions (MD): (i) Law 3661/2008, (ii)
MD 2008 for public buildings, (iii) Law 4122/2013 and (iv) under construction,
550
respectively. Despite the fact that the Greek Law 4122/2013 has been published
recently, the construction of the buildings is still following the demands of the pre-
vious regulation (Greek Law 3661/2008). KENAK (the Regulation on the Energy
Performance of Buildings) along with TOTEE (the Technical Guidelines of the
Technical Chamber of Greece) are leading in changing the way in building envelope
upgrades [5], [6].
In case of Greece and according to Hellenic Statistical Authority (Fig. 2),
41% of the existing building stock was constructed before 1970 under no regulation
concerning insulation. Also, 35% of the buildings were constructed in 1980-2010
under the initial Thermal Insulation Regulation of Greece and only a small number
of buildings (7%) were constructed after 2010 and are in accordance to the KENAK
regulation [7], [8].
Fig. 2: Development of construction rate in Greece in accordance to

Hellenic Statistical Authority
In accordance to the Greek regulation KENAK all buildings, newly con-
structed or deeply renovated, public or private, need to obtain an Energy Perfor-
mance Certification (EPC). According to the Ministry of Reconstruction of Produc-
tion, Environment & Energy over 590 thousand certifications have been issued in
the period of 2011-2014 [2].
2. Methodology and measurements

The thermal transmittance, which is expressed by the heat transfer coefficient
(U-value) is the most important feature, which characterizes the thermal perfor-
mance of building elements. It expresses the rate of heat transfer through a structure,
which can be a single material or a composite building element, divided by the tem-
perature difference across that structure. It is therefore a measure of how much heat
is lost through a given thickness of a particular material, including the three major
ways in which heat transfer occurs conductivity, convection and radiation. The
units of measurement are W/mK. Three temperature values are needed to calculate
551
U coefficient. These three temperature values are the external and internal surface
temperatures as well as the ambient air temperature.
The ambient temperatures, inside and outside the building, play an important
role when calculating the U-value of an element. If one imagines the inside surface
of a 1 m section of an external wall of a heated building in a cold climate, heat is
flowing into this section by radiation from all parts of the inside the building and by
convection from the air inside the building. So, additional thermal resistances should
be taken into account associated with inside and outside surfaces of each ele-
ment. These resistances are referred to as Rsi and Rso respectively with typical val-
ues of 0.12 Km/W and 0.06 Km/W for the internal and external surfaces, respec-
tively [9].
This is calculated by taking the reciprocal of the R-Value and then adding
convection and radiation heat losses, as follows [10],
(1)
Within the framework of this paper, measurements of the U-value for the two
main vertical building elements, namely brick-walls and concrete elements, were
carried out. In total, 52 buildings in Thessaloniki, Greece, were measured, 26 resi-
dential and 26 office buildings. Based on the construction year, the measured build-
ings can be classified as depicted in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3: Distribution of measured buildings based on the construction year

The measurements were made using the device TM 200 U. The device and its
elements are presented below in Fig. 4 whereas its technical specifications are
shown in Fig. 5.
U coefficient value is the most important value for the evaluation of thermal
features of construction elements. To calculate U-value, four conditions must be
respected:
The outside temperature should be low,
The room should be heated
The wall should not be exposed to wind and sun
552
The temperature difference between outside and inside temperature should be
more than 20oC. Once these four conditions are respected, the measurement of the
three temperatures (Ti: inside temperature of the room, Te: outside temperature, Ts:
temperature of the internal surface of the wall) allows to get the U coefficient:
(2)
The coefficient 0,125 corresponds to the superficial thermal resistance of the
air-brush on the internal surface of the wall) [11].
Fig. 4: TM 200 U device and its elements
Fig. 5: Technical Specifications of TM 200 U-meter
553
3. Measurements Analysis
The results carried out from the analysis of the measurements are presented
below. The first statistical analysis depicts the relevance of U values in different
constructing time periods according to the insulation regulation that prevailed when
the buildings, both residential and non-residential ones, were constructed.
More specifically, in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, are depicted the results for residential
and non-residential buildings respectively, constructed before 1979, that is prior to
the introduction of the first Thermal Insulation Regulation.
Fig. 6: U-value measured for residential buildings constructed before 1979
Fig. 7: U-value measured for office buildings constructed before 1979
554
It is obvious that the U-values in the buildings constructed before 1979, when
there was no requirement for thermal insulation, are really high. It is observed that,
reinforced concrete and brick have different properties. The brick was proved to
have increased insulated capability compared to reinforced concrete and as a result
bricks U-value for all cases is lower than reinforced concretes. It is of interest to
notice in office buildings, that although the brick elements present lower U-values,
those are not that low as one would expect them to be, based on the much better
thermal transmissivity value of clay bricks compared to armed concrete. This is
mainly due to the fact, that the typical Greek office buildings of the 1960s and 1970s
had rather thin brick walls, with thicknesses not exceeding 16 cm, thereby results in
high U-values. One residential building constructed in 1978, with Ubrick=0,66
W/m2K and Uconcrete=2,8 W/m2K, is worth noting. Bricks U-value, is quite low
which means that probably at this construction thermal insulating bricks, were used.
Then, in Fig. 8 and in Fig. 9, U-values for residential and non-residential
buildings constructed in 1980-2009, are depicted. In this period, the Greek Thermal
Insulation Regulation was in effect, which foresaw maximum U-values 0,7 W/m2K.
Fig. 8: U-value measured for residential buildings constructed in 1980-2009

From Fig. 9 it becomes clear, that the Thermal Insulation Regulation was not
fully implemented. U-values both for brick and armed concrete elements, are lower
than the ones of older buildings. However, in most cases, the U-values measured
were above the maximum U-values required by the Regulation, which indicates that
insulation applied was not sufficient. Also, especially in office buildings, it was
observed that in some cases, whilst brick elements were insulated, the load bearing
elements of armed concrete were not.
Finally, in Fig. 10 and in Fig. 11, are depicted the results for the buildings
constructed after 2010. The sample of buildings for this period is small, and this is
absolutely representative of the economic recession that troubles Greece since 2009.
555
One has to notice, that the number of construction permits in 2014 was 13.100,
compared to more than 77.400 in 2007 [12].
Fig. 9: U-value measured for office buildings constructed in 1980-2009
Fig. 10: U-value measured for residential buildings constructed after 2009
556
Fig. 11: U-value measured for office buildings constructed after 2009
After 2010, with the implementation of KENAK, thermal insulation require-
ments became significantly tighter. However, implementation of the new regulation
requires some time, therefore, it comes not surprisingly that in the first two years
(2010-2011), the U-values measured were above the ones foreseen by the regulation
of Umax. It is particularly hopeful, that the two residential and three office buildings
constructed after 2012, comply with the KENAK requirements.
Lastly, the average U-value for the different time periods, is shown in Fig. 12
and Fig. 13 for residential and non-residential buildings respectively.
Fig. 12: Average U-values for residential buildings
557
Fig.13: Average U-values for office buildings
Overall, both for residential and non-residential buildings, it becomes obvi-
ous that the thermal insulation of the buildings envelope gradually improved, com-
plying to the requirements of the regulations, albeit with a certain lag, both in terms
of time of implementation and of U-values achieved.
4. Envelope construction materials environmental impact

The construction materials studied are the dominant ones in the construction
sector and the methodology implemented is Life Cycle Analysis which is the one
suggested in the green certification schemes mentioned above. The system bounda-
ries for each construction material studied, consisted of two main subsystems: pro-
duction processes of the material, including the extraction of raw materials and en-
ergy use, auxiliary activities (for instance resin production which is required in the
manufacturing of stone-wool), products packaging, storage and transportation. The
system boundaries defined a cradle to gate approach for the LCA implementation,
which means the use of a simplified reference system that consists of mining, pro-
duction, packaging and transport processes [13, 14]. The reason for choosing a cra-
dle to gate approach has to do with the quality and reliability of the initial data used
for the inventory analysis. In order to determine the electricity generation emission
factors, the total annual electricity generation mix was taken into account. It was
based on the energy mix of the Greek electrical systems, which consists of lignite,
oil, natural gas and renewables and is published every month by the operator of the
electricity market [13].
For the scope of this study, data on raw materials and energy flows have been
acquired by means of an extensive survey, with the participation of major industrial
producers. For the output data, namely emissions from mining, production, packag-
558
ing, storage and transportation at the inventory phase, two software tools were used
for the results reliability control: the SimaPro LCA software, which is a life-cycle
analysis model with embodied EcoInvent LCA database [15,16]. At the environmen-
tal impact assessment phase (normalization and weighting) two set of indicators
were used, one derived from CML 2 baseline 2000 m method [17] and the other
from Eco Indicator 95 method [18]. The functional unit selected for the materials
environmental evaluation is kg emission/kg building material and MJ/kg building
material for the embodied energy.
The output data indicators provided information about specific air emissions
from raw materials extraction, production processes, transportation and storage
procedures such as CO2 equivalent, SO2 equivalent, PO4 equivalent, SPM equiva-
lent, C2H4 equivalent and environmental impacts like climate change, acidification,
eutrophication (tab. 1).
Tab. 1 Environmental impact for construction and insulation materials

Material kg CO2eq kg SO2eq kg PO4eq kg C2H4eq EmbEn [MJ]
Steel 0.63761 0.00395 0.00018 0.00016 9.76
Reinforced con-
0.34 0.90673 0.08972 0.03596 0.48
crete
Cement Plaster 0.22134 0.00050 0.00005 0.00002 1.42
Cement portland 0.85807 0.00131 0.00018 0.00005 3.33
Brick 0.23595 0.00070 0.00007 0.00005 2.76
Stone 1.01494 0.00671 0.00057 0.00024 16.73
Plaster board 0.39033 0.00167 0.00019 0.00007 6.03
Common Plaster 0.26146 0.00036 0.00005 0.00003 1.45
Acrylic Plaster 0.20961 0.00087 0.00007 0.00009 4.96
Ceramic Tiles 0.95001 0.00418 0.00031 0.00021 15.72
Expanded Poly-
3.24197 0.01268 0.00096 0.00054 76.16
styrene (EPS)
Extuded polysty-
4.04462 0.01646 0.00125 0.00088 92.38
rene (XPS)
Glasswool (GW) 3.30205 0.01904 0.00158 0.00105 60.10
Polyurethane
4.42797 0.01934 0.00279 0.00212 92.30
Foam (PUR)
Stonewool (SW) 2.17293 0.01303 0.00132 0.00059 24.90
For clay bricks production the main procedures studied and evaluated were:
a) mining and storage: Surface clays, shales and some fire clays are mined in open
pits with power equipment. Then the clay or shale mixtures are transported to plant
storage areas, b) preparation: To break up large clay lumps and stones, the material
559
is processed through size-reduction machines before mixing the raw material. Usual-
ly the material is processed through inclined vibrating screens to control the parti-
cles size, c) forming: Tempering, the first step in the forming process, produces a
homogeneous, plastic clay mass. Usually, this is achieved by adding water to the
clay in a pug mill a mixing chamber with one or more revolving shafts with blade
extensions. After pugging, the plastic clay mass is ready for forming. There are three
principal processes for forming brick: stiff-mud, soft-mud and dry-press.
The cement production is divided in five major processes: a) extraction of
raw materials such as stone and limestone, b) transportation processes, c) farina
production d) klinker production and e) cement production. The cement produc-
tion system is an energy increased process with subsystems associated with each one
of the five stages mentioned above. The concrete production is based on cement
production and input of auxiliary materials such as sand and gravel. The functional
unit for the emissions at the concrete production system is kg of emissions/ m3 of
concrete.
The steels production process consists of the following steps: supply the
production line with the initial mixture of the recycled scrap, loading the recycling
scrap and infuse the mixture under high pressure condition and temperature in elec-
tric furnace, final process and smelting of the mixture, reheating and forming to the
final product.
Finally, cement mortar production is actually a mixture of cement with water,
limestone and sand.
As far as insulation materials involves the most widely used categories of in-
sulating materials are inorganic fibrous (glass-wool and stone-wool) and organic
foamy ones (expanded and extruded polystyrene and, to a smaller extend, polyure-
thane), whilst all other materials cover the remaining 10% of the market (including
wood-wool, regips, perlite etc).
Stone wool production system includes the following main processes: crea-
tion of the raw material mixture, which consists of bauxite and amphibolite, melting
the rock mixture in an electric furnace, resin production, resin addition to the rock
mixture, adding silicone, water and oil to the new mixture, forming the new mixture
and strengthening it in a polymerization oven, compressing and cutting the final
product, product packaging, product temporary storage and finally product transport.
The extruded polystyrenes production process consists of the following
steps: supplying the production line, which consists of two extruders, supply the first
extruder with styrol and additive substances, mixing and increasing the mixtures
viscosity, infuse the mixture under high pressure condition and temperature (200
oC), mixtures diffusion, complete additives diffusion in the polymers mass and
control progressive refrigeration of the mixture in the second extruder, change the
materials flow from cylindrical to flat form in the head drawing, mixtures exit in
atmospheric pressure conditions, mixtures expansion at the appropriate thickness to
form the forming plates, cutting and freezing the final product at ambient tempera-
ture, products packaging and temporary storage and products transport.
560
The expanded polystyrenes production process consists of the following
steps: supply the production line with the initial mixture, heating and humidifying of
the initial mixture, drying the mixture and then infusing it under high pressure con-
dition to form blocks, cutting to plates, packaging and transport of the final product.
Based on the LCA evaluation results the production procedures as well as the
transportation process contribute mainly to air emissions and more specific to CO2
production. Actually the CO2 is the most significant emission as a quantity to all the
construction products studied [19]. Focusing mainly on insulation materiasl, the
cradle-to-gate environmental evaluation results showed that expanded polystyrene
and stonewool have lower contribution to environmental impact categories studied
compared to extruded polystyrene and polyurethane foam. The functional unit used
was for the 1kg of insulation material produced. In case the functional unit is
changed to the mass of insulation material needed for insulating 1m2 of surface
taking into consideration the thermal resistance R of the building element the results
are slightly different. In that case expanded polystyrene, extruded polystyrene and
stonewool have lower contribution to environmental impact categories studied com-
pared to polyurethane foam.
Considering those results, it becomes evident, that there is significant poten-
tial for improving the current by reducing the environmental impact of the basic
building materials and improve the environmental rating of buildings. Considering
that production is the key process and that the use of energy and raw materials are
the main issues to deal with, one cold thin of measures focusing on [20]:
the use of renewable energy sources for the energy needed at the produc-
tion process, either on site, like for instance biomass, or off-site, like
green electricity
the end-of-life management of building materials and the calculation of
waste flows at the production processes, including the reuse, recovery
and recycling potential,
the upgrading of the industrial infrastructure (refurbishment, improved
monitoring and control of energy consumption, implementation of En-
ergy Management Systems such as ISO 50001),
reducing the transportation emissions by preferring locally extracted raw
materials and also fostering the use of biofuels for the vehicles.
Finally, reuse and recycling of building materials is essential in order to re-
duce the embodied energy in buildings; the use of recycled steel and aluminium
could lead to savings of more than 50% in buildings embodied energy. An even
more drastic step is to promote the reuse of construction materials and gain extra
points on the evaluation procedure of green certification schemes [21].
5. Conclusions
The necessity for improving the buildings energy efficiency is expressed by
a variety of legislations not only in Europe but worldwide. This improvement cannot
be considered independently in this context, as it has strong economic and social
consequences. In this paper, the results of 52 buildings located in Thessaloniki, 26
561
residential and 26 office buildings measured, are presented. The results were
grouped based on the construction year of the buildings, in compliance with the
national R regulations valid in the period of the construction.
It was observed that, before 1979, when there was no thermal insulation regu-
lation, the buildings envelopes were completely uninsulated and as a result buildings
had significant heat losses. Later, with the implementation of the first Greek Ther-
mal Insulation Regulation, things began to evolve. In the beginning, it was applied
only in brick walls, in the form of the double brick wall with the insulation in the
cavity in between. However, the armed concrete elements were frequently left unin-
sulated, especially in office buildings. Still, it cannot be left uncommented, that the
majority of buildings from this time period, measured, failed to achieve the limits
foreseen by the regulation. Finally, it is encouraging to notice that, despite the de-
pressing situation of the construction sector, the tight requirements of the new regu-
lation, introduced in 2010, seem to be achieved in practice.
Considering the building materials environmental impact, it resulted that the
use of resources lies in the heart of the materials impact. It is therefore necessary to
promote the use of best available techniques and to promote innovative solutions in
the production processes, in order to reduce the depletion of the natural, finite re-
sources. Another interesting point that emerged from the study is the need to mini-
mize the transport of raw materials, which is responsible for significant environmen-
tal burden. In that sense promoting the use of resources locally available is one of
the most important measures to reduce transport emissions and, not to forget, costs.
In an age of global procurement of materials, this may seem a paradox; green logis-
tics could be the way to move ahead. Furthermore, energy consumption in the pro-
duction processes proved to be responsible for the major part of CO2 emissions,
although the latter depend to a high degree on the national energy mixture, for which
the producer is obviously not responsible. Still, the promotion of best available en-
ergy efficiency technologies as well as the use of renewable energy sources should
be considered especially for energy intensive process like the clinkerization of ce-
ment or the annealing of bricks. Focusing on the use of insulation materials, the
cradle-to-gate environmental evaluation results showed that expanded polystyrene
and stonewool have lower contribution to the environmental impact categories stud-
ied, compared to extruded polystyrene and polyurethane foam.
Finally, taking into consideration the ongoing economic recession that affects
the construction sector in many European countries, but also energy poverty that
makes significant parts of the populations suffer, it is reasonable to expect that sus-
tainability and therefore green certification cannot be among the top priorities for
many businesses and organizations. However, and in spite of this rather bleak com-
ment, there is also evidence that environmental management and implementing
sustainability policies in the production helps in reducing energy and raw materials
use, and can therefore lead to a cleaner, leaner and more cost-efficient production
and this is the reason of the continual increase of the certificates. Sustainability re-
mains essential basically for two reasons: one is the improvement of the quality of
living and the other is the marketing of the systems and the products.
562
6. References
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on of the Greek building stock, Energy and Buildings, 43 (2011), 10, pp. 2779-
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[13] Cabeza, L.F., Rincon, L., Vilarino, V., Perez, G., Castell, A., Life Cycle
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building sector: A review, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 29
(2014), pp. 394-416
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[15] Laghe, http://www.lagie.gr/en/market/market-analysis/das-monthly-reports/,
Greece
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[17] Pr Consultants, The Eco Indicator 99: A damage oriented method for Life
Cycle Impact Assessment. Manual for designers, Third Edition. www.pre.nl.
Switzerland, 2001
[18] Pr Consultants, SimaPro LCA software, Version 7.1., Product cology Con-
sultants, Netherlands. www.pre.nl/simapro. Switzerland, 2009
[19] Anastaselos, D.A, Oxizidis, S., Papadopoulos, A.M., Energy, environmental
and economic optimization of thermal insulation solutions by means of an inte-
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[20] Giama, E., Papadopoulos A.M., Assessment tools for the environmental eva-
luation of concrete, plaster and brick elements production, Journal of Cleaner
Production, 99 (2015), pp. 1-11
[21] Giama, E., Papadopoulos A.M., Construction materials and green buildings
certification, Key Engineering Materials, 666 (2016), pp. 89-96
564
IZMEU TEORIJE I PRAKSE NA KONKRETNOM
PRIMERU ENERGETSKE SANACIJE OBJEKTA
BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE
ON CONCRETE EXAMPLE OF ENERGETIC
REHABILITATION OF AN OBJECT
Marija ILI 1)*, Aleksandar SAVI 2)
1
Ustanova gerontoloki centar Beograd (1)
2
Elektrotehnika kola Rade Konar (2)
Najvei potencijal za utedu energije i emisije tetnih gasova, u graevinars-
tvu, predstavlja energetska sanacija objekata. Jedna od najefikasnijih mera energet-
ske sanacije objekata je zamena kotlova za grejanje na ugalj, kotlovima na pelet. Na
konkretnom primeru Doma za negu ostarelih lica Karaburma u Beogradu, pri-
menjena je ova mera energetske sanacije. Dom Karaburma je kompleks od 9
zgrada izgraenih 1963.godine koji se u toku zime snabdevaju toplotnom energijom
iz kotlarnice u sklopu objekta. U radu je prikazano poreenje izmeu planiranih
uteda pre zamene kotlova i ostvarenih uteda nakon njihove zamene. Teoretski
pristup je zasnovan na analizi energetskih svojstava objekata u fazi planiranja inve-
sticije metodom matematikog modelovanja koja je objavljena u delu rada pod nas-
lovom: Revitalization of architectural objects by means of energy efficiency impro-
vement: An economic case analysis. U ovom radu je sagledana, metodom merenja,
potronja peleta kao energenta nakon zamene kotlova na ugalj kotlovima na pelet u
toku jedne grejne sezone i napravljena je paralela sa oekivanim rezultatima iz faze
planiranja. U fazi izvoenja radova na zameni kotlarnice put odluivanja je prome-
nio tok u odnosu na planiranje investicije. Izmeu teorije i prakse sagledava razliku
izmeu parametara pretpostavljenih proraunom u odnosu na realizovane. Zajedni-
ki imenitelj su referentna jedinica kWh i period otplate investicije. U radu je data
paralela izmeu oekivanog perioda za koji bi se uloena sredstva otplatila i isplati-
la samo kroz smanjenje potronje energenta i izmerenih vrednosti za jednu grejnu
sezonu. Dokumentovana je ekonomska isplativost investicije iz dva ugla: teoretskog
i praktinog pri emu su im zajednike pozitivne posledice po ivotnu sredinu nasta-
le usled prestanka upotrebe uglja kao energenta. Racionalna upotreba energije i
zatita ivotne sredine, danas su kljuni elementi energetske politike velikog broja
zemalja, ali i kljuni elementi odrivog razvoja. Na putu reavanja ovog kljunog
razvojnog problema u Republici Srbiji veliki doprinos bi dalo precizno planiranje
investicija i njihova dosledna realizacija, odnosno sklad izmeu teorije i prakse.
Kljune rei: energetska sanacija; energetska efikasnost; dom za negu osta-
relih; kotao na pelet; teorija i praksa
565
The energetic revitalization of an object has the biggest potential to save
energy and prevent greenhouse gas emissions in the construction industry. One of
the most efficient measures is changing coal boilers for central heating to pellet
boilers. This measure was successfully implemented at Karaburma Elderly Care
Center in Belgrade. The center consists of 9 houses (built in 1963), and during the
winter the Center uses its own boiler for heating. The study presents the comparison
of a Savings Plan (created before the change of boilers) and actual savings (after
the change of boilers). Theoretical approach was based on the analysis of energetic
qualities of the object in the stage of investment plan, using the method of mathema-
tical modeling which was published as a part of work named Revitalization of
architectural objects by means of energy efficiency improvement: An economic case
analysis. The study describes, through measurement, the consumption of pellet as
energy-generating product (after the change of coal boilers to pellet boilers) during
one heating season. A comparison was made with the results expected in the plan-
ning stage. However, in the phase of boiler change implementation, the way decisi-
ons were made transformed compared to the planned investment. Somewhere
between theory and practice, we analyze the difference between parameters envisa-
ged in pre-calculations and those achieved later. Common denominator is a referent
unit (kWh) and the time of investment return. The study presents the comparison
between expected time for investment return and return through reduced consumpti-
on of energy-generating products and measured value for one heating season. Facts
presented show the economic efficiency of the investment from two points of view:
theoretical and practical; both have positive consequences for the environment, as a
result of coal not being used as an energy source. Rational energy consumption and
environment protection are a key element of energy policy in a number of countries
nowadays, as well as one of the most important issues for sustainable development.
Careful investment plan and its implementation - in other words, harmony between
theory and practice - would be an important contribution to the process of resolving
a major development problem in the Republic of Serbia.
Key words: energetic revitalization; energy efficiency; Elderly Care Center;
pellet boiler; theory and practice
Uvod
Sa ciljem da prui podrku u donoenju vanih odluka za sistematsku sanaci-
ju i rekonstrukciju objekata graenih nakon Drugog svetskog rata, kada se nije vodi-
lo rauna o utedi energije, zatiti ivotne sredine od zagaivaa, niti o odrivoj
gradnji, autor je u rada pod naslovom: Revitalization of architectural objects by
means of energy efficiency improvement: An economic case analysis [1] istraivao
energetsku sanaciju Doma za negu ostarelih Karaburma. U radu su analizirane tri
mere energetske sanacije metodom matematikog modelovanja u programu URSA
Graevinska fizika 2, a u skladu sa zakonskom regulativom koja vai na teritoriji
Republike Srbije: 1) termiko izolovanje omotaa; 2) zamenu kotlova na ugalj, kot-
lovima na pelet i 3) zamenu stolarije. U ovom radu se posmatra jedina realizovana
566
mera od predloenih tri mera energetske sanacije: zamena kotlova na ugalj, kotlovi-
ma na pelet. Izbor kotla je uinjen uz konsultovanje eksperata mainske struka i
proizvoaa koji zauzimaju liderske pozicije na otvornom tritu Srbije. Analizom
energetskih svojstava objekata u kompleksu doma, utvren je uticaj predloene mere
energetske sanacije na potronju primarne energije potrebne za grejanje objekata u
komleksu. Analize je pokazala da je najveu utedu u potronji energije za grejanje
donela sanacija kotlarnice. U ovom radu su uporeene vrednosti potronje primarne
energije za zagrevanje kompleksa doma planirane sa izmerenom nakon jedne
grejne sezone sistema u upotrebi. Prikazana je i paralela izmeu visine trokova koja
je koriena za izraunavanje perioda povraaja sredstava uloenih u energetsku
sanaciju i realizovanih trokova.
Brojni dokazi sugeriu da je stvarna potronja energije esto znatno vea
nego koliina energije izraunata na osnovu metodologija za izraunavanje energet-
skih performansi pod standardnim uslovima rada [2, 3]. CarbonBuzz je zajednika
israivaka platforma koja ima za cilj da podeli informacije o izraunatoj i stvarnoj
potronji energije u zgradama u Velikoj Britaniji sa ciljem da se smanji jaz izmeu
ovih vrednosti. Podaci pokazuju da u proseku zgrade troe izmeu 1,5 i 2,5 puta vie
energije od predvienih vrednosti. Meutim, postoje i primeri dobre prakse gde se
ove vrednosti dobro slau [4-8].
Teoretski pristup energetskoj sanaciji objekata

Teoretski pristup je zasnovan na analizi energetskih svojstava objekata u fazi
planiranja investicije metodom matematikog modelovanja. Predmetni objekat je
Doma za negu ostarelih Karaburma u Pljeevikoj ulici br. 2, u beogradskom
naselju Karaburma. Kompleks doma se sastoji od devet objekata izgraenih 1963.
godine: objekat 1, spratnosti Po+P+2+Pk, koji zbrinjava 175 korisnika na programu
ivota uz podrku i objekti 29, spratnosti P+0, projektovani kao 24 dvorine garso-
njere sa zasebnim ulazom, za samostalan ivot 32 korisnika organizovanih u okviru
8 objekata (Slika 1). Pri izraunavanju energetskih svojstava, objekat 1 je tretiran
kao zgrada namenjena zdravstvu i socijalnoj zatiti, dok su objekti 29 tretirani kao
porodine kue, odnosno stambene zgrade sa jednim stanom. Dom za negu ostarelih
Karaburma se nalazi u II klimatskoj zoni.
Ceo kompleks se grejao centralnim sistemom grejanja na ugalj pomou tri
kotla tipa Neo Vulkan III, ukupne instalisane snage 3x220kW=660kW, ija je
godina proizvodnje 1962. Kotlarnica je smetena u podrumu objekta 1 (Slika 2).
Kotlovi su radili u reimu dva radna i jedan rezervni. Zbog dotrajalosti kotlova i
dosta prodora sveeg vazduha njihov dalji rad je bio nepouzdan, te se pristupilo
njihovoj zameni. Saglasno Pravilniku o energetskoj efikasnosti zgrada [2], ugalj kao
energent nije prihvatljiv kako sa ekolokog aspekta, tako i sa aspekta potronje neo-
bnovljivih izvora energije - fosilna goriva, te je u okviru mere enegretske sanacije
zamena kotlova, predlaena ugradnja 2 kotla instalisane snage 2x220kW, tipa
Pyrot. Podrku za izbor kotlova u konkretnom objektu pruio je struni tim firme
Fisman Grup (Viessmann Group) [3]. Izbor kotlova koji efikasno i ekoloki pretva-
567
raju pelet drvenog porekla u potrebnu toplotu ima pozitivnu konsekvencu smanjenje
emisije tetnih gasova to doprinosi atiti prirodne sredine, smanjenju globalnog
zagrevanja i odrivom razvoju.
Napajanje toplotnom energijom svih objekata u kompleksu vri se postojeim
toplovodom. Cevna mrea je od crnih elinih cevi neizolovana unutar termikog
omotaa objekta1, odnosno od predizolovanih cevi do objekata 29. Cevni sistem je
dvocevni sa prinudnom cirkulacijom vode, koji je radio u reimu Dt= 90/70 C, a u
procesu sanacije planiran je toplotni reim rada Dt= 80/60C. U svim prostorijama
su zadrana postojea grejna tela - aluminijumski liveni radijatori, tip GREEN,
proizvod FARAL, Italija. Snabdevanje toplom vodom je preko bojlera u stanovi-
ma.
Matematiko modelovanje je raeno pomou softvera URSA Graevinska
fizika 2 [4], a analizirani pokazatelj toplotnih karakteristika objekata je godinja
potronja primarne enrgije Eprim [kWha-1]. Vrednosti potronje primarne energije
koje su dobijene matematikim modelovanjem za svaki objekat, pre sanacije i nakon
primene mera sanacije zamena kotlova u kotlarnici objavljene su u radu [1]. Izvod
iz tabele za svaki objekat, a za varijante: 1) postojee stanje i 2) nakon mere sanacije
zamena kotlova u kotlarnici, prikazan je u Tabeli 1. Dodati su rezultati modelova-
nja sa parametrima kotlarnice kakva je izvedena, jer je dolo do velikih odstupanja u
odnosu na planirano stanje.
Tabela 1: Vrednosti primarne energije dobijene matematikim modelovanjem

Objekat Korisna Grejana Potronja primarne energije
povrina zapremina
objekta objekta Postojee Stanje nakon Izvedeno
Af [m2] V [m3] stanje sanacije stanje
Eprim,0 Eprim,1 Eprim,2
[kWh/year] [kWh/year] [kWh/year]
Objekat 1 2488,34 7136,16 640920,89 217889,20 257221,19
Objekat 2 59,56 160,81 33959,42 3676,86 33163,78
Objekat 3 59,56 160,81 33957,52 3676,73 33163,60
Objekat 4 59,56 160,81 33780,48 3664,43 33147,01
Objekat 5 59,56 160,81 33686,36 3657,88 33138,20
Objekat 6 61,96 167,29 34295,59 3727,03 33221,38
Objekat 7 61,96 167,29 34295,59 3727,03 33221,38
Objekat 8 61,96 167,29 33820,79 3694,03 33176,89
Objekat 9 61,96 167,29 33820,79 3694,03 33176,89
Ukupno 2974,42 8448,56 912537,43 247407,22 489795,00
568
Slika 1. Gore: Kompleks Doma za negu ostarelih Karaburma ima devet objekata;
Dole levo: fotografija objekta 1; Dole desno: fotografija objekta 4.
Izvedeni radovi
Izmeu grejnih sezona 2014/2015 i 2015/2016 pristupilo se energetskoj sana-
ciji kotlarnice. U kotlarnici je ugraen jedan toplovodni kotao sa gorionikom koji
moe sagorevati zrnastu i komadnu bio masu i komadno gorivo, tipa ukoplam sa
569
sledeim performansama: toplotni kapacitet 600kW (675900) kW, raspon kapacite-
ta (30100)%, maksimalni radni natpritisak 3bar, maksimalna radna temperatura 100
C i stepen korisnosti kotla (nominalno optereenje) 90%. U odnosu na projektovane
parametre moe se zakljuiti da je kotao u datoj situaciji predimenzionisan, od-
nosno bez instalisanog sistema centralne i lokalne regulacije ne postoji adekvatna
potronja energenta. I pre sanacije kotlarnice radila su dva kotla na ugalj dok je
jedan bio rezervni. Osim toga, takav kotao e uvek davati vie toplotne energije
nego to je potrebno u datom trenutku i u priostoru su korisnici tokom grejne sezone
2015/2016 osetili pregrevanje. Ovo ukazuje da sanacija nee doneti planirane ute-
de. Da bi izbegli ovaj oseaj neprijatnosti, a kako bi smanjio temperaturu u prostoru,
loa je kotao loio smanjenim intenzitetom. Na ovaj nain dovodi kotao u stanje
niskotemperaturnog reima rada, to svaki put kada se temperatura povratne vode
spusti ispod odreene, dovodi do kondenzacije vode u kotlu. Prelaskom vode iz
gasovitog u teno stanje u samom kotlu, ona se mea sa ai stvarajui naslage kat-
rana i re i uzrokuje prerano propadanja kotlovskog lima usled korozije.
Slika 2. Kotlarnica se nalazi u podrumu objekta1 (1.radionica, 2.lift, 3.stepenite,

4.kotlarnica, 5.kotlarnica, 6.ostava za ugalj/pelet, 7.predprostor, A1.sanitarni vor,
A2.podrum, A3.ventilaciona komora, A4.teretni lift, A5.teretni lift, A6.radionica).
Uporeivanje oekivanih rezultata sa izmerenim

Potronja primarne energije
Na dijagramu 1 date su mesene potronje primarne energije za grejanje
kompleksa sa podacima o potronji uglja za tri grejne sezone: 2012/2013, 2013/2014
i 2014/2015 godinu, na osnovu rauna za ugalj koji se uvaju u arhivi doma. To su
tri sezone pre zamene kotlova u kotlarnici. Sa rauna su oitane trebovane koliine
uglja izraene u tonama. U grejnoj sezoni 2012/2013 je potroeno 194 t mrkog uglja
toplotne moi 19 MJ/kg, a u 2013/2014, 212 t uglja Sueni Vreoci toplotne moi
17,2 MJ/kg. U grejnoj sezoni 2014/2015 koriena su tri razliita energenta: 109,36t
570
mrkog uglja Banovii toplotne moi 18,2 MJ/kg, 27,5t lignite kreka kocka
toplotne moi 13MJ/kg i 123m3 rezanog tvrdog ogrevnog drva toplotne moi
6050MJ/m3. Naime, Sekretarijat za zatitu ivotne sredine je po drugi put izdao
reenje za merenje emisije zagaujuih materija iz kotlarnice s obzirom da je prvo
merenje vreno sa suvim bukovim drvima, ali ne i sa ugljem koji je upotrebljavan
kao energent. Rok za izvrenje je bio 6 meseci u dva maha, a razlog je utvrivanje
iznosa ekoloke takse za zagaivanje ivotne sredine usled upotrebe uglja kao ener-
genta.
Nakon sanacije kotlarnice umesto uglja loi se ekoloki pelet. U grejnoj
sezoni 2015/2016 potroeno je 170 t peleta toplotne moi 17,2 MJ/kg. Poto je ispo-
ruka energenta od strane dobavljaa bila ciklina i kontinuirana, nema se realan uvid
u stvarne mesene potronje energenta, ve samo u ukupnu za celu grejnu sezonu.
Referentna jedinica za uporeivanje projektovanih i izmerenih parametara,
odnosno teoretskih i praktinih rezultata je kWh, a transformacija MJ u kWh je
definisana relacijom 1kWh = 3.6 MJ.
Na dijagramu 2 data su tri parametra na osnovu kojih se vri poreenje oe-
kivanih i izmerenih rezultata: (1) projektovana portonja primarne energije za grejnu
sezonu sa uprosenim klimatskih parametara i pretpostavljenim parametrima za
kotlove; (2) prosena izmerena portonja primarne energije za tri grejne sezone u
realnim i razliitim klimatskim uslovima i parametrima korlarnice pre sanacije i (3)
izmerena potronja primarne energije za realizovanu jednu grejnu sezonu nakon
sanacije kotlarnice - za 2015/2016 godinu, a na osnovu rauna za nabavku peleta
koji se uvaju u arhivi doma.
Tabela 2: Uporeivanje izmerenih sa raunskim vrednostima potronje energenta

Izmerena Izmerena Izmerena Izmerena Izraunata Izmerena
potronja potronja potronja proseena potronja potronja
pre pre pre potronja pre nakon
sanacije sanacije sanacije pre sanacije sanacije
2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 sanacije 2015/2016
[kWh] [kWh] [kWh] [kWh] [kWh] [kWh]
Okt 81489 86716 81446 83217 23289 60200
Nov 164772 150739 109444 141652 134806 130433
Dec 247369 240800 185347 224505 212006 150500
Jan 203036 177733 160000 180256 234416 150500
Feb 113472 179644 117917 137011 170461 150500
Mar 159916 118250 129041 135736 117270 170088
Apr 53833 59005 75694 62844 20289 /
Ukupno 820851 1012887 858889 965221 912537 812221
571
Od loaa kotlarnice autor saznaje da su na poetku grejne sezone trebovane i
lagerovane izvesne koliine energenta, kao to na kraju sezone ostane izvesna neu-
potrebljena koliina energenta. Jo jedan podatak koji uslovljava odstupanja izmeu
planiranih i izmerenih vrednosti je to se grejna sezona ne poklapa sa zvaninom ve
uglavnom poinje ranije i zavrava kasnije u zavinosti od vremenskih prilika, a zbog
osetljivosti ostarelih ljudi. Analizom broja grejnih dana prema evidenciji loaa iz
arhiviranih knjiga moe se zakljuiti da u proseku traje 15 dana due u odnosu na
oekivano trajanje za Beograd. Analogno, tokom toplijih dana, vre se redukcije
grejanja. Tokom grejne sezone 2014/2015 bilo je problema sa dostavom energenta
od dobavljaa koji je dobio svojom ponudom na javnim nabavkama. To se odrazilo
na neravnomernu raspodelu koliina tokom meseca grejne sezone, jer su odreene
koliine trebovane i lagerovane.
250000
200000
150000 2012/2013
2013/2014
100000
2014/2015
50000
0
Okt Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr
Dijagram 1: Mesene potronje izmerenih vrednosti potronje energenta uglja za

tri uzastopne grejne sezone pre sanacije kotlarnice
1000000
800000 izmereno pre
sanacije
600000 izmereno nakon
sanacije
400000
planirano
200000
0
Dijagram 2: Uporeivanje prosene izmerene potronje primarne energije za tri

grejne sezone pre sanacije kotlarnice, izmerene za jednu grejnu sezonu nakon
sanacije i planirane potronje primarne energije nakon sanacije
572
Ekonomski aspekt analize
Ekonomska analiza ima za cilj sagledavanje isplativosti sanacije i izrauna-
vanje oekivanog perioda za koji bi se uloena sredstva otplatila i isplatila samo
kroz smanjenje potronje energenta. Postupak za izraunavnje ovih parametara, kao
i pretpostavke usvojene tokom prorauna objavljene su u naunom radu [1]. Izrau-
nate vrednosti ekonomskih parametara, prost period otplate i isplate uloenih sred-
stava prema navedenoj metodologiji, izraunate u fazi planiranja i sada, nakon reali-
zovane sanacije kotlarnice, uporeeni sui dati su u tabeli 3. Cene kotanja i odnos
valuta euro-dinar, koriene su za septembar mesec 2014 godine za proraune u fazi
planiranja investicije. Investicija je realizovana pre poetka grejne sezone 2015
godine i u proraunu su cene kotanja i odnos valuta euro-dinar za oktobar mesec
2015. godine, odnosno za period po zavretku realizacije investicije. U sve cene je
obraunat PDV (porez na dodatu vrednost) u iznosu od 20%.
Tabela 3: Ekonomska analiza godinje utede energenta i period otplate uloenih

sredstava u fazama planiranja i nakon realizacije investicije
Jedinica Pre snanacije Nakon sanacije
mere -modelovano- -izmereno-
S kWh/a 665130 153000
S t/a 126 32
SE /a 15122 5860
O&M /a 14180 /
Bo /a 29302 5860
Io 204000 84168
Payback a 6,96 14,36
Pay-Off a 8,19 20,78
kes kWh/a 3,26 1,81
Oznake koriene u tabeli:

S Uteda energije za godinu dana u [kWh]
S Uteda energije za godinu dana u [t] energenta
SE Godinja uteda u [] u razlici kotanja energenta pre i nakon sanacije
O&M Trokovi rada i odravanja (+ ili -) izraeni u []
Bo Godinja neto uteda u [] korigovana trokovima rada i odravanja (+ ili -)
Io Investicija u []
Payback Period otplate investicije u godinama [a] na osnovu jednakih godinjih neto
uteda
Pay-Off Perioda isplate investicije u godinama [a] uzimajui u obzir realnu kamatnu stopu
kes Koeficijent energetske sanacije u [kWh/a]
573
Izvrena je konverzija dobijenih vrednosti primarne energije u evrima, u fazi
planiranja, usvajanjem energenta toplotne moi 19 MJ/kg, ija je trina cena 120/t,
a transformacija MJ u kWh je definisana relacijom 1kWh = 3.6 MJ. Uporeivanjem
cena energenata moemo konstatovati da se u Republici Srbiji ne koriste ekonomski
instrumenti za pospeivanje energetske efikasnosti i primenu obnovljivih izvora
energije. Odnos cene uglja i peleta, (navedene toplotne moi) na tritu Srbije je cca
120:220 /t. Za ekonomsku analizu u fazi planiranja koriena je povoljnija varijanta
sa aspekta potroaa, tj E = 120 /t. Razmljivo je da takav pristup u velikoj meri
utie na dui period otplate investicije. Uvid u trokovi rada i odravanja autor zvani-
no dobija od efa finansijsko-raunske slube Doma Karaburma. Ovi trokovi su
bili izraeni jer su se kotlovi esto kvarili s obzirom da kotlarnica datira iz
1962.godine i kotlovi su odavno zavrili svoj radni vek, a rezervnih delova nema.
Izvrena je konverzija dobijenih vrednosti primarne energije u evrima, u fazi
nakon realizacije investicije, usvajanjem energenta toplotne moi 17,2 MJ/kg, ija je
trina cena 183/t, shodno parametrima realizovanim tokom grejne sezone
2015/2016.
Investicija obuhvata trokove koji su vezani za energetsku sanaciju kotlarni-
ce. Cena kotanja sprovoenja mera energetske sanacije u fazi planiranja je ponuda
firme Fisman za projektovanu opremu, dok je cena kotanja radova nakon realizacije
iz zavrnog rauna na dan 29.12.2015. godine firme koja izvela radove. Cena obu-
hvata nabavku, montau i putanje u rad sistema za grejanje, dok je amortizacija
novih kotlova pripisana fondu za tehniko odravanje.
Zakljuak
Uporeivanjem planiranih i ostvarenih radova i uteda, jasno se sagledava da
je samo integralnim projektovanjem uz doslednu realizaciju mogue dostii oeki-
vane utede. Analizirani objekat pokazuje da ograniena novana sredstva za inves-
tiranje, vode na pogrean put. Planirana je investicija od 204 000,00 , a uloeno je
svega 84 168,00 za energetsku sanaciju kotlarnice u ugradnju jeftine i neadekva-
tne opreme. Planirane utede u buduu potronju energenta, trebalo je da otplate
investiciju za 7 godina, odnosno da je isplate za 8 godina i 3 meseca. Ostvarene
utede otplatie 2,4 puta manju investiciju od planirane za 14 godina i 3 meseca, a
otplatiti je za 20godina i 10 meseci. Svakodnevno se troi 3,3 puta vie energenta u
odnosu na oekivanu potronju kada bi bili ugraeni kotlovi shodno planiranom
stanju. Koeficijent energetske sanacije kes pokazuje koliko je uteeno energije po
svakoj uloenoj novanoj jedinici. Vei koeficijent kazuje da je ostvarena vea rela-
tivna uteda energije 3,26 za planiranu investiciju, odnosno 1,81 za izmereno sta-
nje nakon sanacije. Postupci koji su doveli do ovolikog jaza izmeu teorije i prakse
u konkretnom primeru, jesu:
Planirana je ugradnja 2 kotla ukupne instalisane snage 440kW- jedan
kotao za zadovoljavanje osnovnih potreba za toplotnom energijom, a drugi za zado-
voljavanje vrnih temperature. U fazi izvoenja ugraena je neadekvatna oprema -
jedan kotao instalisane snage 600 kW;
574
Planirano je da novi kotlovi promene reim rada sa Dt = 90/70 C na Dt
= 80/60 C, to bi dovelo do ekonominije potronje energenta. Meutim, dvocev-
ni sistem sa prinudnom cirkulacijom vode je ostao da radi u reimu Dt = 90/70 C;
Ugradnja termostatskih ventila na grejnim telima nije sprovedena u proce-
su energetske sanacije kotlarnice. Izostanak automatske i lokalne regulacije uz pre-
dimenzionisanje kotla dovele su do nenamenskog odliva novca, dok su korisnici
izloeni neprijatnom oseaju previsoke temperature u prostorijama doma.
Jaz izmeu planiranih i ostvarenih uteda energije, upuuje na rizik da nacio-
nalni cilj utede energije bude postignut u praksi. Iz tog razloga, boljem razumeva-
nju energetske efikasnosti doprineo bi regulatorni okvir koji bi integrisao izmerenu
stvarnu potronju energije nakon realizovanih mera energetske efikasnosti u periodu
od minimalnih 12 do optimalnih 36 meseci sistema u upotrebi.
References
[1] Ili, Z. M., Revitalization of architectural objects by means of energy efficiency impro-
vement: An economic case analysis, Energy & Buildings, Volume 93 (2015), pp. 180-
188.
[2] ***Pravilnik o energetskoj efikasnosti zgrada, "Sl. glasnik RS", br. 61/2011
[3] *** http://www.viessmann.rs
[4] *** http://www.ursa.rs
[5] *** New York State Energy Research and Development Authority, Measured Perfor-
mance of Four Passive Houses on Three Sites in New York State, The Levy Partnership,
Inc., 2014.
[6] Johnston, D., Farmer, D., Brooke-Peat, M., Miles-Shenton, D., Bridging the domestic
building fabric performance gap, Building Research & Information, Volume 44 (2016),
issue 2, pp. 147-159.
[7] Burman, E., Mumovic, D., Kimpian, J., Towards measurement and verification of
energy performance under the framework of the European directive for energy perfor-
mance of buildings, Energy, Volume 77 (2014), pp. 153-163
[8] Ko, Y. S., No, S. T., A Study on Comparison of Building Energy Simulation and Measu-
rement Results for a City Hall, Journal of Building Construction and Planning Research,
Volume 3 (2015), pp. 1-9.
[9] Ren, Z., Foliente, G., Chan W., DChen, D., Ambrose, M., Paevere, P., A model for
predicting household end-use energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions in Aus-
tralia, International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Develop-
ment, Volume 4 (2013), issue 3, pp. 210-228.
[10] *** Passive House Institute, Energy efficiency of the Passive House Standard:
Expectations confirmed by measurements in practice, Passipedia - The Passive House
Resource, 2016.
[11] *** Passive House Institute, PHPP - validated and proven in practice, Passipedia - The
Passive House Resource, 2016.
[12] Arena, L., Williamson, J., Predicted Versus Actual Savings for a Low-Rise Multifamily
Retrofit in Boulder, Colorado, U.S. Department of Energy, 2013.
575

GET LEDUCATED TO SEE OR NOT TO SEE
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milic@gcub.rs
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The aim of this study is to show advantages of using T8 LED tubes instead of
classic T8 fluorescent tubes in the existing lamps in a school classroom. Students of
the Electric Energy Technician program at the Secondary School of Electrical Engi-
neering Rade Koncar in Belgrade, worked on a lighting project for their classro-
om. Within their Optional Activities Group for Energetic Efficiency and Renewable
Energy, they developed a project which included changing the existing lightning
system which uses classic T8 tubes to the one using T8 LED tubes. During and
after this project the students measured the active, reactive and apparent power of
electrical lightning, as well as the quality and the intensity of lightning. Analyses of
the resultss of measurements in a control classroom (with standard T8 tubes) and a
classroom with the new T8 LED tubes show how they achieved reduction of power
consumption by 61 % , while the quality of lighting was 66 % higher. At the same
time, the color of the light was changed, so a Cold White 6500 K light transformed
to a Warm White 4000 K light. Total consumption of the electric lightning at Rade
Koncar school amounts to 35,64 kW, using 330 bulbs equipped with electromagne-
tic ballast and 660 pieces of standard T8 fluorescent tubes, each of them 36W
strong. By changing all 660 existing T8 fluorescent tubes with T8 LED tubes, the
power consumption would be reduced from 35,64 kW to 13,89 kW. During the
installation of tubes, the electromagnetic ballast got a short switchover, significantly
cutting the reactive power. At the moment, lighting the school consumes 35.600 kWh
of electric energy per year. After the installation of T8 LED tubes, the consumption
of energy would be reduced to 14.890 kWh per year. The difference of 21.750 kWh is
worth 2.825,00 , which is enough monez to buy 565 T8 LED tubes. The study also
presents how an investment in LED lightning would be returned within just 14
months, on the condition that T8 LED tubes installation is performed by students, as
part of their Optional Activity Group for Energetic Efficiency and Renewable
Energy. Students thought that Warm White 4000 K light was a good choice. In an
opinion poll, students described the working conditions in the LED-lighted classro-
om as "much more pleasant" than in the Control Classroom with Cold White 6500K
light. The study also presents results of School of Electrical Engineering Rade
Koncar's cooperation with the Gerontology Center in Belgrade. The students of the
School members of Optional Activity Group for Energetic Efficiency and
Renewable Energy worked on a project designing Energy Efficient lighting system
for the Adult and Elderly Care Center in Diljska Street. The project consisted of
LED tube installation (instead of existing fluorescent tubes). Before the installation,
students would perform necessary lighting and energy measurements, then repeat
the same measurements after the installation of LED tubes.
578
Key words: energy efficiency, LED light, Education, Secondary School of
Electrical Engineering Rade Koncar, clasroom;

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584
UTICAJ KOEFICIJENTA TRANSFORMACIJE
PRIMARNE ENERGIJE NA NISKOTEMPERATURNE
PANELNE SISTEME GREJANJA
THE IMPACT OF PRIMARY ENERGY COEFFICIENT
ON LOW TEMPERATURE PANEL HEATING SYSTEMS
Dragan CVETKOVI, Aleksandar NEOVI
Fakultet inenjerskih nauka u Kragujevcu, Univerzitet u Kragujevcu
dragan_cw8202@yahoo.com
U Srbiji je sve prisutnije koriennje panelnih sistema grejanja. Iako je poz-
nato da ovi sistemi mogu da rade pri znatno niim temperatuskim izvorima, zbog
visoke investicije kupci se opredeljuju za gas ili struju kao izvor toplote. Cilj ove
studije je bio da se pokae stvarne utede uz pomo GHSP i PV panela u sistemima
panelnog grejanja. Analizirana kua se nalazi u Kragujevcu, Srbija. Takoe, ovo
istraivanje je u okviru projekta Razvoj energetski neto-nultih kua. Rad analizi-
ranih panela je simuliran pomou programa EnerdiPlas koji je proizvod Berkli
Laboratorije, SAD.
Kljune rei: zraei paneli, toplotna puma, PV paneli, potronja energije,
EnergyPlus.
In Serbia is increasingly using of panel heating systems. Although it is well

known that these systems can operate at much lower temperature heat source, due to
the high investment customers are opting for gas or electricity as a heat source in
these systems. The aim of this study is to demonstrate the actual savings using the
GHSP and PV panels in panel heating systems. The analysed house is located in
Kragujevac, Serbia. Also, this research is the part of the project "Development of a
net-zero-energy house. The operation of these panels is simulated by software
EnergyPlus that is product of Lawrence Berkley Laboratory in USA.
Key words: radiant panel, heat pump, PV panels, energy consumption,
EnergyPlus
UVOD
Danas se u Srbiji sve vie koriste panelni sistemi grejanja. Pristupanija cena
panela je razlog njihove sve vee. Meutim, kako panelni sistemi rade sa niskim
temperaturama fluida postavljaju se zahtevi za pravilnim izborom generatora toplo-
te. Zbog niske investicione cene danas se korisnici panelnih sistema uglavnom odlu-
uju za upotrebu gasnih kotlova. Sa druge strane, energetski edukovaniji korisnici
bez razmiljanja se odluuju za sistem sa toplotnim pumpama voda-voda koje kao
toplotni izvor uglavnom koriste geotermalnu energiju zemlje.
585
Postoji dosta radova objavljenih na temu primene GSHP (eng. ground source
heat pump) ureaja. Piechowski [1] je prouavao relativno novi pristup optimizacije
geotermalnog razmenjivaa toplote (GHE), na osnovu drugog zakona termodinami-
ke i usvojen je test za optimalne kombinacije protoka vode i prenika cevi. Hepbasli
i Akdemir [2] su opisali energetsku i eksergetsku analizu GSHP sistema. Prenos
eksergije izmeu komponenti i potronja svake od komponenti GSHP sistema su
definisane za izmerene prosene parametre dobijene eksperimentalnim merenjima.
Lohani i Schmidt [3] su uporedili razliite generatore toplote sa aspekta energetske i
eksergetske analize. Oni su zakljuili da geotermalna toplotna pumpa je bolja od
vazdunih toplotnih pumpi ili od klasinih grejnih sistema. Hepbasli [4] je sproveo
termodinamiku analizu GSHP sistema za daljinsko grejanje u smislu energetske i
eksergetske analize, koja je imala za cilj da unapredi efikasnost procesa. Kharseh i
ostali [5] su istraivali efekat globalnog zagrevanja na perfomanse GSHP sistema.
Oni su pokazali da neprestane globalne promene imaju znaajan uticaj na GSHP
sisteme.
Neke studije su posveene istraivanju karakteristika panelnih sistema unutar
zgrada. Kilkis B [6] je pokazao da optimalan proces zraeih panelnih sistema pove-
zanih sa geotermalnim toplotnim pumpama voenim pomou obnovljivih energet-
skih izvora unapreuje eksergetsku efikasnost i odnos primarne energije. Kosir M. i
ostali. [7] su primenili niskotemperaturske zraee sisteme u kombinaciji sa lokal-
nom automatizovanom ventilacijom u muzeju u Ljubljni, Slovenija. Korienjem
ove solucije sa sistem menadmentom zgrade, potreba za energijom je smanjena za
grejanje i hlaenje za 60.5%. Bojic i ostali [8] su uporedili zidne panela i radijatore
povezane na klasini gasni kotao.
Takoe, ova studija je nastavak prethodnih istraivanja Bojia i ostalih [9].
Oni su uporedili etiri razliita panelna sistema (podno, zidno, plafonsko i podno-
plafonsko grejanje) povezanih na kotao na prirodni gas.
Cilj ovog rada je da se ispita mogunost poboljanja energetske efikasnosti
panenih sistema grejanja koristei nisko temperaturske izvore. Najee korien
sistem sa gasnim kotlom je uporeen sa sittemom sa toplotnom pumpom. Kao izvor
toplote toplotna pumpa koristi geotermalnu energiju (GSHP). U cilju smanjenja
primarne potronje energije GSJP istraivana je sprega izmeu GSHP i PV elija.
MATEMATIKI MODEL
2.1 Opis kue
Analizirana kua je porodina stambena kua prikazana na slici 1. Kua je
projektovana za stanovanje jedne porodice i ima ukupno povrinu za stanovanje od
190 m2. Omota kue je napravljen od uplje opeke debljine 190 mm, termoizolaci-
onog sloja debljine 50 mm i krenog maltera debljine 20 mm. U-koeficijent omotaa
kue je oko 0,57W/(m2K). Prozori su dvostruko zastakljeni sa vrednou U-
koeficijent od 2.72 W/(m2K). Ukupan odnos staklenih povrina i omotaa je oko
7.32%, gde je ukupna povrina omotaa oko 264 m2 a povrina prozora oko 19 m2.
586
Slika 1 Analizirana kua
gde je, DS dnevna soba, HOD hodnik, KUP kupatilo,
SS1 spavaa soba, SS2 spavaa soba, SS3 spavaa soba.
Analizirana kua se nalazi u Kragujevcu, Srbija. Nadmorska visina je oko
209 m, i geografska irina i duina su 44oS i 20o55 I. Grad ima umerenu temperatur-
sku klimu sa etiri godinja doba (leto, jesen, zima i prolee). Kao deo programskog
paketa EnerdiPlasa korien je vremenski fajl sa podacima za Kragujevac, a pret-
hodno je generisan pomou programa Meteonorm [10]. Grejna sezona za grad Kra-
gujevac traje od 15 Oktobra do15 Aprila [11].
2.2 Opis grejnih sistema

Korieni grejni sistemi se sastoje od niskotemperaturskih grejnih panela i
generatora toplote. etiri tipa grejnih panela su istraivana. Prvi je podno grejanje,
drugi je zidno grejanje, trei je plafonsko grejanje i etvrti sistem predstavlja podno-
plafonsko grejanje. Povrina podnih panela je oko 190 m2. Zidni paneli su postavlje-
ni na sve spoljanje zidove unutar grejnih prostorija. Njihova povrina je oko 210
m2. Plafonski paneli su postavljeni na plafonu prvog i drugog sprata. Njihova povr-
ina je oko 190 m2. Podno-plafonski grejni panel funkcionie kao plafonsko grejanje
za niu etau i istovremeno kao podno grejanje za viu etau. Ukupna povrina ovih
panela je oko 95 m2.
Glavne komponente grejnih panela su cevi kroz koje protie topla voda.
Temperatura tople vode na ulazu u panel je ista za sva etiri sistema i iznosi oko
37oC. Cirkulaciona pumpa koristi struju za svoj rad. Takoe, potronja struje je
uzeta u obzir kod proraunavanja potronje energije.
Kao generator toplote korieni su kotao na prirodni gas i geotermalna toplo-
tna pumpa (GSHP). Za sva etiri sistema instalisana snaga kotla je oko 24 kW.
Nominalna elektrina snaga toplotne pumpe je oko 4 kW. Takoe, duina geoter-
malne sonde sa dve U-cevi je oko 76m.
587
U ovom istraivanju ispitivana su tri naina generisanja toplote (slika 2). Prvi
sistem je sluaj kada se panelni sistemi povezani na kotao na prirodni gas, drugi
sluaj je kada su panelni sistemi povezani na geotermalnu toplotnu pumpu tipa
voda-voda (GSHP) i trei sluaj je kada su panelni sistemi povezani na geotermalnu
toplotnu pumpu tipa voda-voda koja deo elektrine energije za pogon kompresora
koristi iz fotonaponskih panela (GSHP+PV). U svim sistemima grejanja postoji
cirkulaciona pumpa koja koristi elektrinu energiju za svoje funkcionisanje. Takoe
sistemi sa geotermalnom toplotnom pumpom imaju i cirkulacione pumpe na strani
isparivaa. Potronja elektrine energije cirkulacionih pumpi je uzeta u obzir pri
izraunavanju potronji energija od strane sistema grejanja.
Slika 2 Sistemi generisanja toplote
Potronja primarne energije za grejanje

Potronja primarne energije u toku grejne sezone se izraunava korienjem
sledee jednaine:
Epry = Eng + R Eel (1)
ili
Epry = R Eel (2)
Jednaina (1) se odnosi na panelne sisteme kada su povezani na gasni kotao a
jednaina (2) se odnosi na panelne sisteme povezane na geotermalnu toplotnu pum-
pu.
Gde: Eng predstavlja potronju prirodnog gasa za grejanje u toku grejne sezo-
ne, Eel predstavlja potronju struje za grejanje u toku grejne sezone i R predstavlja
588
faktor transformacije primarne energije. Ovaj koeficijent je definisan kao odnos
ukupne ulazne energije sadrane u energetskom resursu (hidro, ugalj, nafta i prirodni
gas) i proizvedene finalne elektrine energije. Vrednost ovog faktora sa Srpski ener-
getski miks koji se koristi za proizvodnju elektrine energije je R = 3.01 [12].
Potronja totalne energije
Totalna energija predstavlja zbir primarnih energija utroenih za rad sistema
za grejanje i ugraene energije u sistem grejanja. Totalna energija se izraunava po
sledeem obrascu:
Etot=Epry+Eemb (3)
gde je Eemb ugraena energija sistema ili komponente grejanja.
Slika 3 prikazuje potronju finalne i primarne energije za etiri razliite vrste
panelnih sistema grejanja koji su se koristili kao generatori toplote (gasni kotao,
GSHP ili GSHP+PV). Ukoliko bi se meusobno poredile performanse panelnih
sistema grejanja, najmanju potronju energije ima podno-plafonsko grejanje, a naj-
veu plafonsko grejanje. Ukoliko bi se poredile performanse korienih generatora
toplote, panelni sistem (vai za sva etiri sluaja) povezan na kotao na prirodni gas
troi veu koliinu finalne energije, nego sistem sa geotermalnom toplotnom pum-
pom (GSHP). Meutim, sistem sa geotermalnom toplotnom pumpom (GSHP) troi
veu koliinu primarne energije, nego sistem sa gasnim kotlom. Razlog ove pojave
je u tome to je koeficijent transformacije primarne energije za elektrinu energiju
(R=3.01) znatno vii od koeficijent transformacije primarne energije za prirodni gas
(R=1.1). Tako je potronja finalne i primarne energije kod podno-plafonskih panela
povezanih na kotao na prirodni gas 48 kWh/m2god i 53 kWh/m2god, respektivno.
Odnosno, potronja finalne i primarne energije kod podno-plafonskih panela pove-
zanih na geotermalnu toplotnu pumpu 20 kWh/m2god i 62 kWh/m2god, respektiv-
no.
Ovi rezultati dovode do zakljuka da su panelni sistemi povezani na geoter-
malne toplotne pumpe, usled visoke vrednosti koeficijenta transformacije primarne
energije, nepovoljnije reenje u odnosu na panelne sisteme povezane na gasni kotao.
Naravno, ovo vai za Srbiju kao i za zemlje sa slinim vrednostima koeficijenta
transformacije primarne energije. Zbog toga se pribeglo reavanju problema prime-
nom fotonaponskih panela. Proizvedena elektrina energija iz fotonaponskih panela
e smanjiti koliinu elektrine energije iz nacionalne mree, koja ima visoku vred-
nost koeficijenta transformacije primarne energije. Tako da e se potronja finalne i
primarne energije redukovati sa 20 kWh/m2god i 62 kWh/m2god na 6 kWh/m2god i
32 kWh/m2god, respektivno. Naravno, toplotna pumpa e povlaiti istu koliinu
finalne energije, ali e udeo primarne energije iz fotonaponskih panela, koja ima
faktor transformacije primarne energije blizak jedinici, smanjiti ukupnu koliinu
primarne energije potrebne za rad panelnih sistema u odnosu na sluaj kada se sva
koliina elektrine energije koristi iz nacionalne mree.
589
Slika 3 Potronja finalne i primarne energije panelnih sistema grejanja
povezanih na razliite izvore toplote
Na slici 4 prikazana je potronja totalne energije analiziranih panelnih siste-
ma, koji su za generatore toplote imali kotao na prirodni gas, geotermalnu toplotnu
pumpu (GSHP) i geotermalnu toplotnu pumpu povezanu sa fotonaponskim panelima
(GSHP+PV). Totalna energija je zapravo suma utroene primarne energije od siste-
ma grejanja i utroene ugraene energije u primenjeni sistem grejanja. Najniu pot-
ronju totalne energije ima podno-plafonsko grejanje, koje koristi kotao na prirodni
gas kao izvor toplote (54 kWh/m2god). A najviu potronju totalne energije ima
plafonsko grejanje koje koristi sistem GSHP+PV kao generator toplote (257
kWh/m2god). Visoka vrednost ugraene energije za proizvodnju fotonaponskih
panela (videti tabelu 5.7) je razlog to sistem sa GSHP+PV ima znaajno viu potro-
nju totalne energije u odnosi na panelne sisteme koji su povezani na neki od preos-
tala dva sistema.
Na slici 5 prikazane su relacije izmeu potronje totalne energije ETOT i
koeficijenta transformacije primarne energije R. Takoe, sa slike 5 zakljueno je da
zbog visoke vrednosti koeficijenta transformacije primarne energije R=3.01, geo-
termalna toplotna pumpa ima veu potronju primarne energije nego sistem sa gas-
nim kotlom. Iz tog razloga, prikazane su potronje totalne energije za panelne siste-
me povezane na geotermalnu toplotnu pumpu pri niim vrednostima R i naznaene
su vrednosti koeficijenta transformacije primarne energije R, pri kojima panelni
sistemi povezani na kotao na prirodni gas imaju istu potronju totalne energije kao i
panelni sistemi povezani na geotermalnu toplotnu pumpu. Naravno, neka realnost je
da e se u skorijoj budunosti teiti niim vrednostima od R=3.01, ali je realnost i da
se teko moe ii na vrednosti ispod R = 2, pa je iz tog razloga ova vrednost usvoje-
na kao donja granica. Sa slike 5 moe se zakljuiti da e panelni sistemi povezani na
590
geotermalnu toplotnu pumpu imati niu potronju totalne energije u odnosu na
panelne sisteme povezane na gasni kotao kada je R < 2.81 za zidno grejanje, R <
2.68 za podno grejanje, R < 2.62 za podno-plafonsko grejanje i R < 2.54 za plafon-
sko grejanje.
Slika 4 Potronja totalne energije panelnih sistema grejanja

povezanih na razliite izvore toplote
Slika 5 Odnos izmeu potronje totalne energije GSHP sistema

i koeficijenta transformacije primarne energije R.
591
Zakljuci
U ovom istraivanju prikazana je analiza panelnih sistema povezanih na raz-
liite vrste izvora toplote. Ako se razmatraju toplotni izvori, situacija se razlikuje u
zavisnosti da li se analiza posmatra sa nivoa krajnjeg korisnika kue ili sa globalnog
stanovita. Rezultati pokazuju da je potronja finalne energije kod panelnih sistema
povezanih na geotermalnu toplotnu pumpu manja u odnosu na panelne sisteme
povezane na gasni kotao. Ali, usled znatno vie vrednosti koeficijenta transformacije
primarne energije za elektrinu energiju u odnosu na prirodni gas, potronja primar-
ne energije se dijametralno razlikuje i sada je via kod sistema sa geotermalnom
toplotnom pumpom. Iz ovog razloga, istraivanje je ukljuilo i fotonaponske panele,
kako bi se razblaila vrednost koeficijenta transformacije primarne energije.
Zakljueno je da je koliina finalne energije koja se povlai iz mree najnia
za sistem sa geotermalnom toplotnom pumpom i fotonaponskim panelima
(GSHP+PV). Takoe, upotreba fotonaponskih panela smanjuje i potronju primarne
energije iz mree. Naravno, trokovi grejanja su nii za ovaj sluaj. Meutim, pos-
matrajui ove rezultate na globalnom nivou, moraju se uzeti u obzir i koliine ener-
gije utroene pri proizvodnji generatora toplote, sistema grejanja kao i koliina
ugljendioksida koja se emituje pri proizvodnji istih (ugraena energija i ugraeni
CO2). Takoe, uzeta je u obzir vrednosti investicija u posmatrane sistem. Tako da sa
globalnog aspekta ovi sistemi (GSHP+PV) predstavljaju najloije reenje. Naravno,
ovi rezultati su dobijeni za uslove koji vladaju u Srbiji (visoke vrednosti koeficijenta
transformacije primarne energije i malo sunanih dana tokom zime).
U budunosti, u svetu a i u Srbiji, intenzivno se oekuje upotreba obnovljivih
izvora energije u energetskom miksu (pri proizvodnji elektrine energije). Tada e
se energetski miks kretati ka smanjenju koeficijenta transformacije primarne energi-
je. U nekom trenutku, panelni sistemi povezani na geotermalnu toplotnu pumpu e
troiti manje energije od panelnih sistema povezanih na gasni kotao.
ZAHVALNICA: Ovaj rezultat dva istraivanja: (1) projekat TR33015 Teh-
nolokog razvoja Republike Srbije, i (2) projekat III 42006 Integlralna i interdisci-
plinarna istraivanja Republike Srbije. Prvi projekat je pod nazivom Istraivanje i
razvoj Srpske kue nulte neto postronje energije, i drugi projekat je pod nazivom
Istraivanje i razvoj energijski i ekoloki visoko efikasnih sistema poligeneracije
zasnovanoj na obnovljivim energijskim izvorima. elimo da se zahvalimo Ministar-
svu obrazovanja i nauke Republike Srbije na njihovj finansijskoj podrci tokom ovih
istraivanja.
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593
INSTALACIJA ZA EKSPERIMENTALNA
ISTRAIVANJA PRIRODNE I PRIRODNO-PRINUDNE
(MEOVITE) KONVEKCIJE DU VERTIKALNE
TERMO-AKTIVNE SOBNE POVRINE
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS FOR EXPERIMENTAL
STUDIES OF NATURAL AND MIXED CONVECTION
ALONG VERTICAL THERMO ACTIVE ROOM SURFACE
Samo VENKO*, Erik PAVLOVI
Lindab IMP Klima d.o.o., Godovi, Slovenia
samo.venko@lindab.si
Ciril ARKAR, Sao MEDVED
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Slovenija
Dobro projektovane eksperimentalne instalacije omoguavaju istaivaima
visok stepen pouzdanosti rezultata i omoguavaju istraivanja pri razliitim grani-
nim uslovima. Ovaj rad predstavlja visoko sofisticiranu aparaturu (instalaciju) za
eksperimentalno istraivanje prirodne i meovite (prirodno-prinudne) konvekcije
koja se nalazi u Lindab IMP Klima, Godovi, u Sloveniji. Prikazane su karakteri-
stike osnovnih elemenata instalacije koja se sastoji od termostatske komore, verti-
kalnog termo-aktivnog sobnog zida koji moe sluiti za grejanje ili hlaenje i siste-
ma ventilacije koji je potreban za postizanje uslova meovite konvekcije. Takoe, u
radu je prikazan sistem za akviziciju podataka i upravljanje celokupnom eksperi-
mentalnom opremom u okviru instalacije. Instalacija slui za istraivanje prirodne i
meovite konvekcije pri razliitim graninim uslovima, vei deo studije e biti objav-
ljen u budunosti, kada nove injenice o prirodnoj i meovitoj konvekciji budu otkri-
vene, a deo rezultata je ve objavljen [1-5].
Kljunerei: eksperimentalna instalacija, prirodna konvekcija, meovita
konvekcija, termo aktivni sistemi, grejanje, hlaenje, ventilacija, obnovljivi izvori
energije
Well-designed experimental facilities allow research studies with high confi-
dence in results and allow studies at different influential boundary conditions. This
paper presents highly sophisticated experimental apparatus for experimental studies
of natural and mixed convection which is installed in Lindab IMP Klima, Godovi,
Slovenia. Presented are characteristics of main elements of it which is assembled of
thermostatic chamber, vertical thermo active room wall which can be either heated
595
or cooled and ventilation system which is required for mixed convection. Paper as
well presents system for data acquisition and control of the whole experimental
apparatus. Experimental setup is used for studies of natural and mixed convection
under various boundary conditions, some results of already performed studies can
be found in the literature [1-5].
Key words: experimental apparatus, natural convection, mixed convection,
TABS, heating, cooling, ventilation, renewable energy sources
I. Introduction
New technologies and systems compatible with Nearly zero-energy building
concept have to be energy efficient and have to use as much as possible renewable
energy sources for heating and cooling. Contemporary buildings which complies
those requirements often use large thermo active room surface which exchange heat
with room at small temperature differences. In designing phase of such concepts is
crucial to realistically estimate their heating and cooling potential. Room surfaces
exchange heat with room with mechanisms of convection and radiation, where pro-
cedures and equations for last mechanism are reliable and their results are very close
to reality. Meanwhile convection is influenced by many boundary conditions and
that why we can find in literature many equations for convective heat transfer coef-
ficients (CHTC), which can give comparable results or even very different, mostly
depend on researching methods and used boundary condition during researching.
This fact is realized also in literature [6 - 8]. Mostly all equations are only for an
average CHTC, oppositely Goldstein and Novoselac [9], Venko et al. [10] showed
that convection along surface is not uniform but it is locally dependent, there for it is
important that convection is researched locally along investigated surface.
CHTCs cannot be measured directly, but they can be obtained from known
convective heat flux on investigated surface and from temperature differences be-
tween surface and reference air temperature. Convection can be studied either at
uniform convective heat flux i.e. at Neumann boundary condition (qsurface/x =
qsurface/y = 0), where surface temperature has to be measured locally to get local
CHTC or at Dirichlet boundary condition i.e. at uniform surface temperature
(surface/x = surface/y = 0) where convective heat flux has to be measured locally.
Reference air temperature is chosen differently in literature; Churchill and Chu [11],
Polidori et al. [12 14] have considered an average room air temperature as refer-
ence air temperature because they assumed that room air is ideally mixed and uni-
form at natural convection. Awbi and Hatton [6], Khalifa and Marshall [15] oppo-
sitely assumed ununiformed room air temperature for natural convection; therefore
they measured reference air temperature locally along investigated surface outside
temperature boundary layer. Spitler et al. [16, 17], Fisher and Pedersen [18], Gold-
stein and Novoselac [9] consider supply air temperature as a reference air tempera-
ture for mixed convection. Awbi and Hatton [19], Novoselac et al. [20] used local
room air temperature 100 mm away from surface as reference air temperature and as
well supply air temperature. Goethals et al. [36] and authors of this paper based on
596
preliminary studies of natural and mixed convection suggest, that reference room air
temperature is measured in the middle of the occupied zone in the height x* = 1,1 m
above the floor.
Convection along large room surfaces can be researched either with experi-
mental work or numerically with computational fluid dynamics (CFD). CFD is very
effective method for estimating of physical behavior, choosing the most suitable
boundary conditions, prediction of trends, faster development of product in industry
etc. In practice unexpected phenomenon can appear either because of numerical
error or physical properties. Oppositely at experimental work all results have to be
validated with Uncertainty analyses and therefore they can also be as an etalon for
further CFD analyses.
II. Experimental apparatus and thermostatic chamber

The base of experimental apparatus is thermostatic chamber with inner di-
mensions 4 m 4 m 3 m made fully in accordance with standard EN 442-2:1996
[21]. Each of all its six inner surfaces can be individually thermally actuated for
maintaining required constant air temperature in chamber during experimental work.
Its interior is split in two compartments by separation vertical wall for purpose of
studies of natural and mixed convection. Smaller compartment serves for installa-
tions and the larger one with dimensions 4 m 3 m 2,51 m presents office room
for one working place. All inner surfaces of the office room have radiative emissivi-
ty ir > 0,87 [22], there for radiative heat exchange between inner surfaces must be
considered at studies of convection. Vertical thermo active room surface (TARS)
with dimensions 1,25 m 2,51 m, which serves for studying natural and mixed
convection along vertical room surface, was inserted in separation wall. It is in de-
tails presented in chapter III. Linear slot diffusor presented in chapter VI was in-
stalled in suspended ceiling and it can be in distance 0 mm < y 175 mm from ver-
tical TARS. Supply air velocity normal to slot and with uniform discharge profile
along the slot can be maintained with ventilation system in range 0 m/s < v 4 m/s
for researching mixed convection along vertical TARS. Experimental apparatus is
presented in Figures 1 and 2.
III. Vertical thermo active room surface

Vertical TARS shown on Figures 3 and 4 is assembled of five segments each
with dimensions 1250 mm 500 mm. Segments were developed by using CFD tool
Ansys Fluent 13.5 [23] with aim to ensure experimental work at Dirichlet boundary
condition. Each of them has independent water loop regulated with motorized valve,
water inlet and outlet temperatures are measured by sensors Pt-100 with inaccuracy
u = 0,05 K [24], water flow of each segment is measured by ultrasonic water flow
meter. Each of segments can be individually thermally activated which allows stud-
ies of convection at different configurations of thermal activation.
597
Figure 1: Schematically presented experimental apparatus; 1 thermostatic cham-
ber, 2 larger compartment (office room), 3 smaller compartment for installa-
tions, 4 vertical TARS, 5 thermal insulation, 6 airtight damper, 7 supply air
diffusor, 8 exhaust air diffusor in the middle of the ceiling, 9 alternately opened
airtight dampers, 10 exhaust air diffusor at the wall opposite to vertical TARS, 11
suspended ceiling, 12 raised floor, 13 connections for temperature controlled
water for vertical TARS, 14 air handling unit, 15 heater of air handling unit, 16
cooler of air handling unit, 17 section for measurements of exhaust air flow
rates, 18 section for measurements of supply air flow rates
598
Figure 2: Interior of thermostatic chamber larger compartment with coordinate
system (left) and thermostatic chamber with its installations from outside (right)
Figure 3: Vertical TARS in chamber during installation work; 1 wall of thermo-

static chamber, 2 - vertical TARS, 3 supply air diffusor, 4 heat flux sensors with
integrated temperature sensors Pt-100, 5 - polypropylene on vertical TARS around
heat flux sensors, 6 supply air duct, 7 exhaust air duct
599
water intlet
water outlet
Figure 4: Cross section of TARS segment with integrated heat exchanger designed
with CFD
IV. Measurements of velocities and temperatures of room air

Velocities and temperatures of room air can be measured in zone influenced by
vertical TARS i.e. 0 mm < y 700 mm from vertical TARS and 150 x* 2410
mm above the floor. Position of temperature and velocity sensors is showed on Fig-
ure 5. Separately can also be measured temperatures and velocities in occupied zone
of the room (Figure 5). Room air temperatures are measured in accordance with EN
13182:2002 [25] using sensors Pt-100 Class A in accordance with IEC 60751:2008
[26] and combined sensors for simultaneous measurements of temperature (u95 =
0,2 K) and velocity (u95 = 0,02 m/s 3% in measuring range 0,05 v 1,00 m/s
or u95 = 5% in measuring range 1,00 v 5,00 m/s [27]).
V. Measurements of temperatures and heat fluxes

on surface of vertical tars
Surface heat exchange is measured with heat flux sensors with dimensions
120 mm 30 mm 1,6 mm and 120 mm 120 mm 1,6 mm all with measurement
inaccuracy ur,95 = 5% of measured value [28]. Each heat flux sensor has integrated
resistant temperature sensor Pt-100 Class A in accordance with IEC 60751:2008
used for surface temperature measurements. Optimal distribution of heat flux sen-
sors on vertical TARS shown on Figure 6 were chosen based on CFD simulations of
natural and mixed convection along vertical TARS. Those sensors are bounded on
TARS surface with highly thermo conductive paste normally used for cooling of
electronic components. The polypropylene with the same thickness and the compa-
rable thermal conductivity as heat flux sensors is bounded on the remaining surface
of the TARS around the heat flux sensors. This ensures that surface of the TARS is
flat and its surface temperature uniform and ensures experimental work at Dirichlet
boundary
600
Distances from vertical TARS for temperature measurements
y 25 30 35 40 45 65 75 90 105 120
(mm) 155 175 210 245 285 325 415 515 615 715
Distances from vertical TARS for velocity measurements
y 10 15 20 25 30 50 60 75 90 105
(mm) 140 160 195 230 270 310 400 500 600 700
Figure 5: Locations of sensors for temperature and velocity measurements inside

thermostatic chamber
condition. The whole TARS surface is coated with special low emission colour
with emissivity ir = 0,143 [22]. Consequently radiative heat exchange on vertical
TARS is minimized although it needs to be computationally considered e.g. with
reliable method used by Goldstein and Novoselac [9].
VI. Supply air diffusor and ventilation system

Experimental apparatus is designed for analyzing of natural and mixed con-
vection along vertical TARS. In literature [10] is presented approach where supply
601
air is used for enhancing convective heat transfer with mechanism of mixed convec-
tion which is generated with fresh supply air required for ventilating. Mixed convec-
tion can be established in presented experimental apparatus by linear slot diffusor
which generates two-dimensional wall jet along vertical TARS. We chose this flow
element, because it shows the greatest potential for enhancing convective heat trans-
fer along vertical TARS [29]. Two-dimensional wall jet is generated, when ratio
between slot length and its width is larger than 20 [30, 31]. Therefore we choose
diffusor length 1000 mm and three widths 10 mm, 20 mm and 30 mm where this
ratio is always more than 20.
Heat flux sensors with dimensions 120 mm 30 mm

Heat flux sensors with dimensions 120 mm 120 mm
Figure 6: Locations of heat flux sensors with integrated temperature sensors
on vertical TARS
Velocity of the supply air has to be uniform along the slot and its direction
parallel to vertical TARS. We used diffusor from Cao et al. [32] study as a base for
designing diffusor with those requirements but we realized with usage of CFD that
its design doesnt full fill our requirements for studies of mixed convection (Figure
7). Therefore we redesigned the diffusor using CFD to obtain required characteris-
tics (Figure 8). The diffusor was additionally tested with smoke test before the in-
stallation into the thermostatic chamber (Figure 9).
Thermostatic chamber is very sensitive to over or under pressure inside the
chamber. Consequentially supply air flow rate must be equal to exhaust air flow rate
all the time during studies of the mixed convection. Air can be exhausted out of the
larger compartment either through the slot diffusor in the ceiling at the opposite wall
of vertical TARS or through the slot diffusor in the middle of the ceiling parallel to
602
the vertical TARS. This configuration of the exhaust elements enable studies how is
mixed convection influenced by location of exhaust air elements (Figure10).
Figure 7: Cross section of diffusor plenum box [32] (left) and velocity vectors
(right) for diffusor used by Cao et al. [32]
Figure 8: Velocity vectors in diffusors plenum (left) and at slot (right) for diffusor
used for studies of mixed convection
603
Figure 9: Smoke tests of the diffusor before installation
Figure 10: Layout of supply air diffusor and exhaust air diffusors; 1 supply air
diffusor, 2 exhaust air diffusor in the centre of the ceiling, 3 exhaust air diffusor
at the wall opposite to vertical TARS
VII. Temperature and flow rate controll of the supply air

Supply air flow rate and its temperature can be maintained with air handling
unit shown in Figure 11. Air flow rate is regulated due to required supply air veloci-
ty at supply air diffusor. Mass flow rates of the supply air and exhaust air are meas-
ured with orifice plate in accordance with standards EN ISO 5167-1:2003 [33] and
EN ISO 5167-2:2003 [34] and considering the recommendations of Bajsi and Do-
lenc [35]. Duct system between airflow measurement sections and supply air and
exhaust air diffusor are fully air tight for overpressure up to 1000 Pa. Tightness has
to be regularly tested before measurements and additionally tested with smoke.
Temperature of the supply air is measured with calibrated resistant sensor Pt-100
with maximal inaccuracy 1/10 of Class B (IEC 60751:2008) [26], it is installed in
supply air diffusor plenum box directly above the slot.
604
Figure 11: Air handling unit and sections for measurement of the supply and ex-
haust air flow rates; 1 flanges with inserted orifice plates, 2 supply air duct, 3
exhaust air duct
VIII. Data acquisition and control system

System for data acquisition and control of experimental apparatus shown on
Figure 12 is assembled of desktop computer, programmable logic controller Sie-
mens Simatic S7-300, A/D and D/A modules of the same producer. A/D conversion
is between 40 Hz and 400 Hz depends on inlet signals and measuring quantity. Cur-
rent and average values of measured and calculated quantities can be saved on the
hard disk with frequency of 2 Hz. System controls experimental apparatus that
TARS and supply air temperatures are at least 2 K above the dew point and that all
research work can be conducted under steady state boundary conditions, which have
to be defined due to experimental program.
IX. Conclusions
We presented in this paper experimental apparatus for natural and mixed con-
vection along vertical TARS in closed room and as well its main components and their
characteristics. It is sophisticated complex experimental setup which allows systematic
studies of natural and mixed convection as a consequence of two-dimensional wall jet
along vertical TARS. Experimental apparatus was designed and based on our own
theoretical and practical knowledge additionally supported with extensive CFD studies
with aim to bring its characteristics as close as possible to the real cases of ventilation in
combination with heated and cooled large surfaces. It has already been designed as well
on suggestion presented in literature thats why we also we believe and hope that this
paper will help other researchers when they will prepare their labo ratories for studies of
convection along room surfaces. In the future we will present
605
Figure 12: Data acquisition and control system; relay box (left) and programmable
logic controller with A/D and D/A modules (right)
the continuation of this paper which will be focused on theoretical background and
to study of experimental uncertainty analyses which are both the essential parts of
each experimental study and its results.
X. Acknowledgement
Presented project was partially financed by the European Union, European
Social Fund, contract No.: P-MR-07/65.
XI. Nomenclature
CFD [/] computational fluid dynamics
CHTC [/] convective heat transfer coefficient
ir [/] radiative emissivity
[C] temperature in Celsius
q [W/m2] local surface heat flux
TARS [/] thermo active room surface
u [ ]1 measurement uncertainty
ur [%] relative measurement uncertainty
v [m/s] velocity
x [m] vertical distance from the ceiling
x* [m] vertical distance from the floor
y [m] perpendicular distance from the TARS
95 [/] 95% confidence interval
1
unit of measurement uncertainty is equal to unit of quantity for which measurement
uncertainty is specified
606
XII. References
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609
ZAPTIVENOST KANALSKIH MREA KGH
HVAC DUCTWORK TIGHTNESS
Dr Milovan IVKOVI1, dipl. in.ma. i Milo GOLUBOVI2, dipl. in.ma.,
1
Cappoto Build, Bulevar Mihajla Pupina 115b
2
Termopart, Tadeua Kouka br.63, Beograd
Zaptivenost kanalskih mrea predstavlja vaan element vazdunih sistema
KGH i objekata u celini. Testiranje zaptivenosti veoma se retko radi u ovom regionu
i to, uglavnom, kod visokopritisnih sistema. Postoji vie zemalja koje propisima
reguliu ovu problematiku, ali se svi oni baziraju na Eurovent smernicama 2-2. U
radu se analizira potreba i nain testiranja prema pomenutim smernicama. Takodje,
date su i preporuke drugih propisa koje dopunjuju pomenute smernice. Imajui u
vidu znaaj KGH sistema, preporuuje se testiranje i niskopritisnih kanalskih mrea
na zaptivenost.
Kljune rei: zaptivenost kanalske mree; balansiranje, KGH sistemi.
Ductwork tightness is an important element of HVAC air systems and whole

structures. Tightness testing is very rarely work in this region and, mainly, in the
high pressure system. Several countries regulate this matter through legislation, but
all of them are based on Eurovent guidelines 2-2. The paper analyzes the need and
method of testing according to the aforementioned guidelines. Also, there are other
recommendations which complement the aforementioned regulations. Considering
the importance of the HVAC system, low-pressure testing on the ductwork tightness
is also recommended.
Key words: Ductwork tightness; balancing; HVAC system.
1. Uvod
Nisu retki nedostaci ili nedoreenosti u projektima i izvoenju ventilacije i
klimatizacije koji se odnose na kanalsku mreu. To su najee definisanje: pojma i
geometrije kanalske mree, kvaliteta lima, proizvodnje i vrstoe kanalske mree,
izolacije i naina njenog postavljanja,zatim, definisanje tehnologije zaptivanja, defi-
nisanje pojma mase 1kg kanalske mree, balansiranja i podeavanja postrojenja na
projektovane parametre kao i testiranje kanalske mree na zaptivenost.
Veliki problem kod vazdunih sistema KGH predstavlja nedovoljna zaptive-
nost kanalske mree, odnosno curenje vazduha iz potisnih i usisavanje okolnog
vazduha u odvodne kanale. Kod nas, za razliku od razvijenih zemalja, ova ispitiva-
nja gotovo da se ne rade. Osim kod visokopritisnih sistema testiranje zaptivenosti
kanalske mree poeljno je uraditi i kod niskopritisnih sistema ventilacije i klimati-
zacije.
Zaptivenost kanalskih mrea KGH sistema zavisi od:
611
geometrije poprenog preseka kanala,
vrste spajanja (falca) kanala,
maina za proizvodnju kanala, odnosno kvaliteta falca,
vrste prirubnica i njihovih spojnih elemenata,
tehnologije zaptivanja,
broja nastavaka (kanala i fazonskih elemenata) koji formiraju kanalsku
mreu,
statinog pritiska u mrei,
osposobljenosti lica koji proizvode i montiraju kanalsku mreu
projektovanih zahteva,
transporta,
istovara i utovara i
skladitenja elemenata kanalske mree na gradilitu.
2. Propisi za testiranje zaptivenosti

Postiji vie standarda i propisa o testiranju kanalskih mrea klimatizacije i
ventilacije na zaptivenost, odnosno curenje vazduha, kao to su:
EUROVENT 2/2 ( Evropski komitet proizvoaa KGH opreme)
DW 144 ( Standard Velike Britanije )
DIN V 24194 ( Nemaki standard )
ASHRAE 152P ( Ameriko udruenje za KGH )
SMACNA ( Meunarodno udruenje za limene kanale u KGH )
CEN TC 156 ( Evropski komitet za standardizaciju )
U literaturi se najee sree metod testiranja zaptivenosti kanalskih mrea
koji daje Evropski komitet proizvodjaa KGH opreme EUROVENT. To je doku-
ment Eurovent-smernice 2/2 [2].
Osnovna tri pojma koja predstavljaju sutinu ovog dokumenta su:
faktor curenja,
klasa curenja i
klasa zaptivenosti.
a) Faktor curenja (f) je nepoeljan protok vazduha kroz procepe i otvore po pov-
rini obima kanalske mree (qv) raunat po jednom kvadratnom metru obima
posmatrane povrine (A). Kod nadpritisne kanalske mree nastaje gubitak
koliine vazduha a kod potpritisne dolazi do usisavanja vazduha u mreu iz
njene neposredne okoline.
qv m
Znai, faktor curenja je: f =
A s
Ovaj factor, koji sutinski predstavlja specifini protok curenja vazduha,
zavisi od ispitnog pritiska vazduha u kanalskoj mrei koja se testira na zaptivenost.
612
Eurovent daje etiri preporuene vrednosti ispitnog pritiska, i to: 200, 400, 1.000 i
2.000 Pa.
Odnos izmedju klase curenja i maksimalne vrednosti faktora curenja, odnos-
no srednje vrednosti curenja vazduha po kvadratnom metru povrine obima kanalske
mree, dat je u zavisnosti od srednje vrednosti ispitnog statikog pritiska (tabela 1).
Tabela 1. Faktori curenja vazduha

Srednji statistiki pritisak ispitivanja (Pa)
-1
Klasa zaptivenosti fmax (mxs )
2000 1000 400 200
A fA - 2,4 x 10-3 1,32 x 10-3 0,84 x 10-3

B fB - 0,8 x 10-3 0,44 x 10-3 0,28 x 10-3
C fC 0,42 x 10-3 0,28 x 10-3 0,15 x 10-3 -
Prilikom testiranja moe se usvojiti bilo koja vrednost ispitnog statikog pri-
tiska za odredjenu klasu zaptivenosti prema gornjoj tabeli. Kao ispitni pritisak moe
se usvojiti i druga vrednost statikog pritiska koja treba da je vea od radnog, ali
maksimalna vrednost faktora curenja ne moe se usvojiti linearnom interpolacijom
iz ove tabele. To bi bila gruba greka testiranja kanalske mree, jer zavisnost izmed-
ju faktora curenja i statikog pritiska nije linearna, nego se menja po zakonu parabo-
le.
b) Klasa curenja (K) vazduha iz kanalske mree, odnosno zaptivenosti mree,
prema ovim smernicama, definisana je preko koeficijenta curenja. Ovaj
koeficijent definie se kao:
fpr m
K= 0,65 0,65
ppr s pa
gde je:
m
fpr , faktor curenja kanalske mree,
s
ppr (Pa), srednji statiki pritisak ispitivanja i
0.65 eksponent koje se prema standard DW 143 [4] primenjuje za testira-
nje zaptivenosti i drugih konstrukcija.
Vrednost koeficijenata curenja kanala ili dela kanalske mree ne zavisi od
statikog pritiska ispitivanja. Prema Euroventu 2-2 maksimalne vrednosti koeficije-
nata curenja nisu decidno date to ini, pored vie nedoreenosti, jo jedan njegov
nedostatak.
613
U tabeli 2 date su maksimalne vrednosti koeficijenta curenja vazduha u zavi-
snosti od klase zaptivenosti.
Tabela 2. Maksimalne vrednosti koeficijenta curenja vazduha

Klasa zaptivenosti Koeficijent curenja Jedinica
-3
A KA=0,027 x 10 m x s-1x Pa-0.65
B KB=0,009 x 10-3 m x s-1x Pa-0.65
C KC=0,003 x 10-3 m x s-1x Pa-0.65
c) Najea podela ventilacionih i klimatizacionih sistema je prema brzini strujanja

vazduha u kanalskim mreama. Prema jednom od tih kriterijuma [7], oni se dele
na niskopritisne i visokopritisne sisteme (tabela 3) u zavisnosti od statikog
pritiska i brzine strujanja vazduha.
Tabela 3. Podela sistema ventilacije i klimatizacije

Sistemi Maksimalni statiki pritisak Maksimalna brzina strujanja
(Pa) (m/s)
niskog pritiska 500 14
visokog pritiska 3000 25
Prema smernicama Eurovent 2-2, vazduni sistemi sa kanalskim mreama

dele se na tri klase: A, B i C. Ne postoje preporuke za izbor klase zaptivenosti, ve
se projektant, odnosno investitor opredeljuje za jednu od njih. Britanski standard
DW 142 razlikuje se od prethodnog jer uvodi i etvrtu klasu, klasu D, i daje prepo-
ruke za njihov izbor ( tabela 4) [4].
Tabela 4. Klase kanalskih mrea prema DW 142

Klasa pritiska Max. statis.pritisak Maksimalna brzina Klasa zaptivenosti
(Pa) (m/s)
Nadpritisak Podpritisak
nizak 500 500 10 A
srednji 1000 750 20 B
visok 2000 750 40 C
2500 750 40 D
614
U ovoj tabeli su preporuke za maksimalne brzine strujanja vazduha u kanal-
skim mreama kao i maksimalne vrednosti statikog pritiska, kod nadpritisnih i
podpritisnih kanalskih mrea date u zavisnosti od klase zaptivenosti.
Velika smanjenja poprenog preseka kanalske mree mogu dovesti do sma-
njena statikog pritiska ispod vrednosti atmosferskog pritiska. Ako se kanalska mre-
a nalazi u prostorijama sa zagaenim vazduhom, zbog njene loe zaptivenosti,
moe doi do usisavanja okolnog vazduha i prisutnih neistoa. Ovo stvara dodatni
problem zagaenja recirkulacionog, odnosno smanjenje kvaliteta vazduha koji se
ubacuje u prostorije kao i smanjenje radnog veka filterskih uloaka.
Kod pneumatskog transporta i odvodjenja vazduha koji sadri masne pare,
ove preporuke ne vae, ali mogu biti od pomoi projektantima i investitorima kao
smernice za donoenje odluke pri reavanju ovih problema.
U SFRJ postojao je standard JUS U.J5.100 iz 1983.godine za testiranje zapti-
venosti stambenih objekata. Ovaj standard, koji je jasno i nedvosmisleno napisan,
propisivao je metod i postupak za testiranje i ocenu vazdune propustljivosti stano-
va. Poeljno ga je proitati radi analogije i boljeg sagledavanja ove problematike.
3. Procedura testiranja zaptivenosti kanalskih mrea

Pre izrade i montae elemenata kanalske mree struni nadzor treba sa izvod-
jaem radova da precizira tehnologiju njenog zaptivanja, detalje oko tipa i naina
postavljanja prirubnikih spojeva, kao i nain njenog kaenja i oslanjanja. Ovo su
najei poslovi prilikom izvodjenja radova kod vazdunih sistema koje struni
nadzor neretko preputa izvodjau ne vrei kontrolu nad njima. U projektima, u
jako velikom procentu, ova problematika se i ne pominje.
Svaki projekat vazdunih KGH sistema morao bi da sadri klasu zaptivenosti
kanalske mree koja je precizirana u Tehnikom opisu i Tehnikim uslovima za
izvoenje radova, kao obaveznim poglavljima Izvoakog projekta, kao i posebnu
poziciju u predmeru radova koja se odnosi na testiranje kanalske mree na zaptive-
nost. Testiranje se vri u fazi izvoenja radova na neizolovanoj kanalskoj mrei.
Testiranje nakon potpune montae kanalske mree predstavljalo bi finansijski rizik
kako za izvoaa tako i za samog investiora.
Inenjer merenja, koga angauje investitor, sa strunim nadzorom treba da
analizira projekat kanalske mree i odabere njene segmente koji e se testirati na
zaptivenost. Pritom se mora odrediti tana povrina obima dela kanalske mree koja
se testira. Kod kanala krunog poprenog preseka testira se do 10% povrine kanal-
ske mree, a kod pravougaonog poprenog preseka do 20%. Za drugu geometriju, i
za manja postrojenja, ispituje se maksimalno 10m2 povrine obima kanalske mree.
Najbolje je odabrati segment do klima komore, jer su tu najvei popreni preseci,
odnosno najvei protok vazduha. Pri tom, treba biti obazriv i na dosetljivost izvodja-
a radova koji i oekuje testiranje na tom mestu. Uvek se mora proveriti da li je
projektovana i izvedena kanalska mrea ista, kako bi se ustanovila tana povrina
segmenata mree koji se testiraju.
615
Deo kanalske mree koji se testira pre merenja treba odvojiti na prirubnikim
spojevima od ostatka mree kako bi se ista mogla testirati kao zaseban segment. Te
spojeve, kao i elemente za ubacivanje i izvlaenje vazduha (reetke, anemostate i sl.)
treba zadihtovati to je mogue bolje. Oekuje se da na tim mestima nema curenja
vazduha.
Na tako pripremljeni segment kanalske mree postavlja se oprema za mere-
nja, koja mora biti kalibrisana i imati traenu tanost merenja [1] [6]. Kao to se vidi
sa slike 1. ona se sastoji od:
visokopritisnog ventilatora malog protoka,
kanala sa elastinim crevom za prikljuenje,
mlaznice,
diferencijalnog manometra,
manometra na kanalskoj mrei i
ventila za kontrolu pritiska.
Pre putanja u rad visokopritisnog ventilatora za testiranje svi regulatori pro-
toka, ukoliko postoje na testiranom segment, moraju biti potpuno otvoreni. Kada se
dostigne vrednost izabranog ispitnog pritiska u mrei koja se testira, ona se odrava
konstantnom u vremenu od 4 do 5 minuta. Nakon toga se oitava razlika pritisaka
ispred i iza mlaznice na diferencijalnom manometru. Iz dijagrama protok-napor za
ugradjenu mlaznicu, a na osnovu oitane razlike pritisaka, dobija se protok vazduha
kroz kanal sa elastinim crevom, to ustvari predstavlja koliinu vazduha koja curi iz
testiranog dela kanalske mree objekta u izgradnji.
Slika 1. Instalacija za testiranje kanalske mree na zaptivenost

Uporedjivanjem izraunatog faktora curenja i njegove maksimalne vrednosti
za usvojenu klasu curenja dobija se zakljuak o kvalitetu zaptivenosti kanalske mre-
e. Ovi rezultati se mogu predstaviti i grafiki to jo reitije govori o nivou zaptive-
nosti kanalske mree, slika 2. Na slici su principijalno pokazane krive, odnosno
616
faktori curenja kanalskih mrea, za sve tri klase zaptivenosti, u zavisnosti od ispit-
nog statikog pritiska. Isprekidana linija predstavlja moguu parabola stvarnog fak-
tora curenja testiranog segmenta kanalske mree. Ukoliko je ona ispod parabole
usvojene klase zaptivenosti test je pozitivan odnosno kanalska mrea je dobro zapti-
vena. Eurovent zahteva da se izvri uporeivanje dobijene i maksimalne vrednosti
koeficijenta curenja za odabranu klasu zaptivenosti. Smatram, da je predloeno
reenje grafike prezentacije zaptivenosti kanalske mree praktinije i uverljivije.
Slika 2. Zavisnost faktora curenja od statikog pritiska i klase zaptivenosti

Ako se dobije negativan rezultat, odnosno vea vrednost faktora curenja vaz-
duha od maksimalno dozvoljene vrednosti, testiranje se ponavlja na drugom delu
kanalske mree priblino iste povrine. Ako se ponovo dobije nezadovoljavajui
rezultat, onda se vri testiranje zaptivenosti itave kanalske mree.
Nakon ovog testiranja donosi se odluka o prihvatanju, korekciji zaptivanja ili
zameni itave kanalske mree.
Struni nadzor moe da, ukoliko posumnja da se izvodja radova ne pridra-
va dogovorene tehnologije zaptivanja, izvri dodatna, vanredna testiranja kanalske
mree na zaptivenost.
4. Zakljuak
Ispitivanje vazdunih sistema KGH na zaptivenost uglavnom se radi kod
visokopritisnih sistema. Ovu oblast definie vie inostranih propisa, ali se svi oni
baziraju i citiraju preporuku Eurovent smernice 2-2. Ovaj dokument je prilino
metodoloki nejasno napisan i za njegovo razumevanje potrebno je iskustvo iz
oblasti merenja i poznavanja termotehnikih postrojenja.
617
Nakon balansiranja vazdunih sistema manjak protoka vazduha u njima nije
dozvoljen. Ukupan protok vazduha u sistemu i deonicama vazdune mree moe biti
vei do 10%, ali nikako manji od projektovanog. Na elementima za ubacivanje vaz-
duha u prostorije ne tolerie se manjak protoka vazduha. Njihov protok moe biti
samo vei i to za 20%, a kod indukcionih aparata samo za 5% od projektovanog.
Da ne bi dolo do gubitka pripremljenog vazduha kroz potisnu kanalsku mre-
u ili usisavanja okolnog vazduha u povratnu mreu, neophodno je izvriti njeno
testiranje. Slaba zaptivenost kanalske mree je tehniki i finanskijski neprihvatljiva,
kako zbog mogunosti usisavanja praine kod podpritisnih kanalskih mrea tako i
zbog trokova ekploatacije. Svakako da frekventni regulator moe podii ravnu
taku u dijagramu protok-napor, odnosno poveati protok vazduha kroz kanalsku
mreu, ali takav pristup reavanja ovog problema je nedopustiv. Radna taka venti-
lator koji radi bez frekventnog regulatora je na blaoj paraboli i ona se dokazuje bez
ukljuivanja ovog regulatora. Frekventnim regulatorom se poveavaju protok i
napor ventilator i to je poeljna rezerva koju ima investitor. Ovo ne slui za korekci-
ju greke projektne dokumentacije i izvedenih radova.
Prema zakonodavstvu Republike Srbije ova testiranja mogu da rade Labora-
torije za ispitivanja koje su dobile Sertifikat od Akreditacionog tela Srbije po sta-
ndardu SRPS ISO 17 025.
Testiranje na zaptivenost niskopritisnih i visokopritisnih kanalskih mrea
KGH neophodno je definisati i precizirati projektom. U vremenu koje nalae poto-
vanje visokih zahteva odrivog razvoja i tehnike opravdanosti, ova testiranja su
nezaobilazna. Rade se u procesu montae kanala i pokazatelj su ispravnosti propisa-
ne tehnologije zaptivanja. Svakako, potrebno je naglasiti da prilikom definisanja
parametara testiranja kanalske mree na zaptivenost treba voditi rauna i o dualizmu
tehnike korektnosti i finansijske isplativosti.
5. Literatura
[1] Vukovi, I., Beniek M.: IMP knjiga 3, Metode i sredstva merenja, Zavod
za udbenike I nastavna sredstva, Beograd, 1992.
[2] ***: EUROVENT 2/2, Air Leakage Rate in Sheet Metal Air Distribution
Systems, 1996.
[3] ***: SMACNA, Duct design, HVAC SYSTEMS, 1981.
[4] ***: DW 143, Ductwork Leakage Testing, 1982.
[5] Golubovi, M.: O balansiranju i podeavanju instalcija KGH na projektom
predvidjene parametre, 26. kongres KGH, Beograd, 1995.
[6] Beniek, M. i dr.: Tehnika merenja, Mainski fakultet, Beograd, 2006.
[7] Todorovi, B., M. Milinkovi: Razvod vazduha u sistemima klimatizacije,
SMEITS, Beograd, 1990.
618
PRIMENA LINEARNE REGRESIONE ANALIZE
U PRAKSI POSTROJENJE ZA GREJANJE
OBJEKTA TOPLOTNIM PUMPAMA, EFIKASNOST
TOPLOTNIH PUMPI
USAGE OF LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS IN
PRACTICE PLANT FOR HEATING OBJECTS WITH HEAT
PUMPS, EFFICIENCY OF HEAT PUMPS
Miroslav VULI1 i Kristijan VUJIIN2
1
University of Belgrade, Faculty of mechanical engineering
miroslavvulic.ds.mfb@gmail.com,
2
University of Belgrade, Faculty of mechanical engineering
kristijan.vujicin@gmail.com
Toplotna pumpa je ureaj koji na najefikasniji tehno-ekonomski nain koristi
obnovljive izvore energije iz prirode. Toplotna pumpa uzima toplotnu energiju iz
niskotemperaturnih izvora toplote i transformie je u toplotnu energiju na viem
temperaturnom nivou. Racionalizacija snabdevanja toplotnom energijom i obezbe-
ivanje niske cene grejanja, nameu toplotnu pumpu kao adekvatno reenje u razli-
itim konfiguracijama sistema.
U radu je analizirano instalirano postrojenje za grejanje objekata toplotnim
pumpama, sistemom voda-voda, korienjem geotermalne energije.
Linearna regresiona analiza koriena je da prikae efikasnost u zavisnosti
od temperature vode koju toplotna pumpa daje, odnosno korelacija izmeu koefici-
jenta grejanja, stepena iskorienja i razlike temperature bunarske vode i vode u
sekundarnom krugu na polaznoj strani.
Kljune rei: linearna regresiona analiza; toplotna pumpa; efikasnost,

obnovljivi izvori energije
Heat pump is appliance which using renewable energy on the most efficient
techno-economic way. Heat pump takes heat energy from from low-temperature heat
sources and transforms it in the heat energy at the higher temperature level. Ratio-
nalization of supplying with heat energy and providing of low price heating impose
heat pump as an adequate soolution in the different system configurations.
The paper analyses installed plant for heating objects with heat pumps,
system water-to-water, using geothermal energy.
Linear regression analysis is used to show efficieny depending on the tempe-
rature of water which heat pump giving, respectively correlation between coefficient
619
of heating, efficiency and temperature differences of well water and water in the
secondary circuit on the starting side.
Key words: linear regression analysis; heat pump; efficiency, renewable
energy
Uvod
Supstitucija skupih goriva, naroito tenih, njihova tednja i racionalna pot-
ronja, svakodnevna su tema na raznim nivoima [1].
Kada se govori o obnovljivih izvorima energije (OIE) i dobijanju energije na
ekonominiji nain, toplotne pumpe (TP) se ne smatraju stalnim, jedinim i uvek
najboljim reenjima, ali se nude kao jedno od reenja, koje sa ekonomskog stano-
vita treba analizirati, kad god i gde god je njihova primena tehniki opravdana.
Dosadanji razlozi za manju primenu TP u manjim, ali i u veim objektima
lee pre svega u ceni, neprilagoenosti dosadanjim klasinim reenjima kao i nein-
formisanosti i tehnikoj nepismenosti investitora i projektanata. Do pre desetak
godina pored toga to su trokovi ugradnje TP bili visoki, radni parametri ih nisu
ekonomski opravdali. Meutim, postojea reenja i malih i veih TP, zbog masovni-
je proizvodnje i poveanog broja proizvoaa i boljih tehnikih reenja komponena-
ta doveli su do njihovog veeg plasmana, pa se danas TP proizvode od nekoliko
kilovata do nekoliko megavata grejne snage. Pravilnim izborom sistema KGH, TP
po svojim tehnikim i eksploatacionim parametrima sve vie postaje konkurentna
klasinim kotplovskim sistemima u sistemima za grejanje. Ako postoje zahtevi za
grejanjem i hlaenjem prostora, TP praktino je nezamenljivo reenje, pod uslovom
da su obezbeeni toplotni izvori i dovod primarne energije za pogon [2].
Analiza instaliranog postrojenja

Postrojenje za korienje geotermalne energije primenom TP tipa voda-
voda/bunar radi u bivalentnom sistemu u dejstvu sa postojeim sistemom centralnog
grejanja sa gasnim i elektro kotolovima u objektima [3].
Sa termodinamike take gledita, TP voda-voda imaju najbolje osobine i
najvee koeficijente grejanja. Imaju iroku primenu u krajevima gde su podzemne
vode vrlo visoke, ili u blizini povrinskih voda [1].
U sklopu porodinog gazdinstva nalaze se tri objekta, na kojima su imple-
mentirane tri TP, za svaki objekat po jedna.
Na objektu broj 1. instalirana je TP kapaciteta grejanja od 49,8 kW iji je ste-
pen iskorienja COP = 3,98, na objektu broj 2. TP kapaciteta grejanja 21,2 kW,
stepena iskorienja COP = 4,01, dok je na objektu broj 3. kapacitet grejanja TP
37,4 kW, a stepen iskorienja 4,1 [3].
Kao toplotni izvor za sve tri TP koristi se jedan bueni bunar (izvorni), dubi-
ne 25 m. Bunarska voda se crpi iz izvornog bunara, prenika 125 mm, potopljenom
napojnom pumpom. S obzirom da se izvorni bunar koristi za sve tri TP, na izlaznoj
strani cevovoda se nalazi razdelnik za povezivanje sa svakom TP posebno. Cevovod
620
napajanja TP bunarskom vodom smeten je u vodovodne kanalizacione cevi koje su
ukopane na dubini od minimum 0,8 m [3].
TP su prikljuene na projektovanu instalaciju centralnog grejanja na potisnim
i povratnim vodovima od gasnih kotlova, ime je omogueno alternativno ukljui-
vanje TP i gasnih kotlova [3].
Slikama 1., 2. i 3. grafiki su prikazane zavisnosti koeficijenta iskorienja
(COP) od razlike izmeu temperature bunarske vode i vode u sekundarnom krugu na
polaznoj strani T, za sve tri TP pojedinano.
Slika 1. TP 1. Zavisnost (COP) od T
621
Regresiona analiza
Regresiona analiza je metod kojim se ispituje i utvruje zavisnost izmeu dve
ili vie promenljivih, tj. omoguava predvianje vrednosti jedne promenljive na
osnovu neke druge promenljive.
Konkretno, u ovom radu T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6 su nezavisno promen-
ljive, koje predstavljaju razliku izmeu temperature bunarske i vode u sekundarnog
krugu na polaznoj strani, a koje utiu i uslovljavaju veliinu zavisno promenljive 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, koje predstavljaju koeficijent grejanja. Vrednosti merenja predstav-
ljeni su kao parovi rezultata koji se sastoje od podataka za nezavisnu promenljivu
T i od podataka za zavisno promenljivu .
Linearna regresiona analiza
Linearna regresiona analiza (LRA) ima za cilj da utvrdi koliku promenu zavi-
sno promenljive uzorkuje promena nezavisno promenljive. Na osnovu izgleda oblika
eksperimentalnih taaka na dijagramu raspianja moe se utvrditi karakter i intezitet
istraivane zavisnosti.
Na osnovu eksperimentalnih podataka izvren je proraun za koeficijente
korelacije R i determinacije R2 (tabela 4, tabela 5, tabela 6).
622
Tabela 4. TP 1. Podaci za korelacionu analizu i izraunate vrednosti koeficijenata
korelacije i determinacije
Analizirani T [C] COP Korelacija R R2
broj izmeu
1 30 4,7 T1 1
2 35 4,4 T2 2
3 40 3,8 T3 3
0,9806 0,9616
4 45 3,4 T4 4
5 50 3,1 T5 5
6 60 2,7 T6 6

broj izmeu
1 30 5 T1 1
2 35 4,6 T2 2
3 40 3,9 T3 3
0,9921 0,9843
4 45 3,3 T4 4
5 50 2,8 T5 5
6 60 2,1 T6 6

broj izmeu
1 30 4,4 T1 1
2 35 4 T2 2
3 40 3,8 T3 3
0,955 0,913
4 45 3,6 T4 4
5 50 3,5 T5 5
6 60 2,2 T6 6
623
Zakljuak
Ukoliko se baziramo na sisteme KGH, gledajui kroz primenu OIE, TP obe-
zbeuju na veoma jednostavan nain toplotnu energiju, omoguavajui mnogo
manju potronju primarne energije u odnosu na druge sisteme grejanja. Takoe,
poveana energetska efikasnost sistema, zatita ivotne sredine uz smanjenje emisije
CO2 i zatite ozonskog sloja, svrstavaju TP kao jedno od najpraktinijih reenja za
sisteme KGH.
Radom je analizirana efikasnost u zavisnosti od temperature vode koju TP
daje, odnosno uraena je korelacija izmeu koeficijenta iskorienja i T. Na osno-
vu prikazanih slika i tabela uoljivo je da je pri veim temperaturama T, stepen
iskorienja manji. Sniavanjem temperature u sekundarnom krugu, znaajno se
poveava koeficijent iskorienja, a samim tim, smanjuje se potronja elektrine
energije i poveava kapacitet TP.
Temparature od 50/45 C predstavljaju granine mogunosti za odabrane TP
za sluaj rada sa visokim energetskim uinkom. TP su paralelno vezane sa gasnim i
elektrinim kotlovima u pojedinim objektima, ime se omoguava nezavisno greja-
nje objekta nekim od sistema - kotlova, odnosno TP [3].
References
[1] amalovi, S., Toplotna pumpa, SMEITS, Beograd, Srbija, 2009.
[2] amalovi, S., Mogunost energetskog iskorienja podzemnih voda u prioba-
lju Save sa osvrtom na projekat Beograd na vodi, KGH (2016), 2, pp. 41-48
[3] Glavni projekat postrojenja toplotne pumpe za grejanje objekta korienjem
geotermalne energije, 2012
624
ODREIVANJE SADRAJA VLAGE U OTPADNOM
GASU STANDARDNA REFERENTNA METODA
I METODA MATERIJALNOG BILANSA
DETERMINATION OF THE WATER VAPOR CONTENT
IN FLUE GAS STANDARD REFERENCE METHOD
AND MATERIAL BALANCE METHOD
Marko PAVLOVI1*, Sandra PETKOVI1, Milan GOJAK2,
Mihajlo GIGOV1, Veselin ANELKOVI1, Lazar ANELI1
1
Rudarski institut d.o.o. Beograd, Batajniki put 2, 11080 Beograd,
*(marko.pavlovic@ribeograd.ac.rs, +381 60 7060 331)
2
Mainski fakultet, Univerzitet u Beogradu, Kraljice Marije 16, 11120 Beograd
U radu je prikazano poreenje rezultata dobijenih standardnom refernetnom
metodom (SRM) za odreivanje sadraja vlage u otpadnom gasu prema standardu
SRPS EN 14790:2009 i metodom materujalnog bilansa (MB) vlage iz uglja. Merenja
su sprovedena u TE Nikola Tesla, TE Kostolac i TE Kolubara odakle su
istovremeno uzeti i reprezentativni uzorci uglja za ispitivanje. Metoda materijalnog
bilansa bazirana je na stehiometrijskim odnosima, poznavanju tehnike i elementarne
analize uglja kao i analize otpadnog gasa. Potrebne smernice za proraun preuzete su
iz standarda SRPS M.E2.203:1980, a analize uzoraka vrene su u Laboratoriji za
zatitu ivotne i radne sredine i Laboratoriji za vrsta goriva Rudarskog instituta.
Poreenjem rezultata dobijenih na osnovu standardne refernetne metode i metode
materijalnog bilansa utvreno je dobro slaganje rezultata sa odstupanjem manjim od
8 %. Shodno tome metoda materijalnog bilansa se moe smatrati dovoljno pouzdanom
da u odreenim sluajevima zameni SRM metodu uzimajui u obzir sloenost
aparature i ponekad nepristupanost mernih mesta.
Kljune rei: sadraj vlage; otpadni gas; ugalj; merenje emisije;
termoelektrane
This paper presents comparison of results of water vapor content in flue gas
obtained from the Standard Reference Method (EN 14790) and alternative theoreti-
cal method based on material balance of moisture from coal. Measurements were
carried out in coal fired thermal power plants: Nikola Tesla, Kostolac and
Kolubara. The representative samples of coal were taken during the measure-
ments. The material balance method is based on stoichiometry, technical and ele-
mental coal analysis and flue gas content. The Guideline for the calculation were
taken from standard SRPS M.E2.203:1980, and analysis was carried out in
Laboratory for Environmental Protection and Occupational Safety and Laboratory
for solid fuels of Mining institute of Belgrade. The results of this study demonstrate
625
good compliance of methods with relative deviation less than 8 %. These data show
that the theoretical method in some cases can replace the SRM considering complex
equipment and sometimes inaccessible measurement sites.
Key words: water vapor; flue gas; coal; emission measurement; thermal
power plants
Uvod
U toku procesa sagorevanja uglja u kotlovima termoenergetskih objekata nas-
taju produkti sagorevanja koji se isputaju u atmosferu u vidu takozvanog otpadnog
gasa. Otpadni gas sadri zagaujue materije, iji sastav i koliina zavisi u prvom
redu od sastava goriva i naina njegovog sagorevanja. Najvea dozvoljena koliina
zagaujue materije sadrana u otpadnom gasu koja moe biti emitovana u vazduh
(GVE granina vrednost emisije), definisana je zakonskom regulativom [1]. U
cilju poreenja sa graninim vrednostima emisije, rezultati merenja izraeni kao
masena koncentracija zagaujuih materija u otpadnom gasu preraunavaju se na
jedinicu zapremine suvih ili vlanih otpadnih gasova, normalne uslove (temperatura
273,15 K i pritisak 101,3 kPa) i referentni udeo kiseonika u otpadnom gasu. Samim
tim sadraj vlage predstavlja veoma bitnu komponetnu pri izraavanju rezultata
merenja, kao i neophodan podatak u samom procesu merenja (izokinetiko uzorko-
vanje prakastih materija).
Preraunavanje masenih koncentracija zagaujuih materija u vlanim otpad-
nim gasovima na koncentracije u suvim gasovima vri se prema sledeoj jednaini:
100
C S = Cv (1)
100 % H 2O
gde je:
Cs masena koncentracija u suvim otpadnim gasovima, [mg/Nm3];
Cv masena koncentracija u vlanim otpadnim gasovima, [mg/Nm3];
% H2O zapreminski udeo vlage u otpadnom gasu, [%].
Periferni automatski merni sistemi (AMS) koji kontinualno mere parametre

stanja otpadnog gasa (sadraj vlage, udeo kiseonika, temperaturu i pritisak) prema
preporuci novog izdanja standarda SRPS EN 14181:2015 (Emisije iz stacionarnih
izvora Obezbeenje kvaliteta automatskih mernih Sistema [2]) potrebno je da budu
kalibrisani i validovani. To su parametri stanja otpadnog gasa koji nisu zagaujue
materije, a koji su vaan faktor za vrednovanje rezultata kontinualnih merenja emisi-
ja. Evropska direktiva (Industrial emission directive, IED) ne propisuje GVE i 95%
intervale poverenja (CI) za periferne parametre neophodne za proraun kalibracine
funkcije [3], ali prema preporuci Technical Guidance Note M20 (Quality assurance
of continuous emission monitoring systems - application of EN 14181 and BS EN
13284-2) za vlagu se koristi GVE=30%, 95% CI=30% [4]. Prema srpskoj zakonskoj
regulativi koja bi u narednom periodu trebalo da bude usaglaena sa jo stroijom
626
evorpskom direktivom [3], obaveza velikog broja postrojenja na teritoriji Srbije bie
da kontinualno mere emisije zagaujuih materija u vazduh.
Standardna referentna metoda za odreivanje sadraja vlage u otpadnom gasu
je gravimetrijska metoda (kondenzacija i adsorpcija) [5]. U okvirima naih saznanja,
na osnovu pretraene literature, ne postoji poreenje SRM i metode materijalnog
bilansa tokom procesa sagorevanja. Uz poznavanje tehnike i elementarne analize
uglja i analize otpadnog gasa (udela kiseonika) mogue je pribei teorijskoj
(raunskoj) metodi metodi materijalnog bilansa vlage [6], to ukazuje na vaan
aspekt ovog istraivanja.
1 Odreivanje sadraja vlage u otpadnom gasu

Merenja su izvrena u periodu od novembra 2015. god. do maja 2016. god. u
TE Nikola Tesla A, TE Kostolac i TE Kolubara, odakle su istovremeno uzeti i
reprezentativni uzorci uglja za ispitivanje.
Standardna referentna metoda (SRM)
Ova metoda je primenljiva za opseg 4 % do 40 % relativne vlanosti,
odnosno za koncentraciju vodene pare u vlanom gasu od 29 g/m3 do 250 g/m3.
Uzorkovanje je vreno neizokinetiki u reprezentativnoj taki merne ravni na
dimnom kanalu (dimnjaku). Linija za uzorkovnje se sastojala od: titanijumske sonde
sa grejanom komorom (PSP4000-H, M&C, Nemaka), grejanog creva (Winkler,
Nemaka), hladnjaka (WM15, Zambelli, Italija) sa ispiralicama i kertridom sa
silika-gelom, uzorkivaa otpadnog gasa (P.722.W, Paul Gothe, Nemaka) sa
rotametrom, termometrom i suvim gasnim satom (Slika 1). Temperatura grejane
linije je preko termoregulatora bila podeena na 180C, a hladnjak na temperaturu od
4C i u njega je sipano 10 litara destilovane vode. U vodu su bile uronjene dve redno
vezane ispiralice u koje je sipano po 100 ml apsorpcionog rastvora (destilovana
voda). Nakon dve ispiralice u liniji je vezan kertrid sa silika-gelom prethodno suen
dva sata u sunici na 110 C. Na rotametru je podeen protok od 2 l/min.
Barometarski pritisak meren je manometrom (Testo 511, Testo, Nemaka).
Vremenski interval pojedinanog merenja iznosio je 30 min.
Slika 1. ema aparature za uzorkovanje vlage u otpadnom gasu; 1 Grejana sonda, 2

Grejani filter, 3 Ispiralice, 4 Hladnjak, 5 Adsorpcioni kertrid, 6 Pumpa, 7 Rotame-
tar, 8 Gasni sat, 9 Mera temperature i pritiska
627
Pre uzorkovanja, na tehnikoj vagi (Scout Pro, Ohaus, SAD), izmerene su
mase obe ispiralice sa definisanim zapreminama destilovane vode, kao i masa
kertrida sa silika-gelom. Nakon uzorkovanja ponovo su izmerene mase pomenutih
svih delova i na osnovu razlike odreena je ukupna masa vodene pare izdvojena
tokom uzorkovanja. Razlika masa ispiralica pre i posle uzorkovanja predstavlja
masu vodene pare sakupljene kondenzacionim procesom, dok razlika masa kertrida
sa silika gelom predstavlja masu vodene pare sakupljene procesom adsorpcije.
Poznavajui zapreminu uzorkovanog gasa, izraz za odreivanje masene
koncentracije vodene pare, CW, pri normalnim uslovima je
mW
CW = [g/m3] (2)
Vm, N
gde je:
mW masa vodene pare sakupljena kondenzacijom i adsorpcijom, [g];
Vm,N zapremina gasa oitana na suvom gasnom satu, svedena na normalne uslove,
[m3].
Zapreminski udeo vodene pare (CW,%) izraen u procentima u vlanom gasu
dobija iz jednaine
mW Vmol , N
MW
CW ,% = 100 (3)
mW Vmol , N
+ Vm, N
MW
gde je:
Vmol,N molarna zapremina idealnog gasa pri normalnim uslovima,
(Vmol,N = 22,410-3 m3/mol);
MW molarna masa vode, (MW = 18 g/mol).
Metoda materijalnog bilansa
Ova metoda definie postupak odreivanja sadraja vlage u otpadnom gasu
raunskim postupkom. Metoda materijalnog bilansa bazirana je na stehiometrijskim
odnosima procesa sagorevanja, poznavanju tehnike i elementarne analize uglja kao
i analize otpadnog gasa (sadraj kiseonika u suvom otpadnom gasu). Potrebne
smernice za proraun preuzete su iz standarda Kotlovksa postrojenja
Termotehnika ispitivanja, SRPS M.E2.203:1980 [6]. Analize uzoraka uglja, uzetih
sa dodavaa u termoelektranama vrene su u akreditovanoj Laboratoriji za vrsta
goriva Rudarskog instituta, Beograd.
Tehnikom i elementarnom analizom uglja odreivan je njegov sastav, tj.
maseni udeli sledeih komponenata:
vlage W [kg/kg];
pepela A [kg/kg];
sumpora S [kg/kg];
628
vodonika H [kg/kg];
azota N [kg/kg];
kiseonika O [kg/kg];
ugljenika C [kg/kg].
Na osnovu poznatih jednaina koje opisuju proces sagorevanja dobijaju se
stehiometrijski odnosi potrebni za izraunavanje sadraja vlage u otpadom gasu.
Najmanja zapremina vazduha potrebna za potpuno sagorevanje goriva data je
jednainom
1 O 3
VL min = 1,866C + 5,6 H + 0,7 S [m /kg] (4)
21 8
Zapremina troatomnih gasova u otpadnom gasu odreena je sledeom
jednainom
1,866C + 0,7 S
VRO2 = [m3/kg] (5)
100
Koeficijent vika vazduha za vrsta goriva sa malom toplotnom moi (Hd <
10500 kJ/kg) odreivan je korienjem izraza ([6]):
(O2 )S VRSt
= 1+ (6)
21 (O2 )S VL min
Teorijska zapremina azota i teorijska zapremina vodene pare date su u
jednainama:
N
VN 2 = 0,79VL min + 0,8 [m3/kg] (7)
100
1,244
V H 2O = (9 H + W ) + 0,0161VL min [m3/kg] (8)
100
gde je najmanja zapremina vazduha dobijena iz jednaine (4) a koeficijent vika
vazduha iz jednaine (6). Teorijska zapremina suvih otpadnih gasova VRSt i teorijska
zapremina vlanih otpadnih gasova VVLt date su u jednainama:
3
VRSt = VRO 2 + VN 2 [m /kg] (9)
3
VVLt = VRSt + VH 2 O [m /kg] (10)
gde je zapremina troatomnih gasova data jednainom (5), a teorijske zapremine
azota i vodene pare jednainama (7) i (8). Stvarne zapremine suvih otpadnih gasova,
VRS, i vlanih otpadnih gasova, VVL, date su sledeim jednainama:
VRS = VRSt . [m3/kg] (11)
3
VVL = VRS + VH 2 O [m /kg] (12)
629
Deljenjem jednaine (7) jednainom (12) dobija se izraz za odreivanje
zapreminskog udela vlage u otpadnom gasu:
VH 2 O
CW ,% = [%] (13)
VVL
Rezultati odreivanja sadraja (zapreminskog udela) vlage u otpadnom gasu
iz TE Nikola Tesla A, TE Kostolac i TE Kolubara dobijeni standardnom
referntnom metodom (SRM) metodom i metodom materijalnog bilansa (MB) prika-
zani su u Tabelama 1-3.
Tabela 1. Uporedni rezultati sadraja vlage u otpadnom gasu u TE Nikola Tesla A

Postrojenje Ispitivanje Sardaj vlage Sardaj vlage Relativno odstu-
broj SRM [%] MB [%] panje [%]
TE Nikola Tesla A, 1 20,39 19,25 5,6
blok A3
2 20,24 19,66 2,9
3 20,38 19,67 3,5
TE Nikola Tesla A, 4 21,18 20,37 3,8
blok A4
5 20,71 20,06 3,1
6 21,05 20,20 4,0
Srednja vrednost, % 20,66 19,87 20,26
Standardna devijacija ponovljivosti 0,39 0,42 0,40
Tabela 2. Uporedni rezultati sadraja vlage u otpadnom gasu u TE Kostolac A

Postrojenje Ispitivanje Sardaj vlage Sardaj vlage Relativno odstu-
TE Kostolac A, 1 16,30 15,12 7,2
blok A1
2 16,27 15,32 5,8
3 16,04 16,21 1,1
TE Kostolac A, 4 16,84 16,27 3,4
blok A2
5 17,38 18,11 4,2
6 17,10 17,83 4,3
630
Tabela 3. Uporedni rezultati sadraja vlage u otpadnom gasu u TE Kolubara
Postrojenje Ispitivanje Sardaj vlage, Sardaj vlage, Relativno odstu-
TE Kolubara, 1 14,17 14,35 1,3
kotao K1
2 14,07 14,01 0,4
3 14,42 14,08 2,4
TE Kolubara, 4 14,67 14,65 0,1
kotao K4
5 14,12 14,60 3,4
6 15,45 14,95 3,2
Na osnovu rezultata dobijenih u TE Nikola Tesla A prikazanih u Tabeli 1

najvee relativno odstupanje je 5,6 %, srednja vrednost 20,26 %, standardna devija-
cija ponovljivosti 0,40 to pokazuje dobro slaganje rezultata dobijenih metodom
materijalnog bilansa sa vrednostima dobijenim standardnom referentnom metodom.
Male vrednosti relativnog odstupanja uporednih rezultata u odnosu na najveu doz-
voljenu mernu nesigurnost metode SRPS EN 14790 koja iznosi 20 % merene
vrednosti, ukazuju na visoku pouzdanost teorijske metode. U TE Kostolac A naj-
vee relativno odstupanje je 7,2 %, srednja vrednost 16,57 %, standardna devijacija
ponovljivosti 0,89. U TE Kolubara najvee relativno odstupanje je 7,2 %, srednja
vrednost 14,46 %, standardna devijacija ponovljivosti 0,44 (iz Tabele 2 i Tabele 3).
Ovi rezultati takoe pokazuju dobro slaganje rezultata i na niim koncentracionim
nivoima. Na najniem koncentracionom nivou relativno odstupanje ima najmanju
vrednost.
Na osnovu rezultata dobijenih jednom i drugom metodom, datih u Tabelama
1-3, na Slici 2 prikazana je linearna zavisnost. Grubbs-ovim testom nije
identifikovana nijedna ekstremna vrednost dobijenih rezultata.
Vrednost koeficijenta korelacije R2 iznosi 0,951, to potvruje veoma visok
nivo slaganja rezultata. Ugljevi u Srbiji koji koriste termoelektrane sadre visok
udeo vlage, tako da nije postojala mogunost dobijanja rezultata na niim
koncentracionim nivoima, a samim tim i postizanje veeg koeficijenta korelacije
(R2> 0,97) to je inae zahtev standarda za dokazivanje ekvivalentnosti metoda [7].
Zakljuak
Na osnovu utvrenih rezultata dobijenih poreenjem standardne referentne
metode i metode materijalnog bilansa mogue je zakljuiti da je metoda materijanog
bilansa vlage na postrojenjima za sagorevanje uglja dovoljno pouzdana. U
odreenim uslovima i uz poznavanje sastava goriva, metoda materijalnog bilansa
631
moe biti zamena za instrumentalnu metodu. To je naroito povoljno uzimajui u
obzir nekada nepristupana merna mesta kao i sloenost merne opreme. Takoe, u
sluaju tenih goriva moe se oekivati jo bolje slaganje rezultata usled vee
homogenosti tenih goriva.
Slika 2. Linearna zavisnost uporednih rezultata
Spisak oznaka
% H2O zapreminski udeo vlage u otpadnom gasu
A maseni udeo pepela u uglju
AMS automatski merni sistem
C maseni udeo ugljenika u uglju
CI interval poverenja
CS masena koncentracija u suvim otpadnim gasovima
CW masena koncentracija vodene pare
CW,% zapreminski udeo vodene pare u vlanom gasu
Cv masena koncentracija u vlanim otpadnim gasovima
GVE granina vrednost emisije
H maseni udeo vodonika u uglju
IED Industrial emission directive
MB metoda materijalnog bilansa
MW molarna masa vode
mW masa vodene pare sakupljena kondenzacijom i adsorpcijom
N maseni udeo azota u uglju
O maseni udeo kiseonika u uglju
632
R2 keficijent korelacija
S maseni udeo sumpora u uglju
SRM standardna referentna metoda
TE termoelektrana
W maseni udeo vlage u uglju
VH2O teorijska zapremina vodene pare
VLmin najmanja zapremina vazduha potrebna za potpuno sagorevanje
VN2 teorijska zapremina azota
Vm,N zapremina gasa oitana na suvom gasnom satu, svedena na normalne
uslove (na temperaturu 273,15 K i pritisak 101,3 kPa)
Vmol,N molarna zapremina idealnog gasa pri normalnim uslovima
VRO2 zapremina troatomnih gasova
VRS stvarna zapremina suvih otpadnih gasova
VRSt teorijska zapremina suvih otpadnih gasova
VVLt teorijska zapremina vlanih otpadnih gasova
VVL stvarna zapremina vlanih otpadnih gasova
koeficijent vika vazduha
Literatura
[1] *** Uredba o graninim vrednostima emisija zagaujuih materija u vazduh iz
postrojenja za sagorevanje, Slubeni glasnik Republike Srbije 6/16, 2016.
[2] *** SRPS EN 14181:2015, Emisije iz stacionarnih izvora Obezbeenje kvali-
teta automatskih mernih Sistema, Institut za standardizaciju Srbije, 2015.
[3] *** Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24
November 2010 on Industrial Emissions (Integrated Pollution Prevention and
Control), European Commission, 2010.
[4] *** Technical Guidance Note M20, Quality assurance of continuous emission
monitoring systems - application of EN 14181 and BS EN 13284-2, Envairon-
ment Agency UK, 2015.
[5] *** SRPS EN 14790:2009, Emisije iz stacionarnih izvora Odreivanje vodene
pare u ventilacionim otvorima, Institut za standardizaciju Srbije, 2009.
[6] *** SRPS M.E2.203:1980, Kotlovksa postrojenja Termotehnika ispitivanja,
Institut za standardizaciju Srbije, 1980.
[7] *** SRPS CEN/TS 14793:2010, Stacionarni izvori emisije - Procedura intrala-
boratorijske validacije alternativne metode u poreenju sa referentnom meto-
dom, Institut za standardizaciju Srbije, 2010.
633

ADAPT TODAY TO SHAPE TOMORROW 1
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641
U POTRAZI ZA PRINCIPIMA
OTPORNOG URBANOG PROJEKTOVANJA
IN SEARCH FOR
URBAN RESILIENCE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Dr Eva VANITA LAZAREVI1), Branislav ANTONI2)
Full professor, University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia,
eva.vanistalazarevic@gmail.com
PhD student and Researcher-assistant, University of Belgrade,
Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia,
antonic83@gmail.com
Nowadays, there are many global concepts and models, which individually
strive to give a unique solution on current international issues. The concept of resil-
ience is probably one of the most known concepts, which have gained an attention
since the economic crisis from 2008. Since then, this immense global challenge
redirected general focus at all tiers from faith in unstoppable progress to more
desirable stabilisation and preparedness.
Being the major places for the mentioned global challenges, cities across the
World have suffered from the crisis. Therefore, it is meaningful that they have pro-
foundly embraced the postulates of resilience, transforming them with urban foot-
print urban resilience. The creation of the significant concept of and its implementa-
tion has been in the agenda of many international organisations and major cities.
However, the concept of urban resilience is still a novelty, which accompany-
ing problems. This is particularly true in the case of implementation. And, this is
very important for urban design, as a part of urbanism which is very connected to
concrete functioning in situ. Hence, a lot of work has been done internationally to
customise the concept of urban resilience to the design level. But, many elements
about resilient urban design, from basic principles to concrete implementation, are
still in progress.
This implementability of urban resilience in urban design is an issue for
Serbia. As a post-socialist country, it has witnessed various problems and general
inconsistency. With the strong motive to cope with them, local authorities and insti-
tutions often try to directly implement foreign-arisen concepts and knowledge, with-
out local adaptation. The results of this pressure are usually questionable. There-
fore, the aim of this paper is to present how the principles of resilient urban design
are tailored and in which form they can be used in Serbian conditions. The final
contribution of the paper is foreseen in the style of guidelines for local implementa-
tion.
Key words: Resilient cities, urban design, principles, implementability, Ser-
bia
643
1. INTRODUCTION
Many papers in urban planning and design today start with the consideration
that urban population has become prevalent at global level recently. By the prospects
of the United Nations (UN), it was happened in 2007-2008. And, their figures will
increase in the future; it was projected two years ago that the share of urban dwellers
will reach even 2/3 of World population till the middle of 21st century (UN, 2014).
Moreover, cities are responsible for 60-80 per cent of energy consumption and 75
per cent of carbon emissions (UN, 2015). Therefore, the future of the World is in
cities, regardless it is counted positively or negatively.
This is certainly well-known to urban researchers. The good illustration for this
stance is numerous theoretical concepts and models in contemporary urbanism, which
have become famous across the Globe. They usually try to make a full framework
for general urban development. However, some of them are more well-known, such as
the concept of urban resilience. This concept has proved to be very influential in fields
related to more problematic urban issues, such as the customisation of cities to climate
change (Otto-Zimmermann, 2011; Davoudi, 2014; Johnson & Blackburn, 2014) or
risk management in urban areas (Brugman, 2012). However, the concept of urban
resilience has gained a wider attention and acceptance since the economic crisis from
2008. The related stresses and shocks in urban economy made a rapid impact of the
global promotion of the urban resilience (Turcu et al, 2015; Saya, 2016). In new cir-
cumstances, the significance of stabilisation and preparedness, as key elements in the
concept of urban resilience, certainly were more desirable than shaken faith in un-
stoppable progress. In other words, urban resilience is more and more linked with
changing urban conditions at general (Sharifi and Yamagata, 2016). As results,
(r)esilience seems to have become a new focus for thinking about both the short-term
and long-term futures of city systems (Batty, 2013, p. 571).
Understanding that many elements of the concept of urban resilience are
quite new and in progress, it is still doubtful how it will be implemented. And, cities
are very complex systems for these concerns (OECD, 2016). Many international
organisations and bodies have recently prepared guide-documents and handbooks to
facilitate this process. They mostly tackle urban planning as a major field for inter-
vention (OECD, 2015). Thus, it is even more questionable how it can be used in the
second pillar of urbanism urban design. Although urban design has been includ-
ed in consideration of the concept, it is still a huge field for the further upgrading
and customisation. It is more connected with physical interventions in situ, being
hereby very visible to citizens. For local view, well-shaped principles for resilient
urban design are especially valuable, because they are both the connection to global
knowledge and the good foundation for the adaptation for local conditions.
This paper is aiming to analyse the foundations of resilient urban design and
its relation to general knowledge regarding urban resilience. However, it will be
further focussed on the mentioned issue of implementability how the main ele-
ments of the concept pertained to resilient urban design can be used in concrete
cases. Hence, the principles of resilient urban design will be especially investigated.
644
The contribution of the paper refers also to local context in Serbia, because
local adaptations are inevitable with the implementation of the concept as a global
one (Otto-Zimmermann, 2011). Serbia has had a pretty bad experience with weak
adaptation of internationally valuable concepts, which have made very poor impact
locally. Therefore, this adaptive approach will lead to a non-classic conclusion in
the paper. It will be given in the form of the principles of resilient urban design,
which will be adapted to Serbian conditions. The final contribution of the paper is
foreseen in the style of guidelines for local implementation.
2. URBAN RESILIENCE
The word Resilience is turning into a panacea among urban professionals that
is used more and more commonly when any urban topics are discussed, whether it is
theoretical debate or implementation into the everyday urban practice and policy
(Meerow et al, 2016). Nevertheless, there many meanings of resilience in academic
circles, depending on the aspects or disciplines which examine them (Chelleri,
2012):
Organisational resilience: "ability of an organization to anticipate, pre-
pare for, and respond and adapt to incremental change and sudden dis-
ruptions in order to survive and prosper" (BSI; 2014);
Psychological resilience: ability of an individual to easily adapt to life
tasks in the face of social disadvantage or highly adverse conditions
(Pcio, 2016);
Energy resilience: The term close to energy independence;
Constructional resilience: construction design which both enable the ab-
sorption or prevention of damage and protect from complete destruction
(Jennings et al, 2013);
Computer resilience: ability of computer system to provide qualitative
service level without the failures which trigger its normal functioning.
It is obvious that all aspects highlight the importance of protection, response,
adaptation, and preparedness of a given system. This is also evident in the case of
urban resilience. However, similarly with other global theoretical concepts, there are
many definitions and prompt the explanations of the concept. For example, OECD
defines resilient cities through the measures organised in four sectors: economy,
society, governance, and environment (OECD, 2016). They are presented in the
following order by primacy:
One of brief definitions of urban resilience clarify that it is a capability to
prepare for, respond to, and recover from significant multi-hazard threats with min-
imum damage to public safety and health, the economy, and security of a given
urban area (Klein et al, 2003). Additionally, 100 Resilient Cities movement, estab-
lished by 100 Rockefeller Foundation, is also oriented on the stakeholders relevant
to urban resilience. It links urban resilience with the capacity of individuals, com-
munities, institutions, businesses, and systems within a city to survive, adapt, and
grow no matter what kinds of chronic stresses and acute shocks they experience
645
(RF, n.d.). This short explanations show how the term is manifold (Meerow et al,
2016), despite its crucial elements can be regularly understood.
Fig- 1: Measuring city resilience (source: OSCD, retrieved from:

https://www.oecd.org/gov/regional-policy/resilient-cities.htm)
In this way, the concept of urban resilience underline that of the present-day
cities should be flexible, responsive, adaptive, and interconnected to cope with fast
changing circumstances at global tier. They should be focused to upgrade their lead-
ership, well-being, economy, Infrastructure, and environment. These significant
tasks surely need the good preparation of new experts and the creation of a special
education and training programmes.
The wider definition and related explanation of the concept of urban resili-
ence are also a reflection of its global dimension. Probably the most important fact
regarding this is that it was strongly supported by major international organisations,
such as UN, OSCD, World Bank or ISOCARP. For example, UN has carried Mak-
ing Cities Resilient Campaign since in 2010 (Johnson & Blackburn, 2014). At the
end, resilient urban design was recently elevated into one of the backbones of new
urban agenda at Habitat III conference in Quito (UN, 2016).
3. RESILIENT URBAN DESIGN

Since the rise of the concept, urban resilience has been connected mainly
with urban planning and the related theoretical fields, which target a macro scale.
Just to acknowledge some of them:
646
Financing of urban management: Brugmann, 2012;
Urban governance: Wagenaar and Wilkinson, 2015;
Social issues in urban planning: Bn et al, 2014;
Environmental issues in urban planning: Davoudi, 2014;
Neighbourhood planning: Turner, 2009; Bouzarovski et al, 2011; Beilin
et al, 2015;
Place-making: Coaffee, 2013.
Accordingly, it is obvious that the resilient urban design is still an underde-
veloped field and that there is a lot of space to upgrade it in the future. However, it is
also a very important field in the overall spatial development. Being more focused
on micro-scale interventions in urban development, such as the larger scale of
groups of buildings, streets and public spaces (Boeing, 2014), urban design is inevi-
tably more related with concrete projects and citizens.
The essence of urban design is also very close to the goals and postulates of
the concept of urban resilience. It also aspires to an integrative approach and balance
in its concerns; to link economy and society through qualitative urban space, to
balance between nature and human development; to harmonise creativity and engi-
neering. Second, it also refers to both the building and maintenance an urban space.
Third, it is based on a proactive role, which tries to facility the revitalisation and
regeneration of the entire urban fabric.
In many cases, resilient urban design is strongly connected with climate
changes and hazard and risk management, which have had a real impact last decades
(Raven, 2010). Actually, they are usually seen as an initiative stage for the formation
of the profound framework of resilient urban design.
Fig. 2: Sketch of climate-driven resilient urban design (source: Duvigneaud,

P. and Denayer-de Smet, S. (eds.) (1975) L Ecosystme Urbain).
647
Nowadays, resilient urban design is more attached to the resilience of those
urban spaces which are important for public concerns, such as squares, streets, park,
gardens or quays (Vargas et al, 2014). They were not in professional focus prior the
crisis in 2008. High-quality public spaces can produce a positive influence and play
a major role for the resilience of wider urban areas. Furthermore, resilient urban
design is equally important for both new urban quarters and neighbourhoods and for
the urban reconstruction and revitalisation of older ones (Wirsching Fuentes, 2015).
All mentioned elements clarify that the establishment of resilient urban design as a
organised theoretical framework is ongoing globally.
3.1. Principles of Resilient Urban Design
The urban resilience was recently pointed in one of UN Social Development
Goals, adopted in 2015. It is the Goal No 11 Make cities inclusive, safe, resilient
and sustainable (UN, 2015). It was further developed into ten targets, which can be
shaped to achieve resilient cities. For the purpose of this paper, they will be custom-
ised to urban-design level.
Table 1: Customisation of the principles of urban resilience to urban-design level

No 11 TARGETS TO ACHIEVE RESILIENT PRINCIPLES FOR URBAN DESIGN
CITIES (UN, 2015)
By 2030, ensure access for all to adequate, RESILIENT HOUSING: new and
safe and affordable housing and basic services regenerated residential areas with
and upgrade slums viable focal points (squares and
streets).
By 2030, provide access to safe, affordable, RESILIENT URBAN TRANSPORT:
accessible and sustainable transport systems support for public transport, design of
for all, improving road safety, notably by the space where transport needs meet
expanding public transport, with special atten- other urban functions and facilities,
tion to the needs of those in vulnerable situa- design for vulnerable people and
tions, women, children, persons with disabili- groups
ties and older persons
By 2030, enhance inclusive and sustainable RESILIENCE AND
urbanization and capacity for participatory, PARTICIPATION: inclusion of partic-
integrated and sustainable human settlement ipation in urban-design process and
planning and management in all countries management
Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the RESILIENT HERITAGE: the qualita-
worlds cultural and natural heritage tive inclusion of cultural and natural
heritage into wider urban space, with
the protection of their uniqueness
By 2030, significantly reduce the number of RESILIENT RISK MANAGEMENT:
deaths and the number of people affected and minimisation of risks, disasters and
substantially decrease the direct economic hazards, proper actions in design to
losses relative to global gross domestic prod- prevent or easily overcome the men-
uct caused by disasters, including water- tioned challenges
648
No 11 TARGETS TO ACHIEVE RESILIENT PRINCIPLES FOR URBAN DESIGN
CITIES (UN, 2015)
related disasters, with a focus on protecting
the poor and people in vulnerable situations
By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita envi- RESILIENT ENVIRONMENT: incor-
ronmental impact of cities, including by pay- poration of environmentally friendly
ing special attention to air quality and munici- measures in urban design through
pal and other waste management smart design and the use of resilient
and healthy materials
By 2030, provide universal access to safe, RESILIENT URBAN GREENERY:
inclusive and accessible, green and public design of viable green urban spaces,
spaces, in particular for women and children, formation of the network of greenery in
older persons and persons with disabilities urban areas, use of green materials and
solution in urban design
Support positive economic, social and envi- RESILIENT URBAN-RURAL
ronmental links between urban, peri-urban and LINKS: the support form mixed use
rural areas by strengthening national and and higher densities in urban, peri-
regional development planning urban and rural areas to enable better
accessibility
By 2020, substantially increase the number of RESILIENT URBAN
cities and human settlements adopting and GOVERNANCE: development of ITC-
implementing integrated policies and plans driven governance, transparency in
towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitiga- decision-making and all procedures in
tion and adaptation to climate change, resili- urban design
ence to disasters, and develop and implement,
in line with the Sendai Framework for Disas-
ter Risk Reduction 2015-2030, holistic disas-
ter risk management at all levels
Support least developed countries, including RESILIENCE AND LOCAL
through financial and technical assistance, in AWARENESS: the use of local tradi-
building sustainable and resilient buildings tion and materials in urban design, the
utilizing local materials link between urban design and urban
context
4. NON-CLASSIC CONCLUSION IMPLEMENTABILITY

OF URBAN DESIGN PRINCIPLES IN SERBIA
As a post-socialist country with still unstable economy and weak public poli-
cies, Serbia is probably a bigger challenge for the implementation of the principles
of resilient urban design. As it was mentioned in the previous chapters, many at-
tempts at national tier to introduce and implement internationally known concepts
and models without real adaptation to local conditions have usually resulted with
failures. Therefore, this conclusion will not be in classical manner it is tailored as
649
a set of guidelines to use the globally recognised principles. There are related to the
implementabilty of the concept locally.
RESILIENT HOUSING: Serbian legislation regarding housing was recently
modernised in line with global trends. But, it is true more for architectural tier. Ur-
banism tier was left almost intact. Therefore, prospective housing and urban policy
need to tackle the issue of resilient residential areas with more the facilities for so-
cial interaction (open public spaces, community facilities) as well as to strengthen
economical base through mixed-type and mix-dense residential development.
RESILIENT URBAN TRANSPORT: The development of urban mobility
should be connected with urban policies. For urban design, it is very important to
propose the actions to make urban centres both accessible by public transport and
viable for all people during a day. Thus, urban policy in Serbia must specially con-
cern how functional and physical centres can be simultaneously transport nodes.
RESILIENCE AND PARTICIPATION: Although there a lot of legal, strate-
gic and scientific contributions to this topic, it is still underdeveloped and far from
citizens. Resilient urban design should be focused on both formal (public audit)
informal participative actions (workshops, exhibitions, etc.).
RESILIENT HERITAGE: Resilience comprises the protection and decent
use of natural and cultural heritage. For further concerns in Serbia, it is significant to
develop the tools which will oriented to the functional side of heritage, i.e. which
will find appropriate functions for them to be the part of vivid urban area.
RESILIENT RISK MANAGEMENT: The further development of proactive
measures against natural risks and disasters are overcome in the time of climate
change. However, better focus on integrative measures is welcomed they should
resolve how some urban space will be both resilient to disasters and well-designed.
RESILIENT ENVIRONMENT: Environmental issues should be underlined.
The minimal standards for environmentally friendly elements should in the future
agenda.
RESILIENT URBAN GREENERY: Two elements in this sector are neces-
sary in Serbia. First, the minimal standards and norms for urban greenery must be
enacted in the future. Then, a special task should be given to the creation of the rules
and recommendation to developed green networks in urban areas.
RESILIENT URBAN-RURAL LINKS: The problem of the big gap between
urban, suburban and rural areas is a challenge for Serbia. Therefore, new interven-
tions in urban design should be more associated to more vulnerable places; such are
illegal settlements in suburbia and villages-centres.
RESILIENT URBAN GOVERNANCE: The modernisation of urban govern-
ance is investable in the time of globalisation and ICT revolution. New ICT-driven
measures for urban areas are not just necessary for the outcomes of urban design.
They are also important for the entire process: for the collection of accurate data and
for the transparency and understanding of decisions and procedures in urban design
RESILIENCE AND LOCAL AWARENESS: The use of local tradition and
local materials in urban design is always recognised as a good approach. For Serbia,
local distinctiveness in urban patterns can be useful to define better adaptation of
650
some new and up-to-date actions (such as ICT-driven urban solutions) to local con-
text.
All elaborated locally adapted principles show the complexity of the concept.
Therefore, this paper can be considered as a small step forward to bring international
knowledge and ideas to local tiers and to check how they can be used there.
5. Acknowledgement
This paper was done within National research projects No 36034 and No
36035, financed by the Ministry of education and science of the Republic of Serbia.
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NAPREDAK U OUVANJU IVOTNE SREDINE: ULOGA
UPRAVLJANJA VRSTIM OTPADOM
ADVANCES IN ENVIRONMENTAL PRESERVATION:
THE ROLE OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Prof. Dr. (Arch.) Doaa M. El-SHERIF
Professor of Environmental Planning and Urban Management.
Director of the Urban Training & Studies Institute (UTI);
Housing & Building National Research Center (HBRC);
Ministry of Housing, Egypt.
doaa_elsherif@yahoo.com
Upravljanje vrstim otpadom deluje kao problem koji se moe jednostavno i
lako reavati, naroito inenjerima, u poreenju sa problemom snabdevanja tehni-
ke ili pijae vode. U praksi su, pak, mnoge zemlje na severu, kao i na jugu, suoene
su sa velikim tekoama u uspostavljanju sistema za upravljanje vrstim otpadom
koji su tehniki i ekoloki pouzdani, finansijski odrivi i drutveno prihvatljivi.
Brz rast broja stanovnika u gradovima zajedno sa fizikim irenjem gradova,
brza industrijalizacija i promene u obrascima potronje, zajedno doprinose ogrom-
nom poveanju koliine vrstog otpada i transformaciji njegovog sastava. U mno-
gim gradovima uticaj vrstog otpada na zdravlje, privredne aktivnosti i celokupnu
ivotnu sredinu dostigao je zastraujue razmere.
Nedostatak sredstava na lokalnom nivou i nedostatak adekvatnih tehnikih
standarda za upravljanje otpadom na nacionalnom nivou dovode do toga da u mno-
gim zemljama u razvoju nedovoljno tretira komunalni vrsti otpad. Postoje vrlo
oskudni dokumentovani podaci o iskustvima mikro i malih preduzea, organizacija
lokalnih zajednica i nevladinih organizacija u oblasti upravljanja vrstim otpadom.
Ovaj rad se bavi ulogom mikro i malih preduzea, organizacija lokalnih
zajednica i nevladinih organizacija, koja dugo nije bila poznata i priznata. Ovo je
pokuaj da se detaljno prikae uloga ovih subjekata u ouvanju ivotne sredine i
smanjenju zagaenja, sa akcentom na njihov rad u oblasti upravljanja vrstim
otpadom.
Solid waste management (SWM) seems to be a simple and easy issue to tac-
kle, especially for engineers, when compared with sanitation or drinking water
supply. However, in practice many countries, in the North as well as in the South,
face major difficulties in establishing solid waste management systems that are
technically and environmentally sound, financially viable and socially acceptable.
The fast growth of the urban population, combined with the physical
outgrowth of cities, rapid industrialization and changes in consumption patterns,
have all contributed to a tremendous growth in the quantities and a transformation
655
of the composition of solid waste. In many cities in the developing countries, the
resulting impact of solid waste on health, economic activities, and the overall envi-
ronment has reached fearful dimensions.
Lack of budget at the local level and lack of technical adequate waste mana-
gement standards at the national level have contributed to poor municipal solid
waste (MSW) performance in many developing countries. Little has been documen-
ted about the experiences of micro and small-scale enterprises (MSEs), community-
based organizations (CBOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in the
field of solid waste management.
This paper focuses on the role of MSEs & CBOs and NGOs, which have not
been recognized for long time. It is an attempt to elaborate their role in preserving
the environment and minimize pollution, with focus on the MSEs & CBOs and NGOs
working in the field of solid waste management.
Introduction
By almost any form of evaluation, solid waste management (SWM) is a
growing environmental and financial problem in developing countries. Despite sig-
nificant efforts in the last decades, the majority of municipalities in developing
countries face difficulties in managing the growing volume of waste in their cities.
The classical approach is to consider solid waste as an "urban planning"
problem. Municipal authorities are regarded as the main actor in the field since they
are responsible for providing adequate collection and disposal services in order to
protect public health.
This paper focuses on new approaches for SWM which includes other actors
to support municipalities, with emphasis on the role of MSEs & CBOs and NGOs to
preserve the environment and minimize pollution.
1- Sustainable SWM for the preservation of the environment

Solid waste management in developing countries is a complex issue that
involves various aspects, stakeholders and activities. The perception of dealing with
solid waste management simply as the provision of a service has been changed in
recent decades. Rather, it should be dealt with as a complex system of actors and
activities with different interests and priorities that require proper management and
co-ordination.
Up to the 1970s, the perception of waste as unwanted, useless material
with no intrinsic value shaped societys approach to waste management. The ultima-
te disposal of waste was the overriding priority. Waste generators sought disposal at
the lowest cost in landfills.
However, the past decades have witnessed a major change in attitudes to
waste. The key driving force has been the concept of sustainable development, defi-
ned as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The slogan more with less
656
encapsulates the new thinking: extracting the maximum values and benefit from
products and services, using the minimum of energy and rejecting the minimum of
waste materials or emissions to the environment. Arising out of this is the concept of
sustainable waste management. In essence, waste is given value.
Sustainable waste management, also, calls for the recovery and reuse of
materials so as to conserve raw materials, the use of waste as a source of energy in
order to conserve non-renewable natural environmental resources and finally for the
safe disposal of unavoidable waste.
1-1 Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) approach
Integrated Waste Management (IWM) is an approach that can be used by
waste management designers and operators towards sustainable solutions. This
means waste management systems that are environmentally effective, economic
affordable and socially acceptable for a particular community and region. It is a
frame of reference for designing and implementing new waste management systems
and for analyzing and optimizing existing systems.
1-1-1 Dimensions of ISWM concept:
The First Dimension (Key Actors); this dimension is based on identifying
the main key actors. It is essential to start in any situation by making a careful
analysis of the main actors, to analyze their formal roles in the structure. The main
advantages are as follows:
Enlarges public awareness and commitment, badly needed for upgrading of the
urban living environment, especially in the poor areas.
From the other hand, communities, the private sector and the municipal service
can complement each other resulting in an effective SW system.
Thirdly, participation of communities and medium & small enterprises (MSEs)
generates income and employment and thus contributes to the alleviation of
urban poverty. (Main focus of the paper).
The Second Dimension (System Elements); the system elements are enlar-
ged from traditional collection and disposal system to an integrated system including
among others waste prevention and resource recovery.
The Third Dimension (Strategic Aspects); the ISWM approach broadens
the traditional technical and financial approach of SWM by including environmen-
tal, social, financial, technical, institutional and political aspects and requires there-
fore a multidisciplinary approach.
1-1-2 Goals of Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM):
The main goals of ISWM could be introduced as follows:
Overall goal: A clean and healthy urban environment for all.
Performance goal: Well-functioning, affordable urban services.
Institutional and social goals: Public satisfaction with the service and
compliance with its rules. Besides, public involvement mechanisms
that allow citizens to have a role in determining the types of urban ser-
657
vices they prefer.
Policy goal: Responsible and accountable service providers, both in
public or private sector.
Economic goals: A fair and safe livelihood for waste workers, whether
in formal and informal sector, with cost recovery strategies.
Environmental goal: Maximum diversion from disposal to beneficial
reuses such as composting, recycling, reuse, and repair, and safe dispo-
sal.
Figure (1) Dimensions of ISWM

Source: Integrated Sustainable Waste Management, Klundert, Arnold, et. al, 1999.
1-2 MSEs and CBOs/NGOs Main Definitions:
A- Micro- and Small Enterprises (MSEs):
Numerous definitions of micro- and small enterprises (MSEs) exist. Table
(1) shows a common definition of MSEs. In this paper, we will consider MSEs one
group.
658
Factor Micro Enterprise Small Enterprise
Number of 1-10 workers, including the 11-20 workers including the
employees owner(s) owner(s)
Capital From own savings, loans from family and friends, use of family infras-
tructure
Formal Usually not registered Usually registered
Taxes Often does not pay taxes Pays taxes that cannot be avoided
Table (1) Definition of a micro- and a small enterprise
Source: Haan, Coad & Lardinois (1998)
B- Community-based organisations (CBOs):

Community-based organizations are grassroots initiatives from residents
motivated by values or ideals that involve improving and cleaning up the
community.
C- Non-governmental organisation (NGOs):
The term non-governmental organization can refer to such diverse organiza-
tions as mosques, churches, universities, labour organisations, environmental orga-
nizations and lobbies. Generally NGOs are intermediate organizations, which are not
directly and continuously involved in community projects. They can advocate inte-
rests on a larger scale than the single community and provide support and advice to
CBOs.
1-2-1 Types of MSEs involved in solid waste management:
MSEs involved in SWM can be divided into three different types of enterpri-
ses. Although, they have some common features, these three types seem to operate
differently, have quite different characteristics, and require different types of inter-
ventions to support or promote their activities. They can be defined as follows:
Commodity-based MSEs: enterprises that get their income by selling mate-
rials at profit or products that they have salvaged, produced, or bought.
Service-based MSEs: enterprises that get their income from performing a
service; paid by clients, beneficiaries, or a combination of these.
Value-based MSEs: entities which serve a social, religious, environmental,
or cultural purpose, whose primary goal is some form of social or cultural change or
strengthening or environmental protection, and who see involvement in SWM as
either an economic activity to support their values, or as a means to raise awareness
in their areas of focus.
1-3 Traditional (conventional) privatization and social privatization:
1-3-1 Traditional privatization:
Traditional privatization, where contracts go mainly to large and medium
scale enterprises has tended to benefit the wealthier sectors of society, and is cha-
racterized by a high and rapidly increasing cost of services suitable for these com-
munities. It is not so much that the private sector ignores the low-income sectors, but
659
that they cannot afford to serve them, still survive, and profit. This type of privatiza-
tion has been called cherry-picking, in that, the private sector picks and serves
those clients who can pay, and pay well.
1-3-2 Social privatization:
In sharp contrast, there have been a surprising number of longer-term succes-
ses with non-traditional privatization, which challenge many of the ideas about
decentralization and privatization. The central actors in these experiments, most of
which have been relatively small-scale, are micro- and small enterprises, NGOs,
CBOs, individual entrepreneurs, and the like. In Latin America this phenomena has
been named social privatisation due to the high degree of social interest in these
activities. Different from simply substituting governmental activities, social privati-
zation doesn't release the government from its responsibilities to safeguard the pub-
lic interest.
2- Overview of Solid Waste Management Problem in Egypt:

The problem of solid waste management in Egypt has been growing at an
alarming rate. Its negative manifestations, as well as its direct and indirect harmful
consequences on public health, environment and national economy (particularly as
related to manpower productivity and tourism) are becoming quite apparent and acute.
In essence, the problem as described in the National Waste Management
Strategy 2000- lies in the fact that: "The present systems could not satisfy the served
community needs with its various strata for a reasonably accepted cleansing level, as
well as in reducing the negative health and environmental impacts, or in improving
the aesthetic appearance".
The problem emanated from the incapability of the existing management
systems, which resulted from an overall deficiency in the various system compo-
nents, ability or resources wise. The situation is further complicated by the generally
non-enabling external factors, whether relating to political support or the prevailing
public behavior.
2-1 Position of MSEs and CBOs/NGOs in SWM in Egypt:
2-1-1 Position of informal waste sector (commodity-based
MSEs):
There are different groups of people active in the informal waste sector in
Egypt. Some of the people involved are:
Wahis: who control and distribute collection routes (in Cairo).
Zabbaleen: who collect waste from households and sort it.
Roba bekkia people: who collect specific items (old paper, electrical
appliances, clothes, shoes, etc.) from households.
Waste-pickers: who pick from collection points and containers.
Dealers: who buy materials from scavengers, and zabbaleen.
Pre-processing and recycling companies.
660
Besides this capability for creating jobs, informal waste recovery practices
considerably reduce the cost to the public sector of collection and disposal. They
also contribute to the recovery of resources, by their recycling practices, which is
desirable from an environmental point of view.
2-1-2 Position of service- and value-based MSEs and
CBOs/NGOs:
Environmental NGOs, local CBOs as well as service- and value-based MSEs
in Egypt have increased their activities greatly starting from the 1990s. Many new
MSEs were established and got active in the field of SWM, helped by international
and national donor organizations. However, their contribution was not always reco-
gnized.
3- Analysis of MSEs Framework in Egypt:

This part discusses the current framework, within which MSEs & NGOs/CBOs
operate. It includes an analysis and assessment of this framework in relation to diffe-
rent aspects of SWM in Egypt. These different aspects include technical & operational
aspects, institutional & managerial aspects and socio-economic aspects. The perfor-
mance of the three types of MSEs in Egypt is discussed and compared.
3-1 Technical & operational aspects:
In this part the kind of equipment used and the characteristics of the systems
in place are compared to show differences and similarities.
A. Commodity-based MSEs
Commodity-based MSEs use a variety of equipments, depending on the
access to capital of the owner. In the past, the zabbaleen in Cairo used to collect all
waste with donkey-carts. However, in 1990s the government forbade the use of
donkey-carts. Now the zabbaleen use large trucks or pick-up trucks with which
they transport the waste to their settlements. To collect the waste from the apar-
tments they use large baskets and large nylon sacks in which they store the waste on
the street.
Figure 2 Sorting of recyclables in Cairo Figure 3 Enterprise for plastic recycling
661
B. Service-based MSEs
The majority of service-based MSEs involved in waste collection use tractors
and trailers. Usually these are standard agricultural tractors and trailers. SEAM Pro-
ject has developed an alternative type of low-loading trailer, which has a larger
capacity than the ordinary trailers. It is being used in Mansoura, Dakahleya Gover-
norate (see Figures 4). Wheelbarrows and hand carts are sometimes used in combi-
nation with tractor-trailers to collect waste from narrow streets.
C. Value-based MSEs
Value-based MSEs use similar type of equipment as service-based MSEs.
Only the value-based MSEs that are involved in separation at source use a special
kind of equipment. A truck with two partitions or a tractor-trailer combination with
two bins is used to collect waste separately (among others by Arab office for youth
& environment "AOYE" (see figure 5) and Hemaya Association in Nuweiba. Two
bins, one for wet or organic waste and one for dry or inorganic waste are distri-
buted among the households.
Figure 4 Low loading trailer in Kolongeel, Dakahlleya Figure 5 Truck with two
partitions used by AOYE in Cairo.
3-2 Institutional & managerial aspects:
Institutional aspects are probably the most important factors in the successful
operation of a MSEs providing waste services. Many problems MSEs face are also
related in one way or another to institutional and management aspects. Not much is
known about the management structure and employment structure of commodity-
based MSEs, because they usually operate informally. However, it is known that in
Cairo they are involved in collection and sorting and employ on average 7 workers.
Commodity-based MSEs in other Governorates are smaller and in many
cases one-man enterprises. On the disposal sites groups of waste pickers (mainly
children and youth) work for dealers sorting recyclables. Service & value-based
MSEs, aren't very strong in management of the system they are implementing. Valu-
e-based MSEs are usually too idealistic and sometimes rely too much on volunta-
rism.
662
3-3 Socio-economic aspects:
A- Equity: Equity means that all citizens are entitled to an appropriate waste
management system for environmental health reasons, also people living in lower
income areas. There are differences between the three types of MSEs regarding
equity of service provision. Commodity-based MSEs tend to serve mainly middle
and higher income areas because of the higher proportion of recyclables in the
waste, while service-based MSEs collect waste from various areas, mainly middle
and low-income areas, though, because higher income areas are served by
commodity-based MSEs or more formal waste collection enterprises. As many ser-
vice-based MSEs are community development associations "CDAs" and CDAs are
usually strong in villages, many of them are active in villages, more than in cities.
Value-based MSEs by design tend to focus more on lower income and neglected
neighbourhoods. However, this kind of MSEs may be vulnerable because of the low
ability to pay in these areas.
B- Level of community participation: Commodity-based MSEs as a rule
have few relations with communities they collect waste from. Households just put
their garbage outside the door of their apartment and pay fees. Service-based MSEs
have an average level of community participation; usually awareness-raising efforts
are undertaken as part of the project, and sometimes a committee is in place that
supervises waste collection.
Value-based MSEs per definition pay much attention to community partici-
pation, as this is part of their values. Like with service-based MSEs community
participation and awareness efforts are not always sustainable, as they are often
funded by donors and mechanisms for covering these costs when funding phases out
are not always in place.
C- Gender: The gender division of labour in SWM projects run by MSEs
and CBOs is not particularly fair. Women usually receive lower wages than men and
are responsible for specific tasks, in general not the ones that give them decision-
making power. In commodity-based MSEs women carry out the most dirty work of
sorting waste, which is also unpaid in most cases.
In service-based MSEs women do not play a very important role, except in
awareness-raising. This had negative effects on the system. Value-based MSEs
women often play a prominent role, especially women from higher and middle
income background, who are often volunteers. As a result, these MSEs may lack a
business approach.
It seems that in general the more equal the gender representation is in plan-
ning and implementation of the project and the more women are listened to, the
more successful the solid waste management project.
D. Working conditions: In almost all cases the conditions under which
MSEs are working need improvement. There seems to be a general lack of care for
workers' health. Regarding commodity-based MSEs, working conditions for women
sorting waste are very precarious too. They do not use gloves, the sorting is often
done in or close to the home, on the ground, and the organic and inorganic wastes
are mixed. Recycling enterprises have hazardous working conditions, with harmful
663
effects on respiratory system. This situation is due to lack of funds and awareness of
MSEs owners.
Regarding service-based MSEs uniforms are used only seldom, the use of
gloves is also rare, except among higher income schoolchildren and CBOs that carry
out clean-up campaigns (because of sponsoring).
For the value-based MSEs are somewhat better. They give more care to the
people working in their projects.
Conclusions
In general, MSEs create local jobs, they have a good knowledge of the local
situation that can be combined with international expertise, and they ensure
that not all profits are leaving the country.
Commodity-based MSEs could have a role as sub-contractors serving a
combination of high and low income areas. They could also have deals with
larger enterprises to receive waste to sort and recycle. However, working
conditions for sorting and recycling should be improved, preferably by
encouraging separation at source by households.
Service-based MSEs could have a role as sub-contractors too, on condition
that they improve their technical and business management skills. Value-
based MSEs could play a major role in setting up pilot projects and in the
exchange of experience through cross visits and the like.
Value-based MSEs, NGOs and CBOs can also play an essential role in set-
ting up training and credit schemes to develop new products and improve
MSEs skills.
CBOs and NGOs can have a major responsibility in awareness-raising,
advocacy, and monitoring of SWM services provided by MSEs. Finally,
they can promote replication and documentation of successful experiences
through the publication of case studies, articles, etc.
Recommendations
Decision-makers should recognize the importance of the involvement of
NGOs and CBOs in planning to increase community participation and the
accountability of local governments.
A national program should be developed to stimulate and to facilitate small
private companies, especially those active in the informal sector.
Clear guidelines to create room for MSEs as subcontractors for larger pri-
vate companies or as contractors to the local government. Their role could
be particularly important in peri-urban and rural areas, areas that are not
served right now or that are not interesting for large-scale contractors.
MSEs should be officially recognized by governments as at least a partial
solution to their solid waste management problems and a partner worth
supporting.
664
MSEs should have access to training and capacity-building to increase their
skills and to innovate their technologies and products.
Separation at source should be legally compulsory to encourage recycling
and make sorting more efficient and less risky.
References
[1] *** UN, (2005): "Egypt Common Country Assessment, Embracing the Spirit of
the Millennium Declaration".
[2] Iskander, Laila, (2005), "Socio-Economic Aspects of Waste Recycling",
Community and Institutional Development (CID).
[3] El-Sherif, Doaa, et. al, (2004): "Privatization of Solid Waste Management in
Egypt", Expert Group Meeting Publication, UTI & IHS.
[4] El-Sherif, D., A., Justine, (2001): The involvement of micro & small-scale
enterprises & Community based organisations in solid waste management in
Egypt- a comparative analysis, UTI.
[5] *** Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency "EEAA", (2000): "The National
Strategy for Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management".
[6] *** Bushra, M. (2000). Assessment of policy and institutional frameworks of
solid waste management in Egypt. CEDARE/Blue Plan.
[7] El-Sherif, D., Boushra, M., (1999): Towards improving solid waste manage-
ment situation in Cairo, with specific references to the case of Tora, Egypt-
Netherlands cooperation project, TRHUD, HBRC.
[8] Klundert, Arnold, et. al, (1999): "Integrated Sustainable Waste Management",
Environmental Conference, CEDARE, Alexandria.
[9] *** SEAM Project, (1999): "Solid Waste Management Strategy: Governorate of
Dakahleya", EEAA/TCOE/Entec.
[10] Marie Assaad & et. al, (1998): The role of NGOs in solid waste manage-
ment, Association for the protection of the Environment (APE).
[11] Yousriya Loza Sawiris, (1998): Solid Waste Management A pilot project in
Cairo, Egypt, Environmental Economics and policy analysis workshop, Har-
vard.
[12] Haan, H. C., A. Coad & I. Lardinois, (1998): "Involving micro- and small
enterprises",SDC/WASTE/GTZ/ILO/SKAT.
[13] Kamel, Dr. L. Iskander & I. Salama (1996). Social development issues: Solid
Waste Management Strategy Dakahleya. SEAM Project.
665
PROJEKTI DALJINSKE ENERGIJE, TEMELJNOG
UNAPREENJA ENERGETSKE EFIKASNOSTI,
I DISTRIBUIRANOG GENERISANJA ENERGIJE
KAO STRATEKI ODGOVOR BEOGRADA I UNEP-A
NA KLIMATSKE PROMENE
PROJECT ON DISTRICT ENERGY, DEEP IMPROVEMENT
OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY, UTILISATION OF RENEWABLE
SOURCES AND DISTRIBUTED ENERGY GENERATION
AS A STRATEGIC ANSWER OF BELGRADE AND UNEP
ON CLIMATE CHANGES
Miodrag GRUJI1, dipl. ma. in., Petar VASILJEVI2, dipl. ma. in. ,
Bojan BOGDANOVI2, dipl. ma. in.
1)
Sekretarijat za zatitu ivotne sredine Grada Beograda,
2)
JKP Beogradske elektrane, Beograd
U okviru globalne borbe protiv klimatskih promena, uzimajui u obzir zna-
ajno aerozagaenje u urbanim sredinama, Grad Beograd i JKP "Beogradske elek-
trane" su se ove godine prikljuili UNEP-ovoj (United Nations Environment Pro-
gramme) Inicijativi o daljinskoj energiji u gradovima (District Energy in Cities
Initiative). U okviru Inicijative, odabrana su samo 4 grada na svetu, meu kojima je
Beograd, a u kojima se, uz strateki i sveobuhvatan pristup, realizuje Projekat
daljinske energije iji su krajnji ciljevi: poveanje ulaganja u sisteme daljinske
energije uz temeljno unapreenje kvaliteta proizvedene energije i energetske efikas-
nosti (ukljuujui i potroae), uvoenje obnovljivih izvora energije i novih tehnolo-
gija (ukljuujui daljinsko hlaenje i distribuiranu generaciju energije), integracija
urbanizma, politika i investicija u sisteme daljinske energije, energetska nezavisnost,
kao i mogunost primene postavljenog modela na druge gradove u zemlji i regionu.
Radi kompletiranja neophodnih i meusobno kompatibilnih aktivnosti na poveanju
efikasnosti sistema daljinske energije, od izvora do potroaa, Grad Beograd je
uspeo da obezbedi uee, takoe uz dubinski pristup, na kompatibilnom projektu
Ubrzanje efikasnosti u zgradama (Building Efficiency Accelerator), koji realizuju
UNEP i WRI (World Resource Institute). Rad daje opis konkretnih projektnih aktiv-
nosti planiranih za realizaciju do kraja 2019. godine, primenu novih tehnologija i
oekivane rezultate. Osim realizacije konkretnih projekata koji tretiraju upotrebu
obnovljivih izvora i drugih savremenih, ekoloki prihvatljivih tehnologija, efikasnost
u distribuciji toplotne energije, sistem naplate, energetsku efikasnost u objektima
667
itd, nema sumnje da e na ovaj nain biti postavljeni stabilni temelji za veoma sav-
remen razvoj i kapitalne investicije sistema daljinske energije u Beogradu.
Kljune rei: Daljinsko grejanje i hlaenje, Energetska efikasnost, Obnovlji-
vi izvori i distribuirana generacija energije
Within the global struggle against climate changes, considering the signifi-
cant aero-pollution in urban areas, the City of Belgrade and JKP Beogradske
elektrane have joined the UNEPs (United Nations Environment Programme)
project District Energy in Cities Initiative. In the initiative, only 4 cities have been
selected worldwide, one of them being Belgrade, for the realization of the district
energy project in the strategic and general approach. The ultimate objectives of the
Project in District Energy are the following: increase in the investment for deep
advance of quality of produced energy and energy efficiency (including users),
introduction of renewable energy sources and new technologies (including district
cooling and distributed energy generation), integration of urban planning, politics
and investment in district heating systems, energy independence, as well as the
possibility of applying the set model in other cities in the country and the region. To
finish all the necessary and mutually compatible activities on the increase of the
efficiency of district energy systems, from the source to the consumer, the City of
Belgrade has managed to offer their participation, also with district approach, in a
compatible project Building Efficiency Accelerator, realized by UNEP and WRI
(World Resource Institute). The paper describes concrete project activities planned
to be completed by the end of 2019, the application of new technologies and the
expected results. Apart from the realization of concrete projects that treat the use of
reusable sources and other contemporary ecologically acceptable technologies, as
well as the efficiency in heating energy distribution, billing system, energy
efficiency, etc., there is no doubt that this way will set more stable foundations for a
very modern development and capital investments in the district heating system in
Belgrade.
Key words: District heating & cooling, Energy efficiency, Renewable energy
sources, Distributed energy generation
Uvod
Prema Uredbi o utvrivanju liste kategorija kvaliteta vazduha po zonama i
aglomeracijama na teritoriji RS, Beograd se nalazi u treoj, poslednjoj, kategoriji,
zajedno sa Borom, Panevom i Smederevom, gradovima sa izraenim ekolokim
problemima. injenica jeste da se radi o prestonici sa intenzivnim protokom saobra-
aja, ljudi, sa velikim brojem dimnjaka, ali je isto tako i injenica da stanje energet-
ske efikasnosti i struktura potronje energenata mogu biti mnogo povoljniji.
Dominantan negativan uticaj na kvalitet vazduha imaju saobraaj, energetska
i industrijska postrojenja, kao i individualna loita. Ovi izvori emituju tetne mate-
rije kao to su azotni oksidi, sumporni oksidi, a itd., kao i gasove sa efektom sta-
klene bate, pre svih ugljen-dioksid, koji nije tetna materija, ali utie na porast
temperature, a time doprinosi neeljenim klimatskim promenama.
668
Po pitanju velikih energetskih postrojenja na teritoriji Beograda, termoelek-
trane u Obrenovcu rade sa stepenom iskorienja uglja od oko 30%, a zatim u distri-
buciji elektrine energije gubici u mrei iznose i do 15%. JKP "Beogradske elektra-
ne" koje rade uglavnom na gas u toplotnim izvorima imaju, imajui u vidu kotlove
stare u proseku oko 30 godina, relativno visoku efikasnost (gasni kotlovi 92%, kot-
lovi na mazut 85-87%) ali u toplovodima koji su stari oko 30 godina u proseku
gubici iznose oko 14-16%, dok je energetska efikasnost u zgradama na veoma nis-
kom nivou. Sa jedne strane, to stvara velike gubitke energije i negativno utie na
kvalitet vazduha, ali istovremeno predstavlja i ogroman prostor za investicije i raz-
voj privrede, to bi dovelo do velikih uteda u novcu i energiji.
Na sistem daljinskog grejanja prikljueno je oko 320.000 stanova to pred-
stavlja blizu 50% stambenog fonda Beograda. Desetak puta manji je broj potroaa
koji koriste gas, dok se broj potroaa ekoloki nepovoljnih tenih goriva, uglja i
ogrevnog drveta grubo procenjuje. Grejanje na elektrinu energiju, dobijenu uglav-
nom iz ekoloki nepovoljnog uglja, u neefikasnom procesu, je i dalje veoma privla-
no zbog povoljnih cena, koje imaju socijalni predznak.
Neke od ovih okolnosti mogu biti promenjene, a to se prvenstveno odnosi na
poveanje energetske efikasnosti i modernizaciju sistema daljinskog grejanja. Ima-
jui u vidu da godinji trokovi goriva u sistemu daljinskog grejanja u Beogradu
iznose 120-150 miliona evra, energetsko sreivanje zgrada i ulaganja u distributivnu
mreu, izvore i unutranje grejne instalacije u zgradama, dovele bi do viemilionskih
uteda, kako u Budetu grada, tako i u budetu graana. Tako bi se dolo i do stva-
ranja povoljne klime i za prelazak na naplatu po utroku koja bi dodatno smanjila
potronju goriva, uticaj na ivotnu sredinu i trokove, ali bi i pokrenula biznis vre-
dan oko 80-90 miliona evra za ugradnju odgovarajue opreme, to bi se takoe
moglo otplatiti za 3-4 godine.
Da bi se zaokruila slika o efikasnosti u zgradama, vano je navesti podatak
da oko 1/3 stambenih objekata na teritoriji Beograda nema nikakvu izolaciju. To
nisu samo porodine kue, nego i velike stambene zgrade graene u periodima pre
energetskih kriza 1970-tih godina, kada izolacija nije bila imperativ. Ovakvih obje-
kata je mnogo, i zbog toga projekti koje smo pokrenuli imaju ogromno opravdanje i
zahtevaju iroku podrku.
Postojea strateka dokumenta

Poetkom 2016. godine Grad Beograd je usvojio Plan kvaliteta vazduha za
aglomeraciju Beograd. Ovaj dokument se donosi na osnovu ocene stanja kvaliteta
vazduha i obuhvata sve glavne zagaujue materije i glavne izvore zagaivanja, kao
i mere koje e se preduzeti u cilju spreavanja ili smanjenja zagaenja i poboljanja
kvaliteta vazduha. Mere koje predvia Plan obuhvataju sektor saobraaja, toplotne
izvore, dugorone mere, tehnike mere, administrativne itd. U sklopu dokumenta
nalazi se konkretan Akcioni plan koji predvia, do 2020. godine, gaenje veeg
broja kotlarnica koje koriste ugalj i mazut, znatno veu upotrebu obnovljivih izvora
669
energije, izmetanje tranzitnog i transportnog saobraaja iz centra grada i niz drugih
mera.
Strategija razvoja energetike grada Beograda (iako nije usvojena, ali se pri-
menjuje u praksi od 2008.g.), kao i Program zatite ivotne sredine, takoe predvi-
aju znaajno poveanje udela obnovljivih izvora (biomase, otpada, geotermalne i
solarne energije), energetske efikasnosti, gaenje kotlarnica itd.
Krajem 2015. godine Grad Beograd je usvojio i Akcioni plan adaptacije na
klimatske promene kojim je previeno preduzimanje niza mera u narednim godina-
ma na ublaavanju posledica klimatskih promena, nastalih upravo usled globalnih
aktivnosti u sektoru energetike i saobraaja. Kao prioritetne mere prepoznati su
odbrana od poplava i izgradnja zelene infrastrukture.
U toku su zavrne aktivnosti po pitanju usvajanja Strategije razvoja JKP
"Beogradske elektrane". U toku je izrada i Strategija razvoja grada Beograda koja
treba da sublimira i integrie sve razvojne strategije po sektorima u jedinstvenu
politiku Grada.
Oigledno je da globalni pristup povezuje mitigaciju i adaptaciju istovreme-
no. Oigledno je i da postoji iroka strateka podloga za aktivnosti koje predstoje
gradu Beogradu, a to su borba za istiji vazduh, za manje troenje novca i drugih
resursa.
Poetak projekata daljinske energije u gradovima (DES)

i akceleratora efikasnosti u zgradama (BEA)
Na konferenciji u Talinu, Estonija, u aprilu 2015. godine, Grad Beograd je
pozvan da se prikljui UNEP-ovoj (United Nations Environmental Programme)
globalnoj Inicijativi o daljinskoj energiji u gradovima (District Energy in Cities
Initiative). Tokom 2016. godine gradonaelnik Beograda i UNEP su potpisali
dokument o pristupanju Grada Beograda ovoj inicijativi. Vano je pomenuti da je
Beograd u ovom projektu, za razliku od mnogih drugih svetskih gradova, obezbedio
status grada ampiona "Champion City", to podrazumeva dubinski pristup i iri
spektar aktivnosti u trajanju od 3 godine. Ovaj status imaju samo 4 grada u svetu,
meu kojima je i Beograd!
U prvoj polovini 2016. godine, UNEP i WRI (World Resource Institute) su
pozvali Grad Beograd da se prikljui i drugoj, kompatibilnoj inicijativi, zapravo
drugom projektu BEA (Buildings Efficiency Accelerator) koji e trajati godinu dana.
Pristupanjem ovom projektu Grad Beograd je postao jedan od 6 gradova koji su
obezbedili poseban status, tzv. "deep dive".
Zapravo, Beograd je jedini grad na svetu koji realizuje oba projekta sa nave-
denim statusima to mu daje izuzetne mogunosti. Oba projekta su deo jedinstvene
inicijative UN - Odriva energija za sve (Sustainable Energy for all - SE4ALL) iji
ciljevi su dupliranje udela obnovljivih izvora i energetske efikasnosti na globalnom
nivou.
670
Opis projekta DES
District Energy in Cities, koji finansira GEF, predstavlja glavni i strateki
vaniji od ova dva projekta, iako oba treba da imaju veliki znaaj u poveanju ener-
getske efikasnosti i kvaliteta vazduha u Beogradu. On je na globalnom nivou dobio
skraenicu DES zato to je praktino re System esto koriena u kontekstu sistema
daljinske energije u gradovima (District Energy Systems) koji podrazumeva daljin-
sko grejanje i daljinsko hlaenje.
Glavni cilj Projekta DES na globalnom nivou je pomo zemljama u razvoju u
odabranim gradovima da ubrzano postanu drutva sa niskim emisijama ugljenika,
promovisanjem modernih sistema daljinske energije. U tom smislu, konkretni ciljevi
DES projekta su:
integrisanje urbanistikih planova, politika i investicija u sisteme daljinske
energije,
proirenje sistema daljinske energije u gradovima,
kreiranje ambijenta koji favorizuje ulaganja u sisteme daljinske energije i
preslikavanje projekata na domaem i meunarodnom nivou.
Okvirne aktivnosti u Beogradu u naredne 3 godine, koliko e trajati Projekat,
bie:
Formiranje Upravljake grupe i Radne grupe,
Prikupljanje i analiza dokumentacije, podataka i posete lokacijama,
Izrada brze procene (Rapid Assessment) koja obuhvata stanje i mogunosti
modernizacije u sistemu daljinskog grejanja, regulatorni okvir, analizu prepreka i
potrebe kapaciteta, kao i identifikaciju demonstracionih projekata,
Usvajanje projektnih aktivnosti,
Obuke, radionice, studijska putovanja,
Detaljnu analizu koja obuhvata detaljnu procenu postojeeg sistema daljin-
skog grejanja i njegovih potencijala, izradu investicionog plana, detaljnu analizu
prepreka, opcije modela poslovanja, finansijsku procenu konkretnih projekata.
Sutinski, oekuje se da Projekat na kraju donese jasan plan investicija u sis-
temu daljinskog grejanja, uz poeljnu izradu konkretnih studija izvodljivosti izgrad-
nje kapaciteta solarne, energije, biomase, toplotnih pumpi, korienja daljinskog
hlaenja itd, a sve u cilju supstitucije dela fosilnih goriva radi unapreenja kvaliteta
vazduha, dugorone utede energetskih resursa i novca. Ovakav plan se odlino
nadovezuje na upravo zavrenu Strategiju razvoja JKP "Beogradske elektrane".
Beograd ima veoma povoljne mogunosti za upotrebu solarne i geotermalne
energije, biomase i energije otpada. Npr. u Danskoj koja ima 30% manje potencijala
Sunca od Srbije, se nalazi najvee skladite toplotne energije dobijene iz Sunca! To
je rezultat odgovornog pristupa, znanja i racionalnosti koje elimo da primenimo
ovde.
Strategija Evropske komisije za grejanje i hlaenje koja je objavljena u feb-
ruaru 2016. godine je oznaila sisteme daljinske energetike kao praktino jedini
nain da se u centralnim jezgrima gradova (posebno tamo gde je energetska sanacija
oteana zbog fasada koje su pod zatitom) povea efikasnost, uvea zastupljenost
671
obnovljivih izvora energije. Komparativna prednost Beograda je to je, ve sada,
znaajan deo ireg centra Grada prikljuen na sistem daljinskog grejanja ime je
stvorena odlina osnova za ubrzano implementiraju najmodernija reenja i da Beo-
grad bude lider u realizaciji slinih ciljeva koje je pred sebe postavila i EU.
U iroj, ali esto i u strunoj javnosti, uvreeno je miljenje da svaka upotre-
ba obnovljivih izvora ujedno znai i poveanje trokova i cene energije ka krajnjim
korisnicima. Podaci iz ve izraenih analiza, predstudija i studija pokazuju da se u
DES Beograda mogu realizovati projekti koji bi rezultovali cenom toplotne energije
koja je ak i manja od one koja se dobija iz kotlova. Beograd je posebno pogodan za
primenu obnovljivih izvora energije i upotrebu otpadne toplote zbog vrlo niskih
prosenih temperatura u distributivnom sistemu (koji je znaajno povoljniji nego u
najveem broju sistema u Evropi).
Projekti koji su u razliitim fazama razvoja su: grejanje Beograda iz TENT
A, solarno daljinsko grejanje, proizvodnja toplotne i elektrine energije iz komunal-
nog otpada, korienje biomase za proizvodnju toplotne i elektrine energije, koge-
neracija na prirodni gas itd.
Opis projekta BEA

Cilj projekta (Buildings Efficiency Accelerator), iji poetak je ozvanien
31.10.2016. u Skuptini grada, je ubrzanje energetske efikasnosti u zgradama, to
predstavlja zaista veliku potrebu Beograda. Zajedno sa partnerima UNEP i WRI
Grad Beograd kree u realizaciju zadataka Projekta:
procena i prioritizacija lokalnih politika i aktivnosti,
primena aktivnosti, prilagoenih gradskim potrebama, resursima i instru-
mentima i
uspostavljanje pristupa za praenje aktivnosti, dokumentovanje napretka u
odnosu na zacrtanu politiku i ciljeve projekta, kao i razmena steenog znanja.
Pristupanjem Projektu, Grad Beograd se obavezao da e raditi na sledeim
aktivnostima:
definisanju politike energetske efikasnosti u zgradama i odgovarajuih
ciljeva koje treba dostii,
realizaciji jednog demonstracionog projekta i njegovih ciljeva i
praenju izvrenja zacrtane politike i postavljenih ciljeva.
U realizaciji oba navedena projekta partneri Grada Beograda, odnosno zainte-
resovane strane, pored UNEP i WRI, su ministarstava dravne uprave i lokalne
samouprave, rudarstva i energetike, poljoprivrede i zatite ivotne sredine, Kancela-
rija za evropske integracije, ambasade zemalja koje neguju najbolju praksu u oblasti
grejanja i energetske efikasnosti, meunarodne finansijske, bankarske i konsultant-
ske institucije, gradski sekretarijati i javna preduzea, vei gradovi u Srbiji, tehniki
fakulteti i druge naune ustanove, proizvoai i distributeri opreme, investitori
izgradnje objekata, veliki potroai energije, skuptine stanara, nevladine organizaci-
je i mediji.
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Kompatibilni projekti u Beogradu sa ciljem
unapreenja kvaliteta vazduha
Skuptina grada je tokom 2016. godine ovlastila gradonaelnika da pristupi
inicijativi Sporazum gradonaelnika (Covenant of Mayors), koja okuplja veliki broj
evropskih, a od skoro i gradove sa drugih kontinenata, koji se obavezuju da do 2020,
odnosno 2030. godine smanje emisije ugljen-dioksida za 20%, odnosno 40%, respe-
ktivno. Prvi korak predstavlja izrada Akcionog plana odrive energije i klime
(SECAP), za iju izradu je predvien rok od 2 godine od pristupanja. Njegova pri-
mena obuhvata primenu velikog broja mera za smanjenje emisije ugljen-dioksida,
prvenstveno u sektoru energetike i saobraaja, a glavni benefit je pristupanost zna-
ajnim sredstvima fondova. Od gradova u Srbiji trenutno je Grad Ni lan ove inici-
jative.
Gaenje kotlarnica koje se nalaze u sistemu JKP "Beogradske elektrane" je
program kojim je za poslednjih oko 25 godina ugaeno preko 1000 kotlarnica koje
su koristile ekoloki nepovoljna tena i vrsta goriva, u veoma neefikasnim proce-
sima i time veoma negativno uticale na kvalitet vazduha u Beogradu. Potroai su
prikljueni na velike toplane. Trenutno, u sistemu JKP "Beogradske elektrane" ima
55 toplotnih izvora, ali meu njima je vie od polovine kotlarnica koje treba ugasiti.
Osim njih, Grad Beograd je 2012. zapoeo Program gaenja kotlarnica u jav-
nim objektima za koje Grad Beograd plaa trokove energenata. Na osnovu procene
tehnikih mogunosti i postojanja zabrane rada ekoloke inspekcije, usled izmerenih
prekoraenja tetnih materija u datoj kotlarnici, Sekretarijat finansira prikljuenje
ovih objekata na daljinsko grejanje. Od poetka Programa 13 objekata, uglavnom
kola, je prikljueno, a za to je utroeno preko 2 miliona evra. Program se pokazao
uspenim i nastavlja se.
Zakljuak
Mere koje se primenjuju u oblasti energetske efikasnosti, kako u sistemu
daljinskog grejanja tako i u zgradama, imaju dominantan uticaj na kvalitet ivotne
sredine u gradovima. injenica da je Program gaenja kotlarnica, od 1990-tih godina
do danas, uinio da prosene 10-godinje vrednosti ai ne prelaze dozvoljene vred-
nosti ni na jednom fiksnom mernom mestu u Beogradu, dovoljno govori o efektima
ekolokog pristupa energetskim aktivnostima. Zapoeti meunarodni projekti koji su
predmet ovog rada upravo imaju imperativ da otvore put i stvore povoljnu investici-
onu klimu za realizaciju velikog broja projekata iji su benefiti viestruki: kvalitetan
vazduh, racionalna upotreba energetskih resursa, kvalitetni uslovi komfora, uteda
novca, ubrzanje privrednih aktivnosti i smanjenje uvozne zavisnosti zemlje u oblasti
energetike.
673
Literatura
[1] *** .
2030. . , 2008.
[2] Grujic M, Ivezic D, Zivkovic M, Application of multi-criteria decision-making
model for choice of the optimal solution for meeting heat demand in the centra-
lized supply system in Belgrade. Energy;2014.
[3] Ivezic D, Djajic N, Zivkovic M. The Potential of and Barriers to Renewable
Energy Sources in Serbia. Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning and
Policy 2013; 8(2):162-170.
[4] Jovanovic M, Afgan N, Radovanovic P, Stevanovic V. Sustainable develop-
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[5] Lund H, Mathiesen BV. Energy system analysis of 100% renewable energy
systems The case of Denmark in years 2030 and 2050. Energy
2009;34(5):524-31.
674
ULOGA FASADA NA IRENJE POARA
THE ROLE OF FACADE ON FIRE SPREAD
*
Milovan VIDAKOVI1, Barbara VIDAKOVI2
1
DITURDrutvo inenjera i tehniara za uparvljanje
rizicima u ivotnoj sredini Srbije,
2
Visoka inenjerska kola strukovnih studija
Tehnikum Taurunum, Beograd
Da bi se spreilo irenje poara u jednom objektu treba postaviti izmeu
spratova poarne sektore. Ova preporuka nije uvek dovoljna, ako se objekt sastoji iz
vie spratova. irenje poara na vie spratove obino se deava preko spoljnih
zidova fasade zahvaljujui pre svega prozorima. Ovo irenje poara obino se
pojaava u sluaju zastakljenih povrina fasade, koju moemo slobodno da
nazovemo "Zavesa od stakla". Zahtevi za poarnu otpornost fasada i zahtevi za
dovoljnim odstojanjem meu spratovima od minimalno 1 m, nisu uvek ispotovani u
arhitektonskim reenjima fasada. Trend reavanja fasada u obliku zavesa,
poslednjih godina sve vie se pojavljuje i kod nas. To je dovelo do povenja poarne
opasnosti na objektima i mogueg brzog irenja poara po vertikali. Iz tog razloga
bittno je sagledati sve opasnosti koje pred nas stavalja takvo reenje fasade, ne
samo u irenju poara po fasadi, ve i prenoenje poara sa objekta na objekt
zraenjem. U ovom tekstu sluaj prenosa poara zraenjem nee biti razmatran iako
njegova uloga nije mala na irenje poara. Kompletna problematika bie obraena
imajui na umu softver termodinamike nakontrolisanog sagorevanja u jednoj
prostoriji i bilans nastale toplote.
Kljune rei: poar;upravljanje rizicima; fasade
To prevent the spread of fire in the building, fire sectors should be build in
between floors. This recommendation is not always sufficient, if the object is consists
of several floors. The spread of fire on the upper floors usually occurs over the
outside walls of the facade, mainly thanks to the windows. This spread of fire usually
increases in the case of glazed facade surface, the so-called "curtain of glass."
Requirements for facade fire resistance and requirements for sufficient distance
between floors of at least 1 m, are not always respected in the architectural facade
solutions. Trend of solving the faade as a curtain, is increasingly appears in our
country in recent years. This led to a conclusive increase fire danger on the
buildings and the possible rapid spread of the fire vertically. For this reason it is
important to consider all the dangers such facade solution is puting before us, not
only in thecase of fire spread on the facade, but also the transfer of fire from one
object to another by radiation. The case of transmission of fire by radiation will not
be considered In this paper, althought influance is not small to spread the fire.
675
Complete issues will be processed having in mind the software of thermodynamics of
uncontroled combustion in one room and the balance of the formation of heat.
Key words: fire; risk assessment; facade
Fasada
Fasade imaju osnovnu funkciju da zatite posetioce objekta od klimatskih i
ekolokih uticaja okoline. One moraju odoleti: kii, suncu, vetru, mrazu, praini,
buci i zagaenju vazduha tako da ouvaju vlanost i toplotu unutranjosti objekta.
Fasade mogu biti izgraene kao masivne ili tehnikom kostura. Otvori na fasadi
mogu biti vrata i prozori. Masivne fasade imaju funkciju izolacije i u isto vreme
funkciju noenja. Najei materijali koji se koriste na fasadama su cigla i beton.
Kosturna fasada obezbeuje nosivost gredama i stubovima, veinom napravljenih od
betona. Ova fasada jedino obezbeuje odvajanje i izolaciju prostora. Ve godinama
paneli, koji su fiksirani na dve ili etiri take sa kosturom, industrijski su
prefabrikovani. Ovakavo konstruktivno reenje spoljnjeg zida-zavese dozvoljava
primenu razliitih materijala meu kojima je: zavsa od stakla, plastika, drvo, metal i
na kraju beton [1].
Slika 1. Naini ostvarivanja razmaka od fasade [1]

Spoljni zidovi-zavese mogu biti fiksirani za kostur objekta na svakih dva ili
tri sprata. U sluaju poara ovakvo reenje moe dovesti do katastrofalnih posledica
jer su zavese uvek izloene direktno plamenu na spratu gde je izbio poar (slika 1.),
pa su sile vee od onih koje je predvideo arhitekta.
Razvoj poara
Testovi obavljeni u Evropi i Japanu, imali su za cilj merenje promene tem-
perature fasade, u poarnom testu i utvrivanje puteva irenja poara. Na kraju test
potvruje poarnu otpornost nekih od konstruktivnih reenja. Eksperimenti su raeni
u skladu sa termodinamikom nekontrolisanog sagorevanja. Kontroliui istovremeno
parametre: poarnog optereenja, brzine sagorevanja, vreme trajanja poara i bilans
razvoja energije za ogledni objekt, dobijeni su rezultati u funkciji klimatskim uslo-
vima oko objekta i kretnjama vetrova.
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Put irenja poara
Put irenja poara sa donjeg sprata na gornji zavisi od ovih dimezija fasade:
l = a + b + c + d (m) (1)
gde je:
l - duina puta prenosa poara na gornje spratove
d - debljina meuspratne konstrukcije
b - visina dela fasadnog zida raunajui od poda do prozora
c - visina fasadnog dela zida iznad prozora do meuspratne konstrukcije
a - dimezija izboine na fasadi.
Masivna konstrukcija objekta
Kod masivnih objekta postoji zahtev za minimalnu visinsku razliku izmau
prozora od:
l => 1 m
Zahtev za obavezno rastojanje u naim propisima indentian je prema
evropskim zahtevima od 1m izmeu spratova. U Nemakoj je napravljena serija
eksperimenata prenosa poara po fasadama. U eksperimentima su se menjali
odreeni faktori. Pre svega tipovi objekta, zatim poarno optereenje u prostoriji sa
brzinom sagorevanja i na kraju graevinska konstrukcija spoljnjih fasadnih zidova.
U prvom eksperimentu je bila odabrana poslovna zgrada. Prema nemakim
istraivanjima i kulturolokoj sredini, poarno optereenje za ovakav tip objekta je
bio izmeu 40 i 50 kg/m2 drveta (160-200 Mcal/m2). Put plamena tokom eksperi-
menta, izmeu donjih i gornjih spratova, iznosio je 1,80 m. Put plamena je meren u
trenutku kad je toplota plamena na gornjem spratu razbila prozore i kada se poar
proirio palei pre svega zavese. Drugi eksperiment je uraen u fabrici tekstila gde
se poarno optereenje kree oko 100 kg/m2 drveta (400 Mcal/m2). Ovoliko
orijentaciono poarno optereenje, moe se uzeti i za nae fabrike tekstila. U
zavisnosti od duine trajanja poara i brzine sagorevanja put kretanja plamena po
fasadi je bio takoe 1,80 m. U ovom je sluaju prozor takoe pukao a elementi u
blizini prozora su se zapalili. Trei eksperiment je napravljen u jednoj koli. Prema
nemakim ispitivanjima metalni nametaj je stvorio malo poarno optereenje od
30-60 kg/m2 drveta (120-240 Mcal/m2). Put plamena od donjeg prema gornjem
spratu kretao se od 0,2-1,4 m. Poarno optereenje u ovom sluaju je smanjilo
vreme trajanja poara, dok je veliina prozora (moraju biti veliki za kole) poveala
brzinu sagorevanja, to je takoe uticalo na skraenje vremena trajanja poara.
Danas je poznato, da veliina prozora i smanjeno poarno optereenje u pro-
storiji, dovodi do smanjenja pritiska u gornjoj zoni zapaljenog sprata, to se direktno
odraava na duinu plamena koji se penje po fasadi.
S
= Pi [h] (2)
R
677
- vreme trajanja poara, u [h]
Pi - poarno optereenje, u [kJ/m2 ]
S - povrina poda, u [m2]
R - brzina sagorevanja, u [kg/h]
Slika 2. Naini ostvarivanja razmaka od meuspratne konstrukcije[1]

Realna ispitivanja kretanja plamena dala su ovu konstataciju:
1. Fasadni zid masivne konstrukcije dimenzije visine od 1 m, izmeu otvora
na spratu, ne moe da zaustavi irenje plamena na gornje spratove ako je duina
plamena po visini 1,80 m
2. Pored poarnog optereenja i brzine sagorevanja prenos plamena po
vertikali najvie zavisi od trenutka pucanja prozora na spratu iznad sprata gde je
izbio poar i paljenja zavesa, pokrivke plafona ili bilo ega drugog.
Kosturna konstrukcija i prenos plamena
Eksperiment je napravljen u Engleskoj na objektu maketi. Obejkat je imao
etiri sprata kosturne konstrukcije na koju su se kaili pojedini tipovi fasada. Visina
lake kostrukcije zida je 90 cm i poarne otpornosti od 1/4 h do 1/2 h. Poarno
optereenje u objektu je menjano u granicama od 2460 kg/m2 drveta (96-240
678
Mcal/m2) u zavisnosti od engleskih prosenih ispitivanja i kulturolokog okruenja.
Rezultati ispitivanja su potvrdili eksperimente u Nemakoj. Osnova svega je opet
bila brzina sagorevanja vreme trajanja poara poarna otpornost stakla i trenutku
paljenja zavesa, ili nekih drugih predmeta pored prozora. Interesantno, za itavo
vreme ekspeimenta nisu se zapalili delovi nametaja ili ak papir razmeten po
nametaju. Ponovo se pokazalo da razmak ostvaren poarno otpornim zidom izmeu
prozora visine 90 cm, kao i dodavanje ispusta na fasadi duine 60 cm, nije spreilo
pucanje stakala na spratu iznad, usled penjanja plamena po fasadi. Ipak, u svim eks-
perimentima se dokazalo da ispust na fasadi (a) i deo fasadnog zida iznad prozora
(c) mogu uticati na ponaanje putanje irenja plamena po fasadi [1]. Naroito se
njihov uticaj osea prilikom poveavanja njihovih dimenzija, to se odraava na
udaljavanje plamena od fasade.
Slika 3. Pretpostavka i stvarnost kretanja plamena po fasadi [1]

Do danas se naunici nisu sloili koje su to optimalne dimezije koje treba
primeniti da bi se spreilo irenje poara na gornje spratove. Eksperimenti su
pokazali, da je od sekundarne vanosti na irenje poara, prema gornjim spratovima,
visina dela spoljnjeg zida od poda do prozora gornjeg sprata (b). Na sledeim
slikama su data uporedna kretanja plamena po fasadama, kako se previdalo i ta je
eksperimentalno dobijeno. Deo spoljnjeg zida iznad prozora, prostorije u poaru (c),
ima veliko temperaturno optereenje i zato mora imati poarnu otpornost minimalno
1/2 h. Zid fasade ispod prozora gornjeg sprata je u prednosti, jer je optereenje od
temperature u tom delu neuporedivo manje.
679
Zakljuak eksperimenata
Procena uticaja gornjeg i donjeg dela spoljnjeg fasanog zida ili ispusta na
fasadi na spreavanje prenosa poara, direktno zavisi od postavke eksperimenta.
Slika 4. Pretpostavka i stvarnost kretanjaplamena kod fasada sa ispustom [1]

Onog trenutka kada poar razbije prozor na spratu gde je izbio, kree da
napada vii sprat. Dejstvo poara na spratu iznad je za trenutak odloeno, dok se
gornji prozor ne razbije i poar ne zahvati zavese, ili neki drugi zapaljivi predmet
kod samog prozora. Vreme potrebno da se razbije prozor na gornjem spratu zavisi
od temperature sa kojom e biti optereen prozor i njegovi ramovi. Vreme potrebno
za pucanje stakla na prozoru gornjeg sprata, u funkciji je dimezije dela iznad prozora
(c) i puta plamena izmeu spratova. Promena temperature na spoljnjem delu zida
data je na slici 5. Temperatura, kao to se vidi, data je u zavisnosti od poarnog
optereenja, to u sutini nije faktor koji utie na temperaturu. Tempertaura poara u
prostoriji, zavisi od termodinamike poara prostorije, gde je izbio poar, a to znai
od koliine kiseonika ulog u prostoriju i veliine prozora. Krae reeno, zavisi od
brzine gorernja i vremena trajanja poara (jednaina 2).
Prenos poara preko fasadnih zidova ili fasadnog stakla
Fiksiranje spoljnjeg zida, heterogenog sasatava materijala, za kosturnu kon-
strukciju, moe stvoriti dodatne probleme oko prenosa poara po visini objekta.
Posebna opasnost, koja moe ovde da se pojavi, da se poar probije na vilji
sprat procepom izmeu podne ploe i takozvane fasadne zavese. Prenos poara mo-
e nastati jer nije predvieno zaptivanje izmeu podne ploe i fasadne zavese . Ako
fasadni zid-zavesa nije fiksirna na svakom spratu, moe se desiti da usled visoke
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temperature u poaru doe do naduvavanja (krivljenja) prema spolja fasadnog zida,
to bi omoguilo nesmetan prolaz toplote i plamena na vie spratove. U stvarnosti
fasada mora predstavljati stabilan konstruktivni deo objekta i otporan na prodor
toplote i dima. esto se moe primetiti da je izmeu unutranjeg zida i fasade, u
obliku zavese, postoji procep od vie santimetara, zbog naina fiksiranja i tenje da
se obezbedi konpenzacija tolerancije, prilikom gradnje. Da bi se spreilo prenoenje
poara, mora se obezbediti integritet konstruktivnog reenja, a to znai da se
prilikom montae spoljnjeg zida-zavese obavi fiksiranje fasadnog zida na svakom
spratu sa kosturnom konstrukcijom. Deo fasadnog zida, ispod prozora i iznad
prozora, mora biti vrsto vezan sa podnom ploom. Sastav mora bit tako uraen da
ukupan sklop moe odgovoriti zahtevima visokih temperatura i zaptivanja.
Slika 5: Uticaj poarnog optereenja na temperaturu i put plamena [1]

Mali procepi, koji ipak mogu da se pojave u montai, izmeu fasade i podne
ploe, moraju se smanjiti na minimum. Potputno dihtovanje tog prostora moe se
izvesti nezapaljivim materijalima. U dananje vreme postoji serija materijala koji se
mogu lako i sigurno ubaciti u preostali procep. Dananji matrijali ak mogu zadovo-
ljiti i dilataciu graevinskih elemenata u duem periodu. Pored toga svi ti materijali
su i atestirani od akreditovanih laboratorija, to je inae i preduslov njihovog po-
stavljanja. Dihtovanje mora biti sigurno i na niim i na viim spratovima. Takoe
dihtovanje mora biti uraeno sa istim efektom u visini jednog sprata bez obzira da li
je tu prozor ili zid po itavoj duini jedne zgrade.
681
Slika 6. Naduvavanje fasade usled toplote [1]
Uticaj veliine i oblika prozora na bilans toplote
U Japanu su napravljeni eksperimenti u stvarnim uslovima poara, da bi se
ustanovilo neophodno potrebno rastojanje izmeu otvora, koje ce garanovati, da se
poar nee preneti po fasdi objekta.Na grafikim prikazima je data suma ispitivanja
u realnim uslovima razvoja poara.
Slika 7. Odnos fasade prema podnoj ploi: 1 kosturna konstrukcija fasade,

2 podna ploa, 3 procep, 4 prekrivka, 5 sputeni plafon, 6 izolacija,
7 fasadni pano [1]
682
Slika 8.Zatvarai i podupirai vitkih zglobova:1 podna ploa, 2 fasada otporna
0,5 h, 3 ploa otporna 1,5 h, 4 greda, 5 spojna ploa otporna 0,5 h, 6 izola-
cija od mineralne vune, 7 plafon [1]
Rezultat takvih radova moe se ovako okarakterisati: dok god temperatura
poara na pree 500 C, treba u razmiljanjima voditi rauna samo na konvektivno
prenoenje toplote poarom. Tako dolazimo da je duina plamena koji se prenosi po
fasadi, u zavisnosti od temperature do 500 C i preko 500 C. Eksperiment se
odnosio na objekte od nezapaljivog materijala i na poarno optereenje od 50 kg/m2
drveta.
Razvoj poara, na osnovu grafika, svedoi da minimalna visina prenosa pla-
mena po fasadi zavisi od visine i irine prozora. Ako prihvatimo da je visina spra-
tova 2,70 m, moe se u uproenju prihvatiti pravlilo koje je kod nas ozakonjeno u
sledeem obliku:
a + b + c + d = 1m (3)
Ovo pravilo je prihvaeno kako kod nas tako i u inostranstvu, a odnosi se na
visoke objekte preko 22 m. Ovaj princip pokazuje svoju vrednost u trenutku kada
poar besni samo na jednom spratu. Klimatski uslovi oko objekta, razlika pritisaka i
brzine vetra oko objekta su u ovom sluaju zanemareni.
Eksperimenti obavljeni u Americi na visokim objektima i realnim uslovima
bili su pravljeni za jednokrilne i dvokrilne prozore dimezija od 0,6 x 1,8 m i 1,8 x
2,4 m. Poarno opterenje je varirano od 25 do 100 kg/m2 drveta. Eksperimenti su
dali vrednosti brzine sagorevanja i duine plamena po fasadi. U Velikoj Britaniji su
eksperimenti uzeli u obzir povrinu prozora koji su varirani od 2,8 m2 do 11,2 m2.
Poarno optereenje je varirano od 7,5 kg/m2;15 kg/m2; 30 kg/m2 i 60 kg/m2
drveta. Rezultati ispitivanja su pokazali da znatnu ulogu igra irina prozora. to je
prozor iri, plamen koji izlazi napolje iz tog prostora ostaje priljubljen fasadi i tee
se prenosi na gornje spratove.
683
Studija na bazi eksperimenata, koju je napravio naunik Thomas, dala je
predlog matematikog modela duine plamena.
2/3
R
I = z + h = 18 ,6 (4)
b
gde je:
I - Duina plamena, u [m]
R - brzina sagorevanja, u [kg/s]
b - irina prozora, u [m]
h - visina prozora, u [m]
z - visina plamena iznad prozora, u [m].
Ako znamo iz termodinamike nakontrolisanog sagorevanja da je brzina
sagorevanja (R) zavisna od dotoka vazduha u prostoriju tada imamo:
R = 330 h AF [kg/h] (5)
gde je:
AF povrina svih otvora u prostoriji u [m2]
Zamenom jedanina dobijamo zavisnost visine plamena koji izlazi kroz
prozor prema viem spratu, u odnosu na samu visinu prozora,
z =2,7h (6)
uvek imajui u vidu da je temperatura ograniena na 540 C.
Zakljuak
Poarni eksperimenti na realnim modelima pokazali su da duina plamena,
koji izlazi kroz prozor, direktno utie na mogunost prenosa poara na vie spratove.
Duina plamena (z) koji "lie" fasadom zavisi od irine prozora (b) i brzine
sagorevanja (R). irina prozora utie na brzo opadanje pritiska u gornjoj zoni
prostorije pod poarom i samim tim do skraivanja puta izbacivanja plamena (z).
Nasuprot tome poveana brzina sagorevanja (R) dovodi do naglog skoka
temperature u prostoriji i dalje poveanog usisavanja sveeg vazduha u donjoj zoni
prozora, sa poveanim izbacivanjem plamena u gornjoj zoni. Usisavanje vazduha i
izbacivanje toplih gasova, regulisano je temperaturom i pritiscima, koji se stvaraju u
prostopriji.
Spisak oznaka
a - dimezija izboine na fasadi. [m]
AF povrina svih otvora u prostoriji u [m2]
b - visina dela fasadnog zida raunajui od poda do prozora [m]
684
b - irina prozora, u [m]
c - visina fasadnog dela zida iznad prozora do meuspratne konstrukcije [m]
d - debljina meuspratne konstrukcije [m]
I - Duina plamena, u [m]
l - duina puta prenosa poara na gornje spratove [m]
Pi - poarno optereenje, u [kJ/m2 ]
R - brzina sagorevanja, u [kg/h]
S - povrina poda, u [m2]
z - visina plamena iznad prozora, u [m].
- vreme trajanja poara, u [h]
Literatura
[1] Vidakovi, M., Vidakovi B., Poar i arhitektonski inenjering, Fahrenheit,
Beograd, 2008.
685
DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN URBAN SETTLEMENTS
RESILIENCE APPROACH
UPRAVLJANJE KATASTROFAMA U URBANIM
NASELJIMA PRIMENA PRISTUPA REZILIJENTNOSTI
Zoran KEKOVI, Vladimir NINKOVI, Ozren DIGURSKI
Faculty of Security Studies, University of Belgrade
zorankekovic@yahoo.com, vladimirninkovic@yahoo.co.uk,
odzigurski@gmail.com
"The nation needs to build the capacity to become

resilient, and we need to do this now. Such capacity buil-
ding starts with individuals taking responsibility for their
actions and moves to entire communities working in
conjunction with local, state, and federal officials, all of
whom need to assume specific responsibilities for buil-
ding the national quilt of resilience." Committee on Incre-
asing National Resilience to Hazards and Disasters , USA
Academy of Sciences Disaster Resilience: A National
Imperative, 2012.
This paper explores the notion of resilience and its application to the rese-
arch, planning, design and management of urban settlements at various scales. The
notion of resilience is an all-hazard approach related to the capacity of systems to
adapt to disruptions without them changing to entirely different states, which in the
case of human settlements often results in catastrophic consequences for the inhabi-
tants. The paper will present several approaches for enhancing existing settlements,
as well as creating new ones, to be better prepared to confront natural and man-
made hazards. Particular focus is on future environmental and climate changes,
both predicted and unpredicted, as they occur, such as increasing intensity and
frequency of extreme weather events, as well as more gradual changes.
Key words: resilience; community resilience; disaster management; urban
settlements; capacities.
Rad istrauje koncept rezilijentnosti i njegovu primenu na planiranje, projek-

tovanje i upravljanje urbanim naseljima na razliitim nivoima odluivanja. Rezili-
jentnost - otpornost je pristup orijentisan na sve (mogue) pretnje i povezuje se sa
kapacitetom sistema u cilju da se prilagodi remetilakim dogaajima, ne menjajui
se potpuno u drugaija stanja, to u sluaju urbanih naselja esto ishodi katastro-
falnim posledicama po njihove stanovnike. Rad e prikazati nekoliko pristupa za
poboljanje otpornosti postojeih i za projektovanje buduih urbanih naselja, kako
687
bi bila bolje pripremljena na suoavanje sa prirodnim katastrofama i akcidentima
izazvanih ljudskim faktorom. Poseban akcenat stavljen je na budue promene u
ivotnoj sredini i klimi, predvidljive i nepredvidljive, kao to su povieni intenzitet i
uestalost ekstremnih vremenskih nepogoda, kao i na promene koje mogu da nasta-
nu postepeno.
Kljune rei: rezilijentnost; rezilijentnost zajednice; upravljanje katastrofa-
ma; urbana naselja; kapaciteti.
1. Introduction
Globally, 80 per cent of the largest cities are vulnerable to severe impacts
from earthquakes, 60 per cent are at risk from storm surges and tsunamis, and all
face new impacts caused by climate change. The cost of urban disasters during 2011
alone is estimated at over US $380 billion, with the largest impacts felt in Christ-
church, New Zealand; Sendai, Japan; and Bangkok, Thailand. With 50% of the
worlds population already in cities, and substantial urban population growth pro-
jected over the coming decades, there is a pressing need for new tools and approach-
es that strengthen local administrations and citizens to better protect human, eco-
nomic, and natural assets of our towns and cities.
Resilience refers to the ability of human settlements to withstand and to re-
cover quickly from any plausible hazards. Resilience against crises not only refers to
reducing risks and damage from disasters (i.e. loss of lives and assets), but also the
ability to quickly bounce back to a stable state, as well as to successfully adapt to
new circumstances. While typical risk reduction measures tend to focus on a specific
hazard, leaving out risks and vulnerabilities due to other types of perils, the resili-
ence approach adopts a multiple hazards approach, considering resilience against all
types of plausible hazards.
Human-made disasters, such as conflicts and technological disasters, can also
undermine the development gains of countries and cities. The number of people at
risk is increasing significantly, with rapid urbanization inducing uncontrolled and
densely populated informal settlements in hazard-prone areas. The lack of capacity
of cities and local governments to regulate building standards and land use plans
exacerbates the risk of those living in vulnerable conditions. Local governments are
the closest level to citizens, and have a huge role to play in delivering critical infra-
structure and services to protect lives and assets during crisis response. In sum, not
only cities and local governments, but in the first place their citizens, need to in-
crease their capacity to reduce both the damage and the recovery period from any
potential disaster.
2. Community Resilience
The World Resources Institute defines resilience as the capacity of a system
to tolerate shocks or disturbances and recover and argues that this depends on the
ability of people to adapt to changing conditions through learning, planning, or
688
reorganization (World Resources Institute, 2008). Resilience, therefore, can be
related to the way that societies adapt to externally imposed change.
According to the Australian National Strategy for Disaster Resilience a disas-
ter resilient community is one that works together to understand and manage the
risks that it confronts. Disaster resilience is the collective responsibility of all sectors
of society, including all levels of government, business, the non-government sector
and individuals (National Strategy for Disaster Resilience, 2011).
British Department for International Development (DFID) defines disaster
resilience as the ability of countries, communities and households to manage change,
by maintaining or transforming living standards in the face of shocks or stresses -
such as earthquakes, drought or violent conflict - without compromising their long-
term prospects (DFID, 2011).
The promotion of resilience related strategies in the field of emergency and
disaster management has been premised on a re-evaluation of the referents of securi-
ty governance. In particular, the myth-busting of panic in emergency situations,
together with the notion that human populations actually possess significant adaptive
and self-organizational capacities in emergencies have been instrumental in the
advent of the notion that government should not look to direct, but to supplement
and encourage the natural tendencies of those in emergency events to help them-
selves. Rather than withholding information, for fear of inciting of panic, popula-
tions in emergency should be provided with all the information they require to self-
organize an evacuation or response (Zebrowski, 2013:2). Thus, for instance, the
acknowledgement that panic is a myth has caused a profound reorganization of UK
emergency governance at the turn of the century (Zebrowski, 2013:3). Indeed, in the
last fifteen years or so, the resilience strategies of UK Civil Contingencies are in-
stead oriented towards facilitating and optimizing the natural, self-organizational
capacities, or resilience of populations in emergency (Zebrowski, 2009).
Normally, three general resilience capacities are mentioned in the literature
absorptive, adaptive and restorative, whilst some also add the predictive capacity. 1
Absorptive capacity is the degree to which a system can automatically absorb the
impact of system perturbations and minimize consequences with little effort. Adap-
tive capacity is the degree to which the system is capable of self-organization for
recovery of system performance levels. Finally, the restorative capacity is the ability
of a system to be repaired easily either to its original, pre-event state, or to a com-
pletely new state that anticipates future system requirements (Kekovi et al, 2014).
The Figure 1 represents the Resilience aspect of the system's response to ac-
cident.
1
We understand capacities as abilities of a system. Some authors (e.g. Norris et al, 2008;
Sherrieb et al. 2010) use the capacities in the meaning of dimensions. According to them
community resilience has the following four capacities: Economic Development, Social Capi-
tal, Information and Communication and Community Competence.
689
Figure 1 - Resilience Evaluation Curve; t0 accident start, t5 - end of the system's
response to accident, t0-t1 Predictive resilience phase, t1-t2 Absorptive resilience
phase, t2-t3 Adaptive resilience phase, t3-t4-t5 Restorative resilience phase, Poly-
gon P0 (t0-A-F-t5-t0) ideal resilient system, Polygon P1 (t0-A-B-C-D-E-F-t5-t0)
real resilient system, Resilience measure (ratio of the polygons surface area)
R = P1/P0
Furthermore, a lower layer of resilience assessment resilience capacity fea-
tures (such as redundancy, robustness, segregation etc) the existing design imple-
mentations that contribute to one or more of the system capacities may be used for
reaching more precise conclusions about the state of the Human Security in accord-
ance with its dimensions and indicators. About the highest layer of community resil-
ience assessment - dimensions (the aspect that answers to the question What ele-
ments should be judged by their resilience capacities (and features)?), there is still
no consensus about what they would be. The authors of this paper recently argued
that the basis for the resilience dimensions may be seven Human Security elements
(economic, food, health, ecological, personal, community and political security),
within whom then more precise community resilience dimensions may be identified.
Human security, as a preventative concept, is easily connected with the Risk As-
sessment paradigm (Ninkovi, Digurski and Pavlovi, 2016).
There have been some similar efforts to identify Community Resilience di-
mensions. For instance Mayunga (2007:4) defines Community Disaster Resilience as
the capacity or ability of a community to anticipate, prepare for, respond to, and
recover quickly from impacts of disaster. To further operationalize this he uses a
framework of five areas of capital: Social, Economic, Human, Physical, and Natural
capital integrated with indicators of resilience for each area. Mayunga is proposing a
690
Community Disaster Resilience Index in order to quantify the concept, but at the
same time he concludes that this is a complex and difficult task in order to capture
all relevant data (Mayunga 2007:13).
Human security (HS) and Resilience (RES), together with RISK manage-
ment, are two complex approaches for dealing with uncertainties that have figured
prominently in the academic research in the past two decades. Due to the develop-
ment theoretical framework, HS concept enables more precise and grounded identi-
fication of resilience characteristics and indicators for disaster management purpos-
es.
Using the emergency (accident) response diagram and Resilience Evaluation
Curve (Figure 1), it is possible to connect RES response phases with relevant RISK
dimensions, in disaster management. That would enable research the possibilities of
their (RISK and RES) mutual impact on the behavior of dynamic systems in acci-
dents and disasters.
Vulnerability, perhaps, may be taken as the key variable that connects RES
and RISK approaches in emergency situations. The Figure 2 conceptually represents
how RES and RISK can with mutual activities as dynamic systems to impact stabil-
ity and damage reduction of systems in emergency situations. This is a causal loop
system dynamic diagram based on stocks and flows. The model was built using the
modeling tool, VENSIM. This is a modified extension based of the Resilience in
Civil Conflict model, originally done by Hayden (2014).
Figure 2. Integrated System Dynamic Model of Resilience and RISK/HS assessment

in Disaster Management
The main impact on the behavior of the system is done through the key vari-
able vulnerability change. The system stability is influenced also by the baseline
values of the following variables: Vulnerability, Resistance, as well as the RISK
dimensions and RES capacities and features.
691
Starting from the Risk Assessment, it is possible to more precise define and
identify HS indicators, which consecutively leads to the definition of composite RES
indicators. Given a vast number of studies and projects in the field of RISK and HS
assessment applied on informal settlements, this combinatory approach may facili-
tate efficient and complex management in disaster situations.
3. Making a settlement resilient current approaches

According to the UN-Habitat, urban planning may be one of the most im-
portant tools in reducing vulnerabilities and risk (UN-Habitat, 2006). It can help
cities to significantly increase their resilience in coping with disaster risks and cli-
mate change (IFRC, 2010). Its importance relates to its potential to ensure planned
adaptation. This consists of developing and investing in urban areas in order to re-
duce risks from climate-related impacts (and other hazards) and provide better pro-
tection for inhabitants, housing, infrastructure and enterprises (Bicknell, Dodman, &
Satterthwaite, 2009).
Both disaster risk management (DRM) and climate change adaptation (CCA)
have the ultimate goal to increase disaster resilience through incremental and more
radical, transformative, changes (IPCC, 2012). CCA and DRM share the aim of
reducing the occurrence and impact of climate-related disasters and associated risks;
and consequently, the implementation of similar (or the same) measures and strate-
gies at the local level (Wamsler, 2014; Rivera, 2016). In addition, both DRM and
CCA have become cross-cutting issues that are a core element for sustainable devel-
opment and resilience, but must be integrated into the work of different sectors
(O'Brien et al., 2006; Wamsler, 2014). Here, sustainable development is defined as
a practical focus on integrating social, economic, and environmental considerations
in urban development that considers the impact of todays developments on future
generations (UN Habitat, 2011).
When we speak about settlements, we occasionally forget to include that
apart from regularly incorporated cities, towns and villages, there are also infor-
mal settlements, mainly inhabited by vulnerable population. The growth of informal
settlements can intensify the risks of social and ecological harm to their communi-
ties and to the wider urban area. The unplanned and poorly serviced character of
these settlements raises the probability of disasters occurring. The public sector can
increase these risks through indifference and poorly conceived actions or it can help
to build resilience through a more constructive and integrated approach. (The case
study from Stellenbosch in South Africa illustrates how a resilience perspective can
highlight the systemic challenges surrounding the growth and management of in-
formal settlements). It emphasizes the interactions between such places and their
urban context, and recognizes the negative feedback loops that can exacerbate pov-
erty and vulnerability. It proposes adaptive governance as a framework for building
resilience through strengthening local capabilities. This flexible and engaged ap-
proach goes beyond just managing informal settlements to integrating them in a
more positive way into the wider city or town.
692
An increasingly common methodology used by local governments and the in-
ternational community to build resilience are the UNISDRs Ten Essentials.
(United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction). UN-Habitats City
Resilience Profiling Programme introduced the following essentials in order to
further upgrade this framework by making it more rigorous, objective, and fit to
conduct quantitative assessment and profiling of settlement resilience:
Essential 1: Put in place organization and coordination to understand and
reduce disaster risk, based on the participation of citizen groups and civil
society. Build local alliances. Ensure that all departments understand
their role in disaster risk reduction and preparedness.
Essential 2: Assign a budget for disaster risk reduction and provide incen-
tives for homeowners, low-income families, communities, businesses,
and public sector to invest in reducing the risks they face.
Essential 3: Maintain up-to-date data on hazards and vulnerabilities, pre-
pare risk assessments, and use these as the basis for urban development
plans and decisions. Ensure that this information and the plans for your
citys resilience are readily available to the public and fully discussed
with them.
Essential 4: Invest in and maintain critical infrastructure that reduces risk,
such as flood drainage, adjusted where needed to cope with climate
change.
Essential 5: Assess the safety of all schools and health facilities and up-
grade these as necessary.
Essential 6: Apply and enforce realistic risk compliant building regulations
and land use planning principles. Identify safe land for low-income citi-
zens and upgrade informal settlements, wherever feasible.
Essential 7: Ensure education programmes and training on disaster risk re-
duction are in place in schools and local communities.
Essential 8: Protect ecosystems and natural buffers to mitigate floods, storm
surges, and other hazards to which your city may be vulnerable. Adapt to
climate change by building on good risk reduction practices.
Essential 9: Install early warning systems and emergency management ca-
pacities in your city, and hold regular public preparedness drills.
Essential 10: After any disaster, ensure that the needs of the survivors are
placed at the centre of reconstruction, while supporting them and their
community organizations to design and help implement responses, in-
cluding rebuilding homes and livelihoods.
World Bank in 2012 published the Workbook on Planning for Urban Resili-
ence in the Face of Disasters, based on the experiences of three cities in Vietnam -
Can Tho, Dong Hoi, and Hanoi - that worked with international and local experts
under World Bank supervision to develop local resilience action plans (LRAPs) in
2009-10. An LRAP is a detailed planning document that reflects local concerns and
priorities based on the experiences of the past and projections for the future.
693
Tyler & Moench (2012) suggest a framework for urban climate resilience
which focus on climate adaption and vulnerability through local planning and prin-
ciples of shared learning. Further built on two types of agents: systems and institu-
tions, the understanding of vulnerability and building resilience comes from the
catalytic power of sharing knowledge between scientific and local level in order to
identify, prioritize, design, implement and monitor suitable actions (Tyler & Moench
2012:321). However, Tyler & Moench (2012) admit that their approach does not
clearly address tradeoffs in building resilience and vulnerability that marks which
segments of population and system are being prioritized before another (Tyler &
Moench 2012:323).
Currently, the practical implementation of the resilience theoretical frame-
work is one of the most researched topics in the multidisciplinary security studies.
There is a number of international, national and EU funded projects in the field of
community resilience:
- The City Resilience Framework, developed by the Arup Group LTD and
supported by the Rockefeller Foundation, aims at creating the City Resilience Index.
The creators of this index define city resilience as the capacity of cities to function,
so that the people living and working in cities particularly the poor and vulnerable
survive and thrive no matter what stresses and shocks they encounter. This ap-
proach considers the resilience of the city as a system in itself, and for its authors
the cities are complex systems that are constantly adapting to the changing circum-
stances. This promotes a sectoral approach and means that interdependencies be-
tween different systems at different scales, as well as the government structures that
influence the way system works, are taken into account. Urban Resilience is framed
in relation to seven critical functions or infrastructures of a city. Rockefeller Founda-
tion also runs an initiative called 100 Resilient Cities.
- Smart Mature Resilience (SMR) is an EU funded, Horizon 2020 program,
whose main goal is to develop a Resilience Management Guideline to assist in the
effective implementation of a resilience building process for a city. The Guideline
consists of five tools designed to improve the resilience of European regions against
natural and man-made hazards: Resilience Maturity Model, Risk Systemicity Ques-
tionnaire, Portfolio of Resilience Building Policies, System Dynamics Model, and
Resilience Engagement and Communication Tool. Maturity Model has five stages
(starting, moderate, advanced, robust and vertebrate), and the focus of each stage is
to look at the actions undertaken and capacities of five different dimensions (Lead-
ership & Governance, Preparedness, Infrastructure & Resources, Cooperation,
Learning).
- Resilience Management Guidelines and Operationalization Applied to Urban
Transport Environment (RESOLUTE) is a Horizon 2020 program dedicated to de-
veloping European Resilience Management Guidelines in an area critical to the city
resilience Urban Transport.
- US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Community Re-
silience Planning Guide describes a six step planning process that helps communi-
694
ties to become more resilient. The guide is complementary to the FEMAs National
Preparedness Plan and National Infrastructure Protection Plan.
- The Disaster Resilience of Place (DROP) Model, by Cutter et al. attempts to
develop replicable and robust baseline indicators for measuring and monitoring the
disaster resilience of places. The model employs composite indicators in order to
represent different dimensions of a concept that cannot be fully captured by any
individual indicator alone, such as: social resilience (demographic attributes,
transport and communication access, health insurance coverage), economic resili-
ence, institutional resilience, infrastructural resilience and community resilience
(containing relationship between people and their larger neighborhood and commu-
nities political engagement, social capital etc.).
4. Conclusion
In the wake of the climate change and more dramatic and high impact disas-
ters the broad concept of resilience, together with narrower concepts of community
and disaster resilience, has come in focus of the academics and theorists as a way
forward in the activities of planning, design and management of urban settlements,
particularly for the sake of sustainable development and more efficient management
in disasters and emergency situations. However, the practical implementation of the
theoretical concepts is still at its infancy. Currently, there is a number of projects,
programs and initiatives at the international and national levels (UNDP, World
Bank, OECD, Rockefeller Foundation, EU FP7 and Horizon2020 frameworks)
that try to give answers to the questions of resilience indicators and dimensions
relevant for community and disaster resilience. Unlike security, which is a top-down
and preventative concept, resilience is a bottom-up, reactive paradigm. Therefore, by
combining these two approaches we may obtain a holistic view of a system, i.e. we
can analyze its strengths and vulnerabilities, and then observe how quickly and with
what consequences it bounces back and adapts to the new circumstances, if need-
ed. In other words, resilience assessment thus may serve as a kind of a litmus paper
or a validation of security, risk and vulnerability assessment. In the field of urban it
may be argued that joint application of resilience capacity assessment (predictive,
absorptive, adaptive and restorative capacities of a system), together with human
security (dimensions and indicators) and risk assessment can lead to more fruitful
results for the practice of disaster management.
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[5] Smart Mature Resilience (SMR) http://smr-project.eu/home/
697
NEKI PROBLEMI U KVALITETU SNAGE I
ELEKTROMAGNETSKOJ KOMPATIBILNOSTI
OOPREME ZA KGH
SOME POWER QUALITY AND ELECTROMAGNETIC
COMPATIBILITY ISSUES IN HVAC EQUIPMENT
Mircea Ion BUZDUGAN
Faculty of Building Services Engineering
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania
email: mircea.buzdugan@insta.utcluj.ro
U radu se daje prelged autorovih istraivanja kvaliteta snage i elektromag-

netske kompatibilnosti opreme za KGH u stambenom sektoru. Analizirane su niske i
visoke frekvencije jedne klima-komore i toplane na gas. U oba sluaja prikazani su
problemi kvaliteta u sluaju jakih interferenci visokih frekvencija. Uspeno su
primnjene metode pasivnog filtriranja. Primena filtera elektromagnetnih inter-
ferencija uspeno je smanjivala ulazne i izlazne harmonike i elektromagnetne emisi-
je.
Kljune rei: harmonici, elektromagnetna interferencija, emisije, gubici,
priguenja
The paper presents a review of some studies performed by the author on elec-
trical power quality and electromagnetic compatibility in HVAC residential equip-
ment, submitted before at different international conferences of power quality. In
this paper an air handling unit and a gas heating central are analyzed from the
viewpoint of low and high frequencies. Both of the cases presented in certain envi-
ronmental conditions power quality issues along with high frequency electromagnet-
ic interference (EMI). Passive filtering methods were successfully applied in both
situations. Retrofitting of power electromagnetic interference filters led to the miti-
gation of the incoming and outgoing harmonics and of the electromagnetic emis-
sions.
Keywords: harmonics, electromagnetic interference, conducted emissions,
insertion loss, filter attenuation
1. Introduction
Nowadays, the interest in power quality has become more and more im-
portant for suppliers, manufacturers and customers. Suppliers are interested in the
quality of their service, manufacturers have to build equipment compliant to a sum
of standards and regulations with respect to power quality and finally, customers
699
want in their turn to have comfort and a quiet life in using electrically powered
products.
Unfortunately, high speed semiconductor devices with fast switching capabil-
ity and the emerging digital era in control and signal processing became the main
enemies of electrical power quality.
On one hand, equipment need power quality, being less tolerant of voltage
and current disturbances but, on the other, they represent the main source of elec-
tromagnetic perturbations in power lines.
In literature one can find plenty and sometimes conflicting definitions of
power quality, related more or less to the performance of equipment or to the possi-
bility of measuring and quantifying the performance of the power system (see the
IEEE Standards and the IEC and EN Standards). For instance the Council of Euro-
pean Energy Regulators-Working Group on Quality of Electricity Supply speaks
about voltage quality and includes the following disturbances: frequency, voltage
magnitude and its variation, voltage dips, temporary and transient overvoltage and
harmonic distortion, without mentioning explicitly current quality, which proba-
bly is implicitly considered where it affects the voltage quality. The viewpoint here
is again that current quality is only a concern only if it affects the voltage quality.
This difficulty of distinguishing between voltage and current disturbances is one of
the reasons the term power quality is generally used. The term voltage quality is
reserved for cases where only the voltage at a certain location is considered. The
term current quality is generally used to describe the performance of power electron-
ic converters connected to the power network.
In the authors opinion, there is no power quality in the presence of electro-
magnetic interference, i.e. the process by which disruptive electromagnetic energy is
transmitted from one electronic device to another via radiated or conducted paths (or
both). In this respect, every disturbance is a power quality issue, even the IEC and
EN standards distinguish between an (electromagnetic) disturbance and (electro-
magnetic) interference: a disturbance is a phenomenon which may degrade the per-
formance of a device, equipment or system, or adversely affect living or inert matter.
In power quality terms, any deviation from the ideal voltage or current can be con-
sidered as a disturbance. Interference is much stricter defined, being the actual deg-
radation of a device, equipment or system caused by an electromagnetic disturbance.
Technical literature is abounding also in definitions of electromagnetic com-
patibility (EMC), but perhaps the most synthetic and eloquent one is that EMC con-
sists is the absence of effects due to electromagnetic interference (EMI).
Since electric and electronic systems penetrate more deeply into all aspects of
the society, both the potential for interference effects and the potential for serious
EMI-induced incidents increase.
Finally, electromagnetic interference (EMI) is a serious and increasing form
of environmental pollution. The threat of EMI is controlled by adopting the practic-
es of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), which has two complementary aspects:
it describes the capacity of electrical and electronic systems to operate without inter-
700
fering with other systems and also describes the ability of such systems to operate as
intended within a specified electromagnetic environment.
Interference can propagate from a source to a victim via the mains distri-
bution network to which both are connected. This is not well characterized at high
frequencies, especially since connected electrical loads can present virtually any RF
impedance at their point of connection.
On the other hand electromagnetic compatibility includes intra-system and
inter-system electromagnetic interference. Difficulty arises when intra-system meets
inter-system, when the two approaches are confused one with the other, or at the
interface where they meet.
Further, the transfer of electromagnetic energy (with regard to the prevention
of interference) is broken into four subgroups: radiated emissions, radiated suscepti-
bility, conducted emissions and conducted susceptibility.
There are basically two classes of EMC requirements that are imposed on
electric and electronic systems: those mandated by governmental agencies and those
imposed by the product manufacturer.
The legal requirements are imposed in order to minimize the interference
produced by the product. However, compliance with these EMC requirements does
not guarantee that the product will cause no interference. On the other hand, EMC
requirements that manufacturers voluntarily impose on their products are intended to
result in customer satisfaction (in order of reliable). Compliance with both of these
EMC requirements is critical to the success and the good reputation of the product in
the marketplace.
Regulatory agencies impose limits on these conducted emissions because
they are placed on the utility power system net of the installation.
The utility power distribution system in an installation is a large array of
wires connecting the various power outlets from which the other electronic systems
in the installation receive their AC power. It therefore represents a large antenna
system from which these conducted emissions can radiate quite efficiently, causing
interference in the other electronic systems of the installation. Thus the conducted
emissions may cause radiated emission, which may then cause interference. Ordinar-
ily, the reduction of these conducted emissions is somewhat simpler than the reduc-
tion of radiated emissions since there is only one path for these emissions that needs
to be controlled: the units power cord. However, it is important to realize that if a
product fails to comply with the limits on conducted emissions, compliance with the
limits on radiated emissions is a moot point. Therefore controlling conducted emis-
sions of a product has equal priority with the control of radiated emissions.
For ease of measurement and analysis, in the commercial tests, radiated emis-
sions are assumed to predominate above 30 MHz, while conducted emissions are
assumed predominant below 30 MHz
There is of course no magic changeover at 30 MHz, but typical cable lengths
tend to resonate above 30 MHz, leading to anomalous conducted measurements,
while measurements radiated fields below 30 MHz will of necessity be made in the
701
near field closer to the source giving results that do not necessarily correlate with
real situations.
At higher frequencies, mains wiring becomes less efficient as a propagation
medium, and the dominant propagation mode becomes radiation from the equipment
or wiring in its immediate vicinity.
Perhaps the most important aspect of becoming effective at EMC design is to
begin thinking of the nonideal behavior of electrical components in addition to the
ideal behavior that we have been taught to keep in mind.
If one thinks only in terms of ideal behavior of electrical and electronic com-
ponents, he will not be able to observe or anticipate the nonideal electrical paths and
hence will not be able to consider other possible causes for conducted or radiated
emissions. Therefore, will have inadvertently reduced the possibilities for correcting
EMC problems and will not have the ability to see a schematic beyond its appear-
ance.
However, an important problem still remains from the viewpoint of the fre-
quency range. Power quality is confined in the low frequency range, i.e. from DC to
maximum 3.5-5 kHz. Conducted interference is studied starting from 100-150 kHz.
Consequently a large unexplored gap remains unexplored in the frequency range
between 5 kHz and 100 kHz. In this latest range of frequency there are no standards
and no measuring methods.
As a primary conclusion, there is no physical dichotomy between power
quality, conducted and radiated interference. There is a chain reaction, phenomena
turning one into the other. Power quality issues may determine conducted or even
radiated interference and vice versa. The present approach will demonstrate, using
two case studies, the multiple connections between them.
2. The case of a residential air handling unit

The energy efficiency of HVAC systems is considered as a vehicle for ac-
complishing energy savings. Many research efforts related to the modeling and op-
timization of HVAC systems have been reported in the literature. A typical simple
air handling unit (AHU) is illustrated in a simplified schematic diagram (Fig. 1),
depicting the two centrifugal fans, the heat exchanger, the heating (+) and the cool-
ing (-) coils and the air flow directions. The supply air is at a specific temperature
and flows at a specific rate to meet the heating or cooling load and ensure thermal
comfort.
Outdoor air mixes with the return air, and the mixed air passes through cool-
ing coils, heating coils, and the supply fan. Chilled water in the cooling coils cools
the mixed air and hot water or steam in the heating coils heats the mixed air to main-
tain the desired temperature of the supply.
Besides, air handling units are provided with temperature sensors for the re-
turn and outside air, dampers for fresh and exhaust air, making sure that there will be
airflow only if the fans are running, pressure difference switches that monitor the
airflow in the ducts and generates an alarm in case there is a conflict between the fan
702
run status and airflow status. Also, air handling units are usually provided with CO2
and humidity sensors.
The main features of the centrifugal fans provided with external rotor brush-
less DC motor, an inside-out motor (i.e. the rotor appears outside of the stator) are:
nominal voltage 230 Vac at 50/60 Hz, maximum current draw 1.35 A, power input
170 W, variable speed drive at maximum speed value of 2100 rot-1, maximum air
flow of 350 m3/h.
Obviously the inside-out motor construction has some disadvantages in the
generation of losses in the part of the motor most difficult to cool, but in this specific
case, due to the reduced load (i.e. the fan blades), small commutation currents are
involved.
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of an air handling unit

It is well-known that brushless DC motors (BLDC) are considered as high
performance motors due to their high reliability, versatility, adequate torque and
speed and low maintenance cost. They are rotating self-synchronous machines pro-
vided with a permanent magnet rotor and with known rotor shaft positions for elec-
tronic commutation. The advantage of brushless configuration in which the rotor
(field) is inside the stator (armature) is simplicity of exiting the phase windings. Due
to the absence of brushes, motor length is reduced as well. The disadvantages of the
brushless configuration relative to the commutator motor are increased complexity
in the electronic controller and need for shaft position sensing.
The main advantages of BLDC motor drives are high efficiency, low mainte-
nance and long life, low noise, control simplicity, low weight, and compact con-
struction. On the other hand, the main disadvantages of the BLDC motor drives are
high cost of the permanent magnet materials, the problem of demagnetization, and
limited extended speed, constant power range (compared to a switched reluctance
machine).
Two main classes of PM motor drives have been developed, depending on
the shapes of their respective back-electromotive force (EMF) waveforms, sinusoi-
dal or trapezoidal. Brushless DC motors are typically characterized as having a trap-
ezoidal back (EMF) and are typically driven by rectangular pulse currents. This
mimics the operation of brush DC motors.
703
Excitation waveforms for BLDC motors take the form of square-wave cur-
rent waveforms. The nature of the excitation waveforms permits some important
system simplifications compared to sinusoidal PMAC machines. In particular, the
resolution requirements for the rotor position sensor are much lower with BLDC
motors since only six commutation instants per electrical cycle must be sensed. In
addition, the BLDC motor drive only requires a single current sensor in the inverter
DC link.
However, the simplicity of a BLDC motor drive is responsible for determin-
ing an additional source of ripple torque, known as commutation torque, taking the
form of torque spikes or dips, generated at each discrete time instant when any of the
square-wave current excitation waveforms change levels.
The terms energy-saving and quiet-running are becoming very important
in the world of variable speed motor drives. For low-power motor control, there are
increasing demands for compactness, built-in control, and lower overall-cost. An
important consideration, in justifying the use of inverters in these applications, is to
optimize the total-cost-performance ratio of the overall drive system. In other words,
the systems have to be less noisy, more efficient, smaller and lighter, more advanced
in function and more accurate in control with a very low cost.
In order to meet these needs, several companies have developed new series of
compact, high-functionality, and high efficiency power semiconductor devices
called Smart Power Modules (SPMs). SPM based inverters are nowadays considered
an attractive alternative to conventional discrete-based inverters for low power mo-
tor drives, specifically for appliances such as air-conditioners, water pumps, etc.
Smart power modules, based on fast-recovery MOSFET (FRFET) technology
as a compact inverter solution for small power motor drive applications are com-
posed of six FRFET, and three half-bridge high-voltage integrated circuits (HVICs)
for FRFET gate driving. They provide low electromagnetic interference (EMI) char-
acteristics with optimized switch speed. Moreover, since it employs FRFET as a
power switch, it has much better ruggedness and larger safe operation area (SOA)
than that of an FRFET-based power module or one-chip solution. MCU, DSP can
control IGBT/MOSFET by HVIC directly without photo coupler. By adding boot-
strap circuit outside of HVIC, high side and low side can supplied with a signal
power source. It can make system miniaturization.
Harmonic limits check
The centrifugal fan has been tested in conformity with the standard EN
61000-3-2: 2006 (+A1+A2), using the general purpose programmable power source
California Instruments 15003iX-CTS, which is a complete IEC AC power test sys-
tem that covers many of the IEC regulatory test standards involving AC and/or DC
powered equipment, providing precise, isolated and low distortion AC power at the
user specified frequency and voltage.
The EN 61000-3-2 standard categorizes products in one of four product clas-
ses. Using the correct class is important as the harmonic current limits for each class
are different. The air handling unit is a Class A equipment. Equipment belonging to
704
Class A are all motor driven equipment, most domestic appliances and virtually all
3 phase equipment (<16 A rms per phase). Evaluation of current harmonics is al-
ways done using the transitory method so no user selection is provided.
The newer standard allows Class A test to exceed 150% limit and less than or
equal to 200% of the applicable limits under the following conditions, which apply
all together: the EUT belongs to Class A for harmonics, the excursion beyond 150%
of the applicable limits lasts less than 10% of the test observation period or in total
10 min (within the test observation period), whichever is smaller, and the average
value of the harmonic current, taken over the entire test observation period, is less
than 90% of the applicable limits.
The centrifugal fan passed the tests according to the standard EN 61000-3-2.
However, for several low order harmonic components (especially for the 9th, 11th, 13th,
15th order components), the values are very close to the limits imposed by the standard
(see Fig. 2, where the low order components of the test report are presented). The
warnings to be reckoned are colored in yellow, while the virtual ones in green.
The result is quite pessimistic, taking into account that in real conditions, in
which the impedance of the system is variable and unknown, the harmonic compo-
nents of the current drawn by the fan could easily exceed the maximum limits. Even
being provided with an input EMI filter, the results were not optimistic, because the
air handling unit operates simultaneously with two centrifugal fans, parallel con-
nected and the effect of the two fans THDis could be cumulative. As it was ex-
pected, the equipment failed the harmonic test. The harmonic tests performed on the
air handling delivered the results depicted in the test report presented in Fig. 3, for
the low order harmonic components.
Fig. 2 Harmonic limits test report Fig. 3 Harmonic limits test report for the
for the centrifugal fan air handling unit
705
It can be observed that the presumption made was even too optimistic, be-
cause operating in full speed with two motors, the air handling unit failed the test.
Note that there are overcame limits until the 23th order harmonic component and the
25th order harmonic is very close to the limit as well.
Fig. 4 depicts the waveform of the current drawn by the air handling unit,
supplied by a clean 230 Vac sine wave, while in Fig. 5is presented the FFT chart of
the complete test report, until the 50th order harmonic component.
The result was an expected one, because the current drawn by the bridge rec-
tifier is generally a discontinuous one and the common mode choke of the EMI filter
placed at the input of the board is not sufficient to smooth the current waveform. In
situations like that, a line reactor or other countermeasures are compulsory.
Conducted electromagnetic interferences check
As it was stated in the introductory section, in most situations, harmonics de-
termine inevitably conducted interferences. Due to the presence of high harmonics
content, it is expected that the high frequency conducted electromagnetic interfer-
ence would also appear.
The main purpose of the conducted emission tests consisted in evaluating
noise currents that exit the products AC power cord conductors and the compliance
with the standard EN 55014-1:2006 (+A1+A2).
Fig. 4 Supply voltage and current drawn by the AHU
706
Fig. 5 The FFT chart of the harmonic limits of the AHU
In order to record conducted electromagnetic interference at the mains supply
voltage, a line impedance stabilization network (LISN) and a spectrum analyzer
have been used.
The two major objectives of the LISN are: to present constant impedance (50)
between the phase conductor and the safety wire and between the neutral conductor
and the safety wire and to prevent external conducted noise on the power system net
from contaminating the measurement. These two objectives are to be satisfied only
over the frequency range of the conducted emission test (150 kHz 30 MHz). An-
other requirement for the LISN is to allow the 50Hz (60Hz) power required for the
proper products operation.
For measurements with a Spectrum Analyzer/EMC Receiver, the EMC signal is
available after having passed a high pass filter.
In order to perform the conducted interference tests, a HM 6050-2 LISN and a
HM 5014 spectrum analyzer (both manufactured by HAMEG Instruments) were
used. The schematic setup is presented in Fig. 6.
The conducted interference spectrum conducted in the line wire is depicted in
Fig. 7 (in linear scale, where high frequencies are better noticeable) and in Fig. 8 (in
logarithmic scale, where low frequencies are expanded, so better noticeable). The
sample (green line), the average value (blue line) and the quasi-peak value (red line)
are presented.
707
Fig. 6 The schematic test setup for conducted interference
One can easily observe that both the average and quasi-peak values of electro-
magnetic interference exceed the limits imposed by the standard EN 55014-1:2006
(+A1+A2) in the range from 150 kHz up to almost 17 MHz. Especially for the qua-
si-peak value there is an overcoming of almost 17 dBV. The standard average
limits are depicted in blue line and the quasi peak limits are depicted in red line.
Fig. 7 Conducted interferences of the Fig. 8 Conducted interferences of the

AHU in linear scale AHU in logarithmic scale
For the both problems (i.e. harmonics and electromagnetic interference) a
combined filtering solution may be adopted, and that will be the retrofitting of a
passive EMI filter.
3. The case of a residential gas home heating system

The second case study is devoted to the 24 kW residential gas home heating
system.
In general, any residential equipment, electrical grid connected is provided
with a power EMI filter in its input stage. Fig. 9 presents the input power filter of the
gas home heating system.
One can see the lack of the common mode capacitors, coupling the line and
the neutral to the electric protection conductor (PE), which could be a great handicap
in mitigating common mode incoming and outgoing electromagnetic conducted
emissions.
708
Fig. 9 The EMI filter of the gas home Fig. 10 Typical topology of a power EMI
heating system. filter
Fig. 10 presents a typical commercial EMI filter that are the balanced type.
Although they seem mainly common mode in appearance, they include components
to block both common mode and differential mode components.
The common mode choke L consists of two identical windings on a single
high permeability toroidal core, configured so that differential (line-to-neutral) cur-
rents cancel each other. This allows high inductance values, typically 110mH, in a
small volume without fear of choke saturation caused by the mains frequency supply
current. This is because the common mode inductor is wound on ferrite cores having
high AL values.
Capacitors CY attenuate common mode interference, while the CX capacitor
attenuates differential mode only.
The attenuation characteristics of the filter in differential (Fig. 11) and in
common mode (Fig. 12), in logarithmic scale, are obtained using the spectrum
analyzer HM 5014 and its embedded tracking generator.
Fig. 11The transfer characteristics of the filter Fig. 12 The transfer characteristics of the
in differential mode filter in common mode
One can see that in differential mode the features of the characteristics are
better than in common mode, but in normal conditions the attenuation is good
enough, for stopping the incoming or outgoing electromagnetic emissions.
However, in some particular environmental conditions a few power quality
issues occurred, due mainly to the presence in the neighborhood of two radio broad-
casting stations (amplitude modulated, with the carrier frequencies f1=1152 kHz,
f2=909 kHz, and the corresponding output powers P1=400 kW, P2=200 kW). Be-
709
cause of the vicinity of the stations, the electronic circuitry of the gas heating cen-
trals installed in the nearby residences, presented malfunctions, giving error messag-
es on the interface display.
According to the European and the Romanian specifications, the maximum
allowed RF noise level injected in the public low voltage network in the frequency
range 150 kHz -30 MHz, must be situated below 52dBV. The measurements re-
vealed a RFI noise spectrum exceeding 72 dBV (20 dBV in plus), at the frequen-
cy of the carrier and its odd harmonics, both on the L and the N conductors (Fig.
13).
Fig. 13 RF conducted emissions injected on the public mains network

by the radio broadcasting stations.
4. Conclusions
In both cases the solution consisted in retrofitting EMI power filters.
The differential and common mode characteristics of an EMI filter printed
using the tracking generator are depicted in Figs. 14 and 15.
One can see the almost ideal shape and the high attenuation of both character-
istics.
After retrofitting filters in both cases, the results were within the standardized
limits. They are depicted in Figs. 16 and 17.
Some of the reasons for the development and use of block mains EMI filters
are:
Mandatory conducted emission standards concentrate on the mains port
Safety approvals for the filter have already been achieved
Many equipment designers are not familiar with RF filter design
710
In fact, the market for mains filters really took off with the introduction of
regulations on conducted mains emissions, compounded by the rising popularity of
the switch-mode power supply. With a switching supply, a mains filter is essential to
meet these regulations and as we have seen, sometimes, in special conditions, it may
be necessary an extra EMI filtering cell.
Fig. 14EMI filter transfer characteristics Fig. 15 EMI filter transfer characteristics
in differential mode in common mode
Fig. 16 Final spectrum of RF emissions Fig. 17 Final spectrum of RF emissions

of the AHU of the gas heating central
References
[1] Buzdugan, M.I., et al. Electromagnetic interference at the mains ports of an
equipment, International Conference on Renewable Energies and Power Quality
(ICREPQ08), Santander, Spain, 2008
[2] Buzdugan, M. I., Blan H., Power Quality versus Electromagnetic Compatibil-
ity in Adjustable Speed Drives, International Conference on Renewable Ener-
gies and Power Quality (ICREPQ13), Bilbao, Spain, 2013
[3] Buzdugan, M. I., Blan H., Power Quality Issues in Brushless DC Adjustable
Speed Drives, International Conference on Renewable Energies and Power
Quality (ICREPQ14), Cordoba, Spain, 2014
711
[4] Buzdugan, M. I., Blan H., Hidden Schematics of EMI Filters, International
Conference on Renewable Energies and Power Quality (ICREPQ16), Madrid,
Spain, 2016
[5] Buzdugan, M. I., Blan H., Electromagnetic compatibility issues of brushless
speed drives, UPEC 2016, 51st International Universities Power Engineering
Conference, Coimbra, Portugal, 2016
712
GENERALNI POKROVITELJ
GENERAL PATRON
Ka
POKROVITELJ IZLOBE
PATRON OF THE
EXHIBITION
Beograd
DOMAIN
KOKTELA DOBRODOLICE
WELCOME COCTAIL HOST
ORGANIZATOR
ORGANIZER
Drutvo za grejanje, hlaenje i klimatizaciju (KGH) Srbije pri
Savezu mainskih i elektrotehnikih inenjera i tehniara Srbije (SMEITS),
Kneza Miloa 7a/II, 11000 Beograd
Tel. 011/3230-041, 3031-696, tel./faks 3231-372
Tekui raun broj 255-0007430101000-55
E-mail: office@smeits.rs
www.smeits.rs www.kgh-drustvo.rs
ORGANIZACIONI ODBOR
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Aleksandar Anelkovi Slobodan Pejkovi
Bratislav Blagojevi ivojin Perii
Bojan Bogdanovi Dragomir amalovi
Vladan Galebovi Biserka varc
Marko Ignjatovi Marija S. Todorovi
Duan Liina Branislav Todorovi,
Dimitrije Lili (President)
Jovan Mili Petar Vasiljevi
Nenad Miloradovi Milovan ivkovi
MEUNARODNI PROGRAMSKI ODBOR

INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME COMMITTEE
Hashem Akbari Professor, Concordia University, Montreal Canada
Costas Balaras Professor, National Observatory Athens, Greece
Marianna Brodatch AVOK Journal Editor, Professor, Moscow Institute
of Architecture, Russia
Stefano Corgnati REHVA President, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
Didier Coulomb Director, International Institute for Refrigeration,
France
Ioan Silviu Doboi Member of Board of Directors, REHVA, Romania
Andrea Gasparella IBPSA Board, University of Bozen/Bolzano, Italy
Karel Kabele REHVA, Professor, Czech Technical University,
Prague, Czech Republic
Branko Kovaevi President of the Academy of Engineering Sciences
of Serbia, Belgrade
Halvart Koeppen Regional Network Coordinator (ECA), UNEP
Junjie Liu School of Environmental Sciences & Technology,
Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
Zoltan Magyar ASHRAE Danube Chapter President, Hungary
Farooq Mahboob President of the ASHRAE Region At Large,
Pakistan
Ljiljana Marjanovi-Halburd Professor, University College London, UK
Jian-lei Niu Professor, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
Kowloon, Hong Kong
Peter Novak Professor, Faculty for Technology and Systems,
Novo mesto, Slovenia
Baris Ozerdem Professor, Baheehir niversitesi Istanbul, Turkey
Branimir Pavkovi Professor, University of Rijeka, Faculty of
Engineering, Croatia
Adrian Retezan Professor, Universitatea Politehnica Timisoara,
Romania
Matheos Santamouris Professor, University of Athens,
Energy & Buildings Journal Editor, Greece
Chandra Sekhar Professor, National University Singapore,
Singapore
Jelena Srebri Professor, University of Maryland, USA
Yuri A. Tabunschikov Professor, Moscow Institute of Architecture
(State Academy), President ABOK, Russia
Karim Ghazi Wakili IABP, Institute of Applied Building Physics,
Winterthur, Switzerland
NACIONALNI NAUNI SAVET
NATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
Milo Banjac Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade
Velimir ongradac Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad
Olvera Eim-uri Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade
Radomir Foli Union of Civil Engineers of Serbia, Belgrade
Zoran Kekovi Faculty of Security Studies, Belgrade
Milan Kilibarda Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade
Franc Kosi Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade
Miomir Kosti School of Electrical Engineering, Belgrade
Radivoje Mitrovi Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Belgrade
Milovan Vidakovi National Organization of Engineers and
Technicians for Directing Fire Risks, Belgrade
Boidar Radenkovi Faculty of Organizational Sciences, Belgrade
Budimir Sudimac Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade
Eva Vanita-Lazarevi UrbanLab, Belgrade
Duan Vukoti IEC TC 57-WG14 Member,
President KS N057ISS, Belgrade
PROGRAMSKI SPONZORI
PROGRAMME SUPPORTERS
Republika Srbija, Ministarstvo poljoprivrede i zatite ivotne sredine
Republic of Srbia, Ministry of Energy, Development and Environmental Protection
Federacija evropskih drutava za grejanje i

klimatizaciju REHVA
Federation of European Heating and
Air-Conditioning Associations REHVA
Meunarodni institut za hlaenje (IIR)
International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR)
Program Ujednjenih nacija

za ivotnu sredinu UNEP
UNEP The United Nations Environment
Programme
Ameriko drutvo inenjera za grejanje,
hlaenje i klimatizaciju (ASHRAE)
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air-Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE
Inenjerska komora Srbije

Serbian Chamber
of Engineers
Meunarodna asocijacija za simulaciju

osobina dinamike ponaanja zgrada
The International Building Performance
Simulation Association
GLAVNI SPONZORI
MAIN SPONSORS
Beograd Beograd Beograd
20odina
G
Istona Evropa Beograd, Vrin Ni
Beograd, Zemun Beograd Beograd
Beograd Zajear Beograd
Kragujevac Beograd Beograd

Crna Gora Beograd Beograd
Francuska Beograd Beograd
Beograd Beograd
SPONZORI KONGRESA
CONGRESS SPONSORS
AEROPRODUKT ZRT Maarska
AKTING Beograd
ALFA CLIMA Knjaevac
ANTI KLIMATIZACIJA Beograd
BELIMO AUTOMATION Beograd
CALEFFI HIDROTERMIKA Beograd
CIM GAS Subotica
CWG Balkan Beograd
DRAVIDIS Beograd
ELMARK Beograd
ESOT-INVEST doo Celje,
Ogranak ESOT-INVEST Beograd Beograd
EURO HEAT Kragujevac
EUROFRIGO Beograd
GAS LIDER Beograd
HALTON FOODSERVICE GmbH Nemaka
HERZ ARMATUREN Nova Pazova
INSTALACIJA INENJERING Beograd
INTERFRIGO Beograd
IPROS Novi Sad
ISOPLUS Beograd
IZOLIR Zrenjanin
KAN-THERM Poljska
KIM TEC Beograd
KLIMA DOP Beograd
KOMO-YU Beograd
KORAJA Loznica
OVENTROP Beograd
OVEX Beograd
PEZOS EXPORT IMPORT Novi Sad
RACIONALIZACIJA ENERGIJE Beograd
RADIUS-KELIT Austrija
REHAU Beograd
TEHNOSAM Subotica
TERMO TEC FLEX Zabreje, Obrenovac
TERMOMEHANIKA Beograd
TERMOPLUS (CIAT) Beograd
TOPTHERM Beej
TRACO INVEST Beograd
UNICOM Beograd
VIS COMPANY Beograd
WEISHAUPT Beograd
POASNI ODBOR
HONORARY COMMITTEE
Bora Anti ANTI KLIMATIZACIJA, Beograd
Dragan Arsenovi ELCOMTRADE, Beograd
Arpad Balog TOPTHERM, Beej
Dejan Balti ISOPLUS, Beograd
Pavle Bani SMART BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES, Beograd
Aleksandar Batini DANFOSS, Beograd
Zoran Biseri VAILLANT d.o.o. Beograd, Beograd
Bratislav Blagojevi FENIKS BB, Ni
Dragan Boovi TERMOSISTEM, Crna Gora
Vojislav Brajkovi INSTALACIJA INENJERING, Beograd
Dragan Brenesel IPROS, Novi Sad
Sran Budiin TERMO PLUS CIAT, Beograd
Zoran Damjanovi STEELSOFT, Beograd
Duan Durkovi GRUNDFOS SRBIJA d.o.o., Beograd
Branislav Dini MPG KGH, Beograd
Milomir ai DRAVIDIS, Beograd
Neboja Filipovi UNICOM, Beograd
Bojan Grujiki VIESSMANN, Beograd
Saa Ili WEISHAUPT, Beograd
Saa Jakimov TRACO, Beograd
Sinia Janjuevi GGE ESCO, Beograd
Andrej Jergovi SOKO ININJERING, Beograd
Branislav Jordanov LG ELECTRONICS, Beograd
Saa Jovi ALFA CLIMA, Knjaevac
Bojan Jovovi EUROFRIGO, Beograd
Ivet Keler AEROPRODUKT ZRT., Maarska
aba Kern CIM GAS, Subotica
Nataa Klen AKTING, Beograd
Stanko Kneevi PET-PROM, Beograd
Vasilije Kodopelji SCHNEIDER ELECTRIC, Beograd
Goran Koli AIRTREND KOVENT, Beograd
Zoran Kovljen GILLES, Austrija
Zoran Krsti TECHNICAL SOLUTION, Bograd
Mladen Kupari ROBERT BOSCH, Beograd
Boo Lazi ENERGYNET, Ka
Darko Marinkovi TDM, Beograd
Miljan Markovi KAN, Poljska
Slobodan Markovi KOMO-YU, Beograd
Aleksandar Markovi ITN GROUP, Beograd, Zemun
Pavle Markovski KLIMA M, Beograd
Miomir Mati IZOLIR, Zrenjanin
Dragana Mijatovi KIM TEC, Beograd
Vladimir Milidragovi CALEFFI HIDROTERMIKA, Beograd
Alen Milovi ETA, Beograd-Vrin
Aleksandar Mini IMI INTERNATIONAL, Beograd
Duan Mii PORTAL, Zajear
Biljana Nedeljkov PEZOS EXPORT-IMPORT, Novi Sad
Sran Nikodijevi OVENTROP, Beograd
Dragan Obradovi KLIMA DOP, Beograd
Vlada Obradovi TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL SERVICES,
Beograd
Aleksandar Obradovi ZEHNDER, Nemaka
Milovan Paunovi TERMO PLUS, Beograd
Predrag Pain TERMOINENJERING, Beograd
Slobodan Pejkovi FILTER FRIGO, Beograd
Darko Peruinovi GAS LIDER, Beograd
Stevan Petkovi EURO HEAT, Kragujevac
Brana Petrovi BELIMO AUTOMATION, Beograd
edomir Petrovi RACIONALIZACIJA ENERGIJE, Zemun
Irena Popovi TROX TECHNIK, Austrija
eljko Proti KLIMA TEHNIKA, Beograd
Jelena Prstojevi ESOT-INVEST doo Celje
Ogranak Beograd, Beograd
Slavko Radovanovi TEHNOSAM, Subotica
Dragana Santovac CWG BALKAN, Beograd
Duan Savi INTERFRIGO, Beograd
Dragan Seni SENA, Kragujevac
Dragan Simonovi WILO, Beograd
Dejan Slepevi SIDEK INENJERING, Beograd
Mirjana Sofrenovi SYSTEMAIR, Beograd
Bojan Sretenovi OVEX INENJERING, Beograd
Neboja Stani REHAU, Beograd
Andrej korc SIPATEC d.o.o., Beograd
Saa umi GROUP PROTEM, Beograd
Dimitrije Trifunovi THERMO TEC FLEX , Beograd
Nemanja Tubi HERZ ARMATUREN, Nova Pazova
Mihailo Vasi KORAJA, Loznica
Narcis Vodopivec HALTON FOODSERVICES GmbH, Nemaka
Zorica Vojinovi LINDAB d.o.o. Beograd, Beograd
Mirko Vojnovi TRACO INVEST, Beograd
Bojan Vukoti VIS COMPANY, Beograd
Damir ili EMERSON, Istona Evropa
PROGRAM UKRATKO PROGRAM AT A GLANCE
SREDA Wednesday
SALA 1/0 Hall 1/0 ANEKS B Annex B
Registracija
09:00 ~ 09:45
Participants Registration
Otvaranje kongresa i izlobe
10:00 ~ 10:30
Opening of Congress and Exhibition
Sesija 1
10:30 ~ 13:30 Plenarna predavanja
Keynote Lectures
13:30 ~ 14:30 Koktel dobrodolice Welcome Cocktail
Sesija 2 Sesija 3
14:30 ~ 17:10 Standardizacija 14:30~17:45 Daljinsko grejanje
Standardization District Heating
ETVRTAK Thursday
SALA 1/0 Hall 1/0 ANEKS A Annex A ANEKS B Annex B
Sesija 4 Sesija 7 Sesija 10
Forum: Poboljanje energetske efikasnosti Obnovljivi izvori energije Pribliavanje zgradama i gradovima nulte
u novim tehnologijama hlaenja Solar and other Renewables emisije CO2 tehnologije i rizici
09:00 ~ 13:00
09:00 ~ 12:00
09:00 ~ 10:40
pogodnim za ouvanje klimatskih uslova i Approaching Zero CO2 Emission Buildings and
ozonskog omotaa Cities Technologies and Risks
Forum: Improving Energy Efficiency
in Climate and Ozone Friendly Latest
Refrigeration Technologies
Srpska regulativa i evropska Projektovanje energetski efikasnih i Program za studente, mlade inenjere i
14:00 ~ 15:50
12:15 ~ 15:15
11:00 ~ 15:30
F gas regulativa zdravih sistema za KGH profesionalni razvoj kombinovano sa

HFC Policy & Legislative Options in Serbia HVAC Systems Design for Energy prezentacijama glavnih sponzora
and European F gas legislation Efficiency and Health Students, Young Engineers & Professional
Development Program Combined with Main
Sponsors Presentations
16:00 ~ 18:00
15:30 ~ 17:50
16:30 ~ 18:10
Maine i sistemi za hlaenje Predvianje i validacija sistema za KGH Optimizacija i predvianje energetskog
Refrigeration Machines and Systems HVAC Systems Peformace Prediction ponaanja zgrada
and Validation Buildings Energy Performance Optimization
And Predictions
20.00 h Banket Banquet
PETAK Friday
ANEKS B Annex B
Session 13
09:00 ~ 10:40
Analytical and Experimental Methods Advances
Session 14
FORUM: Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa and America Harmonised Rurban Development Needs HVAC & Cold Chain, Healthy
10:55 ~ 14:00 EnergyPlus Buildings, Smart Zero CO2 Settlements, Sustainability, Security and ResilienceTowards 5 Continents Cooperation Science,
Research & Development, Standardization, Certification, Education Engineering & Manufacturing (KGH-SMEITS & ECS, UNEP, UNDP,
IIR, ASHRAE-Danube, REHVA, IBPSHA-Danube, ABOK, Chinese and Australian Engineers)
14.00 h Zavretak rada skupa Congress Closing Ceremony
14.10 h Oprotajni ruak Farewell Lunch

22
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Zbornik 47 Kongresa 47th Congress Proceedings

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47.

MEUNARODNI 47th INTERNATIONAL

Beograd, Sava centar, Belgrade, Sava Center,

ZBORNIK RADOVA PROCEEDINGS

1. Plenarna predavanja Keynote Lectures

3. Daljinsko grejanje i hlaenje District Heating and Cooling

4. Forum: Poboljanje energetske efikasnosti u novim tehnologijama hlaenja

5. Rashladne maine i sistemi Refrigeration machines and systems

6. Obnovljivi izvori energije Solar and Other Renewables

7. Projektovanje energetski efikasnih i zdravih sistema za KGH

9. Pribliavanje zgradama i gradovima nulte emisije CO2 tehnologije i rizici

10. Program za studente, mlade inenjere i profesionalni razvoj

11. Optimizacija i predvianje energetskog ponaanja zgrada

12. Analytical and Experimental Methods Advances

13. FORUM: Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa and America

Mi koji smatramo injenicom da je voda jedan od najee korienih

Table 1 Properties of selected refrigerants

Vapor Density [kg/m3]

Figure 2. Vapour density of water, a parameter used when selecting compressor

Vapor volume (m/kg)

The compressor and the concept

Figure 4. Compressor Figure 5. The unit. The Figure 6. Boiling in the

Figure 7. In principle, the water vapour system is very simple.

Capacity and other details

The cooling capacity of the test unit is approximately 800 kW at 12/7C

Conclusion and further work

Do we need energy or exergy? Amount of exergy in energy carriers is very

Figure 1. Exergy flows from sun to society [6]

Figure 2. Exergy flow diagram for LCEA of a power plant

Figure 3. Exergy flow diagram for LCEA of a

Figure 4. Exergy balance for any production scheme

4 Sustainable energy system

We all agree on the strategic role of energy efficiency: industrialists, who

Air conditioning is responsible for half of the EU's energy consumption

Demand Demand Re-

Figure1 Interaction between consumers, intermediaries and proxies of

Figure 2 Energy Saving Attainable in the Period 2010 2020

This paper deals with a chronological reconstruction of fundamentals for-

Fig.1 Photo of GSHP equipment plant

2 Data collection system

Table 1 system testing instruments and accuracy

Fig. 2 flow chart of data collection system

Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of measuring point positions of data collection system

Fig. 4 The measured circulating fluid flow rates of load

Fig. 5 The measured circulating fluid flow rates of load

3.2 Temperature variation analysis

Fig. 6 Fluid temperature variation of source side in cooling mode

Fig. 8 Fluid temperature variation of source side in heating mode

Fig. 10 system performance in cooling mode (COP)

Fig. 11 System performance in heating mode (COP)

Fig. 12 Underground temperature variation curve

Dosta se razmatralo o ulozi daljinskog grejanja u buduoj pametnoj ener-

Figure 1. Example of how district cooling could change the

Figure 2. Example of utilization of different cooling source in a pooled district

Figure 3. Supply concept for combined district cooling and heating.

Figure 5. Example of a district cooling pipe network. Cooling capacity / demand of

Figure 6. Typical prefabricated indirect substation for district cooling.

Figure 8. District cooling growth in Stockholm [3].

Figure 9. District cooling growth in Helsinki from 1998 to 2012

Kod niskotemperaturnog daljinskog grejanja vana dobra regulacija na

When utilizing low-temperature district heating it becomes important to

Figure 1. Indirect connected substation.

Figure 2. Direct connected substation with a mixing loop.

Figure 3. Direct connected substation.

4. Forum: Poboljanje energetske efikasnosti u novim tehnologijama hlaenja

7. Projektovanje energetski efikasnih i zdravih sistema za KGH

9. Pribliavanje zgradama i gradovima nulte emisije CO2 tehnologije i rizici

10. Program za studente, mlade inenjere i profesionalni razvoj

11. Optimizacija i predvianje energetskog ponaanja zgrada

13. FORUM: Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa and America